Methods for establishing product authenticity

Description

1 / 28 METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING PRODUCT AUTHENTICITY

[0001] The present invention relates to a first method of encoding a pre-existing product identifier (or pre-existing barcode) for an authentic product by determining a combination of markers to match that pre-existing product identifier or barcode, and a second method involving acquiring at least part of an emission spectrum from a product for use in evaluating or determining whether the product is an authentic product with a combination of markers (optionally determined by the first method). FUNDAMENTALS OF THE INVENTION

[0002] In many technology sectors, there are high-quality products or materials that tend to be more expensive and may have specialized properties, such as higher purity, greater durability, or suitability for extreme operating conditions, for example. Similarly, there are medium- or low-level products or materials that tend to be less expensive and do not necessarily have the same properties as high-level products or materials. There is no international standard to easily establish that the correct quality, grade, and specification of the production material were used in a given product.

[0003] High-quality counterfeit products can be obtained on the black market, although they tend to have visible differences from the genuine article. In cases where there is no visible difference between high and low quality goods, this offers an opportunity to fraudulently replace the high-quality item with a lower quality product or material.

[0004] Subcontracted work can have narrow profit margins, which may encourage the subcontractor to save money whenever possible, often supplying or using a cheaper product than specified. The lack of visible difference between products or materials makes it difficult for the client or regulatory authority to verify whether the correct product or material was used. This is particularly applicable to paints and coatings, which are generally difficult to distinguish when dry. However, the same applies to a variety of other Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 6 / 119 2 / 28 products, including textiles, tiles, fire-resistant coatings, and petrochemical products such as fuels or lubricants, to name just a few. Renewables or consumables of many types are also susceptible to fraud of this nature.

[0005] It can be crucial to use an authentic product, rather than a third-party substitute product, in scenarios where safety is paramount and / or a certain degree of redundancy is required. For example, a particular product or component of a product may be over-engineered, whether for safety or some other reason, and a different product or part may not suffice. This issue applies particularly to aircraft parts and other areas of the aerospace industry, where the authenticity of an item is currently defined by the accompanying documentation, linking a reference number to the product or packaging. This system is relatively robust, but it cannot guarantee that the product matches the documentation. It is a presumed factual statement by the manufacturer, but without destructive analysis, it is not possible to prove that the product is authentic.

[0006] It is also important that there is traceability in military supply chains to mitigate the risk of counterfeit products / parts being used or installed in military equipment. The term counterfeit is used to refer to any non-authentic product or part, but particularly parts that are substandard and / or compromised, for example, by a hostile agent. The scale of a defense department's supply chain can make monitoring and intercepting counterfeit parts a daunting task. A defense department only has visibility up to a certain point in the chain, without necessarily having oversight over who its major manufacturers choose as suppliers. For example, the F-35 fighter jet problems in the summer of 2022 shed new light on the Pentagon's complex supply chain and how opaque it can be to the department.The U.S. Air Force (USAF) relies on approximately 12,000 direct suppliers, but further down the supply chain, the network expands to about 1 million companies. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 7 / 119 3 / 28

[0007] More generally, while it is possible to collect a sample and analyze its properties, this type of testing takes a significant amount of time and effort, requires external testing and equipment, and tends to destroy the sample. This is highly unsuitable for paints and coatings. Even if the product can be tested to verify its composition or properties, this does not conclusively prove exactly which product from which manufacturer was used.

[0008] It is an object of the present invention to substantially reduce or avoid the problems mentioned above. DECLARATION OF INVENTION

[0009] According to a first aspect of the present invention, a method is provided for determining a combination of markers to correspond to a product identifier or barcode for an authentic product, the product identifier comprising a set of characters, the method comprising the steps of: provide a list of a plurality of different markers, wherein each marker has an emission spectrum comprising one or more peaks, and one or more peaks (in a given wavelength range) of the emission spectrum of a given marker in the list are substantially distinguishable from one or more peaks (in the same wavelength range) of the emission spectra of the other markers in the list; For each character, assign a marker from the list to the character, each character of the product identifier thus being associated with a different marker, for adding this unique combination of markers to a product to chemically or spectrally designate the unique product identifier; and optionally, obtain or record an emission spectrum of the assigned markers or the combination of assigned markers for pairing with the product identifier.

[0010] Claim 1 defines a preferred version of the first aspect of the invention.

[0011] Optional features are defined in the dependent claims. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 8 / 119 4 / 28

[0012] The invention provides a secret means of marking a product. It allows for in situ verification of the product's authenticity. The combination of markers offers security, traceability, and protection for manufacturers and consumers against counterfeiting. It complements current barcode technology, which is widely accepted and has been in use for over 50 years. It provides a simple and globally accessible means of establishing product authenticity and is expected to support a standard regulatory mechanism for identifying approved materials and protecting against fraud.

[0013] The above method allows markers to be selectively formulated according to a pre-existing barcode. In other words, the marker emission spectrum (or color spectrum) is formulated to match the barcode or other finished product identifier. A combination or formulation of markers is provided by barcode or product identifier.

[0014] By formulating a combination of markers with a distinct combination of wavelength emissions, the overall emission spectrum can be combined or paired with the product's barcode. In other words, for a product with a barcode or other unique identifier, a combination of markers can be prepared that intrinsically matches or designates that barcode through the emission spectrum of the marker combination (or the emission spectra of the markers).

[0015] It should be noted that it is preferable to obtain or record the infrared emission spectrum of the marker combination. That is, an infrared signature of all markers in the specific combination when they are supplied together, for example, as part of the same particle or nanoparticle. This is because the infrared emission spectrum acts as a fingerprint for the specific marker combination and may have characteristics that are not evident if one simply combines discrete infrared emissions or signatures of each selected marker recorded in isolation.

[0016] The emission spectrum can be recorded using FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy). Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 9 / 119 5 / 28

[0017] The step of recording the emission spectrum (preferably in a database) is particularly useful when the combination of markers used gives rise to an emission spectrum that is more than the sum of its parts. That is, where the emission spectrum of the combination of markers supplied together is different from a simple sum or accumulation of the individual emission spectra of those markers (when taken in isolation from each other). However, individual emission spectra can, in some instances, be recorded, or known emission spectra can be accessed or relied upon without the need to record the spectra ab initio.

[0018] When added to a solid or liquid product (or material), for example, during manufacturing, the combination of markers provides an integral barcode within the product, so that it is possible to subsequently authenticate the identity of the exact product present. This can help identify where a product has been replaced or provide traceability in the event of events such as fuel spills or fires (such as the Grenfell fire in the UK).

[0019] The composition of the markers can be considered secret, in the sense that a competitor or counterfeiter would find it extremely difficult or time-consuming to identify and copy them. That is, it is almost impossible to reverse engineer the precise combination of markers that gives rise to the “spectral barcode” or spectral signature (or fingerprint) for a given product.

[0020] Any, some, or all of the markers can be delivered in the form of nanoparticles.

[0021] The different identifiers of the combination for a given product can be provided as composite nanoparticles, for example. That is, particles containing the assigned markers. These composite markers can be created by a known process. This can simplify the inclusion of the marker combination in a product, so that there are fewer different composite nanoparticles to include in a product than the total number of different markers that make up the combination. In some embodiments, a given Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 10 / 119 6 / 28 composite nanoparticle can comprise all identifiers assigned to a specific encoded identifier / barcode.

[0022] The combination of markers determined by the method can then be added to any suitable product or material, such as any ink, plastic (thermoset or thermoplastic), plastic or polymer, such as liquid polymer (whether air-dried or catalyst-cured), paper, additive manufacturing reagent or other material or product, for example.

[0023] The invention has potential application for the identification of plastics, pharmaceutical and medical devices, industrial manufacturing, the automotive industry, consumer goods, identification and / or traceability of firearms and clothing and accessories, among others. More generally, the invention has potential application for any of the following: identification and tracking of components, as an anti-counterfeiting solution, manufacturing traceability, regulatory compliance and / or brand identification.

[0024] The invention has potential application in the aerospace industry, such as for the identification of aircraft parts. In this case, the method of the first aspect can be part of a method for manufacturing aircraft or aerospace equipment or components thereof.

[0025] The invention has potential application in military supply chains, such as for traceability of components intended for military use. In this case, the method of the first aspect can be part of a method for manufacturing military equipment or components for the same.

[0026] It will be appreciated that the peaks of the emission spectrum arising from different markers may be distinguishable from noise (such as low or non-coherent emission response) in each spectrum and may be distinguishable from each other in several ways. That is, the peaks of the various markers may be mutually distinguishable from each other. It is possible to use markers that have multiple and / or overlapping peaks, provided that these peaks are sufficiently distinguishable from each other.

[0027] For example, the peaks in the emission spectrum of certain markers may not overlap, or may be distinct, making identification easier. In some examples, the Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 11 / 119 7 / 28 Emission spectrum peaks can be centered at different wavelengths. In some examples, emission spectrum peaks may have different peak widths (i.e., how narrow or wide the peak is in terms of its wavelength range). That is, the sharpness or amplitude of a given peak may vary depending on the markers. In some examples, emission spectrum peaks may have different intensities depending on the number of markers present and / or the excitation wavelength(s) used. In some examples, a peak or peaks may be part of a multi-peak signal, which may be uniquely associated with a specific marker. In some examples, peak intensities taken at points on either side of the maximum peak may indicate a degree of peak asymmetry, which can help differentiate between different markers.

[0028] Any, some, or all of the above factors can be used to distinguish the peaks of one marker from those of another marker. This can be useful when there is a degree of overlap or similarity between the emission spectra of two or more markers in a given marker combination.

[0029] It will be appreciated that the present invention is directed to emission spectra involving ultraviolet, visible and infrared light. That is, generally involving the excitation of outer-shell electrons using suitable wavelengths of light and then detecting the emitted light in these ranges, ideally in the visible (400-700 nm) or near-infrared (700-1000 nm) ranges.

[0030] Near-infrared emissions can be detected more easily, therefore they may be preferred. It will be appreciated, however, that UV or visible light emissions can be used instead. Similarly, it will be appreciated that Raman spectra can be used to put the invention into practice.

[0031] In some preferred embodiments, the present invention is directed to infrared emission using excitation wavelengths in the near-infrared, for example, at 950 nm or more. The excitation wavelengths can be up to about 25,000 nm. In some cases, the wavelengths can be any of: about 1050 nm or more, about 1400 nm or more, about 1600 Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 12 / 119 8 / 28 nm or more, or about 1930 nm or more. In some cases, wavelengths can be up to about 15,000 nm. Any subinterval in the range of 950 nm to 25,000 nm can be selected using an independent selection of any of these wavelengths as upper or lower limits.

[0032] The method may exclude the acquisition or recording of one or both: an ultraviolet light spectrum from the marker combination and a visible light spectrum from the marker combination.

[0033] The method may include the step of encoding at least part of the product identifier character set to provide an encoded character set.

[0034] The combination of markers can therefore be directly associated with the encoded characters, rather than the product identifier characters.

[0035] The product identifier can be a barcode that exists in a database. The identifier or barcode may already be pre-assigned to a product. In other words, the barcode may already be on products for sale or may have been allocated to a product designed to be on sale soon. The database can be a Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) database or a Universal Product Code (UPC) database. These databases are just examples of global product identifier repositories, and any suitable repository can be used.

[0036] Formulating a combination of markers to match an existing barcode in a global database avoids the need to reassign a new barcode to an existing product inventory and the need for corresponding system updates for a potentially large number of people / companies.

[0037] The relevant parts of the emission spectra may each be in the visible light and / or near-infrared light range.

[0038] The emission wavelengths of the marker peaks may be substantially in the range of 400 nm to 800 nm. The emission wavelengths of the marker peaks may be substantially in the range of 700 nm to 1000 nm. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 13 / 119 9 / 28 Peak near-infrared emissions may be preferred as they can be more easily detected or distinguished.

[0039] In some preferred embodiments, the excitation wavelengths may be substantially in the range of 950 nm to 25,000 nm, or a subrange thereof. The corresponding infrared emissions may then be recorded.

[0040] Each character can be encoded into a two-part encoded character, such as a pair of letters or numbers (or an alphanumeric pair). Each character can be encoded based on its position within the character order in the product identifier.

[0041] This allows encoding more information than just the numbers, letters and / or symbols present in the product identifier or barcode. Thus, two barcodes containing the same digits in a different order will have different combinations of markers.

[0042] Each character can be encoded using a conversion table. The conversion table can contain a set of characters encoded in two parts. The first part of each encoded character can be a horizontal identifier for the table. The second part of each encoded character can be a vertical identifier for the table. There might be ten vertical identifiers to correspond to the numbers 0-9 of a barcode, for example.

[0043] The conversion table can be used to convert a product identifier or barcode number into encoded form. The first number of the product identifier can be identified in the first column of the table, and the two-part encoded form established according to the horizontal and vertical markers associated with that tabular position. Each subsequent number in the product identifier can be identified in each subsequent column and the two-part encoded form of each number established.

[0044] Markers can match characters or encoded characters using a table, such as a lookup table or conversion table. The lookup table can include a list of two-part encoded characters. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 14 / 119 10 / 28

[0045] The lookup table provides a quick way to check the markers that match a specific character or encoded character.

[0046] It will be appreciated that any means of providing fixed matching or predetermined correlation between characters of the product identifier or barcode may be used, whether in the form of a conversion table (or lookup table) or some other form. In other words, a product identifier or barcode used as input should result in an output with a match of markers specific to the characters of that identifier or barcode.

[0047] The conversion table (or other equivalent means) can be considered as providing a means of interconversion between characters and markers.

[0048] For example, a flowchart or computer program can be used to process a product identifier or barcode to determine a combination of markers. The conversion table, flowchart, computer program, or other means can be used to convert or process each character individually, or subsets of characters, or the entire set of characters together, in order to generate or determine the specific combination of markers for that product identifier or barcode.

[0049] The markers used in the invention are preferably non-luminophores, more preferably non-luminophores with short-lived spectra, such as fluorescence.

[0050] The product identifier can be composed of characters selected from a set of ten different characters, such as the numbers 0 to 9. It would be appreciated if an alternative set (e.g., 16 characters for 0-9 and AF, a set of 26 characters for AZ, or a set of 36 characters for AZ and 0-9) could be used in some examples. The conversion table or lookup table can be configured accordingly.

[0051] Any markers from the list should preferably be selected to be relatively stable in air and preferably selected to be relatively stable in the presence of water. This is intended to prevent the emission spectrum from degrading or changing over time. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 15 / 119 11 / 28

[0052] The list of markers may include inorganic markers or ceramic markers.

[0053] The list may include an independent selection of one, some, or all of the following: graphite, metal or oxide thereof, transition metal(s) or compound thereof (preferably oxide thereof or complex thereof), rare earth metal(s) or compound thereof (preferably oxide thereof or complex thereof), Sc or oxide / complex thereof, Ti or oxide / complex thereof, V or oxide / complex thereof, Cr or oxide / complex thereof, Mn or oxide / complex thereof, Fe or oxide / complex thereof, Co or oxide / complex thereof, Ni or oxide / complex thereof, Cu or oxide / complex thereof, Zn or oxide / complex thereof, Y or oxide / complex thereof, Zr or oxide / complex thereof, Nb or oxide / complex thereof, Mo or oxide / complex thereof, Ru or oxide / complex thereof, Rh or oxide / complex thereof, Pd or oxide / complex thereof, Ag or oxide / complex thereof, Cd or oxide / complex thereof, Hf or oxide / complex thereof, Ta or oxide / complex thereof,W or oxide / complex thereof, Re or oxide / complex thereof, Os or oxide / complex thereof, Ir or oxide / complex thereof, Pt or oxide / complex thereof, Au or oxide / complex thereof, Hg or oxide / complex thereof, La or oxide / complex thereof, Ce or oxide / complex thereof, Pr or oxide / complex thereof, Nd or oxide / complex thereof, Sm or oxide / complex thereof, Eu or oxide / complex thereof, Gd or oxide / complex thereof, Tb or oxide / complex thereof, Dy or oxide / complex thereof, Ho or oxide / complex thereof, Er or oxide / complex thereof, Tm or oxide / complex thereof, Yb or oxide / complex thereof, Lu or oxide / complex thereof, B or oxide of same, Al or oxide of the same, Si or oxide of the same, P or oxide of the same, Ga or oxide of the same, Ge or oxide of the same, As or oxide of the same, Se or oxide of the same, In or oxide of the same, Sn or oxide of the same, Sb or oxide of the same, Te or oxide of the same, Tl or oxide of the same, Pb or oxide of the same, Bi or oxide of the same.

[0054] It will be appreciated that any suitable compound, including any of the above elements (including any independent selection of one, two, three or more) Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 16 / 119 12 / 28 of the elements) can be provided as a marker, and oxides / complexes of the above are merely examples.

[0055] Any of the above items may be supplied independently as any of the following: elemental form (for transition metal or rare earth element or any of the other elements), powder, particles or nanoparticles.

[0056] There may be one or a plurality of transition metal and / or rare earth metal (whether elemental, oxide or other) based markers from the list. Some compounds used as markers may include multiple transition metals, multiple rare earth metals, or a combination of transition metal(s) and rare earth metal(s).

[0057] Several oxides may be preferred over other compounds for reasons of chemical stability.

[0058] In some examples, the list may include (or may only include) biocompatible or biotolerated markers. This may be preferred for cases where the markers need to be incorporated into products such as clothing, jewelry, food, beverages, supplements, pharmaceuticals, or nutraceuticals, for example. It may also be preferred for cases where the markers need to be incorporated into products that will be touched or handled by a person.

[0059] In some examples, the list may include (or may only include) markers that are non-flammable.

[0060] It will be appreciated that organic compounds may be included in the list of markers if they have an emission spectrum that includes one or more peaks. The organic compounds on the list may have a chromophore or chromophores. Preferably, any organic compound or other marker on the list should be stable in water and / or stable in air.

[0061] It is anticipated that transient or time-limited or temporary markers (whether organic or inorganic) may be employed as a form of date / time stamp or temporal barcode. Thus, some markers may be selected based on the fact that they degrade or change when exposed to one, some, or all of: air (particularly oxygen), water, and / or light (e.g., sunlight). Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 17 / 119 13 / 28

[0062] It will be appreciated that different sizes (or size ranges) of certain particles / nanoparticles can be selected to provide list markers that are based on the same element(s), but which provide distinct or distinguishable emission spectra.

[0063] It will be appreciated that metals of different oxidation states may be selected to provide list markers that are based on the same element(s), but which provide distinct or distinguishable emission spectra.

[0064] Each marker may be microscopic or substantially invisible to the naked eye.

[0065] The combination of markers may include substantially ten or more different markers. Preferably, the combination of markers includes any of the following: twelve or more different markers, thirteen or more different markers, fourteen or more different markers, fifteen or more different markers, twenty or more different markers, twenty-five or more different markers, thirty or more different markers. In some examples, there may be even larger numbers (such as 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120 or 130, or more) of markers.

[0066] This allows most or all of the digits of a conventional barcode to be represented. If the order of the digits is disregarded, having ten markers allows each of the numbers from 0 to 9 to be represented by a different marker. If, instead, markers are selected to encode each product identifier character as well as its relative position within the product identifier, then having 15 markers allows all digits in a conventional 13-digit barcode to be represented by markers, while also providing spare markers to represent the batch number or year of production, for example.

[0067] In some cases, a given marker A may be used to represent half of the possible character values ​​at a given character position within the identifier, and a different marker B may be used to represent the other half of the possible character values ​​at a given character position within the identifier. For example, the characters 0-4 inclusive may be Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 18 / 119 14 / 28 represented by A and characters 5-9 inclusive can be represented by B. This can be repeated for some subsequent character positions (e.g., markers C and D for character position 2; markers E and F for character position 3; and so on).

[0068] This allows some or most identifiers to be assigned using a relatively smaller set of markers.

[0069] Some characters, such as one, two, or three characters (possibly final characters), of an identifier may still have a different specific marker associated with each different possible character value to ensure a potentially large enough number of unique marker combinations to accommodate current and future product identifiers.

[0070] For example, in the case of a 13-character barcode, where each character position can have ten possible values ​​(e.g., the numbers 0-9), having 11 of these characters, each representable by a different pair of markers (total of 22 different markers) and the other two characters representable by different markers (total of 20 different markers) means that barcode variations on the order of 2x1018 can be accommodated, minimizing the number of different markers needed to put the invention into practice.

[0071] Where higher numbers of different markers are provided from the list, and have spectrums that are each adequately distinguishable (or resolvable) from one another, then even greater numbers of barcode variations can be accommodated. For example, the use of 140 different markers can provide 5x1029 individually unique 13-digit barcodes with a standard checksum ending.

[0072] Even a short 5-digit barcode (of 10 possible characters per digit) can, if selected from 50 different markers, have on the order of 2.5x108 unique combinations.

[0073] The method may also include the step of determining one or more additional markers corresponding to one or more secondary product identifiers selected from the group comprising: a batch identifier, a Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 19 / 119 15 / 28 production date identifier, a country identifier, a manufacturer identifier.

[0074] The identification of the batch number and / or any other relevant identifier can further specify the product and aid in traceability, for example, to verify whether an old or outdated product has been used. This can also help in the case of product recall and / or replacement, where defects are discovered later.

[0075] According to a second aspect of the invention, a method is provided for manufacturing nanoparticles that specifically correspond spectrally to a pre-existing product identifier or barcode (for example, by means of fixed character-to-marker matching in a conversion table or equivalent), comprising determining a combination of markers to encode the pre-existing product identifier or barcode according to the method of the first aspect and manufacturing nanoparticles comprising the determined combination of markers.

[0076] Nanoparticles can be composite nanoparticles, each composite nanoparticle comprising each of the markers of the determined marker combination.

[0077] According to a third aspect of the invention, a method is provided for manufacturing or marking a product with a product identifier, comprising the method of the first aspect of the invention or providing the combination of markers determined therein, and adding or affixing a combination of markers to the product, thereby providing a secret marker (or markers) whose emission spectrum is usable to determine that the product is an authentic product.

[0078] The advantages are similar to the first and second aspects of the invention. Adding the product at the manufacturing stage allows the manufacturer to control the addition and position or distribution of the combination of markers within the product.

[0079] It will be appreciated that the first aspect method only needs to occur once for a specific product, and subsequent manufacturing of that product can occur multiple times without the need to repeat the first aspect method. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 20 / 119 16 / 28

[0080] An apparatus may be provided for use in detecting emission spectra of the combination of markers or of the composite marker(s). That is, to detect a product emission spectrum (which may include a combination marker emission spectrum) and to generate locally or remotely an authentication code based on that spectrum to assess the authenticity of the product, when the code is checked against a set or database of known product identifiers, which may lead to a pass / fail result for authenticity (or a near pass that may need further verification).

[0081] The apparatus can be used to obtain emission spectra of markers from a product (assuming the markers are present), such as a product containing a combination of markers determined according to the first aspect of the invention. If no markers are present, or if incorrect markers are present compared to the expected markers, then this is readily identified by means of the apparatus having the relevant processing means or being connected / associated with a system with the relevant processing means.

[0082] The device may, in some cases, be adapted to have processing means to perform product authentication in situ, for example, if the device is part of an automated system. In other cases, the device may be adapted to transmit data corresponding to the emission spectra to a system (such as a telephone or computer) that is configured to perform product authentication. The authentication results may then be sent back to the device to display whether the product is authentic or not, or possibly whether there is a close match for authenticity.

[0083] The term authentication code can be thought of as an encoded form of a product identifier (like a barcode). The authentication code may comprise characters or encoded characters. The authentication code can be decoded by a process that is the reverse of the encoding process used in the first aspect of the invention. If the authentication code is converted or transformed into a product identifier that corresponds to the identifier of Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 21 / 119 17 / 28 expected product, the authentication code will be valid. If the authentication code is converted or transformed into a product identifier that closely matches the expected product identifier, then the authentication code may be valid and, optionally, additional checks may be required. If the authentication code is converted or transformed into a product identifier that does not substantially match the expected product identifier, then the authentication code is invalid.

[0084] An example of a conventional instrument suitable for this purpose is the Agilent® 4300 portable FTIR spectrometer. It should be noted that this is not the only suitable option and other devices or scanners may be used, whether for IR detection or for UV detection, Raman detection or other spectral detection.

[0085] The handheld device can be provided to detect the emission spectrum, and the processing means can be provided in a second device or system (such as a phone, tablet, or computer). Authentication can therefore be performed remotely from the handheld device.

[0086] Alternatively, the emission spectrum can be detected and authenticated by a spectrophotometer and processing means comprised in a single device. This may be more suitable for an automated system.

[0087] According to a fourth aspect of the invention, a method is provided for evaluating or determining whether a product is an authentic product or a non-authentic product, the authentic product being associated with a product identifier or barcode comprising a set of characters, wherein a combination of markers corresponding to the product identifier are contained in the authentic product but not in the non-authentic product, the method comprising the steps of: Directing light (preferably infrared or near-infrared) onto the product at one or more wavelengths to excite the markers when present in the product; detect at least a portion of an emission spectrum (preferably an IR emission spectrum) of the product; Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 22 / 119 18 / 28 for peaks detected within the emission spectrum, encode at least some of the peaks to generate a set of (encoded) characters as an authentication code; and compare the authentication code with a set of existing product identifiers of products containing markers to assess the authenticity of the product.

[0088] The advantages are similar to the previous aspects of the invention. When the combination of markers (integral to the product) is scanned or read, the resulting authentication code can be compared to predetermined and internationally recognized product identifiers, such as barcodes. This allows for the rapid testing of a product to determine if it is authentic and for these results to be optionally displayed to the tester (typically on a timescale of a matter of seconds). The result can optionally be forwarded to another party, such as a regulatory authority.

[0089] The expected product can be provided or defined as an input / reference (for example, for a device such as the Agilent® device mentioned above) before, during, or after product testing. The comparison output can then display whether or not the scanned product matches the expected product.

[0090] The method may also include the step of providing a comparison output identifying whether the authentication code matches any of the existing product identifiers. That is, an expected product or product identifier may be provided and the output may identify whether the authentication code matches the expected product or product identifier.

[0091] The output may be a pass / fail result, or it may indicate a close match, a list of possible matches, a product match, or any other suitable result or output.

[0092] The output may include a visual or graphical output, for example, on a display or screen. The output may include an audible sound, for example, with different tones to indicate approval or disapproval.

[0093] If an exact match for the authentication code is found and matches the expected result, then the output may display a result of Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 23 / 119 19 / 28 'Full match' or 'approval', which may include the product identity and the identifier with which the authentication code corresponds. If an approximate match for the authentication code is found, the output may display one or more 'approximate match' results, which may include the product identity(ies) and identifier(s) with which the authentication code almost matches. Otherwise, a 'no match' result may be displayed, which may include the product identity and the identifier to which the authentication code actually corresponds.

[0094] A complete match can be considered to be where all (encoded) characters of the authentication code, or characters decoded from it, match all digits of the product identification code (identifier).

[0095] A near match can be considered to be one in which all but one of the characters encoded in the authentication code, or characters decoded from it, match all but one of the digits in the product identification code (identifier).

[0096] A non-match can be considered to be one in which neither a complete match nor a near match applies.

[0097] Step (d) may include decoding or reversing the authentication code into a product identifier. This can be done by a process corresponding to the reverse of the encoding process in the first aspect of the invention, or by checking the authentication code against a reference database containing matching marker combinations and sets of (encoded) characters.

[0098] Alternatively, product identifiers in a database may already have associated encoded forms, in which case the authentication code can be directly compared. However, in practice, the most common approach is expected to be to convert the spikes or authentication code into a product identifier and then compare the product identifier with a list or database of existing product identifiers. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 24 / 119 20 / 28

[0099] Step (d) may include checking or searching a GTIN database or UPC database for the authentication code (or a decoded form thereof).

[0100] The one or more detected peaks can be combined or concatenated in order of wavelength, in relation to the detected wavelengths, to provide the authentication code. The one or more peaks can be combined or concatenated in alphabetical or numerical order, in relation to the encoded characters or characters, to provide the authentication code.

[0101] This allows the authentication code to correlate with a product identifier that is encoded in character order.

[0102] The peaks detected in the emission spectrum may be substantially in the range of 400 nm to 800 nm and / or substantially in the range of 700 nm to 1000 nm.

[0103] It will be appreciated that, in any of the above aspects, transmittance or absorption spectra may be considered for use instead of emission spectra, where appropriate.

[0104] Another aspect of the invention is presented in claim 26. The advantages and optional features are similar to the first aspect.

[0105] Another aspect of the invention is presented in claim 27. The advantages and optional features are similar to the fourth aspect.

[0106] Any feature or features presented in relation to any aspect of the invention may be selected independently, individually or in any independent combination and provided in any other aspect of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0107] For a better understanding of the present invention, and to show more clearly how it can be carried out, reference will now be made, by way of example, only to the accompanying drawings, in which: Figure 1 shows an early version of a barcode with a product identifier for a product; Figure 2 shows a conversion table for converting a barcode into an encoded form; Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 25 / 119 21 / 28 Figure 3 shows a variation of the conversion table from Figure 2; Figure 4 shows examples of character pair strings for the barcode in Figure 1 and the table in Figure 2; Figure 5 shows an example of a database with parts visible and hidden to the end user, for use in verifying a string of character pairs derived from the emission spectrum (or an authentication code) of a product against a list of authentic products and their corresponding product identifiers and authentic string pairs; Figure 6 shows a second type of barcode; and Figure 7 shows a conversion table for the barcode in Figure 6. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED MODALITIES

[0108] Figure 1 shows one embodiment of a barcode, usually indicated by 10. Barcode 10 includes a set of thirteen characters “50001270014084”, usually indicated by 12. The barcode is an identifier corresponding to a specific product. It will be appreciated that, although there are thirteen characters in the current barcode, any suitable number of characters may be present. It will also be appreciated that, although the characters are all numbers in this embodiment, the identifier may, in other embodiments, comprise non-numeric characters.

[0109] Figure 2 shows a conversion table, usually indicated by 20, for use in encoding the barcode in Figure 1. The gray-shaded cells are provided to indicate the conversion of the barcode characters into an encoded form.

[0110] For the first character of the barcode, the first column is used. The first character of the barcode is 5. The row in the first column that contains a cell starting with '5' is therefore applicable. The column and row identifiers form the two-part encoded form ('Af') of the first character.

[0111] For the second character of the barcode, the second column is used. The second character of the barcode is '0'. The row in the first column that contains a cell starting with '0' is therefore applicable. Column and row identifiers Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 26 / 119 22 / 28 form the two-part encoded form ('Ba'), or pair of encoded characters, of the second character.

[0112] It will be appreciated that analogous steps are performed for each of the characters from the third to the thirteenth of the barcode number. Note that zero ('0') is encoded in this mode.

[0113] In addition, conversion table 20 of this modality has two additional columns to encode a product year. For the year 2020, the abbreviation '20' is used and, following the previous approach, the conversion process produces the additional encoded characters 'Uc' and 'Va'.

[0114] Conversion table 20 contains 150 different encoded character pairs in this mode.

[0115] Once converted, the encoded pairs are provided in alphabetical order, due to the order of the pairs provided in the conversion table. This maintains the relative order of the characters in the encoded form, although it is appreciated that the encoded character pairs can be added sequentially, rather than prepared in isolation and combined later. The barcode characters in the present example are therefore converted to the following code: AfBaCaDaEbFcGhHaJbKeLaMiNeUcVa

[0116] Figure 3 illustrates a second embodiment of the conversion table, indicated in 30. Table 30 is substantially similar to that in Figure 2, but includes a 'checksum' column instead of two columns for the product year. The checksum can be used as a means of verifying whether a valid marker combination has been detected.

[0117] Figure 4 shows examples generally indicated in 40 of concatenated character sequences encoded for the barcode in Figure 1. The examples correspond to a complete match (all 13 character pairs as expected), an approximate match (all but one of the character pairs match the expected values) and a failed match (in this case, only 9 character pairs match the 13 expected pairs). Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 27 / 119 23 / 28

[0118] It will be appreciated that any unique character pair may not match a corresponding product identifier character and thus generate a close match result. It will also be appreciated that any two or more character pairs may not match the corresponding number of product identifier characters and thus generate a disapproval result.

[0119] Figure 5 shows an exemplary (or similar) table or database, usually indicated as 50. Table 50 is not populated with much example data, but it would be appreciated if it could be populated with all relevant barcode / product identifier sequences, corresponding (encoded) character pairs, and optionally company names, product names, and any other suitable data.

[0120] It will be appreciated that a real-world version of the database—particularly the (encoded) character pairs and the character pairs generated by detecting emission spectra of the marker combination—should be kept strictly confidential in order to prevent fraudulent use in circumventing or reverse-engineering the present invention.

[0121] In some modes, the database contains only the signatures of composite markers made of marker materials listed in the relevant lookup table and therefore can only see composite barcode markers and nothing else.

[0122] Note that background noise can be removed before processing the data against the database, and this can provide relatively high-intensity signals that allow accurate reading of marker identities.

[0123] Figure 6 shows a short barcode 60. In this example, the characters are the first five characters of barcode 10, but it will be appreciated that any suitable characters may be used.

[0124] Figure 7 shows a conversion or lookup table 70 corresponding to the short-form barcode 60. It will be appreciated that this is the corresponding portion of the previous table 20. The same principles apply in terms of how this version is used to establish and / or verify the authenticity of the product. A Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 28 / 119 Table 70 (24 / 28) can be used to support a large number of different marker combinations, covering more than 2.5 x 10⁸ unique company barcode identifiers.

[0125] Any suitable plurality of markers (or list of known markers) may be provided to put the invention into practice. It will be appreciated that the markers may be selected to be one of several markers discussed earlier in the specific description, whether zinc oxide, iron oxide, yttrium oxide, graphite, silver, or any other of the various markers discussed above. For example, in the example of Figures 6 to 7, zinc oxide may represent 5 / A a, iron oxide may represent 0 / B a, yttrium oxide may represent 0 / C a, graphite may represent 0 / D a, and silver may represent 1 / E b.

[0126] No inference about any limitations on the identities of the markers should be made from the brief list of explicitly named markers in the paragraph above, which are given only as examples. The actual identity of each marker is not critical, except that each marker is different from the other markers, and that the emission spectrum of each marker has sufficiently distinguishable peaks so that it is determinable exactly to which markers a given peak should correspond.

[0127] Each marker will correspond specifically (and only) to a single pair of characters from the combinations available in the conversion tables. For example, lookup table 20 includes 15 columns with 10 pairs of characters (in the form Xx), providing 150 different pairs of characters. Additional labels may be provided in other modes, such as to encode the batch number and / or country code, for example. The character pairs in the mode of table 20 are, respectively, exclusively combined with markers from the 150 different markers.

[0128] In other words, the character pairs encoded in each lookup table correspond to unique markers. It will be appreciated that some modalities may have the same markers appearing in the lookup table more than once. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 29 / 119 25 / 28 at once, but for different pairs of encoded characters (preferably different for both encoded characters in the encoded character pair).

[0129] It will also be appreciated that a conversion table designated for real-world use should be kept secret, so that counterfeiters cannot use it as part of a reverse engineering attempt. Otherwise, it would be necessary to start again with a new marker matching table for character pairs which, while possible, would give rise to unnecessary overhead.

[0130] Having converted the 10,60 barcode to an encoded form as above, the markers can be selected or determined according to the relevant table (when populated with the desired set of markers) for each encoded character pair, to represent that pair in the actual product. The emission spectrum of each marker should comprise one or more peaks that are distinguishable from those of each other marker.

[0131] Once the combination of markers has been determined, all markers can be added to the product (usually during or immediately after manufacturing), marking it as an authentic product. This can be done by adding them individually or, if the combination of markers is first supplied as one or more composite particles (each containing at least two of the markers), then in fewer steps than the number of individual markers, which may be a single marker addition step or may be multiple steps.

[0132] The emission spectrum of the determined marker combination can then be recorded in a database.

[0133] In addition, after the combination of markers has been determined, the details of the encoded letter pairs can be entered into the database along with (when necessary) reference data for the relevant product identifier or barcode, product name, company name, brand and so on.

[0134] It is possible to prepare a composite marker (or particles thereof) that has a composite emission spectrum or signature emission spectrum. That is, an emission spectrum that is unique to the combination of markers used, wherein the emission spectrum resulting from the composite marker is different from a mere Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 30 / 119 26 / 28 aggregation of emission spectra obtained individually from the various constituent markers.

[0135] Once the composite marker has been formed, the emission spectrum can be recorded in the database along with the product identifier and its corresponding character pairs.

[0136] To obtain an emission spectrum of a product being tested for authenticity, a suitable device (such as the Agilent® device mentioned earlier in this descriptive report) can be used with the correct database loaded or prepared for access.

[0137] For example, the device may be encased in dried paint on a painted wall (where the paint is the product). The identity of the product itself is not yet known, although on some occasions it may be expected that the product will be a specific product. If a particular product is expected, this may be introduced at any stage.

[0138] Once the emission spectrum has been acquired, or as it is acquired, the device can transmit data about relevant parts of the emission spectrum to a secondary device (which has access to the database) to process and analyze the spectrum, or alternatively, it can compare the relevant peaks with a database that it owns or has access to, for example, after converting the relevant parts into a character pair authentication code. If markers are present in the product, the emission spectrum will contain peaks or emissions that correspond to the markers.

[0139] For example, if silver nanoparticles are present, excitation at 420 nm can, in some cases, produce an emission at 485 nm or 550 nm. When a combination of markers is present, excitation at 365 nm or 420 nm can produce a plurality of emissions corresponding to each of the markers.

[0140] Distinct peaks can be identified from the detected emission spectrum and converted using the relevant lookup table into a series of coded letter pairs. The coded letter pairs are assembled into a sequence in a suitable order. Using the previous example from Figures 1 and 2, if an authentic product Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 31 / 119 If 27 / 28 is present and therefore contains the necessary markers, this would generate emission spikes for the 15 different markers that can be converted into the following sequence as an authentication code: AfBaCaDaEbFcGhHaJbKeLaMiNeUcVa.

[0141] This code can be decoded by the secondary device to provide 50001270014084 as a product identifier or barcode. The barcode can be checked against a GTIN or UPC database to identify the product and manufacturer, as well as the manufacturing date. If there is an expected product before starting the analysis, the results obtained from the database can be used to manually determine if the product is the correct one. Alternatively, if the expected product was entered into the device or secondary device, then an output can be generated to signify that there is a complete match and the product matches the expected one, i.e., the product is confirmed as authentic.

[0142] In a first alternative scenario (see Figure 4), the product being tested may, when excited, generate emission spikes that correspond to the following authentication code: AfBaCaDaEbFcGgHaJbKeLaMiNeUcVa. The middle encoded character pair Gg is shown in bold and underlined because it does not exactly match the expected encoded character pair Gh. However, all other encoded character pairs are converted to the correct barcode characters for the barcode in Figure 1. In this case, an output may be generated to indicate that there is a close match and the user may receive a list of possible product matches with product identifiers that match all but the erroneous encoded character pair.

[0143] In a second alternative scenario (again, see Figure 4), the product being tested may, when excited, generate emission spikes that correspond to the following authentication code: AfBaCaDaEbFcGgHbJcKfLaMiNeUcVa. The middle encoded character pair Gg is shown in bold and underlined because it does not match the expected encoded character pairs GhHaJbKe. In this case, an output may be generated to signify that there is no match and the product fails authentication. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 32 / 119 28 / 28

[0144] If there are not enough marker signatures for a complete or near-complete match, but the user has not defined an expected product or identifier to match, the device may display a list of possible products for the user to consider as potential matches. For example, if – purely as an example of system behavior and not within the scope of intended protection – only silver nanoparticles are present and no other markers, then the authentication code would be Hf (for 550 nm). The relative intensity of the emission may also be provided to verify the amount of silver nanoparticles that are still present in their original product form. The user would receive a list of possible products that have been registered as containing the silver nanoparticles.

[0145] The embodiments described above are provided by way of example only, and various changes and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention, as defined by the appended claims. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, page 33 / 119

Claims

1 / 6 CLAIMS 1. A method of encoding a pre-existing product identifier or barcode for an authentic product by determining a combination of markers to correspond spectrally to that pre-existing product identifier or barcode, the method characterized in that it comprises the steps of: a) providing the pre-existing product identifier or barcode for the product, the pre-existing product identifier or barcode comprising a set of characters that is specific to the product; b) providing a list of a plurality of different markers, wherein each marker has an emission spectrum comprising one or more peaks, and one or more peaks of the emission spectrum of a given marker from the list are substantially distinguishable from one or more peaks of the emission spectra of the other markers from the list;(c) assign a list marker to each character of the pre-existing product identifier or barcode from (a), each character thus being associated with a different marker to establish a fixed correspondence between the assigned markers and the respective characters of the pre-existing product identifier or barcode, for reference in the subsequent addition of the combination of markers assigned to a product to spectrally designate the pre-existing product identifier or barcode; (ed) obtain or record an infrared emission spectrum or signature of the combination of markers assigned for pairing with the pre-existing product identifier or barcode.

2. Method according to claim 1, characterized in that it includes, before (c), the step of encoding part or all of the product identifier character set to provide a set of encoded characters, and wherein the assignment step is to assign a list marker to each encoded character.

3. Method, according to claim 1 or 2, characterized in that the pre-existing product identifier or barcode is in a database, Petition 870250090634, 10 / 04 / 2025, p. 34 / 119 2 / 6 such as a GTIN or UPC database, and the pre-existing product identifier or barcode has been pre-assigned to the authentic product.

4. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the infrared emission spectrum of the markers is recorded using FTIR and / or excitation wavelengths in the range of 950 nm to 25000 nm for use in identifying the marker combination.

5. A method, according to any previous claim, when dependent on claim 2, characterized in that each character is encoded into a two-part encoded character based on its identity or character value and also on its position within the order of characters of the product identifier.

6. Method, according to any preceding claim, when dependent on claim 2, characterized in that each character is encoded during (c), by means of any one of a conversion table, a flowchart, a computer program or other means, so that the characters of the pre-existing product identifier or barcode have a fixed or predetermined correspondence with the markers in the marker list.

7. A method according to claim 6, when dependent on claim 5, characterized in that the conversion table contains a set of two-part encoded characters for converting a pre-existing product identifier or barcode into encoded form, a first part of each pair of encoded characters corresponding to one of i) the identity or value of each character, and ii) the character's position within the character order, and a second part of each pair of encoded characters corresponding to the other of i) and ii).

8. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the markers correspond to the characters, or when dependent on claim 2, the encoded characters, by means of a lookup table.

9. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the combination of markers includes ten or more different compounds as markers in the form of nanoparticles. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 35 / 119 3 / 6 10. Method according to claim 6, or any of claims 7 to 9 when dependent on claim 6, characterized in that the conversion table includes ten or more different markers, optionally twelve to fifteen or more different inorganic or ceramic markers.

11. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that it further comprises the step of determining one or more additional markers to include in the combination, one or more additional markers corresponding to one or more secondary product identifiers selected from the group comprising: a batch identifier, a production date identifier, a country identifier, and a manufacturer identifier.

12. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the markers are either inorganic markers or ceramic markers.

13. A method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the markers comprise metal oxides and / or metalloid oxides.

14. Method, according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that (d) it excludes obtaining or recording one or both: an ultraviolet light spectrum from the marker combination and a visible light spectrum from the marker combination.

15. A method for manufacturing nanoparticles to spectrally match a pre-existing product identifier or barcode, characterized in that it comprises determining a combination of markers to encode the pre-existing product identifier or barcode according to the method of any one of claims 1 to 14, and manufacturing nanoparticles comprising the determined combination of markers.

16. Method according to claim 15, characterized in that the nanoparticles are composite nanoparticles, each composite nanoparticle comprising each of the markers of the determined marker combination.

17. A method for manufacturing or marking a product with a product identifier, characterized in that it comprises the method according to any one of claims 1 to 14 or provides the combination of markers determined therein or Petition 870250090634, dated 10 / 04 / 2025, page 36 / 119 4 / 6 provides nanoparticles comprising the combination of markers and adds or fixes the combination of markers to the product, thereby providing a marker whose emission spectrum is usable to determine that the product is an authentic product.

18. Method according to claim 17, characterized in that it is a method of manufacturing or marking aircraft parts and / or aerospace components.

19. Method according to claim 17, characterized in that it is a method of manufacturing or marking military parts and / or components.

20. Method, according to any one of claims 17 to 19, when dependent on claim 12, characterized in that the inorganic markers or ceramic markers of the marker combination are provided in the form of composite nanoparticles, each composite nanoparticle comprising each marker of the marker combination.

21. Method for assessing whether a product is an authentic product or a non-authentic product, the authentic product being associated with a product identifier or barcode comprising a set of characters, characterized in that a combination of markers (optionally determined by the method of any of claims 1 to 14) that correspond to the product identifier are contained in or on the authentic product, but not the non-authentic product, the method comprising the steps of: a) directing infrared light onto the product at one or more wavelengths to excite the markers when present on the product; b) detecting at least a portion of an infrared emission spectrum on the product; c) for peaks detected within the infrared emission spectrum, encoding at least some of the peaks to generate an authentication code;ed) compare the authentication code with a set of existing product identifiers of the products containing markers to assess the authenticity of the product. Petition 870250090634, dated 10 / 04 / 2025, p. 37 / 119 5 / 6; 22. Method according to claim 21, characterized in that step (d) includes verifying the authentication code in a GTIN database or UPC database.

23. A method according to claim 21 or 22, characterized in that it further comprises the steps of entering an expected product or product identifier and providing an output indicating whether the authentication code matches the entered product or product identifier.

24. A method according to any one of claims 21 to 23, characterized in that, during encoding, one or more peaks are combined or concatenated in order of peak wavelength, alphabetical order of characters, or numerical order of characters to provide the authentication code.

25. Method according to any one of claims 21 to 24, characterized in that (a) and (b) are performed using FTIR and / or the light has excitation wavelengths substantially in the range of 950 nm to 25000 nm.

26. Method for determining a combination of markers to match a pre-existing product identifier or barcode for an authentic product, the product identifier comprising a set of characters, the method characterized in that it comprises the steps of: a) providing a list of a plurality of different markers, wherein each marker has an emission spectrum comprising one or more peaks, and one or more peaks of the emission spectrum of a given marker in the list are substantially distinguishable from one or more peaks of the emission spectra of the other markers in the list;b) assign a marker from the list to each character, each character of the product identifier thus being associated with a different marker to establish a fixed correspondence between the assigned markers and the respective characters of the product identifier, for reference in the subsequent addition of the combination of markers assigned to a product to chemically or spectrally designate the product identifier; and Petition 870250090634, dated 10 / 04 / 2025, p. 38 / 119 6 / 6 c) obtain or register an emission spectrum of each assigned marker or combination of assigned markers for pairing with the product identifier.

27. Method for assessing whether a product is an authentic product or a non-authentic product, the authentic product being associated with a product identifier or barcode comprising a set of characters, in which a combination of markers that correspond to the product identifier is contained in the authentic product but not in the non-authentic product, the method characterized in that it comprises the steps of: a) directing light onto the product at one or more wavelengths to excite the markers, when present in the product; b) detecting at least a portion of an emission spectrum of the product; c) for peaks detected within the emission spectrum, encoding at least some of the peaks to generate an authentication code; d) comparing the authentication code with a set of existing product identifiers of products containing markers to assess the authenticity of the product. Petition 870250090634, dated 04 / 10 / 2025, p. 39 / 119

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