What Is QAM? QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is a widely used digital modulation technique that conveys data by modulating both the amplitude and phase of two orthogonal carrier signals. How QAM Works QAM is a digital modulation technique that combines both amplitude and phase variations in a carrier signal. It involves transmitting multiple bits for each time interval associated with a data symbol, representing different combinations of phase and amplitude. The number M in “M-QAM” indicates the number of symbols in the constellation (unique combinations of amplitude and phase), with log2M representing the number of bits transmitted per time interval. For…
Author: Yvonne
What Is FSK? FSK is a digital modulation technique where the frequency of the carrier signal is shifted between discrete values corresponding to the digital data being transmitted. It is a form of frequency modulation where the modulating information shifts the instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal between predetermined discrete frequencies. How FSK Works In FSK, the binary data is represented by two different frequencies, typically referred to as the ‘mark’ and ‘space’ frequencies. The transmitter generates a constant-amplitude signal at one of these two frequencies, depending on the binary value being transmitted. For example, a binary ‘1’ may be…
Introduction: What Are exFAT, FAT32, and NTFS? exFAT vs FAT32 vs NTFS: They are file systems that determine how data is stored and managed on drives. Each offers unique advantages in compatibility, performance, and features, making them suitable for different storage needs. exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table) FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32) NTFS (New Technology File System) Comparison Table: exFAT vs FAT32 vs NTFS FeatureFAT32exFATNTFSFile Size Limit4GBVirtually unlimitedVirtually unlimitedPartition Size Limit8TB128PBPractically unlimitedCompatibilityUniversalModern OS (Windows/macOS)Limited (requires drivers)FeaturesBasicBasicAdvancedBest Use CaseUSB drives, small storageFlash drives, external HDDsInternal drives Use Cases for Each File System exFAT File System FAT32 File System NTFS File System…
Introduction: NFS vs SMB – What Are They? NFS (Network File System) and SMB (Server Message Block) are file-sharing protocols that enable users to access files across a network. While NFS is tailored for UNIX/Linux systems, SMB is designed for Windows environments, each offering unique advantages in compatibility, performance, and ease of use. How NFS Works NFS operates on a client-server model, where clients can access files and directories on remote servers as if they were local. The key components of NFS include: The NFS protocol supports various versions, with NFS v4 being the latest, offering enhanced security, stateful operations,…
What Is DHCP Snooping? Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Snooping is a security feature that monitors DHCP traffic between DHCP clients and servers, creating a binding table that maps client MAC addresses to IP addresses, ports, and VLANs. This binding table is then used to filter unauthorized DHCP and IP traffic, preventing rogue DHCP servers and IP address spoofing attacks. How DHCP Snooping Works DHCP Snooping classifies switch ports as trusted or untrusted. Trusted ports are connected to legitimate DHCP servers, while untrusted ports face potential attack sources. The switch inspects DHCP messages on untrusted ports and creates binding entries containing the…
What Is IPoE? IPoE, or Internet Protocol over Ethernet, is a broadband access technology that enables the delivery of IP services over Ethernet networks. It is a widely adopted solution for providing high-speed internet access and other IP-based services to residential and business customers. How IPoE Works Key Features of IPoE Advantages of IPoE Comparison: IPoE vs PPPoE Protocol Overview Authentication and Security Deployment and Management Scalability and Redundancy Multicast and QoS Support Overhead and Efficiency Applications of IPoE Surveillance and Security Systems IPoE is widely adopted in video surveillance systems, enabling power delivery and data transmission over a single…
What Is MU-MIMO? MU-MIMO is an advanced antenna technology that allows multiple users to transmit and receive data simultaneously on the same time-frequency resource, improving spectral efficiency and system capacity. It builds upon traditional MIMO by enabling spatial multiplexing across multiple users. The base station can transmit independent data streams (spatial streams) to multiple user terminals simultaneously using precoding techniques to mitigate inter-user interference. How MU-MIMO Works Key Features of MU-MIMO Benefits of MU-MIMO Increased System Capacity and Throughput MU-MIMO allows multiple users to transmit and receive data simultaneously on the same time-frequency resource, significantly boosting system capacity and throughput. As…
What Is Conservation of Angular Momentum? Angular momentum is a vector quantity that describes the amount of rotation an object has and the axis about which it rotates. It is a conserved quantity in a closed system, meaning that the total angular momentum remains constant unless an external torque acts on the system. The mathematical formulation for angular momentum (L) of a point particle is given by: L = r × p Where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the axis of rotation, and p is the linear momentum of the particle. For a rigid body…
What Is Gallium Arsenide? Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a compound semiconductor material composed of gallium and arsenic elements. It is a direct bandgap semiconductor with a bandgap energy of 1.42 eV at room temperature, making it suitable for optoelectronic applications. GaAs exhibits superior electronic properties compared to silicon, including higher electron mobility (up to 6 times higher than Si), higher saturated electron velocity, and semi-insulating properties. These properties make GaAs an attractive material for high-frequency and high-speed electronic devices. Key Properties of Gallium Arsenide Production of Gallium Arsenide Advantages of Gallium Arsenide Over Silicon Material Properties Device Performance Thermal and Power…
What Is a Petabyte? A petabyte (PB) is a massive unit of digital information storage, equivalent to 1,024 terabytes (TB), 1,000,000 gigabytes (GB), or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes. How Big Is a Petabyte? Data Unit Comparisons Real-World Examples Petabyte vs Other Units UnitSize in BytesEquivalentGigabyte (GB)10910^9109 bytes1,000 megabytesTerabyte (TB)101210^{12}1012 bytes1,000 gigabytesPetabyte (PB)101510^{15}1015 bytes1,000 terabytesExabyte (EB)101810^{18}1018 bytes1,000 petabytes Advantages of Petabyte-Scale Storage Challenges of Petabyte Storage Applications of Petabyte Scientific Research and Simulations Internet Services and Big Data Analytics Multimedia and Entertainment The media and entertainment industry generates and processes petabytes of data from high-resolution video, audio, and graphics content: Emerging Applications As…