Method, computer readable non-transient storage media, and apparatus

Description

46 METHOD, COMPUTER-READABLE NON-TRANSIENTIAL STORAGE MEDIA, AND, DEVICE CROSS-REFERENCED TO RELATED ORDERS

[001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Non-Provisional Application No. 18 / 229,361, filed August 2, 2023, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 523,710, filed June 28, 2023, which is incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD

[002] This disclosure relates to the identification of changes in underground formations based on carbon dioxide (CO2) injected into a well. More specifically, this disclosure is directed at carbon sequestration in underground formations with the same effectiveness and efficiency. BACKGROUND

[003] Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is a relatively new technology aimed at mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Governments around the world have established stringent requirements for carbon storage and sequestration in order to ensure the long-term safety and effectiveness of CCUS. Typically, these requirements include proof that the stored carbon dioxide (CO2) is sequestered in a stable form or safely stored for a long period of time, which may exceed 100 years. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[004] In order to describe the manner in which the features and advantages of this disclosure can be obtained, a more particular description is provided with reference to specific embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the accompanying figures. It is understood that these drawings represent only exemplary embodiments of the disclosure and that, Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 14 / 73 / 46, therefore, should not be considered limiting to its scope; the principles in this document are described and explained with specificity and additional detail through the use of the attached drawings, in which: Figure 1A is a schematic diagram of an operational wellbore logging environment during example drilling, according to various aspects of the technology in question; Figure 1B is a schematic diagram of an example downhole environment having tubulars, according to various aspects of the technology in question; Figure 2 illustrates an example of a laboratory environment that can be used to collect data regarding chemical changes that may occur in samples extracted from underground formations on Earth, according to various aspects of the technology in question; Figure 3 illustrates several different configurations of devices that can be used to collect data that can be analyzed to identify the effectiveness of a carbon sequestration process, according to various aspects of the technology in question; Figure 4 illustrates the actions that can be performed when a carbon sequestration process is carried out, according to various aspects of the technology in question; Figure 5 illustrates the actions that can be performed when a laboratory experiment is conducted on samples that have been extracted from a well, so that the operation of a computer model can be improved, according to various aspects of the technology in question; and Figure 6 illustrates an example of a computing device architecture that can be employed to perform various steps, methods, and techniques disclosed in this document. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[005] Various methods of disclosure are discussed in detail. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 15 / 73 / 46 below. Although specific implementations are discussed, it should be understood that this is done for illustrative purposes only. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize that other components and configurations may be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure.

[006] Additional features and advantages of disclosure will be set forth in the following description and, in part, will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practicing the principles disclosed in this document. The features and advantages of disclosure may be realized and obtained through the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. These and other features of disclosure will become more evident from the following description and appended claims, or may be learned by practicing the principles set forth in this document.

[007] It will be noticed that, for simplification and clarity of illustration, where appropriate, reference numbers have been repeated among the different figures to indicate corresponding or analogous elements. Furthermore, several specific details are presented to provide a complete understanding of the embodiments described in this document. However, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the embodiments described in this document can be practiced without these specific details. In other cases, methods, procedures, and components have not been described in detail so as not to obscure the relevant related feature being described. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, and the proportions of certain parts may be exaggerated to better illustrate details and characteristics. The description should not be considered as limiting the scope of the embodiments described in this document.

[008] As mentioned above, the Capture, Use and Carbon Storage and Unloading (CCUS) is a relatively new technology aimed at mitigating climate change by reducing emissions. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 16 / 73 / 46 regarding greenhouse gas emissions. Current and new government requirements include proof that stored carbon dioxide (CO2) is sequestered in a stable form or safely stored for periods of time that may exceed 100 years. In cases where CO2 is sequestered through mineral formation, the need for long-term monitoring may be reduced, as the stability of sequestered CO2 is inherent, based on a chemical change in the underground rocks.

[009] However, proving that CO2 was sequestered as a mineral is a complex task. The reactions between CO2 and rock formations are influenced by several factors, including temperature, pressure, fluid composition, formation mineralogy, and internal porosity. Furthermore, these reactions occur on large spatial scales and long timescales, making direct monitoring difficult. Therefore, a combination of laboratory experiments, field monitoring, and modeling may be necessary to provide convincing evidence of mineral CO2 sequestration.

[0010] Laboratory experiments on whole core samples, core plugs, or drill cuttings extracted from underground formations can provide valuable data on the potential for CO2 chemical binding to rocks or minerals (CO2 mineralization) on Earth. These experiments may involve exposing extracted core samples or cuttings to CO2 under controlled conditions while monitoring changes in their mineralogy, fluid composition, and physical properties in the laboratory. Techniques such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy can be used to identify and quantify the minerals present. Changes in brine composition within the cores can provide indirect evidence of mineral capture. Additionally, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) or electromagnetic detection elements can be used for monitoring. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 17 / 73 / 46 alterations in the porosity and permeability of the cores, which may indicate the formation of new minerals in the porous spaces of the rock. Furthermore, acoustic sensors can be used to monitor changes in elasticity and geomechanical properties, as the solidification of the carbonized mineral formation alters the acoustic responses of the rock. Additionally, temperature-accelerated studies can be conducted to estimate reaction rates under reservoir conditions, and calorimetry can be used to measure the heat produced by the reactions, providing information on their thermodynamics for long-term sequestration through mineralization predictions.

[0011] In a well field, several monitoring techniques can be used to track changes in terrestrial formations over time. This includes geophysical logging tools that can detect changes in mineralogy, resistivity, temperature, and physical properties of the formation. Fiber optic cables can provide high-resolution temperature data across the entire wellbore, while resistivity tools can provide information about the formation several tens or hundreds of meters away from the well. Changes in these parameters can indicate the occurrence and extent of CO2 mineralization reactions. Additionally, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) logging tools can be used to monitor changes in the porosity and permeability of subsurface formations, which can provide further evidence of CO2 mineralization.These tools can provide information about the distribution of fluids in the porous spaces of the rock and can help track the movement and fate of CO2 after it has been injected into a terrestrial formation.

[0012] Here are described systems, devices, processes (also called methods) and computer-readable media (collectively called “systems and techniques”) for improving the accuracy of Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 18 / 73 / 46 determinations made using data detected in a well. By correlating the results of laboratory experiments with field monitoring data, the techniques of this disclosure can be used to create a compelling case for CO2 mineral sequestration. For example, if certain minerals are found to react with CO2 in laboratory experiments and changes in temperature or resistivity consistent with these reactions are observed in a set of wells, this data would provide strong evidence of CO2 mineralization. Furthermore, by using geochemical modeling to predict the reactions between CO2, brine, and formation minerals, these predictions can be compared with the results of monitoring efforts to validate the model and provide further evidence of mineral trapping.

[0013] Returning to Figure 1A, a drilling arrangement is shown that exemplifies a log-drilling (commonly abbreviated as LWD) configuration in a wellbore drilling scenario 100. Logging during drilling typically incorporates sensors that acquire formation data. Specifically, the drilling arrangement shown in Figure 1A can be used to collect formation data via an electromagnetic imager tool as part of wellbore logging using the electromagnetic imager tool. The drilling arrangement in Figure 1A also exemplifies what is referred to as Measurement During Drilling (commonly abbreviated as MWD) which utilizes sensors to acquire data from which the path and position of the wellbore in three-dimensional space can be determined. Figure 1A shows a drilling rig 102 equipped with a tower 104 supporting a winch 106 for raising and lowering a drill string 108.The winch 106 suspends a top drive 110 suitable for rotating and lowering the drill string 108 through a wellhead 112. A drill bit 114 can be connected to the lower end of the drill string. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, p. 19 / 73 / 46 drilling 108. As the drill bit 114 rotates, it creates a well hole 116 that passes through several underground formations 118. A pump 120 circulates drilling fluid through a supply pipe 122 to the top drive 110, down through the inside of the drill string 108 and out of the holes in the drill bit 114 to the well hole. Drilling fluid returns to the surface through the annular space around the drill string 108 and to a holding tank 124. The drilling fluid carries fragments and debris from the wellbore 116 to the holding tank 124, and the presence of drilling fluid in the annular space helps maintain the integrity of the wellbore 116. Various materials can be used for drilling fluid, including oil-based fluids and water-based fluids.

[0014] Logging tools 126 can be integrated into the downhole assembly 125 near the drill bit 114. As both drill bits 114 extend into the wellbore 116 through the formations 118 and as the drill string 108 is pulled out of the wellbore 116, the logging tools 126 collect measurements related to various formation properties, as well as tool orientation and various other drilling conditions. The logging tool 126 can be applicable tools for collecting measurements in a drilling scenario, such as the electromagnetic imager tools described in this document. Each of the logging tools 126 may include one or more tool components spaced apart from each other and communicatively coupled by one or more wires and / or other communication arrangement.126 profiling tools may also include one or more computing devices coupled communicatively with one or more of the tool's components. One or more computing devices may be configured to control or monitor the tool's performance, process profiling data, and / or... Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, p. 20 / 73 / 46 perform one or more aspects of the methods and processes of this disclosure.

[0015] The background composition 125 may also include a telemetry sub 128 for transferring measurement data to a surface receiver 132 and for receiving commands from the surface. In at least some cases, the telemetry sub 128 communicates with a surface receiver 132 by wireless signal transmission, for example, using mud pulse telemetry, EM telemetry, or acoustic telemetry. In other cases, one or more of the logging tools 126 may communicate with a surface receiver 132 by a wire, such as a wired drill pipe. In some cases, the telemetry sub 128 does not communicate with the surface but instead stores logging data for further retrieval at the surface when the logging assembly is recovered.In at least some cases, one or more of the 126 logging tools may receive electrical power from a wire extending to the surface, including wires extending through a wired drill pipe. In other cases, power is supplied from one or more batteries or through power generated at the bottom of the well.

[0016] The collar 134 is a frequent component of a drill string 108 and generally resembles a very thick-walled cylindrical tube, typically with threaded ends and a hollow core for transporting drilling fluid. Multiple collars 134 may be included in the drill string 108 and are constructed and intended to be heavy-duty to apply weight to the drill bit 114 to aid the drilling process. Due to the collar wall thickness, pocket-type cutouts or other recesses may be provided in the collar wall without negatively impacting the integrity (strength, stiffness, and the like) of the collar as a component of the drill string 108.

[0017] With reference to Figure 1B, an example system 140 is represented for conducting downhole measurements after at least one Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 21 / 73 / 46 portion of a wellbore has been drilled and the drill string removed from the well. An electromagnetic imager tool can be operated on the example system 140 shown in Figure 1B for wellbore logging. A downhole tool is shown having a tool body 146 in order to perform logging and / or other operations. For example, instead of using the drill string 108 of Figure 1A to lower the downhole tool, which may contain sensors and / or other instrumentation for detection and logging of features and conditions near the wellbore 116 and surrounding formations, a wire rope conveyor 144 can be used. The tool body 146 can be lowered into the wellbore 116 by means of a steel cable transport 144. The steel cable transport 144 can be anchored to the drilling platform 142 or by a portable means, such as a truck 145.144 steel wire rope transport may include one or more wires, flat cables, wire ropes and / or the like, as well as tubular transports such as spiral tubing, joint tubing or other tubulars. Downhole tools may include a tool applicable for collecting measurements in a drilling scenario, such as the electromagnetic imager tools described in this document.

[0018] The illustrated wire rope conveyor 144 provides power and support for the tool, as well as enabling communication between the surface data processors 148A-N. In some examples, the wire rope conveyor 144 may include electrical and / or fiber optic cabling to carry out communications. The wire rope conveyor 144 is sufficiently strong and flexible to tie the tool body 146 through the wellbore 116, while also enabling communication via the wire rope conveyor 144 to one or more of the processors 148A-N, which may include local and / or remote processors. The processors 148A-N may be integrated as part of a computing system. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, p. 22 / 73 / 46, is applicable, as are the computing device architectures described in this document. Additionally, power may be supplied via 144 steel cable transport to meet the tool's power requirements. For smooth cable or coiled tubing configurations, power may be supplied at the bottom of the well with a battery or via a downhole generator.

[0019] Figure 2 illustrates an example of a laboratory environment that can be used to collect data on chemical changes that may occur in samples extracted from underground formations on Earth. The laboratory test setup 200 in Figure 2 includes the chamber 210 containing the sample 220 and the sensors 230. The test setup 200 also includes the fluid tank 240, the computer 250, and the spectrographic device 260. The sensors 230 are communicatively coupled to the computer 250 via the bus 235. The bus 235 can also be used to supply power to the sensors 230. The fluid tank 240 is coupled to the chamber 210 via the tube 245. The bus 265 can be used to communicate with the computer 250.

[0020] Sample 220 can be a core sample or a section taken from a well. Thus, sample 220 represents materials that can be found in Earth strata near a well that is being developed or has already been developed. Sensors 230 can be any type of sensor or detection device known in the market. Thus, sensors 230 can be temperature sensors, electromagnetic (EM) sensors, detection elements of a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) detection device, acoustic / seismic sensors, or sensors associated with any X-ray diffraction device, scanning electron microscope, X-ray spectrometer, or other device.

[0021] Chamber 210 may be a pressure-temperature chamber Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 23 / 73 / 46 capable of containing pressures and being heated to temperatures compatible with the pressures and temperatures found in underground environments. Thus, chamber 210 may include pressure seals and a heating element that allow the temperature and pressure inside chamber 210 to be controlled, for example, by computer 250. Fluid tank 240 may supply fluid (e.g., gaseous or liquid CO2) to chamber 210 when laboratory experiments are performed. Although not illustrated in Figure 2, a pressure control device may be connected to tube 245 so that the fluids in the fluid tank can be controlled.

[0022] In operation, a core sample or section (sample 220) can be placed in chamber 210 after sample 220 has been extracted from Earth. Sensors 230 can be arranged around sample 220 and chamber 210 can be sealed. The temperature of chamber 210 can be heated to a temperature likely to be found in an underground formation and a fluid can be supplied to chamber 240. A controlled mass of the fluid (e.g., gaseous or liquid CO2) can be supplied to chamber 210 during an experiment. Although not illustrated in Figure 2, other materials can be supplied to chamber 210. These other materials can be substances found in underground formations that can act to accelerate or attenuate the chemical changes that may occur in sample 220 when it is exposed to CO2 at pressures and temperatures that may be found on Earth.For example, since water and hydrocarbons are frequently found in underground formations, the concentrations of water and / or hydrocarbons can be supplied to chamber 210 when the effects on sample 220 in an environment containing concentrations of water, hydrocarbons and / or CO2 are evaluated.

[0023] In certain cases, after sample 220 is placed in chamber 210, an experimental environment can be arranged for Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 24 / 73 / 46 correspond to an initial well condition. The initial well condition may correspond to a temperature and pressure common at a given depth in the Earth. When the conditions inside chamber 210 correspond to a limiting degree of the initial well condition, a heater that heats chamber 210 can be switched off. Carbon dioxide (CO2) can then be supplied to chamber 210 to simulate CO2 injection into an underground environment near a well. Sensors 230 can then monitor the conditions inside the chamber. Changes in temperature or CO2 concentrations can be monitored, and these changes can be used to identify whether chemical changes appear to be occurring in sample 220. In addition, sensors 230 can be used to collect NMR data, electromagnetic (EM) data, X-ray data, or other data and provide this data to computer 250.Computer 250 can then perform assessments to validate the extent of chemical changes in sample 220. Sensors 230 can be similar to sensors that are commonly deployed in wells when strata near those wells are assessed. In this way, data from sensor 230 and other assessments can be used to improve, update, or train computer models that estimate the amounts of CO2 that have been converted into minerals in locations where CO2 can be sequestered on Earth.

[0024] An individual experiment can be run over a time interval (e.g., hours, days, weeks, or other time interval) that is sufficient for some possible chemical reactions to occur in sample 220. During this period, additional CO2 can be supplied to chamber 210. In addition, a heater in chamber 210 can be switched on or off, depending on the constraints of the experiment.Although not mentioned above, sample 220 or parts (e.g., shavings or dissolved pieces) of sample 220 can be placed in the spectrographic device 260 to collect information about chemical properties. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 25 / 73 / 46 of sample 220. After sample 220 has remained in chamber 210 for the time period, sample 220 may be removed from chamber 210 so that further evaluations may be carried out. This may include placing sample 220 or parts (e.g., fresh shavings or dissolved pieces) of sample 220 in the spectrographic device 260. The spectrographic device 260 may perform tests to determine the chemical content of sample 220. Data from the spectrographic device 260 may be provided to the computer 250 via the communication bus 265.

[0025] Data collected by the spectrographic device 260 before sample 220 is placed in chamber 220 may be compared to data collected by the spectrographic device 260 after sample 220 has been exposed to simulated well conditions during the time period.The data collected by comparing before-and-after data from the spectrographic device 260, combined with data collected by sensors 230, can be used to improve, adjust, or train computer models that simulate chemical changes in rocks located in places where CO2 can be sequestered on Earth.

[0026] Figure 3 illustrates several different configurations of apparatus that can be used to collect data that can be analyzed to identify the effectiveness of a carbon sequestration process. Figure 3 includes a first well measurement configuration 300A and a second well measurement configuration 300B. Each of these well configurations 300A and 300B includes a well or housing 320, elements 310, and elements or sensors 330. The well configuration 300A also includes a sensing apparatus 350 that may have been lowered into the well or housing 320 using wire transport 340. The transport line 340 can be used to deploy the sensing apparatus 350 in a manner similar to the deployment of the tool body 146 discussed in Figure 1B. The sensing apparatus 350 may also include elements or sensors 360. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 26 / 73 / 46

[0027] In one example, the sensor apparatus 350 can be lowered into well 320 before a casing has been added to well 320. At that time, the detection apparatus 350 can collect data that can be used to characterize rock formations or types of materials located near well 320. The elements or sensors 360 of the detection apparatus 350 can collect data of any type (electromagnetic data, X-ray data, acoustic data, NMR data, or others), so that an initial assessment of the rock formations and materials can be made. A casing can be deployed in well 320. This may include attaching sensors 330 to an external part of the casing.

[0028] In another example, as illustrated in measurement configuration 300B, the elements or sensors 330 can be deployed on an internal surface of the well or enclosure 320. These sensors can be used to monitor the well environment conditions. When an enclosure is used, this enclosure can be made of materials (e.g., a non-metallic material such as fiberglass) that do not attenuate or minimally attenuate the fields (e.g., electromagnetic fields or fields used by an NMR sensor or other sensor) of a measuring device. By placing the elements or sensors 330 on an internal surface of an enclosure or well 320, the likelihood of damaging these elements or sensors 330 can be reduced. By using an enclosure made of materials that do not attenuate or minimally attenuate the measurement fields, measurements can be made through the enclosure while the enclosure helps maintain the structural stability of the well.By using a casing made of an electrically insulating material, such as fiberglass, the casings used in carbon sequestration wells will resist the corrosive (acidic) effects of the brine generated by adding CO2 to the well. These electrically insulated casings will also allow electromagnetic and NMR detection devices to operate more effectively, as the casing with... Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 27 / 73 / 46 electrical insulation will allow the electromagnetic fields used by electromagnetic detection devices and the RF signals used by NMR detection devices to pass more easily through the enclosure compared to enclosures made of materials such as steel.

[0029] In each configuration 300A and 300B, elements 310 are arranged along the surface of the Earth 315. Elements 310 can be used to transmit energy (e.g., electromagnetic or acoustic energy) to the Earth. Portions of this transmitted energy can then be detected by elements or sensors 330. The data received by the elements or sensors 330 can be fed into a computer that analyzes this received data. The assessments performed by the computer can be used to identify changes in the Earth's strata when a carbon sequestration process is carried out. These assessments can identify whether the CO2 supplied to the well is present in a liquid, gaseous form, or can identify a mass of carbon in the CO2 that has been converted into a mineral form. Alternatively or additionally, elements or sensors 330 can be used to transmit energy that is received by other elements or sensors 330 or by elements 310.

[0030] Data collected by sensors that detect electromagnetic (EM) energy can be used to identify the resistivity of areas on Earth. When CO2 is injected into formations within the Earth, the resistivity of areas within those formations changes with CO2 concentrations. This occurs because the resistivity of the fluids and rock included in the underground formations is different from the resistivity of CO2. Therefore, EM energy measurements can be used to identify where a plume of injected CO2 migrates within these formations based on changes in resistivity and contrasts between resistivity. Alternatively or additionally, acoustic or seismic measurements can be used to identify areas where CO2 has migrated. Acoustic or seismic devices Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 28 / 73 / 46 can transmit acoustic energy and parts of this acoustic energy can be received by the well sensors, so that assessments can be made.

[0031] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensors can also be deployed in a well to collect data from which determinations can be made about the extent of chemical reactions that have occurred in the rocks near the well. NMR data collected before CO2 injection into the subsurface formations can be compared with NMR data collected after CO2 injection to identify changes in the roughness, porosity, and / or permeability of the rocks near the well.

[0032] Data collected using several different types of measurements (e.g., EM, acoustic / seismic, NMR, and / or temperature) can be evaluated to identify the extent of the chemical reaction. Temperature changes can be used to identify the amount of heat released by a chemical reaction, as most chemical reactions that convert CO2 into mineralized carbon compounds are exothermic (i.e., generate heat). Computer models using different types of data (EM data, NMR data, acoustic / seismic data, laboratory data, and / or temperature change data) can more accurately identify mineral formation rates. These computer models can be used to identify chemical reaction rates based on a total amount of heat produced and / or based on changes in resistivity, density, roughness, porosity, and permeability identified using one or more different types of measurements.These computer models can also model the heat capacity and / or thermal conductivity of rocks, CO2, and fluids located in rock formations.

[0033] Once a mass of CO2 has been injected into an underground formation and chemical reactions have been initiated. The model Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 29 / 73 / 46: Computer models can be used to estimate portions of the CO2 mass that are likely to be mineralized in the future. In this way, computer models may be able to identify the extent of current mineralization and then be used to predict future mineralization extents.

[0034] Because metal enclosures (e.g., steel enclosures) tend to block electromagnetic fields, since metal enclosures act as a Faraday shield, enclosures that do not include metal can be used. As mentioned above, fiberglass enclosures can be used. Because fiberglass does not include metal, it will not significantly block the transmission of electric or magnetic fields used by EM sensing devices or NMR sensing devices. The use of non-metallic enclosures along at least parts of the well can allow sensors deployed underground to be housed in an enclosure that physically isolates or shields these sensors from rocks located near the well.

[0035] Figure 4 illustrates the actions that can be performed when a carbon sequestration process is carried out. In block 410, an initial set of well data can be collected. This initial set of well data may include temperature data, pressure data, EM sensor data, acoustic / seismic data, and / or NMR sensor data that were collected before an initial mass of CO2 is injected into the formations surrounding a well. In block 420, the initial mass of CO2 can be injected into the formations surrounding the well. As CO2 is injected into the well formations, additional data can be collected, and one or more processors executing instructions from a computer model can identify how a plume of CO2 migrates into the well formations. This may include evaluating EM data and / or acoustic / seismic data to identify changes in the resistivity or density of the well formations.Over time, chemical reactions can occur that convert some of the CO2. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 30 / 73 / 46 in minerals, which can result in increased temperature within the well and well structures. As mentioned above, data collected by different types of sensors can be used to identify CO2 movement, as well as chemical reaction rates based on a total amount of heat produced and / or based on changes in resistivity, density, roughness, porosity, and permeability identified using one or more different types of measurement based on the operation of a computer model. In this way, one or more processors can execute the instructions of the computer model to identify the changes that occur in the underground formations over time.

[0036] In block 430, a second set of well data can be collected. This second set of data can be collected after some percentage of the CO2 supplied to the well has been transformed into a mineral compound by a chemical reaction. In block 440, assessments performed by one or more processors can identify a change associated with the formation surrounding the well. The assessments performed by the processors can estimate an amount of the first mass of CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound by the chemical reaction in block 450.

[0037] Figure 5 illustrates the actions that can be performed when a laboratory experiment is conducted on samples extracted from a well, so that the operation of a computer model can be improved. In block 510, a rock sample can be placed in a pressure-temperature chamber, as discussed in Figure 2. As noted above, examples of a rock sample include a core sample or sections extracted from a well. Operations performed in block 510 may include arranging sensors near the sample and sealing a door of the pressure-temperature chamber. A first set of data can then be collected in block 520. This first set of data may include EM data, acoustic / seismic data, and / or NMR data from the Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 31 / 73 / 46 what characteristics of the sample can be identified. These characteristics may include density, porosity, permeability, fluid content and / or a mineralization value of the sample.

[0038] In block 540, the pressure-temperature chamber can be heated to a reference temperature. This reference temperature can correspond to a temperature that can be found in Earth's formations where CO2 will be sequestered. The chamber pressure can also be controlled by supplying a fluid to the pressure-temperature chamber. The fluid supplied to the chamber can include a mass of CO2. In block 550, the mass of CO2 can be supplied to the chamber. The CO2 can be supplied to the chamber while additional sensor data is collected. In block 560, another set of sensor data can be collected. This other set of sensor data can be evaluated in block 570 to identify a second mineralization value. From this second mineralization value, it is possible to identify a percentage of the mass of CO2 supplied to the chamber that was transformed into the mineral compound.This percentage of CO2 that is transformed can be identified based on observed temperature changes and / or based on changes in EM data, NMR data.

[0039] Some parts of the data collected in the laboratory environment can be collected using the same types of measurements used to collect data in a well environment, while other parts of the data collected in the laboratory environment can be collected using types of measurements (e.g., physical measurements) that cannot be performed in the well environment. For example, in the laboratory environment, the sample weight can be measured before and after an experiment to identify how much carbon was absorbed by the sample. Fluids can be supplied to the sample in a controlled manner to measure the porosity and / or permeability of the sample before and after the experiment. Parts of the sample can be Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 32 / 73 / 46 provided to a spectrographic device (e.g., spectrographic device 260 in Figure 2) to identify the chemical compositions of the sample before and after the experiment.

[0040] One or more processors executing instructions from the computer model can use data collected through sensor types commonly used in a well environment, and these processors can identify an estimate of the mass of carbon from the CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound in block 580. This estimate can be compared with the masses of carbon from the CO2 that were transformed into the mineral compound using laboratory measurements (the physical measurements). When a measured mass of carbon transformed into minerals does not correspond to a limiting degree with the estimated mass of carbon from the CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound, the computer model can be updated. The computer model can be updated in block 590 based on the percentage of CO2 mass that was transformed into the mineral compound.

[0041] One type of formation in which CO2 can be sequestered can be classified as siliciclastic reservoirs. Siliciclastic reservoirs are composed primarily of silicate minerals, and carbonate reservoirs, composed largely of carbonate minerals, present unique opportunities and challenges for mineral CO2 sequestration. Siliciclastic reservoirs are typically dominated by quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals. Quartz is relatively inert, but feldspars and clay minerals can react with CO2 to form carbonate and silica minerals. For example, the reaction of potassium feldspar (KAlSi3O8) with CO2 and water can produce kaolinite (a type of clay), potassium ions, and bicarbonate ions. Clay minerals, such as smectite, can also react with CO2 and water to form illite and carbonate minerals. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 33 / 73 / 46

[0042] The reactions of CO2 with these minerals can cause significant changes in the composition of the brine in the reservoir. For example, the reaction of feldspar or clay minerals with CO2 can increase the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the brine, making it more alkaline. The dissolution of carbonate minerals can increase the concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions in the brine. Over time, these changes in brine composition can provide indirect evidence of CO2 mineralization.

[0043] Another type of formation in which CO2 can be sequestered includes mafic minerals that are formed from volcanic or magmatic processes. Mafic minerals can be found in purely mafic formations or transported to siliciclastic formations. Mafic minerals may offer the greatest potential for CO2 capture. Mafic minerals, which are rich in magnesium and iron, can also react with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. These reactions are particularly important in the context of CO2 sequestration, as they can permanently lock CO2 into a solid and stable form. Below are some examples of these reactions: Olivine: Olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 is a common mafic mineral that can react with CO2 to form serpentine and magnetite. This reaction also produces silica and releases iron and magnesium ions into the brine. The reaction can be represented as follows: (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 + CO2 ^ Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Fe3O4 + SiO2 + Mg2+ + Fe2+ Pyroxene: Pyroxene ((Fe,Mg)SiO3) is another mafic mineral that can react with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. This reaction also produces silica and releases iron and magnesium ions into the brine. The reaction can be represented as follows: (Fe,Mg)SiO3 + CO2 → MgCO3 + FeCO3 + SiO2 + Mg2+ + Fe2+ Amphibole: Amphibole is a group of mafic minerals that Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 34 / 73 / 46, can also react with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. These reactions are more complex and can produce a variety of products, including silica, serpentine, and talc, as well as releasing various ions into the brine.

[0044] These reactions can significantly alter the composition of the brine in the reservoir. The formation of carbonate minerals can increase the alkalinity of the brine, while the release of iron and magnesium ions can increase its hardness. Over time, these changes in brine composition can provide indirect evidence of CO2 mineralization. However, they can also affect the physical and chemical properties of the reservoir, such as porosity and permeability, which can be monitored by NMR to track the progress of the reaction.

[0045] Fiber optic temperature monitoring can play a key role in tracking the extent of mineralization reactions during CO2 sequestration. Because these reactions are generally exothermic, they release heat that can be detected as a temperature increase in the surrounding formation. Fiber optic cables, when deployed along the length of the well, can provide high-resolution temperature data, allowing the detection of localized hot spots where reactions may be occurring. By correlating these temperature increases with known enthalpy changes for specific mineralization reactions, it is possible to estimate the extent of the reactions and, consequently, the amount of CO2 that has been sequestered.However, interpreting these temperature data requires a comprehensive heat flow model that can account for various factors, such as thermal conductivity and heat capacity of formation, temperature and pressure conditions, and the CO2 injection rate. Core measurements can provide valuable data for developing and refining this heat flow model. For example, laboratory experiments on core samples can be used to measure the heat produced by the reactions within them. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 35 / 73 / 46 controlled conditions, providing a direct link between the observed temperature changes and the extent of CO2 mineralization.

[0046] Monitoring brine composition, either through direct analysis or resistivity measurements, can provide valuable constraints for the heat production model used in CO2 sequestration. As CO2 reacts with minerals in the formation, it can cause changes in the concentrations of various ions in the brine, as noted above. These changes can be detected by directly analyzing brine samples or by observing changes in brine resistivity, as resistivity is sensitive to ion concentration. By correlating these changes in brine composition with temperature data from fiber optic monitoring, it is possible to refine the heat flow model. For example, if certain ions are increasing or decreasing in concentration at the same time as the temperature is changing, this may indicate that these ions are involved in exothermic (or endothermic) reactions with CO2.This information can help to better predict the heat produced by the reactions and thus improve the accuracy of the heat flow model.

[0047] In addition to constraining the heat production model, monitoring brine composition can also provide an indirect way to monitor the extent of CO2 mineralization reactions. Reactions between CO2 and minerals in the formation can produce specific ions that are released into the brine. By tracking the concentrations of these ions over time, it is possible to estimate the extent of the reactions and the amount of CO2 that has been sequestered. For example, a decrease in calcium or magnesium ions and an increase in bicarbonate ions may suggest the formation of carbonate minerals. Therefore, regular monitoring of brine composition, whether through direct sampling or resistivity measurements, can provide valuable information about the Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 36 / 73 / 46 progress of CO2 sequestration.

[0048] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing is a powerful tool that can provide valuable information about changes in a formation during CO2 sequestration. NMR works by measuring the response of hydrogen nuclei (protons) in formation fluids to a magnetic field, which can provide information about the size and connectivity of pore spaces in the rock. As CO2 reacts with minerals in the formation to form new minerals, it can cause changes in the porosity and permeability of the rock, which can be detected by NMR. For example, the formation of new minerals within pore spaces can decrease porosity and permeability, while the dissolution of minerals can increase them. NMR can also provide information about the surface roughness of pore spaces, as the relaxation time of protons is influenced by the surface area to volume ratio and the relaxivity of the pore surface.Therefore, by monitoring changes in the NMR response over time, it is possible to track the progress of CO2 mineralization reactions and their impact on the physical properties of the formation.

[0049] The natural variation in mineral content in a set of cores extracted along the length of the well can provide a valuable window into the range of potential reactions that can occur in the reservoir during CO2 sequestration. Each core sample, with its unique mineral composition, represents a different microenvironment in which a distinct set of reactions can occur. By studying these reactions in the laboratory under controlled conditions, it is possible to develop a composite picture of the reactions that can occur throughout the reservoir. This composite set of reactions can then be used to interpret field monitoring data. For example, changes in brine composition, temperature, and physical properties of the formation (such as Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 37 / 73 / 46. Surface porosity, permeability, and roughness) can be compared with the expected results of compound reactions to infer which reactions are likely occurring. This approach, known as inverse modeling, can provide a powerful tool for tracking the progress of CO2 mineralization and predicting the long-term behavior of sequestered CO2. By integrating laboratory experiments, field monitoring, and modeling, it is possible to build a comprehensive understanding of the CO2 sequestration process and provide the necessary evidence to demonstrate the effectiveness and safety of this fundamental climate mitigation technology.

[0050] The process of drilling and extracting core samples can cause physical damage to the rock, which can affect the results of laboratory experiments. This damage can include microfractures, changes in porosity and permeability, and alterations in mineral surface properties, which can influence the reactions between CO2 and the rock minerals. Therefore, it is crucial to mitigate and account for this drilling damage to obtain reliable laboratory data. This may involve careful handling and preservation of cores, as well as the use of non-destructive testing methods to assess the extent of the damage. Once assessed, drilling damage can be correlated with experimental results, and experimental results can be extrapolated to an outcome as if there were no damage. Furthermore, it is important to consider the potential impact of drilling damage when interpreting experimental results.For example, if a core sample shows exceptionally high reactivity, this may be due to the increased surface area of ​​microfractures, rather than the inherent reactivity of the minerals. On other occasions, data should be excluded from experimental results or, at least, interpreted qualitatively. By taking these factors into account, it is possible to obtain more accurate and meaningful data. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 38 / 73 / 46 of core experiments, which may improve the understanding of CO2 mineralization and increase the reliability of evidence of CO2 sequestration.

[0051] Damage to the core during drilling can affect the results of laboratory experiments. Damage can alter the physical properties of the core, such as its porosity and permeability, and can also expose new mineral surfaces that may react differently with CO2. Techniques to mitigate the effect of damage on experiments include: Use multiple cores: Using multiple core samples can help account for heterogeneity in formation and variability in core damage. By comparing results from different cores, it is possible to identify trends or patterns that are consistent across all samples and therefore likely representative of the formation as a whole.

[0052] Core preservation: It is essential to minimize damage to the core during drilling and handling. The use of appropriate drilling fluids, minimizing exposure to air, and storing cores under formation-like conditions (e.g., under pressure and saturated with brine) can help preserve their original properties.

[0053] Core analysis: Detailed analysis of the cores before experiments can provide information on the extent of damage. Techniques such as computed tomography (CT), SEM imaging, and porosity / permeability measurements can reveal physical changes in the core. Chemical analysis (e.g., XRD or EDS) can identify changes in mineralogy that may result from exposure to drilling fluids or air.

[0054] Damage assessment: Performing a set of baseline measurements before and after the CO2 injection experiment can help quantify the extent of any changes due to Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 39 / 73 / 46 own experiment. This may include physical measurements (e.g., porosity, permeability) and chemical analyses (e.g., mineralogy, brine composition).

[0055] Modeling: Geochemical modeling can help interpret experimental results. By incorporating parameters such as the surface area of ​​reactive minerals and the extent of core damage into the model, it is possible to estimate how these factors are affecting CO2 mineralization reactions.

[0056] Sidewall cores: If core damage is a significant concern, use sidewall cores in addition to conventional cores. Sidewall cores are smaller and taken from the side of the borehole, which can sometimes result in less damage to a sample.

[0057] The use of fiberglass casing in a well can significantly increase the ability to perform long-term monitoring of CO2 sequestration. Unlike traditional metallic casings, fiberglass casings are transparent to electromagnetic waves, allowing the use of dielectric or deep resistivity logging tools to monitor formation changes away from the well. These tools can provide valuable information on CO2 plume movement and changes in brine composition, which can help track the progress of CO2 mineralization. Furthermore, fiberglass casings allow the use of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) logging tools, which can provide information on the porosity, permeability, and fluid content of the formation. This can provide further evidence of CO2 mineralization, as the formation of new minerals can cause changes in these properties.Furthermore, fiberglass enclosures provide better thermal insulation than metal enclosures, which can simplify the heat flow model. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 40 / 73 / 46, used to interpret temperature data from fiber optic monitoring. By reducing the influence of heat transfer between the well and the formation, fiberglass enclosures can facilitate the detection of heat produced by CO2 mineralization reactions. Therefore, the use of fiberglass enclosures can offer a number of benefits for monitoring CO2 sequestration, increasing the reliability of monitoring data and improving the understanding of the sequestration process.

[0058] As an alternative to using fiberglass casing, resistivity antennas can be installed in the formation behind a metal casing to allow long-term monitoring of CO2 sequestration. These antennas, which are essentially electrodes embedded in the formation, can measure the resistivity of the rock and surrounding fluids, providing valuable information about changes in the formation due to CO2 injection and mineralization. Like dielectric or deep resistivity logging tools used with fiberglass casing, these antennas can help track CO2 plume movement and changes in brine composition. However, unlike logging tools, which are typically run in the well after drilling is complete, these antennas can provide continuous, real-time monitoring data.This can provide a more detailed picture of changes in formation over time and can help detect any unexpected developments, such as leaks or rapid changes in the CO2 plume. Therefore, while installing resistivity antennas may be more complex and expensive than using fiberglass cladding, they can be a powerful tool for monitoring CO2 sequestration.

[0059] Also as an alternative to the use of fiberglass monitoring, plume monitoring can be carried out by acoustic means. Plume monitoring during CO2 sequestration can be conducted Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 41 / 73 / 46, effectively using various acoustic recording techniques, including surface seismic surveys, borehole seismic measurements, and fiber distributed acoustic sensing (DAS). Surface seismic surveys involve generating seismic waves at the surface and recording their reflections and refractions to create a detailed image of the subsurface. By monitoring these seismic reflections and refractions, it is possible to identify and track the movement of the CO2 plume within the reservoir. This method offers a large-scale view of the plume's distribution and can help assess its migration paths.

[0060] Well seismic measurements involve deploying sensors in a borehole to record seismic data at various depths. These measurements offer a more detailed and localized view of plume behavior. By analyzing seismic waves, their travel times, and their interactions with the formation, the extent and movement of the CO2 plume can be determined with greater resolution. Seismic monitoring of boreholes provides valuable information on the vertical distribution and heterogeneity of the plume, facilitating a more precise understanding of the sequestration process.

[0061] Distributed fiber acoustic sensing (DAS) is a technique that uses fiber optic cables installed along the well to measure acoustic signals. These signals are generated by the interaction of the CO2 plume with the surrounding formation. DAS allows continuous monitoring of plume behavior and can provide valuable information about its spatial and temporal dynamics. By analyzing the acoustic signals, changes in amplitude, frequency, and arrival times can be detected, allowing for the characterization and tracking of the CO2 plume.

[0062] In general, plume monitoring using acoustic recording techniques, including surface seismics, borehole seismics, and fiber-distributed acoustic sensing, offers tools Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 42 / 73 / 46, valuable for assessing the movement, distribution, and behavior of the CO2 plume during sequestration. These methods provide crucial insights into the effectiveness of the storage process and help assess the containment and migration of injected CO2. By combining acoustic monitoring with other monitoring techniques, it is possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of plume behavior, contributing to the overall success and safety of CO2 sequestration initiatives.

[0063] A well-planned sampling operation is of paramount importance for determining brine chemistry during CO2 sequestration. Accurate and representative brine samples provide essential information about the changes occurring in the reservoir due to CO2 injection and mineralization. Several considerations must be taken into account when designing the sampling plan. First, it is crucial to identify suitable sampling locations within the well to capture the spatial variability of brine chemistry. This may involve selecting various depths and different regions along the well. Furthermore, the sampling frequency must be determined, considering factors such as expected reaction rates and the desired temporal resolution of the data.

[0064] To ensure the reliability and integrity of the samples, appropriate sampling techniques must be employed. This includes the use of specialized downhole samplers or wireline tools that can collect representative fluid samples at the desired depths. Care must be taken to avoid contamination during sample collection, handling, and storage to maintain the integrity of the brine chemistry. In some embodiments, brines may flow to the surface through a monitor well. Furthermore, it is important to consider analytical methods to determine the brine chemistry. This may involve conducting laboratory tests such as ion chromatography, spectrophotometry, or mass spectrometry to Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 43 / 73 / 46 to measure the concentrations of various ions, pH, alkalinity, and other relevant parameters. The selected analytical methods must be accurate, precise, and capable of detecting small changes in brine chemistry associated with CO2 mineralization.

[0065] The sampling plan should also consider the potential impact of well operations, such as CO2 injection, on brine chemistry. These operations can cause transient changes in brine composition and properties, which should be taken into account when planning sampling intervals and interpreting data.

[0066] In general, a well-planned sampling operation allows for a comprehensive understanding of brine chemistry and its changes over time, providing crucial data for evaluating the progress and effectiveness of CO2 sequestration. It allows for the quantification of the extent of the reaction, the identification of mineral trapping, and the verification of the stability of the sequestered CO2, ultimately supporting the proof of the success of carbon storage and sequestration.

[0067] The combination of various monitoring techniques, laboratory experiments, and data analysis methods discussed above forms a comprehensive strategy for effectively monitoring CO2 sequestration. By integrating these elements, it is possible to obtain a holistic understanding of the sequestration process, providing valuable information on the extent and effectiveness of carbon storage.

[0068] Laboratory experiments performed on core samples allow for controlled investigations of mineralization reactions and provide fundamental data on reaction kinetics, heat production, and changes in mineralogy. These experiments, combined with modeling approaches, allow for the prediction of reaction rates and reaction extents under reservoir conditions. Data obtained from laboratory experiments serve as a basis for interpreting field monitoring data and Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 44 / 73 / 46, to validate the predictive models. By analyzing the mineral content of the cores before and after exposure to CO2, it is possible to gain insights into the specific reactions that are occurring and how they contribute to the overall CO2 sequestration. Initial mineral analysis: Use techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) or energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to quantify the mineral content of the cores before exposure to CO2. This will provide a baseline that can be compared to post-exposure mineralogy.

[0069] CO2 Exposure and Monitoring: Expose the cores to CO2 under conditions that simulate those of formation. Monitor the system over time to track changes in fluid composition, pH, and other parameters that may indicate mineral reactions.

[0070] Final mineral analysis: After the CO2 exposure period, re-analyze the mineral content of the cores. Look for changes in the amounts of specific minerals that may indicate CO2 sequestration. For example, a decrease in silicate minerals and an increase in carbonate minerals may suggest that CO2 is being sequestered through mineral carbonation reactions.

[0071] Correlation and modeling: Correlate changes in mineral content with observed reaction dynamics. This may involve statistical analysis or more complex geochemical modeling. The goal is to identify which minerals are most reactive and how they contribute to CO2 sequestration.

[0072] Field monitoring techniques, such as fiber optic temperature monitoring, resistivity recording, and NMR recording, provide real-time and spatially distributed information on changes occurring in the reservoir. These techniques help track the movement of the CO2 plume, identify changes in the composition of Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 45 / 73 / 46 brine, monitor heat production and assess changes in the physical properties of the formation. Integrating this field monitoring data with laboratory results allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the sequestration process and verification of the desired reactions.

[0073] Having a comprehensive temperature profile of the reservoir can be crucial. This data allows monitoring the spatial distribution of heat in the reservoir, which can provide information about the locations and extent of CO2 mineralization reactions:

[0074] Heat flow modeling: With temperature data from various points in the reservoir, it is possible to refine the heat flow model. This model can help interpret the temperature data and estimate the amount of heat produced by the CO2 mineralization reactions.

[0075] Reaction kinetics: Temperature data can also provide information on the kinetics of CO2 mineralization reactions. These reactions are likely temperature-dependent, so by monitoring the temperature, it is possible to obtain information on the reaction rates.

[0076] Reservoir management: Temperature data can also be useful for managing the CO2 injection process. For example, if certain areas of the reservoir are heating up more than others, this may indicate that more CO2 is being sequestered in those areas. This information can be used to adjust the CO2 injection strategy to maximize sequestration.

[0077] Long-term monitoring: In the long term, temperature data can help monitor the stability of sequestered CO2. If the temperature in the reservoir starts to increase or decrease unexpectedly, this may indicate a change in the state of sequestered CO2.

[0078] Monitoring changes in surface roughness, Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 46 / 73 / 46, regarding the porosity and permeability of the rock, as well as the resistivity changes in the brine, can provide valuable information about the extent of CO2 mineralization: Surface roughness: Changes in surface roughness can indicate mineralization reactions occurring on the rock surface. These changes can be monitored using various logging tools, such as microresistivity imaging, which can provide high-resolution images of the wellbore wall.

[0079] Porosity and permeability: Changes in porosity and permeability can indicate the formation of new minerals within the porous spaces of the rock. These changes can be monitored using various recording tools, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) or sonic recordings, which can provide information on porosity and permeability.

[0080] Resistivity changes: Changes in brine resistivity may indicate changes in its composition due to CO2 mineralization reactions. These changes can be monitored using resistivity recording tools. The resistivity contrast between the brine and CO2 can also help track the movement of the CO2 injection plume.

[0081] Dielectric properties: Changes in the dielectric properties of fluids can also indicate changes in their composition or the movement of the CO2 plume. These changes can be monitored using dielectric recording tools.

[0082] Thermal monitoring: Thermal monitoring can provide additional information on the extent of CO2 mineralization reactions. The heat produced by these reactions can be monitored using fiber optic cables.

[0083] Correlation with laboratory studies: The data from Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 47 / 73 / 46: bottomhole monitoring can be correlated with the results of laboratory studies on core samples. This can help validate laboratory results and improve understanding of the CO2 mineralization process in the formation.

[0084] Resistivity logging tools can provide information about the formation several tens or hundreds of meters away from the well, depending on the specific tool and the formation properties. This can be particularly useful for monitoring formation changes over a larger area and for tracking the movement of the CO2 injection plume.

[0085] Resolution and sensitivity: Although resistivity tools can provide information over a larger area, their resolution and sensitivity typically decrease with distance from the well. Therefore, data from further away from the well may be less detailed and more influenced by larger-scale trends in the formation.

[0086] Interpretation: The interpretation of resistivity data can be complex, as resistivity can be affected by several factors, including porosity, permeability, and formation mineralogy, as well as fluid composition and temperature. Therefore, it is important to take these factors into account when interpreting resistivity data.

[0087] Integration with other data: Resistivity data can be more informative when integrated with other data, such as temperature, pressure, and fluid composition. This can help to better understand changes in the formation due to CO2 injection and mineralization.

[0088] Modeling: Resistivity data can also be used to update and validate models of the mineralization process and CO2 injection. By comparing observed resistivity changes with model predictions, it is possible to gain insights into model accuracy and potentially improve them. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pages 48 / 73 / 46

[0089] Furthermore, analysis of brine chemical data obtained through well-planned sampling operations provides essential information on changes in fluid composition due to CO2 injection and mineralization. By tracking variations in ion concentrations, pH, and alkalinity, the effectiveness of CO2 sequestration can be evaluated and the stability of the sequestered carbon can be verified. These measurements, combined with data from other monitoring techniques, contribute to a holistic assessment of the overall success of the sequestration strategy.

[0090] Analyzing the composition of brines produced over time can provide valuable information about CO2 mineralization reactions. As CO2 reacts with minerals during formation, it can cause changes in the concentrations of various ions in the brine: Baseline analysis: Before starting CO2 injection, analyze the brine composition to establish a baseline. This should include measurements of pH, alkalinity, and the concentrations of key ions (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-).

[0091] Periodic sampling: During and after CO2 injection, periodically sample the brine produced and analyze its composition. Look for changes in the concentrations of specific ions that may indicate CO2 mineralization reactions. For example, a decrease in Ca2+ or Mg2+ and an increase in HCO3- could suggest the formation of carbonate minerals.

[0092] Correlation with temperature data: Compare changes in brine composition with temperature data. If certain ions are increasing or decreasing in concentration at the same time as the temperature is changing, this may indicate that these ions are involved in exothermic or endothermic reactions with CO2.

[0093] Geochemical modeling: Use geochemical modeling to Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 49 / 73 / 46, to interpret the brine composition data. The model can help identify the most likely mineralization reactions and estimate the amount of CO2 sequestered.

[0094] Long-term monitoring: Continue to monitor the brine composition over the long term to track the progress of CO2 sequestration. If the concentrations of certain ions begin to stabilize or change direction, this may indicate that CO2 mineralization reactions are slowing down or that new reactions are beginning.

[0095] In other words, the strategic combination of laboratory experiments, field monitoring techniques, and chemical analysis of brine provides a comprehensive framework for monitoring CO2 sequestration. This integrated approach allows for verification of mineral trapping, quantification of reaction extents, assessment of heat production, and validation of predictive models. By leveraging these elements, scientists and engineers can gain a deep understanding of the sequestration process and provide reliable evidence to support the successful implementation of carbon storage and sequestration initiatives.

[0096] This modality contains several new aspects: Using temperature to monitor the temperature distribution of a well heat change over time to determine the extent of a CO2 mineralization process reaction using a mineralization heat production model. Temperature can be determined using fiber optics or point temperature sensors. A mineralization heat production model can be a thermodynamic model. The model can be developed with laboratory studies of CO2 mineralization. The model can be developed with core data from the field of interest, where the core data are a Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 50 / 73 / 46 substitute for the formation of interest.

[0097] Mineral distributions in core data can be used to develop a multifactorial thermodynamic model. These models can make assessments of a reservoir's brine, and brine data can be used to constrain temperature data. In these cases, brine data can come from sampling or resistivity data. Resistivity data can be collected from fiberglass-lined wells. Resistivity data can be collected from sensors on an outer surface of a lining. A heat flow model can be developed from laboratory core test data. The heat flow model can be constrained by thermal insulation in a well; in these cases, thermal insulation can come from the use of a fiberglass casing. The heat flow model can be constrained by knowledge of the CO2 plume distribution in the formation.One or more permeability, porosity, or surface roughness data points can be used to constrain the heat flux distribution model.

[0098] When brine data are used to monitor the extent of a CO2 mineralization reaction, the brine data may come from samples taken from a well or from collected resistivity data. Modeling of brine fluid changes can be based on laboratory core test data. In these cases, at least one of the permeability, porosity, or surface roughness characteristics can be used to constrain the brine model.

[0099] The mineralization of a reservoir by CO2 can be inferred from at least one of the changes in permeability, porosity, or surface roughness relative to a baseline. In these cases, the model may be constrained by brine information, thermal information, or the distribution of a CO2 plume. Here again, the CO2 plume can be monitored using resistivity data. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 51 / 73 / 46

[00100] Figure 6 illustrates an example of a 600 computing device architecture that can be employed to perform various steps, methods, and techniques disclosed in this document. In some examples, the computing device architecture can be integrated with the electromagnetic imaging tools described herein. Furthermore, the computing device can be configured to implement the machine learning-based unfinished well image mixing control techniques described in this document.

[00101] As noted above, Figure 6 illustrates an example of a computing device architecture 600 of a computing device that can implement the various technologies and techniques described in this document. The components of the computing device architecture 600 are shown in electrical communication with each other using a connection 605, such as a bus. The example computing device architecture 600 includes a processing unit (CPU or processor) 610 and a connection to the computing device 605 that couples various components of the computing device, including computing device memory 615, such as read-only memory (ROM) 620 and random-access memory (RAM) 625, to the processor 610.

[00102] The computing device architecture 600 may include a high-speed memory cache directly connected to, in immediate proximity to, or integrated as part of the processor 610. The computing system architecture 600 may copy data from memory 615 and / or storage device 630 to the cache 612 for fast access by the processor 610. In this way, the cache can provide a performance boost that prevents delays in the processor 610 while waiting for data. These and other modules may control or be configured to control the processor 610 to perform various actions. Other memory of Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 52 / 73 / 46 computing device 615 may also be available for use. Memory 615 may include multiple different types of memory with different performance characteristics. Processor 610 may include any general-purpose processor and a hardware or software service, such as service 1 632, service 2 634, and service 3 636 stored in storage device 630, configured to control processor 610, as well as a special-purpose processor where software instructions are incorporated into the processor design. Processor 610 may be a self-contained system containing multiple cores or processors, a bus, memory controller, cache, etc. A multi-core processor may be symmetric or asymmetric.

[00103] To enable user interaction with the computing device architecture 600, an input device 645 may represent any number of input mechanisms, such as a microphone for speech, a touch screen for gesture or graphical input, keyboard, mouse, motion input, speech, and so forth. An output device 635 may also be one or more of a number of output mechanisms known to those skilled in the art, such as a monitor, projector, television, speaker device, etc. In some cases, multimodal computing devices may allow a user to provide multiple types of input to communicate with the computing device architecture 600. The communication interface 640 may generally govern and manage user input and computing device output.There are no restrictions regarding operation in any particular hardware arrangement, and therefore the basic characteristics described in this document can be easily replaced by improved hardware or firmware arrangements as they are developed.

[00104] The 630 storage device is non-volatile memory and can be a hard disk or other types of media readable by Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 53 / 73 / 46 computer that can store data accessible by a computer, such as magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, solid-state memory devices, digital versatile disks, cartridges, random access memories (RAMs) 625, read-only memory (ROM) 620 and hybrids thereof. The storage device 630 may include software modules 632, 634, 636 to control the processor 610. Other hardware or software modules are contemplated. Storage device 630 can be connected to the computing device connection 605. In one aspect, a hardware module that performs a specific function may include the software component stored on a computer-readable medium in combination with the necessary hardware components, such as processor 610, connection 605, output device 635, and so on, to perform the function.

[00105] For clarity of explanation, in some cases, the present technology may be presented as including individual functional blocks, including functional blocks comprising devices, device components, steps or routines, in a method embodied in software or combinations of hardware and software.

[00106] In some embodiments, computer-readable storage devices, media, and memories may include a cable or wireless signal containing a bit stream and the like. However, when mentioned, computer-readable non-transient storage media expressly exclude media such as energy, carrier signals, electromagnetic waves, and signals per se.

[00107] Methods according to the examples described above can be implemented using computer-executable instructions that are stored or otherwise available from computer-readable media. Such instructions may include, for example, instructions and data that cause or otherwise configure a general-purpose computer, Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 54 / 73 / 46. A special-purpose computer or processing device is used to perform a specific function or group of functions. Portions of the computer resources used may be accessible over a network. Computer-executable instructions may be, for example, binary, intermediate format instructions such as set language, firmware, source code, etc. Examples of computer-readable media that can be used to store instructions, information used, and / or information created during the methods described include magnetic or optical disks, flash memory, USB devices supplied with non-volatile memory, network storage devices, and so on.

[00108] Devices implementing methods according to these disclosures may include hardware, firmware, and / or software and may assume any of a variety of form factors. Typical examples of such form factors include laptops, smartphones, small form factor personal computers, personal digital assistants, rack-mounted devices, standalone devices, and so forth. The functionality described in this document may also be incorporated into peripheral or add-on cards. Such functionality may also be implemented on a circuit board between different chips or different processes running on a single device, by way of further example.

[00109] The instructions, means for transmitting such instructions, computing resources for executing them, and other structures for supporting such computing resources are example means for providing the functions described in this disclosure.

[00110] In the preceding description, aspects of the application are described with reference to specific embodiments thereof, but those skilled in the art will recognize that the application is not limited to them. Thus, although illustrative embodiments of the application have been described in detail. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 55 / 73 / 46 in this document, it should be understood that the concepts disclosed may be incorporated and employed in another way, and that the appended claims are intended to be interpreted to include such variations, except as limited by the state of the art. Several features and aspects of the subject described above may be used individually or in combination. Furthermore, the embodiments may be used in any number of environments and applications beyond those described in this document, without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the descriptive report. The descriptive report and drawings should therefore be considered illustrative and not restrictive. For illustrative purposes, the methods have been described in a particular order. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the methods may be carried out in a different order than that described.

[00111] Where components are described as being “configured to” perform certain operations, such configuration may be achieved, for example, by designing electronic circuits or other hardware to perform the operation, by programming programmable electronic circuits (e.g., microprocessors or other suitable electronic circuits) to perform the operation, or any combination thereof.

[00112] The various illustrative logic blocks, modules, circuits, and algorithm steps described in connection with the examples disclosed in this document can be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, firmware, or combinations thereof. To clearly illustrate this interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules, circuits, and steps have been described above, generally in terms of their functionality. Whether this functionality is implemented as hardware or software depends on the particular application and the design constraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled craftsmen may implement the described functionality in various ways for each specific application, but such implementation decisions should not be Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pages 56 / 73 / 46, interpreted as causing a deviation from the scope of the present request.

[00113] The techniques described herein may also be implemented in electronic hardware, computer software, firmware, or any combination thereof. These techniques may be implemented in any of a variety of devices, such as general-purpose computers, wireless communication devices, or multi-purpose integrated circuit devices, including application in wireless communication devices and other devices. Any features described as modules or components may be implemented together in an integrated logic device or separately as distinct but interoperable logic devices. If implemented in software, the techniques may be performed, at least in part, by a computer-readable data storage medium comprising program code including instructions that, when executed, perform one or more of the methods, algorithms, and / or operations described above.Computer-readable data storage media can be part of a computer program product, which may include packaging materials.

[00114] Computer-readable media may include memory or data storage media, such as random access memory (RAM), such as synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), read-only memory (ROM), non-volatile random access memory (NVRAM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), FLASH memory, magnetic or optical data storage media, and the like. The techniques may additionally or alternatively be implemented, at least in part, by a computer-readable communication medium that carries or communicates the program code in the form of instructions or data structures and that can be accessed, read, and / or executed by a computer as propagated signals or waves. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 57 / 73 / 46

[00115] Other forms of dissemination can be practiced in network computing environments with many types of computer system configurations, including personal computers, portable devices, multi-processor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like. Forms can also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by local and remote processing devices that are connected (either by wired links, wireless links, or a combination thereof) through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules can be located on both local and remote memory storage devices.

[00116] In the above description, terms such as “upper,” “upward,” “lower,” “downward,” “above,” “below,” “hole below,” “hole above,” “longitudinal,” “lateral,” and the like, as used herein, shall mean in relation to the bottom or the furthest extent of the surrounding wellbore, even if the wellbore or portions thereof may be offset or horizontal. Correspondingly, the orientations transverse, axial, lateral, longitudinal, radial, etc., shall mean orientations relative to the orientation of the wellbore or tool. Additionally, the illustrated embodiments are illustrated such that the orientation is such that the right side is hole below compared to the left side.

[00117] The term “coupled” is defined as connected, either directly or indirectly, through intervening components, and is not necessarily limited to physical connections. The connection may be such that the objects are permanently connected or loosely connected. The term “outside” refers to a region that is beyond the outermost limits of a physical object. The term “inside” indicates that at least a portion of a region is partially contained within a boundary formed Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 58 / 73 / 46 regarding the object. The term "substantially" is defined as essentially conforming to the dimension, shape, or other particular word that substantially modifies it, such that the component does not need to be exact. For example, substantially cylindrical means that the object resembles a cylinder, but may have one or more deviations from a true cylinder.

[00118] The term “radially” means substantially in a direction along a radius of the object, or having a directional component in a direction along a radius of the object, even if the object is not exactly circular or cylindrical. The term “axially” means substantially along a direction from the axis of the object. If not specified, the term axially is such that it refers to the longest axis of the object.

[00119] Although a variety of information has been used to explain aspects within the scope of the appended claims, no limitation of the claims should be implied based on particular features or arrangements, as one skilled in the art would be able to derive a wide variety of implementations. Furthermore, and although some matter may have been described in language specific to structural features and / or method steps, it should be understood that the matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to those features or acts described. Such functionality may be distributed differently or implemented in components other than those identified in this document. The features and steps described are disclosed as possible components of systems and methods within the scope of the appended claims.

[00120] Furthermore, claim language citing “at least one of” a set indicates that one member of the set or several members of the set satisfy the claim. For example, claim language citing “at least one of A and B” means A, B or A and B. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 59 / 73

Claims

1 / 6 CLAIMS 1. A method, characterized in that it comprises: collecting a first set of well data before a first mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) is injected into a well; injecting the first mass of CO2 into the well; collecting a second set of well data; identifying a change associated with a formation around the well; and estimating an amount of the first mass of CO2 that was transformed into a mineral compound by a chemical reaction based on the identified change associated with the formation.

2. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that it further comprises: transmitting a first electromagnetic field to the formation while the first set of well data is collected; and transmitting a second electromagnetic field to the formation while the second set of well data is collected.

3. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that it further comprises: transmitting a first acoustic signal to the formation materials while the first set of well data is collected; and transmitting a second acoustic signal to the formation materials while the second set of well data is collected.

4. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that it further comprises: deploying one or more sensors along an inner surface of a well casing, wherein one or more sensors detect the first and second sets of well data based on their deployment on the inner surface of the casing. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 60 / 73 2 / 6 5. Method according to claim 4, characterized in that the enclosure includes an electrical insulation material.

6. Method according to claim 4, characterized in that the electrical insulation material of the enclosure resists corrosion and allows electromagnetic fields to propagate through the enclosure.

7. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that the change associated with the Earth's materials corresponds to a temperature difference associated with the injection of the first mass of CO2 into the well.

8. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that it further comprises: placing a rock sample in a pressure-temperature chamber; heating the pressure-temperature chamber to a reference temperature corresponding to a well condition associated with the reference temperature and reference pressure; and supplying a second mass of CO2 to the chamber when a simulation is performed to estimate the effects of the first mass of CO2 injected into the well based on the well condition associated with the reference temperature and reference pressure.

9. Method according to claim 8, characterized in that it further comprises: collecting a third set of data before the second mass of CO2 is supplied to the chamber; identifying a first mineralization value associated with the sample based on an assessment of the third set of data; collecting a fourth set of data after the second mass of CO2 is supplied to the chamber; identifying a second mineralization value associated with the sample based on an assessment of the fourth set of data; and identifying a percentage of the second mass of CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound by the chemical reaction based on a difference between the second mineralization value and the first mineralization value.

10. Method according to claim 9, characterized in that it further comprises: updating a computer model based on the percentage of the second mass of CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound by the chemical reaction, wherein the estimated amount of the first mass of CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound by the chemical reaction is based on the application of the updated computer model.

11. Computer-readable non-transient storage media, characterized in that it has embedded instructions executable by one or more processors to implement a method comprising: collecting a first set of well data before a first mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) is injected into a well; controlling the injection of the first mass of CO2 into the well; collecting a second set of well data; identifying a change associated with a formation around the well; and estimating an amount of the first mass of CO2 that was transformed into a mineral compound by a chemical reaction based on the identified change associated with the formation.

12. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 11, characterized in that one or more processors execute instructions to: initiate the transmission of a first electromagnetic field in the formation while the first set of well data is collected; and initiate the transmission of a second electromagnetic field in the formation while the second set of well data is collected.

13. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 11, characterized in that one or more processors execute instructions to: initiate the transmission of a first acoustic signal to the formation materials while the first set of well data is collected; and initiate the transmission of a second acoustic signal to the formation materials while the second set of well data is collected.

14. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 11, characterized in that one or more sensors are deployed along an inner surface of a well casing and in that one or more sensors detect the first and second sets of well data based on deployment on the inner surface of the casing.

15. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 14, characterized in that the housing includes an electrical insulation material.

16. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 11, characterized in that the change associated with the Earth's materials corresponds to a temperature difference associated with the injection of the first mass of CO2 into the well.

17. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 11, characterized in that: a rock sample is placed in a pressure-temperature chamber; Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, page 63 / 73 5 / 6 the pressure-temperature chamber is heated to a reference temperature that corresponds to a well condition associated with the reference temperature and reference pressure; and a second mass of CO2 is supplied to the chamber when a simulation is performed to estimate the effects of the first mass of CO2 injected into the well based on the well condition associated with the reference temperature and reference pressure.

18. Computer-readable non-transient storage media according to claim 17, characterized in that one or more processors execute instructions to: collect a third set of data before the second mass of CO2 is supplied to the chamber; identify a first mineralization value associated with the sample based on an assessment of the third set of data; collect a fourth set of data after the second mass of CO2 is supplied to the chamber; identify a second mineralization value associated with the sample based on an assessment of the fourth set of data; and identify a percentage of the second mass of CO2 that was transformed into the mineral compound by the chemical reaction based on a difference between the second mineralization value and the first mineralization value.

19. Apparatus, characterized in that it comprises: one or more sensors that collect a first set of well data before a first mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) is injected into a well; a CO2 source that supplies the first mass of CO2 to the well, where one or more sensors collect a second set of well data; Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, p. 64 / 73 6 / 6 a memory; and a processor that executes instructions from the memory to: identify a change associated with a formation around the well; and estimate an amount of the first mass of CO2 that was transformed into a mineral compound by a chemical reaction based on the identified change associated with the formation.

20. Apparatus according to claim 19, characterized in that it further comprises: one or more electromagnetic transmitters that: transmit a first electromagnetic field to the formation while the first set of well data is collected; and transmit a second electromagnetic field to the formation while the second set of well data is collected. Petition 870250088748, dated 09 / 30 / 2025, pp. 65 / 73

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