Vector production

Abstract

VECTOR PRODUCTION An enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. 20 24 20 34 15 22 M ay 2 02 4 A B S T R A C T V E C T O R P R O D U C T I O N 2 0 2 4 2 0 3 4 1 5 2 2 M a y 2 0 2 4

Description

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to cells that display decreased levels of surface-exposed antigens. More specifically, the invention relates to the genetic engineering of cells to 5 decrease the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) on the surface of the cells. In particular, the invention relates to the use of such cells in the production of enveloped viral particles. The entire disclosure in the complete specification of our Australian Patent Application No. 2021290226 is by this cross-reference incorporated into the present specification. 0 BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Gene therapy involves the incorporation of genetic material into a cell to treat or prevent disease. The genetic material may supplement defective genes with functional copies of those genes, inactivate improperly functioning genes or introduce new therapeutic genes to a cell. Delivery of genetic material to a cell may be achieved through use of vectors which facilitate 15 the transfer of nucleic acids. Viruses may be engineered to deliver a nucleotide of interest (NOI) to a target cell and are commonly employed as vectors in gene therapy. Viruses that have been used in gene therapy to date include retroviruses, adenoviruses (AdV), adeno-associated viruses (AAV), herpes simplex viruses (HSV) and vaccinia viruses. Retroviruses, for example a-retroviruses, y-retroviruses, lentiviruses and spumaviruses, are 20 particularly useful for gene therapy as they permit stable integration of the corrective genetic material into the target cell. Therapeutic benefits have already been achieved in clinical trials based on y-retrovirus-derived vectors for Adenosine Deaminase Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (ADA-SCID; Aiuti, A. et al. (2009) N. Engl. J. Med. 360: 447-58), X-linked Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID-X1; Hacein-Bey-Abina, S. et al. (2010) N. Engl. J. 25 Med. 363: 355-64) and Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS; Boztug, K. et al. (2010) N. Engl. J. Med. 363: 1918-27). In addition, lentiviral vectors have been employed as delivery vehicles in the treatment of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD; Cartier, N. et al. (2009) Science 326: 818-23), and very recently for metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD; Biffi, A. et al. (2013) Science 341: 1233158) and WAS (Aiuti, A. et al. (2013) Science 341: 1233151). In pre-clinical 30 studies, lentiviral vectors have also been administered intravenously for liver-directed gene therapy of haemophilia in mice and dog models of the disease (Cantore A. et al., Blood 2012; Matsui H. et al., Mol Ther 2011; Cantore A. et al. Science Translational Medicine 2015 7: 277ra28). 2024203415   22 May 2024 A significant problem associated with the use of viral vectors in gene therapy, however, is their recognition by the target organism’s immune system. In the case of enveloped viral vector particles (e.g. retroviral vector particles), membrane-bound proteins that are displayed 5 on the surface of the viral envelope may be recognised and the viral particle itself may be neutralised. Furthermore, on infecting a target cell, the viral envelope becomes integrated with the cell membrane and as a result viral envelope proteins may become displayed on or remain in close association with the surface of the cell. The immune system may therefore also target the cells which the viral vector particles have infected. Both effects may lead to a 0 reduction in the efficacy of NOI delivery by viral vectors. A viral particle envelope typically originates in a membrane of the producer cell. Therefore, membrane proteins that are expressed on the cell membrane from which the viral particle buds may be incorporated into the viral envelope. The major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) is one such cell membrane protein and, because it is highly polymorphic in 15 nature, it is furthermore a major target of the body’s immune response (McDevitt H.O. (2000) Annu. Rev. Immunol. 18: 1-17). MHC-I molecules exposed on the plasma membrane of retroviral vector producing cells are incorporated in the viral particle envelope during the process of vector budding. These MHC-I molecules derived from the producer cells and incorporated in the viral particles can in turn 20 be transferred to the plasma membrane of transduced cells. Alternatively, the MHC-I molecules may remain in close association with the transduced cell membrane as a result of the tendency of viral particles to absorb and remain bound to the target cell membrane. The presence of exogenous MHC-I molecules on or close to the plasma membrane of transduced cells may elicit an alloreactive immune response in humans and experimental 25 animal models. This may lead to immune-mediated killing or phagocytosis of transduced cells either upon ex vivo gene transfer followed by administration of the transduced cells to the subject, or upon direct in vivo administration of the viral particles. Furthermore, in the case of in vivo administration of MHC-I bearing viral particles into the bloodstream, the viral particles may be neutralised by pre-existing MHC-I specific antibodies before reaching their 30 target cells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION We have generated genetically engineered cells that may be used for the production of enveloped viral particles (e.g. retroviral vector particles) that are substantially devoid of 2024203415   22 May 2024 surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. Surprisingly, we have shown that the absence of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules does not significantly affect the ability of these cells to produce enveloped viral particles. In particular, we have unexpectedly shown that the enveloped viral particles are produced in comparable titres and yields, and do not exhibit 5 diminished infectivity in comparison to producer cells that display surface-exposed MHC-I. Enveloped viral particles produced with these cells will elicit fewer unwanted immune responses during gene therapy, and provide for greater efficacy and safety. In one aspect, the present invention provides an enveloped viral particle producer cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of 0 the cell. In another aspect, the present invention provides an enveloped viral particle packaging cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. In one embodiment, the enveloped viral particle packaging or producer cell comprises a 15 genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding p2-microglobulin (02M). In another embodiment, the cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of one or more genes encoding an MHC-I a chain. The cell may comprise genetically engineered disruptions in all copies of the gene encoding [32-microglobulin. The cell may comprise genetically engineered disruptions in all copies of the genes encoding an MHC-I a chain. The cell may comprise 20 both genetically engineered disruptions of genes encoding p2-microglobulin and genetically engineered disruptions of genes encoding an MHC-I a chain. The expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell may be decreased such that the cell is substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. The term viral particle “producer cell” includes a cell that produces viral particles, after 25 transient transfection, stable transfection or vector transduction of all the elements necessary to produce the viral particles or any cell engineered to stably comprise the elements necessary to produce the viral particles. The term “packaging cell” includes a cell which contains some or all of the elements necessary for packaging an infectious recombinant virus. The packaging cell may lack a 30 recombinant viral vector. Typically, such packaging cells contain one or more vectors which are capable of expressing viral structural proteins. Cells comprising only some of the elements required for the production of enveloped viral particles are useful as intermediate reagents in the generation of viral particle producer cell lines, through subsequent steps of 2024203415   22 May 2024 transient transfection, transduction or stable integration of each additional required element. These intermediate reagents are encompassed by the term “packaging cell”. Parental cells to be subsequently used for the generation of enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell lines, in which the expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell has been decreased 5 are also encompassed by the present invention. Viral particles referred to herein encompass replication-competent or -defective viruses, viral vectors derived therefrom, and which may or may not comprise a nucleotide or interest. In one embodiment, the enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell is derived from a HEK-293 cell. 0 In one embodiment, the enveloped viral vector particle is derived from a retrovirus, herpes simplex virus, vaccinia virus, hepadnavirus, togavirus, flavivirus, arenavirus, coronavirus, orthomyxovirus, paramyxovirus, bunyavirus, bornavirus, rhabdovirus or filovirus. In one embodiment, the enveloped viral vector particle is derived from a retrovirus, herpes simplex virus or vaccinia virus. 15 In one embodiment, the enveloped viral particle is derived from HIV. In another aspect, the invention provides a population of enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cells of the invention. In one embodiment, at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the cells in the population have been genetically engineered 20 according to the present invention. In another aspect, the invention provides the use of the enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of the invention for the production of enveloped viral particles. Preferably, the enveloped viral particles are substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. In another aspect, the invention provides a method of producing enveloped viral particles 25 comprising the steps of: a) providing an enveloped viral particle producer cell according to the invention; and b) culturing the cell under conditions suitable for the production of the enveloped viral vector particles. 2024203415   22 May 2024 In another aspect, the invention provides an enveloped viral particle produced by the enveloped viral particle production method of the invention. In another aspect, the invention provides an enveloped viral particle comprising a decreased number of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. The number of surface-exposed MHC-I 5 molecules may be decreased such that the immune response to the MHC-I is decreased to a therapeutically relevant degree. Preferably, the enveloped viral vector particle is substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. The enveloped viral particle of the invention may be derived from a retrovirus, herpes 0 simplex virus, vaccinia virus, hepadnavirus, togavirus, flavivirus, arenavirus, coronavirus, orthomyxovirus, paramyxovirus, bunyavirus, bornavirus, rhabdovirus or filovirus. The enveloped viral vector particle may be derived from a retrovirus, herpes simplex virus or vaccinia virus. The enveloped viral vector particle may be derived from HIV. 15 Preferably, the enveloped viral particles of the invention are used for protein transfer (Bobis-Wozowicz S. et al., Sci Rep. 2014; Voelkel C. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2010; Maetzig T. et al., Curr Gene Ther. 2012). Preferably, the enveloped viral particle comprises a nucleotide of interest (NOI). Preferably, the enveloped viral particle is an attenuated virus, for example a replication deficient virus. 20 In another aspectrthednvention provides a population of enveloped viral particles of the invention. In one embodiment, at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% of the particles in the population originate from an enveloped viral particle producer cell of the invention. In one embodiment, 100% of the particles in the population 25 originate from an enveloped viral particle producer cell of the invention. In one embodiment, the particles in the population substantially do not comprise surface-exposed MHC-I. In another aspect, the invention provides a cell transduced by the enveloped viral particle of the invention. The cell may be a mammalian cell, for example a primate cell or a human cell. 2024203415   22 May 2024 In another aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising the enveloped viral particle of the invention or the transduced cell of the invention, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient. In another aspect, the invention provides the enveloped viral particle of the invention for use 5 in therapy. The enveloped viral particle of the invention may be used in gene therapy. In another aspect, the invention provides the transduced cell of the invention for use in therapy. The transduced cell of the invention may be used in gene therapy. In another aspect, the invention provides a method of gene therapy comprising transducing a cell with the enveloped viral particle of the invention. 0 In one embodiment, the transduction is carried out ex vivo. In another aspect, the invention provides a method of gene therapy comprising administering the enveloped viral particle of the invention or the transduced cell of the invention to a subject in need thereof. In another aspect, the invention provides the enveloped viral particle of the invention for use 15 as a vaccine. In another aspect, the invention provides a method of vaccination comprising administering the enveloped viral particle of the invention to a subject in need thereof. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1 20 Flow cytometry analysis (contour plots with outliers) of lentiviral vector (LV) packaging cell line (A-D) or HEK-293T cells (E-H), untreated, CRISPR / Cas9-treated, P2M+ or p2M- sorted as indicated, performed one month after FACS sorting. Cells were stained with PE-conjugated anti-human P2M and APC-conjugated pan anti-human MHC-I. Figure 2 25 Percentage of p2M alleles with non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), determined by a mismatch-selective endonuclease assay (Cell assay) in lentiviral vector (LV) packaging cells (A) or HEK-293 T cells (B) untreated (UNT), CRISPR / Cas9-treated, p2M+ or P2M-sorted as indicated, performed one month after FACS sorting. Figure 3 2024203415   22 May 2024 Titer (A), particles (B) and infectivity (C) of lentiviral vector (LV) produced in p2M+ or P2M-HEK-293T cells, as indicated, by transient transfection (n=3, p=0.1000 for titer, p=0.3758 for particles, p=0.1157 for infectivity). Particles (D) of LV produced by P2M+ or P2M- packaging cells 3 days after induction with 1 pg / mL doxycycline (n=4, p=0.1010). 5 Figure 4 Western blot analysis on protein extracts from lentiviral vector (LV) batches produced by P2M+ (+) or p2M- (-) producer cells. Figure 5 Proliferation assay (A) based on tritiated thymidine incorporation quantitated as counts per 0 minute (CPM). Data are mean and SEM (n=3). Stimulation index (B) calculated as the ratio between CPM of the experimental condition (CD4+ T-cells incubated with dendritic cells (DCs) transduced with lentiviral vectors (LVs) produced by P2M+ (+) or £2M- (-) cells) and the control condition (CD4+ T-cells incubated with untransduced DCs). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 15 Various preferred features and embodiments of the present invention will now be described by way of non-limiting examples. The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology, microbiology and immunology, which are within the capabilities of a person of ordinary skill in the art. Such techniques are 20 explained in the literature. See, for example, Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E.F., and Maniatis, T. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; Ausubel, F.M. et al. (1995 and periodic supplements) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ch. 9, 13 and 16, John Wiley & Sons; Roe, B., Crabtree, J., and Kahn, A. (1996) DNA Isolation and Sequencing: Essential Techniques, John Wiley & Sons; Polak, J.M., and 25 McGee, J.O’D. (1990) In Situ Hybridization: Principles and Practice, Oxford University Press; Gait, M.J. (1984) Oligonucleotide Synthesis: A Practical Approach, IRL Press; and Lilley, D.M., and Dahlberg, J.E. (1992) Methods in Enzymology: DNA Structures Part A: Synthesis and Physical Analysis of DNA, Academic Press. Each of these general texts is herein incorporated by reference. 30 In one aspect, the present invention provides an enveloped viral particle producer cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. 2024203415   22 May 2024 In another aspect, the present invention provides an enveloped viral particle packaging cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. Decreased expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell refers to a decrease in the number 5 of MHC-I molecules that are expressed on the surface of the cell that has been genetically engineered, in comparison to the number of MHC-I molecules that are expressed on the surface of a cell lacking the genetic engineering, but under otherwise substantially identical conditions. The expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell may be decreased such that the number 0 of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules is, for example, less than about 50%, 40%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2% or 1% of the number of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules that are displayed in the absence of the genetic engineering. In one embodiment, the expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell is decreased such that the number of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules is 0% of the number of surface-exposed MHC-I 15 molecules that are displayed in the absence of the genetic engineering. The expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell is preferably decreased such that the cell is substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. By “substantially devoid” it is to be understood that there is a substantial decrease in the number of MHC-I molecules that are expressed on the surface of the cell that has been 20 genetically engineered, in comparison to the number of MHC-I molecules that are expressed on the surface of a cell lacking the genetic engineering, such that the immune response to MHC-I on enveloped viral particles produced by the cell is decreased to a therapeutically useful degree. In another aspect, the invention provides an enveloped viral particle producer or packaging 25 cell, wherein the cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding P2-microglobulin. In another aspect, the invention provides an enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell, wherein the cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding an MHC-I a chain. 30 In one aspect, the invention provides a population of enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cells of the invention. 2024203415   22 May 2024 Preferably, at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the cells in the population do not comprise surface-exposed MHC-I. Methods for quantifying protein expression of cell surface-exposed proteins in a population of cells are known in the art. Suitable methods include flow cytometry, fluorescence-5 activated cell sorting (FACS) and fluorescence microscopy. For example, a population of cells may be contacted with an antibody specific for MHC-I. The antibody may be labelled to enable its detection. The antibody may be directly conjugated to a reporter moiety (e.g. a fluorescent label). Alternatively, a secondary antibody, conjugated to a reporter moiety and specific for the first antibody, may be 0 contacted with the population of cells. Suitable reporter moieties are known in the art and include, for example, Alexa Fluor and BODIPY-based fluorescent labels. Once the population of cells has been contacted with the antibody, the population may be analysed using a technique suitable to allow quantification of protein expression on individual cells, such as flow cytometry. The analysis is carried out without lysing the cells. 15 The method for quantifying protein expression of cell surface-exposed proteins may also enable sorting of the population of cells to produce a population of cells enriched for a specific characteristic (e.g. to produce a population of cells enriched in cells that do not comprise surface-exposed MHC-I). For example, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) enables such enrichment to be performed. 20 Similar methods may be applied for quantifying protein expression of cell surface-exposed proteins on single cells. For example, the method may employ microfluidic approaches. Major histocompatibility complex class I The major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) is a heterodimeric membrane protein that is displayed on the outer leaflet of the cell membrane (Penn, D.J. (2002) Major 25 Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) eLS, John Wiley & Sons, http: / / www.els.net / [DOI: 10.1038 / npg.els.0000919]). MHC-I functions to bind and display peptide fragments of proteins to the extracellular environment where they may be recognised by CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. Peptide fragments generated from normal cellular proteins will not activate cytotoxic T cells due to central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms. However, foreign peptides (e.g. 30 those originating from viral proteins) will cause activation of an immune response to destroy the cell. 2024203415   22 May 2024 An allogeneic MHC-I protein itself may be recognised by the immune system. For example, antibodies may bind MHC-I epitopes directly. As a result, cells and enveloped viruses that comprise MHC-I proteins originating from an allogeneic source may be targeted and neutralised by the immune system. 5 Human MHC-I is also referred to as human leukocyte antigen class I (HLA-I) and is expressed on almost all nucleated cells. HLA-I consists of two polypeptide chains, an HLA-I heavy chain (a chain) and p2 microglobulin (P2M). The HLA-I a chain and p2M are linked non-covalently. The HLA-I a chain is polymorphic. Six HLA-I a chains have been identified to date, including 0 three classical, highly polymorphic a chains (HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C) and three non- classical, less polymorphic (HLA-E, HLA-F and HLA-G) a chains. The skilled person would readily be able to determine nucleic acid sequences of HLA-I a chains. For example, the HLA-I a chains may be identified in a genome sequence using their location within the major histocompatibility complex region of the chromosome (Penn, D.J. (2002) Major 15 Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) eLS, John Wiley & Sons, http: / / www.els.net / [DOI: 10.1038 / npg.els.0000919]). Nucleic acid sequences encoding P2M are known in the art. For example, a nucleic acid sequence of human P2M is deposited as GenBank Accession No. NM_004048. The skilled person will understand that the present invention is applicable to variants of 20 MHC-I sequences, such as polymorphisms of these sequences (e.g. HLA-I a chain sequences and p2M sequences). For example, variants of MHC-I sequences may include single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or multiple SNPs. Genetic engineering of MHC-I The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of the invention is genetically 25 engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. Methods for genetic engineering to decrease protein expression are known in the art. For example, this may be achieved by targeted gene knockout. To decrease protein expression, the gene encoding the protein itself or its regulatory sequence (e.g. its promoter) may be knocked out. Knockout may be achieved by deletion of a section of the coding nucleic acid 30 sequence, which may delete a section of the protein essential for expression or stability, or alter the reading frame of the coding sequence. Suitable methods for targeted gene knockout include use of zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector 2024203415   22 May 2024 nucleases (TALENs) and CRISPR / Cas-based RNA-guided nucleases (Gaj, T. et al. (2013) Trends Biotechnol. 31: 397-405). For example, the CRISPR / Cas9 RNA-guided nuclease may be used to catalyse a double strand break at a specific locus in the genome if provided with appropriate RNA guides 5 designed to bind that locus. Cas9 and the guide RNA may be delivered to a target cell by transfection of vectors encoding the protein and RNA. Cells attempt to repair any double strand breaks in their DNA using the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway. This is an error-prone mechanism which inserts random nucleotides and often disrupts the reading frame of the targeted gene. 0 Alternatively, the genetic engineering to decrease protein expression may be accomplished using RNAi techniques, or microRNA or antisense RNA to suppress expression of the target gene. Once the targeted gene knockout or suppression of expression approach has been carried out, the resulting population of cells may be screened to select and enrich for those cells 15 exhibiting the phenotype of interest, for example decreased expression of surface-exposed MHC-I. Suitable techniques for screening and enrichment are known in the art and include flow cytometry and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). In one embodiment, the enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding p2-microglobulin. p2-microglobulin 20 stabilises MHC-I, thus cells deficient in p2-microglobulin will exhibit decreased expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell. The cell may comprise genetically engineered disruptions in all copies of the gene encoding P2-microglobulin. In another embodiment, the cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding an MHC-I a chain. The cell may comprise genetically engineered disruptions in all 25 copies of the gene encoding an MHC-I a chain. The cell may comprise both genetically engineered disruptions of genes encoding P2-microglobulin and genetically engineered disruptions of genes encoding an MHC-I a chain. Vectors A vector is a tool that allows or facilitates the transfer of an entity from one environment to 30 another. The viral particles of the present invention may be vectors. The viral vector particles of the invention are enveloped viral particles. 2024203415   22 May 2024 An enveloped viral particle comprises an outer lipid bilayer membrane. Numerous enveloped viruses are known in the art, including retrovirus, herpes simplex virus, vaccinia virus, hepadnavirus, togavirus, flavivirus, arenavirus, coronavirus, orthomyxovirus, paramyxovirus, bunyavirus, bomavirus, rhabdovirus and filovirus 5 Retroviral and lentiviral vectors A retroviral vector may be derived from or may be derivable from any suitable retrovirus. A large number of different retroviruses have been identified. Examples include murine leukaemia virus (MLV), human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV), mouse mammary tumour virus (MMTV), Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), Fujinami sarcoma virus (FuSV), Moloney murine 0 leukaemia virus (Mo-MLV), FBR murine osteosarcoma virus (FBR MSV), Moloney murine sarcoma virus (Mo-MSV), Abelson murine leukaemia virus (A-MLV), avian myelocytomatosis virus-29 (MC29) and avian erythroblastosis virus (AEV). A detailed list of retroviruses may be found in Coffin, J.M. et al. (1997) Retroviruses, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, 758-63. 15 Retroviruses may be broadly divided into two categories, “simple” and “complex”. Retroviruses may be even further divided into seven groups. Five of these groups represent retroviruses with oncogenic potential. The remaining two groups are the lentiviruses and the spumaviruses. A review of these retroviruses is presented in Coffin, J.M. et al. (1997) Retroviruses, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, 758-63. 20 The basic structure of retrovirus and lentivirus genomes share many common features such as a 5' Long Terminal Repeats (LTR) and a 3' LTR. Between or within these are located a packaging signal to enable the genome to be packaged, a primer binding site, integration sites to enable integration into a host cell genome, and gag, pol and env genes encoding the packaging components - these are polypeptides required for the assembly of viral particles. 25 Lentiviruses have additional features, such as rev and RRE sequences in HIV, which enable the efficient export of RNA transcripts of the integrated provirus from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of an infected target cell. In the provirus, these genes are flanked at both ends by regions called LTRs. The LTRs are responsible for proviral integration and transcription. LTRs also serve as enhancer-promoter 30 sequences and can control the expression of the viral genes. The LTRs themselves are identical sequences that can be divided into three elements: U3, R and U5. U3 is derived from the sequence unique to the 3' end of the RNA. R is derived from a sequence repeated at both ends of the RNA. U5 is derived from the sequence unique 2024203415   22 May 2024 to the 5' end of the RNA. The sizes of the three elements can vary considerably among different retroviruses. In a defective retroviral vector genome gag, pol and env may be absent or not functional. In a typical retroviral vector, at least part of one or more protein coding regions essential for 5 replication may be removed from the virus. This makes the viral vector replication-defective. Portions of the viral genome may also be replaced by a library encoding candidate modulating moieties operably linked to a regulatory control region and a reporter moiety in the vector genome in order to generate a vector comprising candidate modulating moieties which is capable of transducing a target host cell and / or integrating its genome into a host 0 genome. Lentivirus vectors are part of the larger group of retroviral vectors. A detailed list of lentiviruses may be found in Coffin, J.M. et al. (1997) Retroviruses, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, 758-63. Briefly, lentiviruses can be divided into primate and non-primate groups. Examples of primate lentiviruses include but are not limited to human 15 immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the causative agent of human acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Examples of non-primate lentiviruses include the prototype “slow virus” visna / maedi virus (VMV), as well as the related caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV), equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), and the more recently described feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and bovine immunodeficiency 20 virus (BIV). The lentivirus family differs from retroviruses in that lentiviruses have the capability to infect both dividing and non-dividing cells (Lewis, P et al. (1992) EMBO J. 11: 3053-8; Lewis, P.F. et al. (1994) J. Virol. 68: 510-6). In contrast, other retroviruses, such as MLV, are unable to infect non-dividing or slowly dividing cells such as those that make up, for example, muscle, 25 brain, lung and liver tissue. A lentiviral vector, as used herein, is a vector which comprises at least one component part derivable from a lentivirus. Preferably, that component part is involved in the biological mechanisms by which the vector infects cells, expresses genes or is replicated. The lentiviral vector may be a “primate” vector. The lentiviral vector may be a “non-primate” 30 vector (i.e. derived from a virus which does not primarily infect primates, especially humans). Examples of non-primate lentiviruses may be any member of the family of lentiviridae which does not naturally infect a primate. 2024203415   22 May 2024 As examples of lentivirus-based vectors, HIV-1- and HIV-2-based vectors are described below. The HIV-1 vector contains c / s-acting elements that are also found in simple retroviruses. It has been shown that sequences that extend into the gag open reading frame are important 5 for packaging of HIV-1. Therefore, HIV-1 vectors often contain the relevant portion of gag in which the translational initiation codon has been mutated. In addition, most HIV-1 vectors also contain a portion of the env gene that includes the RRE. Rev binds to RRE, which permits the transport of full-length or singly spliced mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In the absence of Rev and / or RRE, full-length HIV-1 RNAs accumulate in the 0 nucleus. Alternatively, a constitutive transport element from certain simple retroviruses such as Mason-Pfizer monkey virus can be used to relieve the requirement for Rev and RRE. Efficient transcription from the HIV-1 LTR promoter requires the viral protein Tat. Most HIV-2-based vectors are structurally very similar to HIV-1 vectors. Similar to HIV-1 -based vectors, HIV-2 vectors also require RRE for efficient transport of the full-length or 15 singly spliced viral RNAs. In one system, the vector and helper constructs are from two different viruses, and the reduced nucleotide homology may decrease the probability of recombination. In addition to vectors based on the primate lentiviruses, vectors based on FIV have also been developed as an alternative to vectors derived from the pathogenic HIV-1 genome. The structures of 20 these vectors are also similar to the HIV-1 based vectors. Preferably the viral vector used in the present invention has a minimal viral genome. By “minimal viral genome” it is to be understood that the viral vector has been manipulated so as to remove the non-essential elements and to retain the essential elements in order to provide the required functionality to infect, transduce and deliver a nucleotide sequence of 25 interest to a target host cell. Further details of this strategy can be found in WO 1998 / 017815. Preferably the plasmid vector used to produce the viral genome within a host cell / packaging cell will have sufficient lentiviral genetic information to allow packaging of an RNA genome, in the presence of packaging components, into a viral particle which is capable of infecting a 30 target cell, but is incapable of independent replication to produce infectious viral particles within the final target cell. Preferably the vector lacks a functional gag-pol and / or env gene and / or other genes essential for replication. 2024203415   22 May 2024 However, the plasmid vector used to produce the viral genome within a host cell / packaging cell will also include transcriptional regulatory control sequences operably linked to the lentiviral genome to direct transcription of the genome in a host cell / packaging cell. These regulatory sequences may be the natural sequences associated with the transcribed viral 5 sequence (i.e. the 5' U3 region), or they may be a heterologous promoter, such as another viral promoter (e.g. the CMV promoter). The vectors may be self-inactivating (SIN) vectors in which the viral enhancer and promoter sequences have been deleted. SIN vectors can be generated and transduce non-dividing cells in vivo with an efficacy similar to that of wild-type vectors. The transcriptional 0 inactivation of the long terminal repeat (LTR) in the SIN provirus should prevent mobilisation by replication-competent virus. This should also enable the regulated expression of genes from internal promoters by eliminating any c / s-acting effects of the LTR. The vectors may be integration-defective. Integration defective lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) can be produced, for example, either by packaging the vector with catalytically inactive integrase 15 (such as an HIV integrase bearing the D64V mutation in the catalytic site; Naldini, L. et al. (1996) Science 272: 263-7; Naldini, L. et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 11382-8; Leavitt, A.D. et al. (1996) J. Virol. 70: 721-8) or by modifying or deleting essential att sequences from the vector LTR (Nightingale, S.J. et al. (2006) Mol. Then 13: 1121-32), or by a combination of the above. 20 HIV-derived vectors HIV-derived vectors for use in the present invention are not particularly limited in terms of HIV strain. Numerous examples of sequences of HIV strains may be found at the HIV Sequence Database (http: / / www.hiv.lanl.gov / content / index). Herpes simplex virus (HSV) derived vectors 25 Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that naturally infects neurons. HSV can accommodate large sections of foreign DNA, which makes it attractive as a vector system, and has been employed as a vector for gene delivery to neurons. The use of HSV in therapeutic procedures requires the strains to be attenuated so that they cannot establish a lytic cycle. In particular, if HSV vectors are to be used for gene therapy in 30 humans, the NOI is preferably inserted into an essential gene. This is necessary, because if a vector virus encounters a wild type virus, transfer of a heterologous gene to the wild type virus could occur by recombination. However, as long as the NOI is inserted into an 2024203415   22 May 2024 essential gene, recombinational transfer would also delete the essential gene in the recipient virus and prevent “escape” of the heterologous gene into the replication competent wild type virus population. Vaccinia virus-derived vectors 5 Vaccinia virus is large enveloped virus that has an approximately 190 kb linear, doublestranded DNA genome. Vaccinia virus can accommodate up to approximately 25 kb of foreign DNA, which also makes it useful for the delivery of large genes. A number of attenuated vaccinia virus strains are known in the art that are suitable for gene therapy applications, for example the MVA and NYVAC strains. 0 Viral particle production In one aspect, the invention provides the use of the enveloped viral particle producer cell of the invention for the production of enveloped viral particles. In one embodiment, the enveloped viral vector particles comprise less than about 50%, 40%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2% or 1% of the number of surface-exposed 15 MHC-I molecules that are displayed on particles produced by enveloped viral particle producer cells in the absence of the genetic engineering. In another embodiment, the enveloped viral particles are substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. The enveloped viral particle producer cell may comprise the viral genome. The viral genome is the nucleic acid sequence that is incorporated into the viral particle. The 20 viral genome may be engineered to comprise a nucleotide of interest (NOI). Accordingly, for use in producing viral particles, the enveloped viral particle producer cell may comprise the viral genome and subsequently cultured under conditions suitable for the production of the enveloped viral particles. An “enveloped viral particle packaging cell” may, for example, comprise nucleic acid 25 sequences encoding some or all the structural proteins required for viral particle assembly. Cells comprising only some of the elements required for the production of enveloped viral particles are useful as intermediate reagents in the generation of viral particle producer cell lines, through subsequent steps of transient transfection, transduction or stable integration of each additional required element. These intermediate reagents are encompassed by the 30 packaging cell lines of the invention. Parental cells to be subsequently used for the 2024203415   22 May 2024 generation of enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell lines, in which the expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell has been decreased represent another embodiment of the invention. The nucleic acid sequences encoding the components required for production of an 5 infectious enveloped viral particle may be transiently transfected or transduced into or stably maintained (e.g. stably integrated into the cell genome or episomally maintained) within the packaging or producer cell. Alternatively, a combination of transient transfection or transduction and stable maintenance may be used to introduce the nucleic acid sequences into the cell. 0 Accordingly, the cell of the invention may be transfected or transduced with or engineered to stably integrate by targeted integration a nucleic acid comprising the viral genome to enable production of enveloped viral particles which comprise the viral genome. The nucleic acid sequences encoding separate components required for production of an infectious enveloped viral particle may be provided to the cell as separate expression 15 cassettes. In one embodiment, the packaging cell of the invention comprises nucleic acid sequences encoding Gag, Gag / Pol, and / or Env proteins, or functional substitutes thereof. The cell may optionally comprise nucleic acid sequences encoding additional proteins that may be required for retroviral vector particle assembly, for example Rev protein. 20 Enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cells can be of any suitable cell type that is capable of producing or packaging enveloped viral particles. The cells are preferably mammalian cells, particularly human cells. For example, the enveloped viral particles producer cell may be derived from a parental HEK-293 cell. Nucleotide of interest 25 The vectors e.g., viral particles, of the invention may comprise a nucleotide of interest (NOI). Preferably, the nucleotide of interest gives rise to a therapeutic effect. Suitable NOIs include, but are not limited to sequences encoding enzymes, cytokines, chemokines, hormones, antibodies, anti-oxidant molecules, engineered immunoglobulin-like molecules, single chain antibodies, fusion proteins, immune co-stimulatory molecules, 30 immunomodulatory molecules, anti-sense RNA, microRNA, shRNA, siRNA, ribozymes, miRNA target sequences, a transdomain negative mutant of a target protein, toxins, 2024203415   22 May 2024 conditional toxins, antigens, tumour suppressor proteins, growth factors, transcription factors, membrane proteins, surface receptors, anti-cancer molecules, vasoactive proteins and peptides, anti-viral proteins and ribozymes, and derivatives thereof (such as derivatives with an associated reporter group). The NOIs may also encode pro-drug activating enzymes. 5 An example of a NOI is the coagulation factor VIII or factor IX or engineered derivatives thereof, which may be used for gene therapy of haemophilia or the beta-globin chain which may be used for gene therapy of thalassemia / sickle cell disease. Suitable proteins that can be transferred by viral vector protein transfer include, but are not limited to nucleases, integrases, transposases, enzymes, cytokines, chemokines, hormones, 0 antibodies, anti-oxidant molecules, engineered immunoglobulin-like molecules, single chain antibodies, fusion proteins, immune co-stimulatory molecules, immunomodulatory molecules, a transdomain negative mutant of a target protein, toxins, conditional toxins, antigens, tumour suppressor proteins, growth factors, transcription factors, membrane proteins, surface receptors, anti-cancer molecules, vasoactive proteins and peptides, anti-15 viral proteins and ribozymes, and derivatives thereof (such as derivatives with an associated reportergroup). Pharmaceutical composition The enveloped viral particles or transduced cells of the invention may be formulated for administration to subjects with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient. 20 Suitable carriers and diluents include isotonic saline solutions, for example phosphate-buffered saline, and potentially contain human serum albumin. Handling of the cell therapy products is preferably performed in compliance with FACT-JACIE International Standards for cellular therapy. Gene therapy 25 In one aspect, the invention provides enveloped viral particles and transduced cells for use in therapy, for example for use in gene therapy. The enveloped viral particles may be referred to as enveloped viral vector particles. By a “transduced cell" or a cell which has been “transduced by an enveloped viral vector particle”, it is to be understood that the nucleic acid (e.g. comprising the NOI) carried by the 30 enveloped viral vector particle has been transferred to the cell. The cell to be transduced is preferably a target cell. 2024203415   22 May 2024 The enveloped viral vector particles of the invention may be administered directly to a subject. The viral vector particles may be engineered to target infection to specific cells in a subject. The viral vector particles may also be engineered to target expression of the NOI to specific cells in a subject. This may be achieved using tissue-specific promoters or nucleic 5 acid sequences which facilitate suppression of NOI expression in specific cells. The enveloped viral vector particles may also be used to transduce cells that have been removed from the body of a subject as part of an ex vivo gene therapy approach. The transduced cells may be administered as part of an autologous cell transplant procedure or as part of an allogeneic cell transplant procedure. 0 By “autologous cell transplant procedure” it is to be understood that the starting population of cells (which are then transduced with the enveloped viral vector particles of the invention) is obtained from the same subject as that to which the transduced cell population is administered. Autologous transplant procedures are advantageous as they avoid problems associated with immunological incompatibility and are available to subjects irrespective of 15 the availability of a genetically matched donor. By “allogeneic cell transplant procedure” it is to be understood that the starting population of cells (which are then transduced with the enveloped viral vector particles of the invention) is obtained from a different subject as that to which the transduced cell population is administered. Preferably, the donor will be genetically matched to the subject to which the 20 cells are administered to minimise the risk of immunological incompatibility. Suitable doses of the enveloped viral vector particles or transduced cells are such as to be therapeutically and / or prophyiactically effective. The dose to be administered may depend on the subject and condition to be treated, and may be readily determined by a skilled person. 25 For example, the use may be as part of a haematopoietic stem and / or progenitor cell transplantation procedure. Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the transplantation of blood stem cells derived from the bone marrow (in this case known as bone marrow transplantation) or blood. Stem cell transplantation is a medical procedure in the fields of haematology and oncology, 30 most often performed for people with diseases of the blood or bone marrow, or certain types of cancer. 2024203415   22 May 2024 Many recipients of HSCTs are multiple myeloma or leukaemia patients who would not benefit from prolonged treatment with, or are already resistant to, chemotherapy. Candidates for HSCTs include paediatric cases where the patient has an inborn defect such as severe combined immunodeficiency or congenital neutropenia with defective stem cells, and also 5 children or adults with aplastic anaemia who have lost their stem cells after birth. Other conditions treated with stem cell transplants include sickle-cell disease, myelodysplastic syndrome, neuroblastoma, lymphoma, Ewing’s Sarcoma, Desmoplastic small round cell tumour and Hodgkin’s disease. More recently non-myeloablative, or so-called “mini transplant”, procedures have been developed that require smaller doses of preparative 0 chemotherapy and radiation. This has allowed HSCT to be conducted in the elderly and other patients who would otherwise be considered too weak to withstand a conventional treatment regimen. The enveloped viral vector particle or transduced cells of the invention may be useful in the treatment of genetic diseases, such as plasma protein deficiencies, metabolic disorders, 15 lysosomal storage disorders, mucopolysaccharidoses, immune deficiencies, haematological disorders, including but not limited to haemophilia, adenosine deaminase severe combined Immunodeficiency, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, metachromatic leukodystrophy, globoid leukodystrophy, p-thalassemia, chronic granulomatous disease. The enveloped viral vector particles or transduced cells of the invention may be useful in the 20 treatment of the disorders listed in WO 1998 / 005635. For ease of reference, part of that list is now provided: cancer, inflammation or inflammatory disease, dermatological disorders, fever, cardiovascular effects, haemorrhage, coagulation and acute phase response, cachexia, anorexia, acute infection, HIV infection, shock states, graft-versus-host reactions, autoimmune disease, reperfusion injury, meningitis, migraine and aspirin-dependent anti-25 thrombosis; tumour growth, invasion and spread, angiogenesis, metastases, malignant, ascites and malignant pleural effusion; cerebral ischaemia, ischaemic heart disease, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, asthma, multiple sclerosis, neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, stroke, vasculitis, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis; periodontitis, gingivitis; psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, chronic ulcers, 30 epidermolysis bullosa; corneal ulceration, retinopathy and surgical wound healing; rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, eczema, anaphylaxis; restenosis, congestive heart failure, endometriosis, atherosclerosis or endosclerosis. In addition, or in the alternative, the enveloped viral vector particles or transduced cells of the invention may be useful in the treatment of the disorders listed in WO 1998 / 007859. For 35 ease of reference, part of that list is now provided: cytokine and cell 2024203415   22 May 2024 proliferation / differentiation activity; immunosuppressant or immunostimulant activity (e.g. for treating immune deficiency, including infection with human immune deficiency virus; regulation of lymphocyte growth; treating cancer and many autoimmune diseases, and to prevent transplant rejection or induce tumour immunity); regulation of haematopoiesis, e.g. 5 treatment of myeloid or lymphoid diseases; promoting growth of bone, cartilage, tendon, ligament and nerve tissue, e.g. for healing wounds, treatment of burns, ulcers and periodontal disease and neurodegeneration; inhibition or activation of follicle-stimulating hormone (modulation of fertility); chemotactic / chemokinetic activity (e.g. for mobilising specific cell types to sites of injury or infection); haemostatic and thrombolytic activity (e.g. 0 for treating haemophilia and stroke); anti-inflammatory activity (for treating e.g. septic shock or Crohn's disease); as antimicrobials; modulators of e.g. metabolism or behaviour; as analgesics; treating specific deficiency disorders; in treatment of e.g. psoriasis, in human or veterinary medicine. In addition, or in the alternative, the enveloped viral vector particles or transduced cells of 15 the invention may be useful in the treatment of the disorders listed in WO 1998 / 009985. For ease of reference, part of that list is now provided: macrophage inhibitory and / or T cell inhibitory activity and thus, anti-inflammatory activity; anti-immune activity, i.e. inhibitory effects against a cellular and / or humoral immune response, including a response not associated with inflammation; inhibit the ability of macrophages and T cells to adhere to 20 extracellular matrix components and fibronectin, as well as up-regulated fas receptor expression in T cells; inhibit unwanted immune reaction and inflammation including arthritis, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation associated with hypersensitivity, allergic reactions, asthma, systemic lupus erythematosus, collagen diseases and other autoimmune diseases, inflammation associated with atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerotic 25 heart disease, reperfusion injury, cardiac arrest, myocardial infarction, vascular inflammatory disorders, respiratory distress syndrome or other cardiopulmonary diseases, inflammation associated with peptic ulcer, ulcerative colitis and other diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, hepatic fibrosis, liver cirrhosis or other hepatic diseases, thyroiditis or other glandular diseases, glomerulonephritis or other renal and urologic diseases, otitis or other oto-rhino-30 laryngological diseases, dermatitis or other dermal diseases, periodontal diseases or other dental diseases, orchitis or epididimo-orchitis, infertility, orchidal trauma or other immune-related testicular diseases, placental dysfunction, placental insufficiency, habitual abortion, eclampsia, pre-eclampsia and other immune and / or inflammatory-related gynaecological diseases, posterior uveitis, intermediate uveitis, anterior uveitis, conjunctivitis, chorioretinitis, 35 uveoretinitis, optic neuritis, intraocular inflammation, e.g. retinitis or cystoid macular oedema, sympathetic ophthalmia, scleritis, retinitis pigmentosa, immune and inflammatory 2024203415   22 May 2024 components of degenerative fondus disease, inflammatory components of ocular trauma, ocular inflammation caused by infection, proliferative vitreo-retinopathies, acute ischaemic optic neuropathy, excessive scarring, e.g. following glaucoma filtration operation, immune and / or inflammation reaction against ocular implants and other immune and inflammatory- 5 related ophthalmic diseases, inflammation associated with autoimmune diseases or conditions or disorders where, both in the central nervous system (CNS) or in any other organ, immune and / or inflammation suppression would be beneficial, Parkinson's disease, complication and / or side effects from treatment of Parkinson's disease, AIDS-related dementia complex HIV-related encephalopathy, Devic's disease, Sydenham chorea, 0 Alzheimer's disease and other degenerative diseases, conditions or disorders of the CNS, inflammatory components of stokes, post-polio syndrome, immune and inflammatory components of psychiatric disorders, myelitis, encephalitis, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, encephalomyelitis, acute neuropathy, subacute neuropathy, chronic neuropathy, Guillaim-Barre syndrome, Sydenham chora, myasthenia gravis, pseudo-tumour 15 cerebri, Down's Syndrome, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, inflammatory components of CNS compression or CNS trauma or infections of the CNS, inflammatory components of muscular atrophies and dystrophies, and immune and inflammatory related diseases, conditions or disorders of the central and peripheral nervous systems, post-traumatic inflammation, septic shock, infectious diseases, inflammatory complications or side 20 effects of surgery, bone marrow transplantation or other transplantation complications and / or side effects, inflammatory and / or immune complications and side effects of gene therapy, e.g. due to infection with a viral carrier, or inflammation associated with AIDS, to suppress or inhibit a humoral and / or cellular immune response, to treat or ameliorate monocyte or leukocyte proliferative diseases, e.g. leukaemia, by reducing the amount of monocytes or 25 lymphocytes, for the prevention and / or treatment of graft rejection in cases of transplantation of natural or artificial cells, tissue and organs such as cornea, bone marrow, organs, lenses, pacemakers, natural or artificial skin tissue. Method of treatment It is to be appreciated that all references herein to treatment include curative, palliative and 30 prophylactic treatment, although in the context of the present invention references to preventing are more commonly associated with prophylactic treatment. The treatment of mammals, particularly humans, is preferred. Both human and veterinary treatments are within the scope of the present invention. Vaccines 2024203415   22 May 2024 In one aspect, the invention provides an enveloped viral particle of the invention for use as a vaccine. Preferably the enveloped viral particle is not infectious, for example is incapable of infecting a cell. Attenuated viruses are commonly used in the art as vaccines to provide immunity against 5 infection by the natural, virulent forms of the viruses. Attenuated viruses for use as vaccines may be produced using the producer cells of the invention as described above, preferably wherein the NOI may be omitted. The producer cells of the invention enable the production of enveloped viral particles that exhibit decreased numbers of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules for use as vaccines. The 0 enveloped viral vector particle for use as a vaccine may be substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules. A decreased number or lack of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules is advantageous in viruses for use as vaccines, as the viruses will be less likely to be neutralised by antibodies binding to MHC-I. 15 Additionally, the immune response may react against the allogeneic MHC-I rather than against viral antigens, therefore viral particles substantially devoid of allogeneic MHC-I molecules may be more effective vaccines, by more effectively inducing protective immunity. The viruses for use as vaccines may be further engineered to express additional proteins on their surfaces or within infected cells. Such proteins may act as antigens for the generation 20 of antibodies or cellular immunity which may further increase the body’s immune defences. 2024203415   22 May 2024 EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 1 Materials and methods ^2M gene disruption 5 To generate the eukaryotic expression plasmid encoding for Cas9, the human codon-optimised version of the Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 sequence was excised from the hCas9 plasmid (Addgene, plasmid no. 41815) using Xbal and Pmel. This fragment was then cloned into the pcDNA3.1 plasmid (Invitrogen), which was previously digested with Xbal and EcoRV. 0 To generate the plasmid encoding for the P2M RNA guide, DNA synthesis was used to create a plasmid containing the sequence of the human U6 promoter followed by the sequence of the transactivating RNA (GeneWix). This plasmid was then digested with Bsal in order to create compatible DNA ends for the following annealed oligonucleotides corresponding to CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) recognising exon 1 of P2M: 5'-15 ACCGAGTAGCGCGAGCACAGCTA-3’; 5'-AAACTAGCTGTGCTCGCGCTACT-3'. Plasmids were delivered into cells (250 ng of Cas9-expressing plasmid plus 50 or 100 ng of guide RNA-expressing plasmid) by calcium phosphate DNA transfection. Flow cytometry All cell suspensions were incubated with FcR Blocking Reagent (Miltenyi) together with PE-20 conjugated anti-human p2M (BioLegend, clone 2M2) and APC-conjugated pan anti-human MHC-I (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) in phosphate buffered saline, 0.5% bovine serum albumin, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (2mM) (staining solution) for 20 minutes at 4°C. After antibody staining, the cells were washed, re-suspended in staining solution and analysed by flow cytometry (FACSCanto, BD Biosciences). 25 Mismatch selective endonuclease assay The mismatch selective endonuclease assay was used to measure the extent of mutations consequent to non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) at the Cas9 target site. Briefly, PCR was performed using primers flanking the crRNA site in the P2M gene (Fw: 5'-TACAGACAGCAAACTCACCCAGTC-3'; Rv: 5'-AGAACTTGGAGAAGGGAAGTCACG-3'). 30 The PCR product was denatured, allowed to re-anneal and digested with Surveyor nuclease assay (Transgenomic). Because this enzyme cuts DNA at sites of duplex distortions, the 24 2024203415   22 May 2024 products of re-annealing between wild type and mutant alleles (carrying mutations or deletions consequent to the nuclease activity) are specifically digested. The reaction products were separated on a Spreadex EL1200 Wide Mini gel (Elchrom Scientific), stained by ethidium bromide and the intensity of the bands was quantified by ImageQuant TL 5 software. The ratio of the uncleaved parental fragment to the two lower migrating cleaved products was calculated using the formula (1-(parental fraction)1 / 2)x100 (Lombardo, A. et al. (2011) Nat. Methods 8: 861-9. Lentiviral vector (LV) production Third-generation lentiviral vectors (LVs) were produced by calcium phosphate transient 0 transfection of 293T cells with the pCCLsin.cPPT.PGK.GFP.pre transfer vector, the packaging plasmid pMDLg / p.RRE, pCMV.REV, the VSV-G envelope plasmid pMD2.G, as previously described (Follenzi, A. et al. (2002) Methods Mol. Med. 69: 259-74). 293T cells were seeded 24 hours before transfection in 15 cm dishes. Two hours before transfection, culture medium was replaced with fresh medium. For each dish, a solution containing a mix 15 of the LV genome plasmid, the packaging plasmids pMDLg / pRRE and pCMV.REV, and pMD2.G was prepared using 35 pg, 12.5 pg, 6.25 pg and 9 pg of plasmid DNA, respectively. A 0.1 x TE solution (10 mM Tris-HCI, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0 in dH2O) and water (1:2) was added to the DNA mix to 1250 pL of final volume. The solution was left on a spinning wheel for 20-30 minutes, then 125 pL of 2.5 M CaCI2 was added. Immediately before transfection, 20 a precipitate was formed by adding 1250 pL of 2x HBS (281 mM NaCI, 100 mM HEPES, 1.5 mM Na2HPO4, pH 7.12) while the solution was kept agitated on a vortex. The precipitate was immediately added to the culture medium and left on the cells for 14-16 hours and subsequently the culture medium was changed. Supernatant was collected 30 hours after medium change and passed through a 0.22 pm filter (Millipore). 25 Packaging cells were previously generated starting from 293-T-REx (Invitrogen), stably expressing a tetracycline-regulated transcriptional repressor, stably transfected with plasmids expressing HIV-1 Rev, Gag / Pol and VSV-G under the control of a Tet operator linked to a CMV promoter. Production of LV particles was induced by addition of doxycycline (1 pg / mL) to the culture medium and supernatant was collected after 72 hours and passed 30 through a 0.22 pm filter (Millipore). LV titration One hundred thousand 293T cells were transduced with serial vector dilutions in the presence of polybrene (8 pg / mL). The percentage of GFP positive (GFP+) cells was 2024203415   22 May 2024 measured 7 days after transduction by flow cytometry. Titer was expressed as transducing units293T (TU) / mL and calculated using the formula: TU / mL = [(%GFP+ cells / 100)x105x1 / dilution factor] Vector particles were measured by HIV-1 Gag p24 antigen immunocapture according to the 5 manufacturer’s protocol (NEN Life Science Products). Vector infectivity was calculated as the ratio between titer and particles (TU / ng p24). Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed using the Mann-Whitney test at p<0.05 level of significance. 0 Results In order to generate cell lines devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules for the production of lentiviral vectors (LVs) devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules, we set out to permanently disrupt the gene encoding for Beta-2-Microglobulin (P2M). Because P2M is a universal component of MHC-I, required for its expression on the cell membrane, by 15   genetically inactivating the P2M gene we aim to impair surface expression of all the highly polymorphic MHC-I molecules, without the need of individually disrupting each of the genes composing the MHC-I (Shiina, T. et al. (2009) J. Hum. Genet. 54: 15-39; Adams, E.J. et al. (2013) Annu. Rev. Immunol. 31: 529-6). To this aim we used the CRISPR / Cas9 system (Hsu, P.D. (2014) Cell 157: 1262-78). Cas9 is an RNA-guided nuclease which is able to 20   perform a DNA double-strand break (DSB) at a pre-determined locus in the genome if provided with appropriate RNA guides designed to bind the desired locus. As a consequence, the cells in which the DSB occurs repair the DNA by the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway, an error-prone mechanism which inserts random nucleotides and often disrupts the reading frame of the targeted gene (Lombardo, A. et al. (2011) Nat. 25 Methods 8: 861-9). We delivered two plasmids, one encoding for the Cas9 nuclease and the other expressing a guide RNA designed to base pair with a sequence in the first exon of the P2M gene, by transient transfection to both a HEK-293-based inducible cell line, previously engineered to produce LV particles, and HEK-293T cells, which are routinely used to produce LV by transient transfection with LV packaging and genome constructs. We have 30 shown by flow cytometry analysis that, while untreated cells are 100% positive for P2M and MHC-I (Figures 1A and 1E), up to 44% of the cells treated with Cas9 and the appropriate guide RNA loose p2M and, as a consequence, MHC-I expression on their membrane (Figures 1B and 1F). We then enriched for P2M negative (P2M-) cells to almost complete 2024203415   22 May 2024 purity (95%) by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). We have shown that these cells are stable in culture and remain negative for both p2M and MHC-I (Figures 1D and 1H). Although the efficiency of p2M disruption was initially lower in HEK-293T cells (6%, Figure 1F), we were able to easily enrich for the P2M- HEK-293T cells by FACS-sorting (Figures 1G 5 and 1H). To confirm these results at the genetic level, we analysed the events of NHEJ at the P2M gene by a mismatch-selective endonuclease assay (Cell assay; Lombardo, A. et al. (2011) Nat. Methods 8: 861-9). We have shown up to 35% of P2M alleles are disrupted in CRISPR / Cas9 treated cells, which increased in P2M- sorted cells, both in 293T cells and the 0 LV packaging cell line (Figure 2). We then evaluated whether P2M- cells retain their capacity to produce LV. To this aim we compared the infectious titer, particle output and infectivity of LVs produced in p2M positive (P2M+) and P2M- 293T cells, upon a standard transient transfection procedure. Our data show that LVs produced in P2M- 293T cells are not significantly different than those 15 produced in P2M+ 293T cells (Figures 3A, 3B and 3C). We also induced the production of LVs in P2M+ and P2M- packaging cells and showed similar particle output in LVs collected from the 2 packaging cell lines (Figure 3D). Overall these results show efficient disruption of P2M alleles in cells treated with CRISPR / Cas9 and almost complete disappearance of MHC-I molecules from the plasma 20 membrane of P2M- cells. Moreover, we have shown that LVs derived from these p2M- cells have no impairment in their infectivity. EXAMPLE 2 Materials and methods Human peripheral blood was obtained from healthy donors upon informed consent in 25 accordance with local ethical committee approval (Protocol TIGET03) and with the Declaration of Helsinki. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were separated by density gradient centrifugation over Lymphoprep (Fresenius Kabi). T-cell purification and dendritic cell (DC) differentiation CD3+ T cells were purified from PBMCs by negative selection using the Pan T cell Isolation 30 kit II (Miltenyi Biotech) according to the manufacturer’s instructions and frozen. CD14+ monocytes were isolated from PBMCs from the same donor by positive selection using CD14 MicroBeads (Miltenyi Biotech) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cells were 27 2024203415   22 May 2024 cultured in RPMI 1640 (Corning) supplemented with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) (Euroclone), 100 U / mL penicillin / streptomycin (Lonza), 2 mM L-Glutamine (Lonza) at 37°C in the presence of 10 ng / mL rhlL-4 (R&D Systems) and 100 ng / mL rhGM-CSF (Genzyme) for 7 days to differentiate DCs. Cells on day 2 were transduced with 1 pg p24 / mL of lentiviral 5 vector (LV) produced by £2M+ or p2M- cells. Cells on day 6 were matured with 1 pg / mL of LPS (Sigma) for an additional 1 day to generate mature DCs. At day 7, DCs were collected and used to stimulate T cells. Proliferation of T-cells CD3+ T cells were thawed and cultured overnight in RPMI 1640 (Corning) supplemented 0 with 10% FBS (Euroclone), 100 U / mL penicillin / streptomycin (Lonza), 2 mM L-Glutamine (Lonza) and 20 U / mL rhlL-2 (Chiron). T-cells were then stimulated with untransduced DCs or DCs transduced with LVs produced by [32M+ or P2M- cells (10:1 and 5:1 T-cell:DC ratio) in a final volume of 200 pL of IMDM (Sigma) supplemented with 10% FBS (Euroclone), 100 U / mL penicillin / streptomycin (Lonza), 2 mM L-Glutamine (Lonza) for 3 days and then pulsed 15 for 16 h with 1 pCi / well 3H-thymidine. Western blot Total proteins in LV batches were extracted with membrane-protein lysis buffer (150 mM Tris-HCI, 150 mM NaCI, 5 mM EDTA, 1% deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 1% Triton-X100) supplemented with PIC (Protease Inhibitor Cocktail; Roche). Samples were resuspended in 20 the lysis solution and incubated at 4°C for 10 min. Lysates were assayed for protein concentration using Bradford assay (BioRad). 20 pg of proteins were analysed by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions. For immunoblotting, proteins were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes using iBIot Gel Transfer stacks (Novex), incubated with the specific antibody followed by peroxidase-conjugated secondary 25 antibodies (ECL Mouse or Rabbit IgG; GE Healthcare), and detected using chemiluminescent reagents (ECL; GE Healthcare) and exposure to autoradiography films. The following antibodies were used: rabbit monoclonal anti-human MHC-I (OriGene Technologies, 1:1000 in TBS, Tween-20 0.1%, skim milk powder 5%), mouse monoclonal anti-Gag p24 (NIH AIDS reagent program #3537, 1:1000 in TBS, Tween-20 0.1%, skim milk 30 powder 5%). Results In order to detect the incorporation of MHC-I in lentiviral vector (LV) particles from the plasma membrane of LV-producer cells, we performed Western blot analysis on proteins 2024203415   22 May 2024 extracted from LVs collected by ultracentrifugation from the conditioned medium of P2M+ or P2M- producer cells. We detected a clear band corresponding to the molecular weight of MHC-I in LVs produced by P2M+ cells, but not in those produced by P2M- cells. Both samples were similarly positive 5 for the capsid Gag p24 protein as expected (Figure 4). We then set out to measure the activation of immune cells in response to autologous dendritic cells exposed to LV particles produced by P2M+ or P2M- cells. We purified CD3+ T lymphocytes and CD14+ monocytes from peripheral-blood mononuclear cells of healthy donors and subsequently exposed the CD14+ cells to the same amount of LV 0 particles produced by P2M+ or P2M- cells. We then differentiated the transduced monocytes in dendritic cells (DCs) and co-cultured them with the CD3+ lymphocytes from the same donor. We measured T-lymphocyte proliferation by tritiated thymidine incorporation and observed that T lymphocytes proliferate substantially less in response to DCs exposed to LVs produced by P2M- than in response to DCs exposed to LVs produced by P2M+ cells 15 (Figure5). Overall, these data confirm the presence of MHC-I in LV particles produced by parental P2M+ cells and the effective generation of MHC-free LV by P2M- cells. Moreover, these data indicate that MHC-free LV particles and transduced cells are less likely to induce and be targeted by an allo-specific immune response. 20 All publications mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described cells, viral vector particles, uses and methods of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. Although the present invention has been 25 described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention, which are obvious to those skilled in biochemistry and biotechnology or related fields, are intended to be within the scope of the following claims.

Claims

1. An enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell, wherein the cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell.

2. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of claim 1 wherein the cell 5          comprises a genetically engineered disruption of a gene encoding p2-microglobulin.

3. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of claim 1 or 2 wherein the cell comprises a genetically engineered disruption of one or more genes encoding an MHC-I a chain.

4. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of any of claims 1-3 wherein 0           the cell is a HEK-293 cell or a derivative thereof.

5. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of claim 4 wherein the cell is a HEK-293T or a HEK-293 T-REx cell.

6. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of any of claims 1-5 whereinthe enveloped viral particle is a retrovirus, herpes simplex virus or vaccinia virus,15           hepadnavirus,  togavirus,  flavivirus, arenavirus, coronavirus, orthomyxovirus,paramyxovirus, bunyavirus, bornavirus, rhabdovirus, filovirus or derived therefrom.

7. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of any of claims 1-6 wherein the enveloped viral particle is derived from a retrovirus or herpes simplex virus or vaccinia virus.20   8. The enveloped viral particle producer or packaging cell of any of claims 1-6 whereinthe enveloped viral vector is derived from a lentivirus.

9. A parental cell for the generation of enveloped viral particles producer or packaging cell lines according to any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the parental cell is genetically engineered to decrease expression of MHC-I on the surface of the cell.25   10. Use of the enveloped viral particle producer cell according to any of claims 1 -8 for theproduction of enveloped viral particles.

11. The use of claim 10 wherein the enveloped viral particles are substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules.

12. A method of producing enveloped viral particles comprising the steps of:2024203415   22 May 2024a) providing an enveloped viral particle producer cell according to any of claims 1-8; andb) culturing the cell under conditions suitable for the production of the enveloped viral particles.5   13. An enveloped viral particle produced by the method of claim 12.

14. An enveloped viral particle, wherein the particle is substantially devoid of surface-exposed MHC-I molecules.

15. The enveloped viral particle of claim 13 or 14 wherein the enveloped particle is derived from a retrovirus, herpes simplex virus or vaccinia virus.0    16. A cell transduced by the enveloped viral particle of any of claims 13-15.

17. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the enveloped viral particle of any of claims 13-15 or the cell of claim 15, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient.

18. The enveloped viral particle of any of claims 13-15 for use in therapy.15    19.    The enveloped viral particle of claim 18 for use in vaccination or gene therapy.

20. The cell of claim 16 for use in therapy.

21. A method of gene therapy comprising transducing a cell with the enveloped viralparticle of any of claims 13-15.

22. The method of claim 21 wherein the transduction is carried out ex vivo.20   23. A method of gene therapy comprising administering the enveloped viral particle ofany of claims 13-15 or the cell of claim 16 to a subject in need thereof.

24. The enveloped viral particle of any of claims 13-15 for use as a vaccine.

25. A method of vaccination comprising administering the enveloped viral particle of any of claims 13-15 to a subject in need thereof.

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