Systems that use quantum vacuum fluctuations to drive product generation

Abstract

This paper describes a system incorporating a Casimir cavity, such as an optical Casimir cavity or a plasmonic Casimir cavity. The Casimir cavity modifies the zero-point energy density within it compared to its external structure. In the disclosed system, the Casimir cavity is paired with a product generation device, and the difference in zero-point energy density is used to directly drive the generation of products such as chemical reaction products or emitted light.

Description

[0001] Cross-referencing of related patent applications

[0002] This application claims the benefit and priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 904,666, filed September 23, 2019; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 920,636, filed May 10, 2019; and U.S. Patent Application Nos. 16 / 855,890, 16 / 855,892, and 16 / 855,897, all filed April 22, 2020. These applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Technical Field

[0003] This invention belongs to the field of devices. More specifically, this invention relates to quantum devices for generating products such as fuels and light. Background Technology

[0004] According to quantum theory, the quantum vacuum is filled with electromagnetic radiation in the form of quantum vacuum fluctuations. Extensive discussion has been held about whether this energy can be harvested (and if so, how). A major problem with harvesting this energy is that it forms an energy ground state and therefore does not flow from one region to another. However, quantum vacuum energy is geometrically dependent, with its density lower inside the Casimir cavity than outside. Therefore, the use of the Casimir cavity opens up the possibility of using quantum vacuum fluctuations to drive energy from one location to another. Summary of the Invention

[0005] This document describes an apparatus for generating products such as fuels and light. In embodiments, the apparatus described herein uses two distinct regions in which the energy density of the quantum vacuum differs to drive energy through the apparatus, thereby capturing a portion of the energy and / or using it directly to drive chemical reactions or in the process of generating light.

[0006] In one aspect, a system for generating and capturing charge carriers excited by quantum vacuum fluctuations is disclosed. The system of this aspect can utilize asymmetries in quantum vacuum fluctuations relative to a device (such as a product generation device) to drive an energy flow, particle flow, or wave through the device for generating products (such as fuel or light). The system of this aspect may also include, or alternatively, a product generation device having a structure that allows for the rapid transport and / or capture of charge carriers excited by quantum vacuum fluctuations. In some embodiments, the system of this aspect may include a Casimir photocatalyst or a Casimir light source.

[0007] Exemplary systems of this aspect may include a product generation apparatus and a zero-point energy density reduction structure adjacent to the apparatus. In embodiments, the zero-point energy density reduction structure provides an asymmetry relative to the apparatus that drives a flow of energy or particles or waves through the apparatus. The apparatus disclosed herein is distinguished from photoelectrolysis systems, or apparatuses that utilize light from an externally applied voltage or current, or, in the case of photoelectrolysis, light from a light source, to generate products such as fuel or light, and are capable of producing a flow of energy, particles, or waves that occurs even in the absence of external illumination or power. In other words, the disclosed apparatus is capable of generating fuel or light, whether in dark or illuminated conditions, and regardless of whether the voltage or current is provided by an external source.

[0008] The aforementioned asymmetry can generate a voltage difference between the first region and the second region of the product generating apparatus. This asymmetry can generate a net charge flow between the first and second regions of the product generating apparatus. This asymmetry can reduce the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device compared to the zero-point energy density on the first side of the product generating apparatus in the absence of a zero-point energy density reduction structure. This asymmetry can provide a difference between the first zero-point energy density on the first side of the product generating apparatus and the second zero-point energy density on the second side of the product generating apparatus, such that this difference drives an energy flow through the product generating apparatus.

[0009] In the system of this aspect, at least a portion of the energy flow is used by the product generating device, such as to generate light or produce fuel. Compared with conventional light emitting devices and photocatalytic systems, electrochemical photolysis systems and photoelectrolysis systems used for fuel production, the energy flow occurs even when no voltage or current is applied to the product generating device from an external power source and / or no external lighting source is present.

[0010] Exemplary zero-point energy density reduction structures that can be used with systems of this aspect include Casimir cavities. For example, zero-point energy density reduction structures may include optical Casimir cavities or plasmonic Casimir cavities.

[0011] In cases where the desired product of the system in this aspect is fuel, the product generating apparatus includes a chemical reaction apparatus in which reaction products are generated by an energy flow. Optionally, the product generating apparatus includes an electrolysis apparatus or a photocatalytic apparatus. An exemplary chemical reaction apparatus includes: a first electrode adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure; a second electrode electrically connected to the first electrode; and an electrolyte disposed between the first and second electrodes. This configuration is operable for water electrolysis.

[0012] In cases where the desired product of the system in this aspect is light, the product generating apparatus includes a light emitting device, wherein an energy flow causes the direct generation of light. For example, the light emitting device may include a phosphor positioned adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure to provide a cathodic emission structure. Other useful light emitting devices include those comprising plasmon-driven light emitting devices or structures exhibiting negative differential resistance.

[0013] Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, this document may discuss beliefs or understandings of the fundamental principles relating to this invention. It should be recognized that, regardless of the ultimate correctness of any mechanical interpretation or assumption, embodiments of the invention remain operable and useful. Attached Figure Description

[0014] Figure 1 A graph showing the energy density spectrum of quantum vacuum radiation and blackbody radiation is provided.

[0015] Figure 2 Schematic diagrams of exemplary devices driven by energy density difference according to some embodiments are provided.

[0016] Figure 3 A schematic diagram of an exemplary system driven by energy density difference according to some embodiments is provided.

[0017] Figure 4 A cross-sectional illustration of an exemplary Casimir cavity adjacent to an exemplary device is provided according to some embodiments.

[0018] Figure 5 Cross-sectional illustrations of an exemplary Casimir light injector according to some embodiments are provided.

[0019] Figure 6 Cross-sectional illustrations of an exemplary plasmonic Casimir cavity according to some embodiments are provided.

[0020] Figure 7 Cross-sectional views of an exemplary plasmon injector device according to some embodiments are provided.

[0021] Figure 8 Cross-sectional illustrations of exemplary Casimir photocatalysts according to some embodiments are provided.

[0022] Figure 9A , Figure 9B and Figure 9C Cross-sectional illustrations of an exemplary Casimir light source according to some embodiments are provided.

[0023] Figure 10A Pattern layouts for manufacturing exemplary Casimir cathode luminescent systems are provided according to at least some embodiments.

[0024] Figure 10B Cross-sectional illustrations of exemplary Casimir cathodic emission systems according to some embodiments are provided. Detailed Implementation

[0025] Quantum vacuum fluctuations fill all space with electromagnetic radiation. The energy density of this radiation in free space is...

[0026]

[0027] Where h is Planck's constant, f is the radiation frequency, c is the speed of light, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the temperature. The first term in parentheses in Equation 1 is due to thermal blackbody radiation at non-zero temperatures, and the second term is independent of temperature and corresponds to quantum vacuum radiation.

[0028] The energy density (ρ(hf)) spectra of the temperature-dependent and temperature-independent terms in Equation 1 are as follows: Figure 1 As shown, the data is plotted as a function of photon energy hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the optical frequency, varying with the reciprocal of the wavelength. At 300 K, the thermal component (in...) Figure 1 The spectrum of blackbody (hf) reaches its maximum in the visible light portion of the spectrum and in the infrared portion, while quantum vacuum radiation (in...) Figure 1 The quantum vacuum radiation component (QVR(hf)) increases with the cube of the frequency and becomes much larger than the thermal component of the spectrum at visible light frequencies and higher frequencies (as shown in Equation 1 above and Equation 2 below). For 300 K blackbody radiation, the quantum vacuum radiation component exceeds the thermal portion at any frequency above 7 THz, corresponding to a photon energy of approximately 29 meV. Since the energy density of the quantum vacuum radiation portion of the spectrum at high frequencies is much greater than that of the thermal spectrum, more energy can be obtained from quantum vacuum radiation.

[0029] Harvesting and using energy generated by quantum vacuum radiation does not appear to violate any physical laws, but since the energy corresponds to the energy of the ground state, there is generally no driving force for energy flow. However, quantum vacuum radiation is geometrically dependent, and its density may differ in different spatial regions. For example, a zero-point energy density reduction structure can establish a geometric condition in which the quantum vacuum radiation density in one spatial region may be lower than that in free space (such as outside the structure), thus providing conditions for energy flow to occur. A method is described in U.S. Patent 7,379,286, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0030] An example of a zero-point energy density reduction structure is the Casimir cavity. As used herein, the term Casimir cavity includes both optical Casimir cavities and plasmon Casimir cavities, both of which are described in detail below. For a brief introduction, an optical Casimir cavity can be formed using two closely spaced parallel reflectors. Due to the requirement that the tangential electric field must disappear at the boundary (for an ideal reflector), the allowed quantum vacuum modes (i.e., field modes) between the plates are limited. Generally, allowed modes include those with a gap spacing equal to an integer multiple of half the wavelength. Modes with wavelengths greater than twice the gap spacing are largely excluded. This results in a larger and more numerous set of full-spectrum quantum vacuum modes outside the plates (described by Equation 1) than the restricted set of modes inside, and therefore a lower energy density inside. The critical size determining the wavelength at which quantum vacuum modes are suppressed is the gap spacing (in the case of a one-dimensional optical Casimir cavity). Optical Casimir cavities can also be constructed in the form of cylinders (nanopores), in which case the critical size is the diameter. Optical Casimir cavities can also be formed with other geometries that can be used with the disclosed devices. The aspects described in this paper take advantage of the fact that quantum vacuum energy levels depend on local geometry, particularly the existence of zero-point energy density reduction structures such as Casimir cavities.

[0031] Zero-point energy is the ground-state energy of a system, which remains constant even at zero temperature. Quantum vacuum fluctuations include zero-point energy fluctuations in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Quantum vacuum radiation is a type of zero-point energy that exists in free space and transparent media. Zero-point energy-driven modes exist in media outside of free space, as well as in waves other than electromagnetic waves. Other waves include phonons, polarons (including plasmons), plasma oscillations, and electromagnetic waves, spin waves, and sound waves in matter. Only high-frequency waves carrying sufficient energy are of interest for collection, similar to... Figure 1 The quantum vacuum radiation conditions are shown. For each of these waves that support the zero-point energy-driven mode, energy can be extracted if a spatial gradient of the zero-point energy amplitude is available, similar to how an optical Casimir cavity produces a spatial difference in the zero-point energy density in the form of quantum vacuum radiation.

[0032] Plasmonics are charge oscillations, including surface plasmons and volume plasmons. Surface plasmons can exist at the interface between a conductor, plasma, or charged gas and a dielectric (such as an insulator, semiconductor, or air). Volume plasmons are longitudinal charge oscillations within a conductor, plasma, or charged gas, typically exhibiting higher energies and frequencies than surface plasmons. The term plasmon is used herein to refer to surface plasmons and volume plasmons in materials, as well as other infrared to ultraviolet frequency polaritons. Plasmons in conductors (including metals) or at conductor interfaces can support waves with frequencies of interest; therefore, cavities that suppress a range of plasmon modes can provide the asymmetry required for zero-point energy harvesting and can be used as zero-point energy density reduction structures. These structures are referred to herein as plasmon Casimir cavities and will be described in further detail later.

[0033] In order to take advantage of the difference in zero-point energy density, the asymmetry of the structure can be reduced with respect to the zero-point energy density, thereby allowing a portion of the energy to be harvested. Figure 2 An exemplary arrangement is shown in which the zero-point energy density reduction structure 200 can be used to establish an asymmetry in zero-point energy density between one side and the other side of the transmission medium 250, such as by aligning one side of the transmission medium 250 with the zero-point energy density reduction structure 200. By using structures for creating an asymmetry in zero-point energy density on one side of the device relative to the other side, and structures for transferring excitation charge (e.g., the transmission medium 250) away from the excitation location, net power can flow through the transmission medium 250 from the side without the zero-point energy density reduction structure and therefore having a higher zero-point energy level to the side with the zero-point energy density reduction structure and having a lower zero-point energy density, as schematically shown by arrow 255. The same concept applies if there are zero-point energy density reduction structures on both sides, but with different critical dimensions or frequency cutoff values.

[0034] exist Figure 2 In the above description of the zero-point energy density reduction structure, energy is shown as propagating from one side of the transmission medium to the other. This energy flow can be used in systems that directly generate products (such as photochemical or electrochemical reaction products) by coupling a product generation device adjacent to or near the zero-point energy density reduction structure. Figure 3 An example arrangement of such a system is shown, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure 300 is adjacent to the first device component 325 but not adjacent to the second device component 330, thereby establishing an asymmetry in zero-point energy density between them. A transport medium 350 is located between the first device component 325 and the second device component 330. The first device component 325, the second device component 330, and the transport medium 350 may be components of a product generation apparatus. Figure 3 In this configuration, the first device component 325 is adjacent to and energy-constrained by the zero-point energy density reduction structure 300, while the second device component 330 is not constrained by the zero-point energy density reduction structure 300. By using a structure for generating an asymmetry in zero-point energy density at the first device component 325 relative to the second device component 330, and a structure for transferring energy, waves, or charges (e.g., a transfer medium 350), net power can flow from the second device component 330, which does not have a zero-point energy density reduction structure and therefore has a higher zero-point energy level, to the adjacent first device component 325, which has a lower zero-point energy density than the zero-point energy density reduction structure 300, thereby driving product generation. For example, if the first device component 325, the second device component 330, and the transfer medium 350 are properly constructed, the energy flow can be used to directly drive oxidation and / or reduction reactions without actually needing to collect energy as voltage and / or current, allowing for the direct production of chemical fuels. Electrical lead 395 can be connected between the first device component 325 and the second device component 330 to provide a return path for current flow during oxidation and / or reduction reactions. As another example, the energy flow can be used to directly induce light emission, such as in cases where the energy flow induces electrons to interact with a phosphor, without actually harvesting the energy as voltage and / or current.

[0035] Another way to describe the asymmetry requirement is through equilibrium and fine-grained balancing. In equilibrium, the energy flow from any first element to any second element must be balanced by an equal energy flow from the second element to the first element. This is the result of fine-grained balancing. Zero-point energy density reduction structures facilitate methods to break this equilibrium, thereby making the energy flow from the device side with the zero-point energy density reduction structure less than the energy flow from the device side without it.

[0036] Optical Casimir Cavity Figure 4An illustration of an example of an optical Casimir cavity 400 adjacent to a transmission medium 450 is provided, which may include, for example, or correspond to a part of a product generation apparatus. The optical Casimir cavity 400 includes a first reflector 405, a second reflector 410, and a gap 415 between the first reflector 405 and the second reflector 410. The gap 415 (also referred to herein as a cavity layer) may be a space gap (e.g., emptied or corresponding to a vacuum) or filled with gas, which can be achieved by a rigid substrate and spacers. In some embodiments, the gap 415 may be filled with a material 416, such as an optical material that is at least partially transparent to at least some wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation supported by the optical Casimir cavity, preferably through the entire visible range of the near-ultraviolet region. In contrast to a gas, the material 416 may comprise a condensed phase material, such as a solid, liquid, or liquid crystal. Exemplary materials that may be used as a cavity layer include, but are not limited to, silicon oxide or aluminum oxide. Alternatively, filling the gap with polymers such as PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate), polyimide, polymethyl methacrylate, or silicone may be sufficient or desirable, as these polymers provide adequate transparency at the wavelengths of interest. In some examples, the cavity layer material (such as those described above) may have a transmittance greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. Advantageously, the cavity layer material may have a transmittance greater than 50% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. In some cases, the cavity layer material (including at least some of the materials described above) may have a transmittance greater than 70% or greater than 90% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. The thickness or spacing of the gap 415 can be set by the target wavelength range of the optical Casimir cavity. In some examples, the gap 415 of the Casimir cavity may have a spacing from 10 nm to 2 μm.

[0037] The reflector material used for the first reflector 405 and / or the second reflector 410 may be selected based on its reflectivity in the wavelength range of interest, ease of deposition, and / or other considerations such as cost. The thickness of the reflector must be sufficient to provide adequate reflectivity, but not so thick that it is difficult to pattern. In some examples, the reflector may have a thickness of at least 10 nm, such as from 10 nm to 1 cm. Exemplary materials that can be used as reflectors for optical Casimir cavities include, but are not limited to, metals, dielectric reflectors, or diffractive reflectors such as Bragg reflectors or metamaterial reflectors. Exemplary metals that can be used as reflectors for optical Casimir cavities include, but are not limited to, Al, Ag, Au, Cu, Pd, or Pt. Exemplary dielectrics that can be used as dielectric reflectors include, but are not limited to, ZrO2, SiO2, Si3N4, Nb2O5, TiO2, MgF2, LiF, Na3AlF6, Ta2O5, LaTiO3, HfO2, ZnS, ZnSe, etc. For at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm, the exemplary reflectivity of at least one of the two reflectors in an optical Casimir cavity is 50% to 100%. The reflectors of an optical Casimir cavity do not need to be metallic or dielectric reflectors; reflective interfaces can be used. For example, the reflective layer can be a step in refractive index at the interface between two adjacent materials (such as between the cavity layer and its surrounding material). In some cases, the cavity walls may provide a step in dielectric constant or refractive index when transitioning from one dielectric material to another or one or more dielectric materials, or between a dielectric material and free space.

[0038] Alternatively, an optical Casimir cavity can be formed from a multilayer dielectric stack of the distributed Bragg reflector type. For example, such a stack may comprise alternating layers of two or more dielectric materials with different refractive indices. In the case of two materials, the thickness of each pair of layers characterizes the pitch. Wavelengths twice the pitch are reflected, while longer wavelengths are largely suppressed. It is important to note that this differs from antireflective coatings, where the pitch is one-quarter of the wavelength rather than half, as is the case here. The layer thickness can be further chirped to enhance the spectral width of the reflection. Any suitable number of alternating dielectric layers can be used, such as 2 to 100 layers, or more.

[0039] exist Figure 4 In this configuration, the transport medium 450 is located near the optical Casimir cavity 400, such that one side of the transport medium 450 faces the optical Casimir cavity 400, thereby establishing an asymmetry. The transport medium 450 may include a material that allows charge carrier transport, which can be used for product generation processes via the zero-point energy density difference established by the presence of the optical Casimir cavity 400.

[0040] In the optical Casimir cavity system described herein, excited charge carriers can be directly used to generate products (such as chemical reaction products) or for light emission. To utilize or capture energy in the form of charge carrier excitation, it is necessary to transport the charge carriers away from the point of emission and capture. Charge carrier transport and capture may need to occur on very fast (i.e., short) timescales. For example, transport and / or capture may occur within time intervals of less than or about 1 ps, less than or about 100 fs, less than or about 10 fs, less than or about 1 fs, or less than or about 0.1 fs. In some cases, the longer the time, the smaller the proportion of usable energy captured. The need for rapid transport and capture of charge carriers will be described in more detail below.

[0041] Casimir photoinjector. Photons striking the surface of a conductor can cause charge carriers (usually electrons) in the conductor to be photoexcited, resulting in hot carriers. If the conductor layer is thin enough, these hot carriers can pass through the conductor layer and into the material on the other side. This process is called internal photoemission, also known as photoinjection. When this thin conductor layer is adjacent to a thin insulator (referred to herein as a transport medium or transport layer) next to a second conductor layer, hot carriers can pass through the transport layer and into the second conductor. Although charge carriers can also be thermally excited, this is not addressed in this specification because it generally does not generate a net current or produce products for the described device.

[0042] An example of a device that can directly generate products (such as driving a chemical reaction or generating light) by utilizing the flux difference of photoexcited charge carriers in two directions is the Casimir photoinjector. Figure 5 A cross-sectional illustration of an exemplary Casimir light injector is provided. Figure 5 The Casimir light injector includes a Casimir cavity 500, which is configured adjacent to or connected to a product generation device 550. The Casimir cavity 500 includes a first reflector 505, a second reflector 510, and a gap 515, which may optionally be filled with material as described above. The product generation device 550 includes a first conductive layer 555, a second conductive layer 560, and a transport layer 565 between the first conductive layer 555 and the second conductive layer 560. In this configuration, the first conductive layer 555 may at least partially serve as the second reflector 510 of the Casimir cavity 500.

[0043] Exemplary materials used for the first conductive layer 555 and / or the second conductive layer 560 include, but are not limited to, metals, semiconductors (e.g., low-bandgap semiconductors), two-dimensional conductive materials, and conductive ceramics. In some cases, the second conductive layer 560 may optionally include an electrolyte, such as an aqueous electrolyte. Exemplary materials for the transport layer 565 include, but are not limited to, dielectrics, some semiconductors, and electrolytes, such as aqueous electrolytes. Exemplary aqueous electrolytes include sodium and lithium salt solutions, alkaline electrolytes such as KOH, NaOH, and B4K2O7 solutions, and acidic solutions such as H2SO4. Solid polymer electrolytes, such as Nafion, may also be used.

[0044] In the first conductive layer 555, there are at least two ways to excite carriers to a hot carrier state. One is by photons striking the outer surface of the conductor, generating photo-excited carriers as described above. Ignoring thermally generated (blackbody) photons, the photon source that can generate photo-excited carriers is the ambient quantum vacuum mode. Another non-thermal way to excite carriers comes from the internal zero-point energy fluctuations of the first conductive layer 555 material. The combination of these two methods generates hot carriers that can enter the transport layer 565.

[0045] In the second conductive layer 560, a similar situation exists, except that the second conductive layer 560 is too thick to allow photoexcited charge carriers generated on the outer surface of the conductor to penetrate the second conductive layer 560 and reach the transport layer 565. Instead, the photoexcited charge carriers are dispersed in the second conductive layer 560 and lose their excess energy, such as in the form of phonons and plasmons. Therefore, in the second conductive layer 560, the only non-thermal excitation source of hot charge carriers comes from the internal zero-point energy fluctuations of the material of the second conductive layer 560. Since the second conductive layer 560 is thicker than the first conductive layer 555, the overall internal generation rate of excited charge carriers available to pass through the transport layer 565 is greater than the internal generation rate in the thinner first conductive layer 555.

[0046] Under equilibrium conditions, the carrier current from the second conductive layer 560 must be exactly the same as the carrier current generated in the first conductive layer 555 by the combination of internal and external energy. Under equilibrium conditions, the carrier current from the first conductive layer 555 to the second conductive layer 560 is precisely balanced by the carrier current from the second conductive layer to the first conductive layer.

[0047] On the other hand, as the Casimir cavity 500 covers the first conductive layer 555, the photon flux striking the outer surface of the first conductive layer 555 decreases. Therefore, the generation rate of photoexcited charge carriers decreases. This disrupts the balance of charge carrier currents between the two conductive layers, resulting in a net charge carrier current (e.g., electron flow) from the second conductive layer 560 to the first conductive layer 555. Since charge carriers are typically negatively charged electrons, a conventional positively charged current flows from the first conductive layer 555 to the second conductive layer 560. In some cases, with... Figure 5 In contrast to the illustration, another Casimir cavity may be located near the second conductive layer, which may have a different critical size (i.e., gap) than the Casimir cavity 500, so that the carrier currents are unbalanced between the two conductive layers 555 and 560.

[0048] The Casimir cavity light injector is a DC (direct current) device, in which a voltage is generated between the first conductive layer 555 and the second conductive layer 560 due to different average currents originating from the first conductive layer 555 and the second conductive layer 560. This voltage or average current difference can be used to drive a chemical reaction at a product generation device 550 configured as a chemical reaction apparatus. The charge carrier flow through the transport layer can also be used, or alternatively, to generate light at the product generation device 550 configured as a light emission device. Each of these aspects is described in more detail below.

[0049] The time interval at which energy from zero-point fluctuations must be extracted and become unavailable before returning to its source or being eliminated by an opposing energy pulse can be determined by a trade-off between the amount of energy ΔE that can be extracted from the vacuum and the available time interval ΔT. This results in ΔE / Δt ≤ a constant, so the greater the energy to be extracted, the shorter the available time. If this constant is equal to h / 2, where h is Planck's constant divided by 2π, then based on this relationship, the energy to collect 2 eV (ΔE) of photons will indicate Δt ≤ 0.16 fs. Since thermionic transport across the thin insulating layer can occur in a time close to 1 fs, in this case, the transport process can be used to extract at least a portion of the charge carriers excited by the zero-point energy.

[0050] Other structures that support charge transport from internal photoemission can be used as Casimir photoinjectors in place of the aforementioned conductor / transport layer / conductor arrangement. These structures include Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, Mott diodes, quantum well diodes, ballistic diodes, carbon nanotube diodes, superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) devices, and other structures that facilitate charge injection as known to those skilled in the art.

[0051] The transport distance and therefore the transport time of a Schottky diode can be greater than that of the conductor / transport layer / conductor structure described herein. Due to the longer transport time, the proportion of hot carriers trapped and collected can be reduced. A shorter accumulation or depletion width can result in a faster trapping time. To reduce the width of the accumulation or depletion layer, the semiconductor can be heavily doped, for example, with a doping concentration of 10⁻⁶. 15 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 Or its sub-regions. In some cases, thin semiconductor regions between the conductive layers (variants of the Schottky barrier known as thin Mott barriers) can be used to reduce the transmission distance. Both of these methods of reducing transmission distance reduce transmission time, thereby increasing the proportion of hot carriers that are trapped and collected.

[0052] In contrast to the optical Casimir cavity, which suppresses zero-energy electromagnetic oscillations in a vacuum or transparent medium, the cavity that suppresses zero-energy plasmon oscillations is referred to in this paper as the plasmon Casimir cavity.

[0053] Plasmon Casimir cavities can be formed by constructing a conductive medium that confines zero-energy plasmon modes supported by the medium. For example, this can be achieved by incorporating a periodic structure with a pitch that suppresses zero-energy plasmon bands. Plasmon wavelengths at twice the pitch are reflected, while longer wavelengths are largely suppressed. This results in a larger and more numerous full-spectrum of zero-energy modes outside the plasmon Casimir cavity compared to the confined mode set inside, thus leading to a lower energy density inside.

[0054] One approach to generating such periodic structures is to use distributed Bragg reflectors. These reflectors can be formed using multilayer stacks of metamaterials, metasurfaces, or different conductors, and can suppress a series of plasmon polariton modes in the conductors, similar to how an optical Casimir cavity suppresses a series of electromagnetic modes. Plasmon polariton Casimir cavities can be used in specific structures to provide asymmetry in zero-point energy density, as described below.

[0055] Figure 6 An illustration is provided of an exemplary plasmon Casimir cavity 600 comprising a distributed Bragg reflector type multilayer stack. The plasmon Casimir cavity 600 is similar to a dielectric stack reflector used to form an optical mirror, but is formed by conductor layers 621 and 622 to form a plasmon reflector, which can be used to suppress plasmon modes in the vertical direction, as indicated by arrow 630. Figure 6The illustrated configuration incorporates at least two types of conductors 621 and 622, which differ in their plasmonic properties, such as free electron density, electron mass, electron mobility, Fermi level, or morphology. At high frequencies, typically ultraviolet light, where the conductors become transparent, the two conductors exhibit different refractive indices. Conductors 621 and 622 are formed as alternating stacks, with the thickness of each pair of layers characterizing the pitch. Plasmon wavelengths twice the pitch are reflected, while longer wavelengths are largely suppressed. The layer thickness can be further chirped to enhance the spectral width of the reflection. Optionally, a very thin dielectric or semiconductor (e.g., including SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, Nb2O5, Ta2O5, CrO, a-Si:H (hydrogenated amorphous silicon), or TiO2) with a thickness between 0.2 and 20 nm can replace the individual conductor layers 621 or 622, or can be incorporated into the individual conductor layers 621 or 622 to complement the plasmon reflection properties. Suppression results in a larger and more numerous full-spectrum set of zero-energy modes outside the plasmon polariton Casimir cavity compared to the confined mode set inside, leading to a lower energy density inside. An example is Ag (with an electron density of 6 x 10⁻⁶). 22 cm -2 ) and Al (electron density is 18 x 10⁻⁶) 22 cm -2 Alternating conductor layers, each 50 nm thick, to provide a 100 nm pitch. If each pair of alternating layers is 100 nm thick, then ten pairs of such alternating layers would have a thickness of 1 μm. Any suitable number of alternating dielectric layers of conductors 621 and 622 can be used, such as 2 to 100 layers, or more. As an example, Figure 6 Three pairs are shown. It should be understood that other multilayer structures incorporating conductors known to those skilled in the art can also be used to confine plasmon spectra and provide plasmon Casimir cavities.

[0056] Because plasmon Casimir cavities can suppress a range of plasmon modes, they can provide the asymmetry required for zero-point energy harvesting. To harvest or trap energy in the form of charge carriers, these charge carriers need to be transported away from the emission and trapping points. The transport and trapping of charge carriers may need to occur on very fast timescales. For example, transport and / or trapping can occur within time intervals of less than or about 1 ps, less than or about 100 fs, less than or about 10 fs, less than or about 1 fs, or less than or about 0.1 fs. In some cases, the longer the time, the smaller the proportion of usable energy trapped. The rapid transport and trapping of charge carriers generated using plasmon Casimir cavities is described in more detail below.

[0057] Plasmons within the conductor of the plasmon injector transfer energy to charge carriers in the conductor, exciting them and generating hot carriers. When the conductor is adjacent to a thin transport layer next to a second conductor, the hot carriers can pass through the transport layer and enter the second conductor. Furthermore, plasmons can induce carrier tunneling through the transport layer.

[0058] An example of a device that can harvest energy or directly generate products by utilizing the flux difference of charge carriers excited by plasmons in two directions is a plasmon injector. Figure 7 A cross-sectional illustration of an exemplary plasmon injector is provided. Figure 7 The plasmon injector includes a conductor / transport layer / conductor device comprising a plasmon Casimir cavity 700 as a first conductor 720, a transport layer 750 adjacent to and in contact with the plasmon Casimir cavity 700, and a second conductor 730 adjacent to and in contact with the transport layer 750. The transport layer 750 is located between the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 and the second conductor 730. The plasmon Casimir cavity 700 is located in... Figure 7 The structure is depicted as a multilayer conductor stack having alternating layers of one conductor 721 and another conductor 722, but may also be formed by other structures that confine the plasmon spectrum. The transport layer 750 and the second conductor 730 may include portions of a product generation apparatus.

[0059] Figure 7 The orientation of the plasmon Casimir cavity 700, the second conductor 730, and the transport layer 750 shown is not intended to be limiting, but may correspond to one manner of orienting these components relative to a supporting dielectric and may allow for simplified fabrication in some embodiments. Alternatively, alternating conductors 721 and 722 may be supported by a dielectric that may also support the transport layer 750 and the second conductor 730 (e.g., to provide a horizontal orientation rather than...). Figure 7 (Vertical orientation shown).

[0060] Exemplary materials for the conductors used in the plasmon Casimir cavity (such as conductors 721 and 722 and / or the second conductor 730) include, but are not limited to, metals, superconductors, semiconductors (e.g., low-bandgap semiconductors), two-dimensional conductive materials, conductive ceramics, and / or other plasmon-supporting materials. In some cases, the second conductor 730 may optionally include an electrolyte, such as an aqueous electrolyte. Exemplary materials for the transport layer 750 include, but are not limited to, dielectrics, some semiconductors, and electrolytes, such as aqueous electrolytes. Exemplary aqueous electrolytes include sodium and lithium salt solutions, alkaline electrolytes such as KOH, NaOH, and B4K2O7 solutions, and acidic solutions such as H2SO4. Solid polymer electrolytes, such as Nafion, may also be used.

[0061] As described above, the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 confines the plasmon spectrum therein, but the second conductor 730 does not confine the metasurface, thus allowing the full spectrum of surface plasmon modes that the second conductor 730 can support. In the plasmon Casimir cavity 700, carriers can be excited to a hot carrier state via zero-point energy driven plasmon modes, and these hot carriers can enter the transport layer 750, and carriers can also tunnel from the first conductor 720 through the transport layer 750 to the second conductor 730. A similar situation exists in the second conductor 730, where carriers can be excited to a hot carrier state via zero-point energy driven plasmon modes, and carriers can also tunnel from the second conductor 730 through the transport layer 750 to the first conductor 720. In equilibrium conditions without the plasmon Casimir cavity structure, the carrier current from the first conductor on one side of the transport layer must be exactly the same as the carrier current from the second conductor on the other side of the transport layer. On the other hand, the configuration of the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 reduces the number of zero-point energy driven plasmon modes supported therein. Consequently, the generation rate of hot carriers from the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 is reduced, and the density of plasmons available to induce tunneling from the first conductor 720 is also reduced. This disrupts the balance of carrier currents between the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 and the second conductor 730, resulting in a net carrier current (e.g., electron current) flowing from the second conductor 730 to the first conductor 720. Since carriers are typically negatively charged electrons, a conventional positively charged current flows from the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 to the second conductor 730.

[0062] The plasmon injector is a DC (direct current) device in which different average currents originating from the plasmon Casimir cavity 700 and the second conductor 530 generate a voltage between them. This voltage or average current difference can be used to drive chemical reactions in a chemical reaction device. The charge carrier flow through the transport layer can also be used, or alternatively, to generate light in a light emitting device. Each of these aspects is described in more detail below.

[0063] Similar to the optical Casimir cavity described above, the speed at which energy from zero-energy-driven plasmon fluctuations must be extracted and become unavailable before returning to its source or being canceled out by an opposing energy pulse can be controlled by a trade-off between the energy ΔE that can be extracted from the zero-energy field and the available extraction time interval Δt. Generally, capturing more available energy may require occurring within a shorter time interval. A timescale of approximately 1 fs or less is desirable for extracting at least a portion of the charge carriers excited by the zero-energy, thus a very thin transport layer is typically used.

[0064] Other structures that support charge transport from plasmonic generation can be used in plasmonic injectors, replacing the conductor / transport layer / conductor arrangement described above. These structures include Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, Mott diodes, quantum well diodes, carbon nanotube diodes, superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) devices, and other structures that facilitate charge injection as known to those skilled in the art. As mentioned above, semiconductors in semiconductor diodes (such as Schottky diodes) can be doped to reduce the width of the accumulated or depleted layer and thus reduce the transport distance and time to increase the proportion of trapped carriers.

[0065] Casimir optical injectors and plasmon injectors generate current that can be used to generate products such as fuels or light. The current that can be generated depends on the characteristics of the optical or plasmon Casimir cavity and the materials and structure of the adjacent product generation device.

[0066] As mentioned above, the energy density from the quantum vacuum is provided by the temperature-independent term in Equation 1, which is:

[0067]

[0068] Photon flux (the number of photons per unit frequency per unit area) is given by the following formula.

[0069]

[0070] Where c is the arrival velocity, hf is the photon energy, and 1 / 4 is the geometric factor of the radiation. The total flux (number of photons per unit area) is...

[0071]

[0072] Where hf2 is the highest photon energy suppressed by the optical Casimir cavity, and hf1 is the lowest photon energy that provides sufficient energy for photoexcited electrons to cross the potential barrier and tunnel through the transport layer. This is due to an approximation of low-energy cutoff (the cutoff is actually asymptotic), as the reduction in photon energy follows the Airy function, which describes the allowed cavity modes. The current generated by this flux is approximately

[0073] I = Je = 2.37 × 10 -4 [(hf2) 3 -(hf1) 3 A / μm 2 Equation 5

[0074] Where e is the elementary charge.

[0075] For the Casimir cavity providing a high-energy cutoff of 2.6 eV and a low-energy barrier cutoff of approximately 1.6 eV, the resulting current is 3.2 mA / μm. 2 The actual current is likely much smaller because the light injection probability in a practical optical Casimir cavity depends on and is not uniformly determined by the photon absorption rate in the first conductive layer. With a light injection probability of 0.05% and an optical Casimir cavity blocking efficiency of only 25%, the resulting current drops to 0.4 μA / μm. 2 It should be understood that these figures are provided for illustrative purposes only and are not limiting. Actual output may be smaller or larger depending on the characteristics, geometry, materials, etc. of the Casimir light injector.

[0076] In some cases, a 0.05% optical or plasmon injection probability may be sufficient to achieve a usable current output. However, if the optical or plasmon injection probability increases, more current may be available. As mentioned above, the carrier currents between the two conduction layers are balanced, both in equilibrium and without a Casimir cavity. To maintain this balance, if the efficiency of optically or plasmon-excited hot carriers in the first conduction layer that crosses the transport layer is improved, then the generation rate of internally generated hot carriers in the first conduction layer that can cross the transport layer must be compensatingly reduced. Since the generation rate of optically or plasmon-excited hot carriers is suppressed by adding a Casimir cavity, the carrier current suppressed by adding a Casimir cavity is larger when the efficiency of optically or plasmon-excited hot carriers in the first conduction layer that crosses the transport layer is greater. This suppression leads to a larger imbalance between the current of carriers from the first conduction layer to the second conduction layer and the current of carriers from the second conduction layer to the first conduction layer, resulting in a larger net current. Therefore, it may be advantageous to provide the most efficient method possible for generating and / or injecting light- or plasmon-excited hot carriers in the first conductive layer that can traverse the transport layer.

[0077] In some cases, structures that achieve this can be integrated into the conductive layer of a product generation device, such as plasmonic nanostructures embedded in or on the surface of one or more conductive layers. Plasmonic nanostructures are a class of metamaterials in which nanoscale arrangements of materials (such as metals) can efficiently couple electromagnetic radiation into the material and enhance hot carrier emission. Examples of plasmonic nanostructures for enhancing light absorption are known in the art. See, for example: Wang et al., 2011, "Harvesting Plasma Energy by Hot Carrier Extraction", *Nano Letters*, 11:12, 5426-5430; Atar et al., 2013, "Plasma-Enhanced Hot Electron Generation Devices", *Optics Letters*, 21:6, 7196-7201; and Clavero, 2014, "Plasma-Induced Hot Electron Generation at Nanoparticle / Metal Oxide Interfaces for Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Devices", *Nature Photonics*, 8:2, 95-103; these references are incorporated herein by reference. Examples of plasmonic nanostructures that provide enhanced hot carrier emission and injection (such as factors up to 25x) are known in the art. See, for example: Knight et al., 2013, "Embedded plasmonic nanostructure diodes enhance hot electron emission", *Nano Letters*, 13:4, 1687-1692; Chalabi et al., 2014, "Hot electron photodetectors with plasmonic nanostrip antennas", *Nano Letters*, 14:3, 1374-1380; and Brongersma, 2015, "Plasma-induced hot carrier science and technology", *Nature Nanotechnology*, 10:1, 25-34, which are incorporated herein by reference. Exemplary plasmonic nanostructures used in conjunction with the embodiments disclosed herein may include, but are not limited to, nanoparticles of conductive material (e.g., metal) embedded in or on the surface of a conductive layer, such as on a non-conductive or insulating material on the surface of a conductive layer, and patterns of the surface or interface of a conductive material.

[0078] One advantage of using a plasmonic injector is that the injection efficiency of zero-point energy-driven plasmonic-excited charge carriers into the transport layer can be higher than that of a similar injection system based on an optical Casimir cavity. As mentioned above, in an optical Casimir cavity-based optical injector system, photons must be absorbed in the first conductor, and there are losses associated with this process. In contrast, in a plasmonic Casimir cavity system, plasmons are present in the first conductor and do not require a similar absorption process to excite charge carriers.

[0079] A chemical reaction apparatus is a device that uses energy collected based on differences in zero-point energy density to directly drive a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction apparatus may include, or correspond to, a photocatalytic device, a photoelectrolysis device, and / or an electrochemical device, and may include multiple electrodes, wherein oxidation and reduction reactions occur at the surface of the electrodes using energy collected based on differences in zero-point energy density in different regions or structures.

[0080] Generally, photocatalysis (particularly the photoelectrolysis of water) can be carried out using systems similar to the aforementioned Casimir photoinjector or plasmon polariton injector devices, wherein the chemical reaction apparatus replaces the transport layer and second conductor in the Casimir photoinjector or plasmon polariton injector. As used herein, the terms photocatalysis, electrochemical photolysis, photoelectrolysis, photoinduced water splitting, and similar terms are used interchangeably to refer to the electrochemical processes occurring at the electrodes and can manifest as oxidation and reduction reactions. In conventional systems, these processes are mediated by the absorption of light, but in the systems described herein, the oxidation and reduction processes can be driven by the difference in zero-point energy density and the resulting generation and transport of charge carriers. Photoelectrolysis has been demonstrated using short-wavelength light to produce hydrogen fuel. In a conventional photoelectrolysis cell illuminated by a cathode, it uses photogenerated electrons to combine with hydrogen ions in water to produce hydrogen gas. In contrast, to utilize the difference in zero-point energy density as a power source, a Casimir cavity adjacent to such an electrode can be used, for example, to confine a set of quantum vacuum modes to which it is exposed, and used as an anode or cathode.

[0081] Figure 8 An exemplary system including a Casimir cavity 800 and a chemical reaction apparatus, which may correspond to a Casimir photocatalyst, is shown. Although the Casimir cavity 800 is depicted as an optical Casimir cavity, other Casimir cavity configurations, such as plasmonic Casimir cavities, may be used, as described above. In the illustrated configuration, the chemical reaction apparatus includes a first electrode 805 serving as an anode, a second electrode 810 serving as a cathode, and an electrolyte 815 between the first electrode 805 and the second electrode 810. The first electrode 805 and the second electrode 810 are connected to each other via a conductor 895, and the first electrode 805 may correspond to at least a portion of the Casimir cavity 800. Figure 8 As depicted, the first electrode 805 can be a hybrid component serving both as a reflector in the Casimir cavity 800 and as an electrode in a chemical reaction apparatus. For example, with respect to a plasmonic Casimir cavity, the first electrode 805 can be a hybrid component serving both as an end conductor of the conductor stack in the Casimir cavity 800 and as an electrode in a chemical reaction apparatus. Figure 8 As shown, the second electrode 810 can be immersed in the electrolyte 815, but in some configurations, the electrolyte 815 can be located exactly in the area between the first electrode 805 and the second electrode 810.

[0082] In the case of water as an electrolyte and water decomposition as a chemical reaction, the following reaction occurs at the surface of the first electrode 805 exposed to the electrolyte 815, including acid-balanced water:

[0083] H2O→ 1 / 2O2↑+2e - +2H +

[0084] Oxygen is produced, and electrons flow through conductor 895 to the second electrode 810. H + Ions are transported from the electrolyte 815 to the second electrode 810. At the surface of the second electrode 810 exposed to the electrolyte 815, the following reaction occurs:

[0085] 2H + +2e - →H2↑

[0086] When electrolyte 815 contains water in equilibrium with the base, a similar reaction involving OH- occurs. In both cases, hydrogen is produced at the second electrode 810, where it can be collected for use as fuel.

[0087] Splitting water requires at least 1.23 eV of energy, and driving the reaction at a practical rate requires much more. Therefore, a useful material for the first electrode 805 should have a sufficiently high band gap, such as up to 10 eV. A suitable example material is SiC, with a band gap between 2.36 and 3.05 eV. Conventional photocatalysis has been demonstrated using silicon carbide photocathodes. To produce hydrogen by collecting the difference in zero-point energy, SiC is used as the first electrode 805 adjacent to the Casimir cavity 800. For an optical Casimir cavity, the Casimir cavity 800 must suppress optical modes with energies greater than the band gap, while for a plasmonic Casimir cavity, plasmonic modes with similar energies must be suppressed. For a band gap of approximately 2.5 eV, this corresponds to a gap spacing of less than 250 nm in the Casimir cavity 800.

[0088] The amount of hydrogen produced can be estimated from Equation 5. For an optical Casimir cavity with a spacing of 100 nm, quantum vacuum modes below approximately 6.2 eV are suppressed. For SiC with an optical Casimir cavity spacing of 100 nm and a bandgap energy of approximately 2.5 eV, Equation 5 yields 53 mA / (μm). 2 .

[0089] Several factors can reduce hydrogen production efficiency, causing it to fall below the optimal 53 mA / (μm). 2The efficiency that can be provided. One factor is the quality of the reflector in the optical Casimir cavity in the visible and near-ultraviolet wavelength range, which will be close to 100% for a near-perfect reflector. In some cases, depending on the material chosen, the reflectivity can range from about 35% for gold to about 92% for aluminum when used as the hybrid reflector / first electrode side of the optical Casimir cavity 800, and from about 5% to 50% for SiC when used as the hybrid reflector / first electrode side of the optical Casimir cavity. The medium filling the gap in the optical Casimir cavity also limits the efficiency, as the absorbing medium reduces its efficiency. Vacuum or air may be an ideal medium, but filling the cavity with a transport material such as oxides or polymers may be more practical. Such a medium has a band gap that confines photon energy to low photon energies, and absorption leads to additional losses even in the transport portion of the spectrum. Another factor is the incomplete optical absorption in the electrodes (e.g., anode and / or cathode), which varies with wavelength and thickness. In addition to these optical inefficiencies, the efficiency of charge transport and hydrogen generation is also low. One such factor is the excess charge energy provided by the anode and / or cathode required to drive the reaction at the desired rate. Electrode materials with large band gaps that can provide substantial excess energy are typically expensive and unstable in water; even if available, they require high incident photons, approximately above 3 eV. To achieve these high energies, the optical Casimir cavity would have a very small gap, well below 200 nm, to suppress sufficiently high energies. High energies would also provide a larger current, as described in Equation 5, and result in higher absorption in the electrodes (e.g., anode and / or cathode). However, high energies are also absorbed more by the optical Casimir cavity gap medium and tend to be reflected worse by the optical Casimir cavity reflector. Furthermore, forming a small-gap optical Casimir cavity is generally more technically challenging. Other efficiency limiting factors include resistive losses in the electrodes (e.g., anode and / or cathode), water, and conductors. It should be understood that the figures provided above are for illustrative purposes only and note that they are intended to be limiting. These values ​​can vary considerably for different anode, cathode, and optical Casimir cavity materials, as well as for different cell configurations.

[0090] Estimating the aforementioned optical inefficiency loss to be 100 times, and the additional losses from charge transport and hydrogen generation processes to be 100 times, the total loss is 10. 4 times. 10 4 This will cause the current to increase from 53 mA / (μm). 2 Reduced to 5.3 μA / (μm) 2 This current is converted into H2, and the generation rate is approximately 28 pg / (μm). 2 -sec, corresponding to 100cm 2 0.3 g / sec of area. At this rate, at 100 cm² 2Within an area, approximately 1 kg of H2 will be generated per hour, which is sufficient to enable fuel cell-powered vehicles to operate continuously.

[0091] In some cases, certain parts of the system may generate heat while others may absorb it, leading to cooling. The heat generated due to the difference between photon inputs up to 6.2 eV and the approximately 1.5 eV required for electrolysis may limit the rate of fuel reduction. For the heat-absorbing components of the system, high-density fuel production may be limited by the rate of heat transfer required to keep the system temperature within operational limits, such as by applying heat or absorbing heat from the environment. Optical Casimir cavities with large gaps to reduce high photon energy input and areas greater than 100 cm² are considered. 2 The unit can be used to reduce heat flow per unit area.

[0092] The zero-point energy driven photoelectrolysis example given above is illustrative and not limiting. Many other materials and configurations used for conventional photoelectrolysis are available, as is known to those skilled in the art. A Casimir cavity cathode can be used instead of a Casimir cavity anode, or both electrodes can be combined with a Casimir cavity. The cathode or anode can alternatively take the form of a Schottky barrier, pn junction, semiconductor / liquid junction, and other devices known to those skilled in the art, and these semiconductor materials can be doped to reduce, for example, the width of the accumulated or depleted layer. Examples of specific anode and cathode structures for solar-driven water splitting systems are given in Walter, Michael G. et al., “Solar Water Splitting Cells,” *Chemical Review*, 110.11(2010): 6446-6473, and these structures can also be used in the systems described herein, and are hereby incorporated by reference. If both electrodes are combined with a Casimir cavity, the effects are additive, as in the case of conventional photoelectrolysis, where the photon energy may be insufficient for electrolysis using a single photoelectrode, but the simultaneous use of a photocathode and a photoanode can be used to drive photoelectrolysis. The conductivity of water can vary depending on the electrolyte content, and acid, alkali, or salt electrolytes can be added. The gap between the anode and cathode can be reduced to less than the Debye length, approximately 1 micrometer in pure water, to enhance ion transport. While the photoelectrolysis implementation scheme provided above is one example of zero-point energy driven photocatalysis, zero-point energy driven photocatalysis can be used more broadly with other fluids to deliver other useful substances.

[0093] Light emitting devices. Light can be generated directly from changes in conductor / insulator / conductor structures, such as those structures described above regarding the Casimir light injector and plasmon injector in the system referred to herein as a Casimir light source. An example of a Casimir light source may use a structure exhibiting cathodic emission. Figure 9AAn example of a Casimir light source incorporating a light emitting device 920 is shown, which includes a light emitting structure 925 coupled to a Casimir cavity 900, which may herein be referred to as a Casimir cathode luminescent system. (The above refers to...) Figure 5 In the described Casimir light injector, a net flow of hot electrons is excited from the second conductive layer 560 to the first conductive layer 555. (The above refers to...) Figure 7 In the described plasmon injector, a net flow of hot electrons is excited from the second conductor 730 to the first conductor 720. By placing a light-emitting structure 925 (such as a nanosheet phosphor, for example, a 2.4 nm thick nanosheet or a bilayer perovskite) in the transport layer adjacent to the Casimir cavity 900, or at the location of the transport layer, the hot electrons can bombard the phosphor and generate light, such as via a cathodic emission mechanism. The Casimir cavity 900 is in... Figure 9A An optical Casimir cavity 900, exemplified here, includes a first reflective layer 905 and a second reflective layer 910, which can be used as a mixing layer to provide a first conductor in the light reflecting device 920. Other configurations may be used for the Casimir cavity 900, such as a plasmonic Casimir cavity, wherein the end conductors of the conductor stack of the Casimir cavity 900 are used as mixing layers, for example, to provide a first conductor in the light reflecting device 920.

[0094] Light can also be emitted by applying a voltage to a conductor / insulator / conductor tunneling junction to generate an inelastic tunneling effect that excites surface plasmon polariton modes that produce radiation. This can be seen, for example, in an Al / Al₂O₃ / Au device. Figure 9B An example of a Casimir light source incorporating a light-emitting device is shown, comprising an inelastic tunneling structure 921 coupled to a Casimir cavity 901. This system can be similar to the aforementioned light injector or plasmon injector, wherein the inelastic tunneling structure 921 replaces the conductor / insulator / conductor structure, thereby allowing direct light generation. In the illustrated configuration, plasmons can be formed on one or both electrodes of the inelastic tunneling structure 921. This effect can be enhanced by inducing surface plasmon polariton modes to aid light emission, for example, by creating a conductor-insulator-conductor structure on a roughened surface. Figure 9B The structure present on the right surface of electrode 915 is schematically shown. A method for producing such a roughened surface is described in McCarthy, SL, and John Lambe, “Optical Emission Enhancement of Metal-Insulator-Metal Tunneling Junctions,” *Applied Physics Letters*, 30.8 (1977): 427-429, which is incorporated herein by reference. Casimir cavity 901 in Figure 9BThe example again illustrates an optical Casimir cavity including a first reflective layer 905 and a second reflective layer 910, which can be used as a hybrid layer to provide electrodes for an inelastic tunneling structure 921. However, the Casimir cavity 901, such as a plasmonic Casimir cavity, can also be used in other configurations, in which the end conductors of the conductor stack of the Casimir cavity 901 are used as a hybrid layer, for example, to provide electrodes for the inelastic tunneling structure 921.

[0095] Another way to directly generate light is to use a negative differential resistor. Figure 9C An example of a system incorporating a light-emitting device is shown, comprising a structure 922 exhibiting negative differential resistance coupled to a Casimir cavity 902. An exemplary configuration of structure 922 may include a double-barrier Al / Al₂O₃ / Al / Al₂O₃ / Au layer having an Al₂O₃ layer 3 to 6 nm thick. This structure 922 can generate negative differential resistance at a bias voltage of approximately 1 volt. By using this double-barrier structure, the current and voltage induced due to the Casimir cavity 902 can generate the power required for light emission. The Casimir cavity 902 in… Figure 9C An optical Casimir cavity, illustrated as including a first reflective layer 905 and a second reflective layer 910, is provided. The first and second reflective layers can be used as a hybrid layer to provide a first conductor in a double-barrier structure 922. Although the Casimir cavity 902 is... Figure 9C The example shown is an optical Casimir cavity including a first reflective layer 905 and a second reflective layer 910, but other configurations may also be used for the Casimir cavity 902 (such as a plasmonic Casimir cavity).

[0096] In each of the above systems, including the light emitting device, current returns through element 950. Element 950 can be, for example, a resistor that supports the voltage difference between the two electrodes. Alternatively, element 950 can be a short circuit, which is useful when supporting a voltage difference is not required. Figure 9A This could be beneficial in certain situations. Component 950 can also be a battery or load that utilizes the power of the return current.

[0097] To make the light visible from the outside of the device, the system can optionally be configured as a very narrow array of structures with a width of less than 200 nm, so that light is emitted at the edges of the structure. Alternatively, the outermost electrode of the light emitting device (e.g., opposite the side adjacent to the Casimir cavity) may comprise a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO), and light can be emitted through the transparent conductor.

[0098] The system, including the light-emitting device, can be used for general lighting or directly for biosynthesis in plants and chlorophyll. The appropriate wavelengths for providing energy to chlorophyll to produce carbohydrates are approximately between 400 nm and 700 nm, corresponding to photon energies of 3 eV to 1.7 eV, and the aforementioned light-generating device can be tuned to this range using the relationship between the optical Casimir cavity width and the photon energy. Even without the application of an external voltage or current, the above configuration can provide continuous illumination when needed.

[0099] To achieve a large output of light or fuel, the multiple systems described herein can be configured into an array such that the output from each individual system is integrated to provide a higher total output from the array.

[0100] The device manufacturing is described below according to Figure 10A An exemplary manufacturing process for pattern 1001 shown in the Casimir cathode luminescent system 1000, such as... Figure 10B The cross-section is shown in the figure. The device is formed on a glass substrate 1002, through which the generated light is emitted.

[0101] A Casimir cathode luminescent system 1000 is shown comprising a transparent conductor / phosphor / conductor device including a transparent conductor layer 1005, a phosphor layer 1010 (corresponding to a transport layer), and a second conductor layer 1015 (adjacent to an optical Casimir cavity). The optical Casimir cavity includes the second conductor layer 1015, a cavity layer 1020, and a reflective layer 1025. Pattern 1001 includes a transport layer / phosphor layer pattern 1011 and a second conductor layer / Casimir cavity pattern 1021. The optical Casimir cavity confines quantum vacuum energy modes on one side of the light-generating device, including the second conductor layer 1015, the phosphor layer 1010, and the transparent conductor layer 1005.

[0102] In the example, the cell including the Casimir cathodoluminescent system 1000 may have an effective area of ​​100 μm x 100 μm. The Casimir cathodoluminescent system 1000 may be adjacent to other Casimir cathodoluminescent systems to form an array.

[0103] The transparent conductor layer 1005, composed of indium tin oxide (ITO), forms the substrate of the Casimir cathode light emitting system 1000. This substrate covers the entire glass substrate and is unpatterned.

[0104] By way of example, the following steps can be used to prepare the transparent conductor layer 1005:

[0105] 1. ITO was sputtered from a ceramic In2O3-SnO2 target onto a glass substrate in an argon atmosphere containing a small amount of oxygen, with a thickness of 200 nm.

[0106] Thermionic electrons generated in the transparent conductor layer 1005 by the transport layer and phosphor layer are injected into the phosphor layer 1010 and excite light emission in the phosphor layer. In this example, the transport layer consists only of the phosphor layer 1010. However, as described above, the phosphor layer 1010 may optionally include a sublayer of the transport layer.

[0107] For example, the following steps can be used to prepare phosphor layer 1010:

[0108] 1. Spin-coat the negative photoresist onto the substrate 1002 coated with ITO and perform soft baking.

[0109] 2. Using the alignment tool, Figure 10A The transport layer / phosphor layer pattern 1011 shown is exposed, and then post-exposure baking, development and washing are performed.

[0110] 3. The phosphor is then applied to the surface. This phosphor comprises a bilayer perovskite exfoliated sheet, NaGdMgWO6:Eu. 3+ The preparation method is described in the following document: Viswanath, NSM et al., "Bilayer perovskite nanosheet phosphors with unusual concentrations of activators within nanosheet sites", *Journal of Chemical Engineering*, 2019, 122044, which is incorporated herein by reference. The phosphor is 2.4 nm thick.

[0111] 4. Use acetone, then isopropanol, and then rinse with water to peel off the phosphor to form phosphor layer 1010.

[0112] 5. Remove the remaining photoresist with a brief oxygen plasma.

[0113] The second conductor layer, the Casimir cavity transparent layer, and the mirror second conductor layer 1015 form an upper conductive layer that absorbs photons from the optical Casimir cavity to generate hot electrons and contacts the phosphor layer 1010 and the transparent conductor layer 1005. This contact is formed, for example... Figure 9C The element 950 is shown. These layers are deposited and then patterned together. For example, the following steps can be used to fabricate the second conductor layer 1015, the cavity layer 1020, and the reflective layer 1025:

[0114] 1. A 15 nm palladium layer is evaporated onto a substrate to form a second conductor layer 1015.

[0115] 2. 30nm SiO2 is sputtered onto a substrate to serve as cavity layer 1020, and then 150nm aluminum is used as reflective layer 1025.

[0116] 3. Spin-coat the positive photoresist onto the substrate and perform soft baking.

[0117] 4. Using an alignment tool, expose the field of the second conductor layer / Cassimir cavity pattern 1021, followed by exposure baking, development and washing.

[0118] 5. The exposed aluminum and SiO2 are etched with a 6:1 buffered oxide etch (BOE) and then rinsed with water to form the reflective layer 1025 and the cavity layer 1020 of the optical Casimir cavity.

[0119] 6. The exposed palladium is etched with CF4-Ar plasma to complete the patterning of the second conductor layer 1015.

[0120] 5. Remove the remaining photoresist using oxygen plasma.

[0121] It should be understood that the above description of the manufacturing scheme for the Casimir cathodic emission system 1000 is merely exemplary, and those skilled in the art can use a variety of different sizes, processing schemes, materials, patterns, etc. to prepare the Casimir cathodic emission system.

[0122] Exemplary Size Range Although a 100μm x 100μm cell size has been described above, other cell sizes may also be used. Exemplary cell sizes can range from 0.1μm to 1 meter at the edge. In some examples, the chosen size may be determined by: (i) the desired resistance of the element to avoid creating too large a voltage drop between the transparent conductor and the second conductive layer; (ii) a sufficiently small pattern that is arranged to provide uniform illumination over a given area; and (iii) ease of manufacture.

[0123] Regarding ease of manufacturing, smaller units may require more expensive or complex manufacturing processes. For example, large-area devices with feature sizes of at least 1 millimeter can be patterned using inexpensive screen printing, while submicron features may require very expensive deep ultraviolet lithography. However, there are exceptions. For instance, nanoimprint lithography can produce certain types of submicron features at a lower cost, while roll-to-roll manufacturing can produce small features over large areas at a lower cost. Generally, however, larger features are easier to manufacture.

[0124] The transparent conductive layer (e.g., ITO) can be thick enough to provide low sheet resistance (e.g., greater than 50 nm), but thin enough not to cause significant optical absorption of the emitted light.

[0125] The transport layer can be thin enough to allow large injected electron currents to pass through both the transport layer and the phosphor layer, but thick enough to promote thermionic emission. In the example given above, the phosphor layer provides this function.

[0126] The thickness of the second conductive layer is important for generating high current and thus bright illumination. There is a trade-off between a film that is too thin to absorb light from the optical Casimir cavity and too thick to provide injected electrons. If the second conductive layer is too thin, it absorbs too little incident photon flux from the optical Casimir cavity. In the case of an extremely thin second conductive layer, its thin-layer conductivity will be too small and limit the available current. If the second conductive layer is too thick, the hot electrons generated at the optical Casimir cavity interface may not reach the transport layer / phosphor layer before being scattered. For example, gold has a ballistic mean free path length of 38 nm, while palladium has a lower ballistic mean free path length. In some examples, the thickness of the second conductive layer can fall in the range of 5 nm to 50 nm. For metals patterned to utilize the plasmonic effects described elsewhere in this specification, the metal can be thicker, while for other thin-film materials such as graphene and molybdenum disulfide, the material can be as thin as a single monolayer.

[0127] Another function of the second conductive layer is to provide sufficient thin-layer conductivity to transfer current to the transparent conductive layer.

[0128] illustrative aspects

[0129] As used below, any reference to a series of aspects (e.g., "aspects 1 to 4") or an unlisted set of aspects (e.g., "any previous or subsequent aspects") shall be understood as a selective reference to each of those aspects (e.g., "aspects 1 to 4" shall be understood as "aspects 1, 2, 3 or 4").

[0130] Aspect 1 is a system comprising: a product generating apparatus; and a zero-point energy density reduction structure adjacent to the product generating apparatus, the zero-point energy density reduction structure providing an asymmetry relative to the product generating apparatus, the asymmetry driving an energy flow through the product generating apparatus.

[0131] Aspect 2 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein energy flow occurs even in the absence of an external lighting source.

[0132] Aspect 3 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein energy flow occurs even when no voltage or current is applied to the product generating device from an external source.

[0133] Aspect 4 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes a Casimir cavity.

[0134] Aspect 5 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes an optical Casimir cavity.

[0135] Aspect 6 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes a plasmonic Casimir cavity.

[0136] Aspect 7 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generating apparatus includes a chemical reaction apparatus driven by an energy flow.

[0137] Aspect 8 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generating apparatus includes a fuel production apparatus.

[0138] Aspect 9 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generating apparatus includes an electrolysis apparatus.

[0139] Aspect 10 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generation device includes a photocatalytic device.

[0140] Aspect 11 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generating apparatus includes: a first electrode adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure; a second electrode electrically connected to the first electrode; and an electrolyte between the first electrode and the second electrode.

[0141] Aspect 12 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first electrode comprises a semiconductor with a band gap of 1.23 eV to 10 eV.

[0142] Aspect 13 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, which is operable for the electrolysis of water.

[0143] Aspect 14 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first electrode comprises SiC.

[0144] Aspect 15 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electrolyte comprises water.

[0145] Aspect 16 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first electrode includes a reflective layer with a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0146] Aspect 17 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first electrode comprises a structured conductor with a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0147] Aspect 18 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the product generating apparatus includes a light emitting device driven by an energy flow.

[0148] Aspect 19 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the optical emitting device includes: a first conductive layer adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure; a transmission layer adjacent to the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer adjacent to the transmission layer.

[0149] Aspect 20 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second conductive layer comprises a transparent conductor.

[0150] Aspect 21 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer includes a reflective layer with a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0151] Aspect 22 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a structured conductor with a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0152] Aspect 23 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a phosphor positioned adjacent to the zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0153] Aspect 24 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a cathode light-emitting structure.

[0154] Aspect 25 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a perovskite nanosheet phosphor positioned adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0155] Aspect 26 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a plasmonic-driven light emitting device.

[0156] Aspect 27 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a conductor / insulator / conductor tunnel junction.

[0157] Aspect 28 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least one conductor includes a metasurface.

[0158] Aspect 29 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least one conductor includes a structural discontinuity.

[0159] Aspect 30 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device exhibits a negative differential resistance.

[0160] Aspect 31 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a double barrier junction.

[0161] Aspect 32 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device includes a conductor / insulator / conductor / insulator / conductor structure.

[0162] Aspect 33 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the light emitting device emits at least some light with wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm.

[0163] Aspect 34 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the Casimir cavity comprises: a first reflective layer; a cavity layer; and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer.

[0164] Aspect 35 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a condensed phase optically transparent material layer.

[0165] Aspect 36 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm.

[0166] Aspect 37 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the reflectivity of at least one of the first reflective layer or the second reflective layer is greater than 50%.

[0167] Aspect 38 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second reflective layer includes a conductive layer of the product generating apparatus.

[0168] Aspect 39 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the Casimir cavity includes: a conductor configured to limit the range of zero-energy plasmon modes within the conductor.

[0169] Aspect 40 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the conductor includes components of a product generating apparatus.

[0170] Aspect 41 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the conductor comprises a series of alternating sublayers of at least two different conductors.

[0171] Aspect 42 is a system according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein alternating sublayers independently have a thickness of 0.3 nm to 1 μm.

[0172] Aspect 43 is a system according to any of the foregoing aspects, wherein the dielectric or semiconductor comprises at least a portion of a sublayer.

[0173] References

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[0194] Li, Rengui, 2017, "Recent advances in hydrogen production from solar water splitting via photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry and photovoltaic-photoelectrochemistry solutions", Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 38: 1, 5-12.

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[0198] Ozawa et al., 2007, "Eu" 3+ Preparation and characterization of doped perovskite nanosheet phosphors: La 0.90 Eu 0.05 Nb2O7″, Materials Chemistry, 19:26, 6575-6580.

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[0207] Statement regarding references and changes to the merger

[0208] All references throughout this application, such as patent documents, including published or granted patents or equivalents, patent application publications, non-patent documents, or other source materials, are incorporated herein by reference as if they were incorporated separately.

[0209] All patents and publications mentioned in this specification represent the skill level of a person skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. References cited herein are incorporated by way of citation to indicate the state of the art as of their submission date in certain circumstances, and may be used herein, if necessary, to exclude (e.g., abandon) specific embodiments in the prior art.

[0210] When a group of substitutes is disclosed herein, it should be understood that all individual members of that group, as well as all subgroups and classes that can be formed using the substitutes, are disclosed separately. When the Markusi group or other groupings are used herein, all individual members of that group, as well as all possible combinations and subcombinations of that group, are intended to be included separately in this disclosure. As used herein, "and / or" means that one, all, or any combination of items separated by "and / or" in the list is included in the list; for example, "1, 2, and / or 3" is equivalent to "1" or "2" or "3" or "1 and 2" or "1 and 3" or "2 and 3" or "1, 2, and 3".

[0211] Unless otherwise stated, every combination of formulations or components described or illustrated can be used to practice this invention. Specific names of materials are intended as examples, as it is well known that those skilled in the art can give the same materials different names. It should be understood that other methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods may be used in the practice of this invention without the need for excessive experimentation, in addition to those specifically illustrated methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods. All functional equivalents known in the art of any such methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods are intended to be included in this invention. Whenever ranges are given in the specification, such as temperature ranges, time ranges, or composition ranges, all intermediate ranges and sub-ranges, as well as all individual values ​​included within a given range, are intended to be included in this disclosure.

[0212] As used herein, "comprising" is synonymous with "including," "containing," or "characterized in," and is inclusive or open-ended, and does not exclude additional, unlisted elements or method steps. As used herein, "consisting of" excludes any element, step, or component not specified in the elements of the claim. As used herein, "consisting substantially of" does not exclude materials or steps that do not substantially affect the essential and novel features of the claim. Any expression of the term "comprising" herein, particularly in the description of the components of a composition or the elements of an apparatus, is to be understood to cover compositions and methods that are substantially composed of and constituted by the stated components or elements. The invention described illustratively herein may be practiced without the presence of any one or more elements or limitations not specifically disclosed herein.

[0213] The terms and expressions used are for description and not limitation, and their use is not intended to exclude any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it should be recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the claimed invention. Therefore, it should be understood that although the invention has been specifically disclosed through preferred embodiments and optional features, modifications and variations of the concepts disclosed herein can be made by those skilled in the art, and such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

Claims

1. A system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations, the system comprising: Product generation apparatus, including light emitting apparatus or chemical reaction apparatus; as well as A Casimir cavity, adjacent to the product generating apparatus; in, The Casimir cavity establishes the difference between the first zero-point energy density on the first side of the product generating device and the second zero-point energy density on the second side of the product generating device; and The difference between the first zero-point energy density and the second zero-point energy density drives an energy flow through the product generation device; When the product generating apparatus includes a light emitting device, the product generating apparatus converts at least some of the energy flowing through it into light; and When the product generating apparatus includes a chemical reaction apparatus, the product generating apparatus uses at least some of the energy flowing through it to drive the chemical reaction.

2. The system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the Casimir cavity includes an optical Casimir cavity.

3. The system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the Casimir cavity comprises a plasmonic Casimir cavity.

4. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction device includes a fuel production device.

5. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction apparatus includes an electrolysis device.

6. The system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction device includes a photocatalytic device.

7. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction apparatus comprises: A first electrode, the first electrode being adjacent to the Casimir cavity; The second electrode is electrically connected to the first electrode; as well as An electrolyte, wherein the electrolyte is located between the first electrode and the second electrode.

8. The system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 7, wherein the first electrode comprises a semiconductor with a band gap of 1.23 eV to 10 eV.

9. The system according to claim 7 that utilizes quantum vacuum fluctuations to generate light or drive chemical reactions, operable for water electrolysis.

10. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 7, wherein the first electrode comprises a reflective layer of the Casimir cavity.

11. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device comprises: A first conductive layer, the first conductive layer being adjacent to the Casimir cavity; The transport layer is adjacent to the first conductive layer; as well as A second conductive layer is adjacent to the transmission layer.

12. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device includes a phosphor layer positioned adjacent to the Casimir cavity.

13. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device comprises a cathode luminescent structure.

14. The system for generating light or driving chemical reactions using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device comprises a plasmonic-driven light emitting device.

15. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device comprises a conductor / insulator / conductor tunneling junction.

16. The system for generating light or driving a chemical reaction using quantum vacuum fluctuations according to claim 1, wherein the light emitting device exhibits negative differential resistance.

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