Quantum vacuum fluctuation device

Abstract

This paper describes a device incorporating a Casimir cavity that modifies the quantum vacuum mode distribution within the cavity. The Casimir cavity can drive charge carriers to or from an electronic device, configured to be adjacent to or connected to the Casimir cavity, by modifying the quantum vacuum mode distribution incident on one side of the electronic device to differ from the quantum vacuum mode distribution incident on the other side of the electronic device. The electronic device can exhibit a structure that allows the transfer or capture of hot carriers within very short time intervals, such as 1 picosecond or less.

Description

[0001] Cross-referencing of related patent applications

[0002] This application claims the benefits and priorities of U.S. Application No. 16 / 855,890, filed April 22, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 904,666, filed September 23, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 920,636, filed May 10, 2019, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Technical Field

[0003] This invention belongs to the field of electronic devices. Specifically, it relates to quantum devices for collecting and generating electrical energy. Background Technology

[0004] According to quantum theory, the quantum vacuum is filled with electromagnetic radiation in the form of quantum vacuum fluctuations. Extensive discussion has been held about whether this energy can be harvested (and if so, how). A major problem with harvesting this energy is that it forms an energy ground state and therefore does not flow from one region to another. However, quantum vacuum energy is geometrically dependent, with its density lower inside the Casimir cavity than outside. Therefore, the use of the Casimir cavity opens up the possibility of using quantum vacuum fluctuations to drive energy from one location to another. Summary of the Invention

[0005] This document describes a device for generating electrical energy. In an embodiment, the device described herein uses two distinct regions of quantum vacuum with different energy densities to drive energy through an electronic device, thereby allowing a portion of it to be harvested.

[0006] In one aspect, a device for generating and capturing charge carriers excited by quantum vacuum fluctuations is disclosed. The device of this aspect can utilize the asymmetry of quantum vacuum fluctuations relative to an electronic device to drive an energy flow, particle flow, or wave flow through the electronic device. The device of this aspect may also include, or alternatively include, an electronic device having a structure that allows for the rapid transport and / or capture of charge carriers excited by quantum vacuum fluctuations. In some embodiments, the device of this aspect may be referred to as a Casimir light injector or a Casimir light injector device.

[0007] Exemplary systems of this aspect may include an electronic device and a zero-point energy density reduction structure adjacent to the electronic device. The device of this aspect may optionally be connected to a load positioned to receive current from one or more conductive layers of the electronic device. In embodiments, the zero-point energy density reduction structure provides an asymmetry relative to the electronic device that drives an energy flow, granular flow, or wave flow through the electronic device. The device disclosed herein differs from solar cells, photodiodes, or other devices that convert light from an external illumination source into current and are capable of generating an energy flow, granular flow, or wave flow that occurs even in the absence of an external illumination source. In other words, the disclosed device is capable of generating power under both dark and light conditions.

[0008] This asymmetry can generate a voltage difference between the first side and the second side of the electronic device. This asymmetry can also generate a net charge flow between the first and second sides of the electronic device. This asymmetry can reduce the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device compared to the zero-point energy density on the first side when no zero-point energy density reduction structure is present. This asymmetry can provide a difference between a first zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device and a second zero-point energy density on the second side of the electronic device, such that this difference drives an energy flow through the device.

[0009] In embodiments, the electronic device exhibits a structure that allows the transfer or capture of charge carriers through the device in a time interval of 1 ps or less. In some cases, the structure of the electronic device allows the transfer or capture of charge carriers in ranges of 100 fs or less, 10 fs or less, 1 fs or less, or 0.1 fs or less. For example, components of the electronic device can be very thin, exhibiting a thickness of 100 nm or less in some cases, which allows for rapid transfer of charge carriers. In some cases, at least a portion of the electronic device may include components of a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0010] In some devices of this aspect, the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes a Casimir cavity adjacent to an electronic device. The electronic device may include: a first conductive layer adjacent to or including components of the Casimir cavity; a transport layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the transport layer. In various examples, the first conductive layer includes a metal, semiconductor, two-dimensional conductive material, superconductor, or conductive ceramic. Optionally, the second conductive layer includes a metal, semiconductor, two-dimensional conductive material, superconductor, or conductive ceramic. Exemplary transport layers include those comprising a dielectric or semiconductor. The first conductive layer may optionally include components of the electronic device and components of the Casimir cavity.

[0011] An exemplary Casimir cavity includes: a first reflective layer; a cavity layer; and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer. Useful cavity layers include those that include a vented or inflated gap layer or a layer of condensed phase optically transparent material (such as a solid, liquid, or liquid crystal). Optionally, the second reflective layer includes one or more components of an electronic device, such as at least a portion of a conductive layer of the electronic device.

[0012] Various electronic devices can be used with the devices of this aspect. For example, in some cases, the electronic device includes diodes, such as, but not limited to, metal / insulator / metal diodes (MIM), Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, Mott diodes, quantum well diodes, ballistic diodes, or carbon nanotube diodes. Optionally, the electronic device includes a superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) device. In one example, the electronic device includes: a conductive layer adjacent to or including a component of a zero-energy-density-reduction structure; and a semiconductor layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the conductive layer. Optionally, the semiconductor layer may be doped.

[0013] In another aspect, arrays of devices for generating electrical energy are disclosed. Exemplary arrays of devices in this aspect include multiple devices arranged in an array configuration. For example, at least a subset of the multiple devices may optionally be arranged in a series configuration. Optionally, at least a subset of the multiple devices may be arranged in a parallel configuration. In some examples, the multiple devices may be arranged in a combination of series and parallel configurations. Devices that can be used in arrays of devices in this aspect include any of the devices described herein, such as the Casimir light injector devices described above and in this disclosure.

[0014] In another aspect, a device stack is disclosed that may include multiple device layers arranged in a stacked configuration, such as where each device layer is positioned above and / or below at least one other device layer. Each device layer may include one or more devices as described herein, such as the Casimir light injector device described above and in this disclosure. In some cases, one or more or each of the device layers corresponds to an array comprising multiple devices, such as the array described above and in this disclosure.

[0015] On the other hand, a Casimir cavity is described. In some examples, a Casimir cavity may correspond to a filled Casimir cavity, such as a Casimir cavity comprising a first reflective layer, a cavity layer, and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first and second reflective layers, and wherein the cavity layer comprises a condensed phase material such as a solid, liquid, or liquid crystal. Although these Casimir cavities may be referred to as filled Casimir cavities, other Casimir cavities are described herein and can be used in various aspects described herein, such as other Casimir cavities having a vented or inflated cavity layer.

[0016] Various configurations for the Casimir cavity disclosed herein are disclosed. For example, the cavity layer may optionally have a thickness of 10 nm to 2 μm. In some examples, the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance greater than 20% for at least some optical wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. Optionally, the first and second reflective layers of the Casimir cavity may each independently have a thickness of at least 10 nm, such as from 10 nm to 1 cm. Optionally, at least one of the first or second reflective layers of the Casimir cavity has a reflectivity of 50% nm to 100%. Exemplary reflective layers that can be used with the Casimir cavity disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, metals, dielectric reflectors, diffractive reflectors, or interfaces between the cavity layer and adjacent materials providing a refractive index step.

[0017] Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, this document may discuss beliefs or understandings of the fundamental principles relating to this invention. It should be recognized that, regardless of the ultimate correctness of any mechanical interpretation or assumption, embodiments of the invention remain operable and useful. Attached Figure Description

[0018] Figure 1 A graph showing the energy density spectrum of quantum vacuum radiation and blackbody radiation is provided.

[0019] Figure 2 Schematic illustrations of exemplary devices driven by energy density difference according to at least some embodiments are provided.

[0020] Figure 3 A cross-sectional illustration of an exemplary Casimir cavity adjacent to an exemplary electronic device is provided according to at least some embodiments.

[0021] Figure 4 A cross-sectional illustration of a first exemplary Casimir light injector device according to at least some embodiments is provided.

[0022] Figure 5 A cross-sectional illustration of a second exemplary Casimir light injector device according to at least some embodiments is provided.

[0023] Figure 6A cross-sectional illustration of a third exemplary Casimir light injector device according to at least some embodiments is provided.

[0024] Figure 7 A cross-sectional illustration of a fourth exemplary Casimir light injector device according to at least some embodiments is provided.

[0025] Figure 8 Schematic circuit diagrams of exemplary device arrays according to at least some embodiments are provided.

[0026] Figure 9A Pattern layouts for manufacturing exemplary Casimir light injector devices are provided according to at least some embodiments.

[0027] Figure 9B Cross-sectional illustrations of exemplary Casimir light injector devices according to some embodiments are provided. Detailed Implementation

[0028] Quantum vacuum fluctuations fill all space with electromagnetic radiation. The energy density of this radiation in free space is...

[0029] Equation 1

[0030] Where h is Planck's constant, f is the radiation frequency, c is the speed of light, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the temperature. The first term in parentheses in Equation 1 is due to thermal blackbody radiation at non-zero temperatures, and the second term is independent of temperature and corresponds to quantum vacuum radiation.

[0031] The energy density (ρ(hf)) spectra of the temperature-dependent and temperature-independent terms in Equation 1 are as follows: Figure 1 As shown, the data is plotted as a function of photon energy hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the optical frequency, varying with the reciprocal of the wavelength. At 300 K, the thermal component (in...) Figure 1 The spectrum of blackbody (hf) reaches its maximum in the visible light portion of the spectrum and in the infrared portion, while quantum vacuum radiation (in...) Figure 1 The quantum vacuum radiation component (QVR(hf)) increases with the cube of the frequency and becomes much larger than the thermal component of the spectrum at visible light frequencies and higher frequencies (as shown in Equation 1 above and Equation 2 below). For 300 K blackbody radiation, the quantum vacuum radiation component exceeds the thermal portion at any frequency above 7 THz, corresponding to a photon energy of approximately 29 meV. Since the energy density of the quantum vacuum radiation portion of the spectrum at high frequencies is much greater than that of the thermal spectrum, more energy can be obtained from quantum vacuum radiation.

[0032] Harvesting energy generated by quantum vacuum radiation does not appear to violate any physical laws, but since the energy corresponds to the energy of the ground state, there is usually no driving force for energy flow. However, quantum vacuum radiation is geometrically dependent, and its density may differ in different spatial regions. For example, a zero-point energy density reduction structure can establish a geometric condition in which the quantum vacuum radiation density in one spatial region may be lower than that in free space (such as outside the structure), thus providing conditions for energy flow to occur. A method is described in U.S. Patent 7,379,286, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0033] An example of a zero-point energy density reduction structure is a Casimir cavity, which can be formed using two closely spaced parallel reflectors. The requirement that the tangential electric field must disappear at the boundary (for an ideal reflector) limits the permissible quantum vacuum modes (i.e., field modes) between the plates. Generally, permissible modes include those with a gap spacing equal to an integer multiple of half the wavelength. Modes with wavelengths greater than twice the gap spacing are largely excluded. This results in a larger and more numerous set of full-spectrum quantum vacuum modes outside the plates (described by Equation 1) than the restricted set of modes inside, thus leading to a lower energy density inside. The critical size determining the wavelength at which quantum vacuum modes are suppressed is the gap spacing (in the case of a one-dimensional Casimir cavity). A Casimir cavity can also be constructed in the form of a cylinder (nanopore), in which case the critical size is the diameter. Casimir cavities can also be formed with other geometries that can be used with the disclosed devices. The aspects described herein utilize the fact that quantum vacuum levels depend on local geometries, particularly the presence of zero-point energy density reduction structures such as Casimir cavities.

[0034] Zero-point energy is the ground-state energy of a system, which remains constant even at zero temperature. Quantum vacuum fluctuations include zero-point energy fluctuations in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Internal zero-point energy fluctuations also exist in materials that do not support electromagnetic radiation, such as in the form of plasmons. To exploit differences in zero-point energy density, asymmetries in the structure can be reduced with respect to the zero-point energy density, thereby allowing the harvesting of a portion of the energy. Figure 2As shown, the zero-point energy density reduction structure 200 can be used to establish an asymmetry in zero-point energy density between one side of the transmission medium 250 and the other side, such as by aligning one side of the transmission medium 250 with the zero-point energy density reduction structure 200. By using structures for creating an asymmetry in zero-point energy density on one side of the device relative to the other, and structures for transferring excitation charge (e.g., the transmission medium 250) away from the excitation location, net power can flow through the transmission medium 250 from the side without the zero-point energy density reduction structure and therefore having a higher zero-point energy level to the side with the zero-point energy density reduction structure and having a lower zero-point energy density, as schematically shown by arrow 255. The same concept applies if there are zero-point energy density reduction structures on both sides, but with different critical dimensions or frequency cutoff values.

[0035] Another way to describe the asymmetry requirement is through equilibrium and fine-grained balancing. In equilibrium, the energy flow from any first element to any second element must be balanced by an equal energy flow from the second element to the first element. This is the result of fine-grained balancing. Zero-point energy density reduction structures facilitate methods to break this equilibrium, thereby making the energy flow from the device side with the zero-point energy density reduction structure less than the energy flow from the device side without it.

[0036] Kasimir cavity. Figure 3A schematic illustration of an example of a Casimir cavity 300 adjacent to a transmission medium 350, which may include or correspond to an electronic device, is provided. The Casimir cavity 300 includes a first reflector 305, a second reflector 310, and a gap 315 between the first reflector 305 and the second reflector 310. The gap 315 (also referred to herein as a cavity layer) may be a space gap (e.g., emptied or corresponding to a vacuum) or filled with gas, which can be achieved by a rigid substrate and spacers. In some embodiments, the gap 315 may be filled with a material 316, such as an optical material that is at least partially transparent to at least some wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation supported by the Casimir cavity, preferably through the entire visible range of the near-ultraviolet. In contrast to a gas, the material 316 may include a condensed phase material, such as a solid, liquid, or liquid crystal. Exemplary materials that can be used as a cavity layer include, but are not limited to, silicon oxide or alumina. Alternatively, filling the gap with polymers such as PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate), polyimide, polymethyl methacrylate, or silicone may be sufficient or desirable, as these polymers provide sufficient transparency at the wavelengths of interest. In some examples, the cavity layer material (such as those described above) may have a transmittance greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. Advantageously, the cavity layer material may have a transmittance greater than 50% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. In some cases, the cavity layer material (including at least some of the materials described above) may have a transmittance greater than 70% or greater than 90% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm. The thickness or spacing of the gap 315 can be set according to the target wavelength range of the Casimir cavity. In some examples, the gap 315 of the Casimir cavity may have a spacing from 10 nm to 2 μm.

[0037] The reflector material used for the first reflector 305 and / or the second reflector 310 may be selected based on its reflectivity in the wavelength range of interest, ease of deposition, and / or other considerations such as cost. The thickness of the reflector must be sufficient to provide adequate reflectivity, but not so thick that it is difficult to pattern. In some examples, the reflector may have a thickness of at least 10 nm, such as from 10 nm to 1 cm. Exemplary materials that can be used as reflectors for Casimir cavities include, but are not limited to, metals, dielectric reflectors, or diffractive reflectors such as Bragg reflectors or metamaterial reflectors. Exemplary metals that can be used as reflectors for Casimir cavities include, but are not limited to, Al, Ag, Au, Cu, Pd, or Pt. Exemplary dielectrics that can be used as dielectric reflectors include, but are not limited to, ZrO2, SiO2, Si3N4, Nb2O5, TiO2, MgF2, LiF, Na3AlF6, Ta2O5, LaTiO3, HfO2, ZnS, ZnSe, etc. For electromagnetic radiation of at least some wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm, the exemplary reflectivity of at least one of the two reflectors in a Casimir cavity is 50% to 100%. The reflectors of a Casimir cavity do not need to be metallic or dielectric reflectors; reflective interfaces can be used. For example, the reflective layer can be a step in refractive index at the interface between two adjacent materials (such as between the cavity layer and its surrounding material). In some cases, the cavity walls may provide a step in dielectric constant or refractive index when transitioning from one dielectric material to another or more dielectric materials, or between a dielectric material and free space.

[0038] Alternatively, the Casimir cavity can be formed by a multilayer dielectric stack of the distributed Bragg reflector type. For example, such a stack can comprise alternating layers of two or more dielectric materials with different refractive indices. In the case of two materials, the thickness of each pair of layers characterizes the pitch. Wavelengths twice the pitch are reflected, while longer wavelengths are largely suppressed. It is important to note that this differs from antireflective coatings, where the pitch is one-quarter of the wavelength rather than half, as is the case here. The layer thickness can be further chirped to enhance the spectral width of the reflection. Any suitable number of alternating dielectric layers can be used, such as 2 to 100 layers, or more. For example, to suppress a 250 nm wavelength using a stack of alternating layers of SiO2 and Al2O3, the layer thicknesses would be 42 nm and 35 nm, respectively. For a total of ten pairs of layers, the total thickness would be 770 nm.

[0039] exist Figure 3In this embodiment, the transport medium 350 is positioned adjacent to the Casimir cavity 300 such that one side of the transport medium 350 faces the Casimir cavity 300, thereby establishing an asymmetry. The transport medium 350 may include a material that allows charge carrier transport, which can be used for energy harvesting processes via a difference in zero-point energy density established by the presence of the Casimir cavity 300. An electrical lead 395 may be connected to the second reflector 310 and the transport medium 350 to provide the captured energy to an external load. It should be understood that while the aspects described herein can be interpreted with reference to electrons as charge carriers, other charge carriers may be used instead of electrons for various implementations and operations of the disclosed apparatus, systems, techniques, and methods. Exemplary charge carriers include, but are not limited to, electrons, holes, Cooper pairs, any charged matter, or magnetic flux, such as that used in the field of spintronics.

[0040] To collect or capture energy in the form of charge carriers, it is necessary to transport the charge carriers away from the point where they are emitted and captured. The transport and capture of charge carriers may need to occur on very fast (i.e., short) timescales. For example, transport and / or capture may occur within time intervals of less than or about 1 ps, less than or about 100 fs, less than or about 10 fs, less than or about 1 fs, or less than or about 0.1 fs. In some cases, the longer the time, the smaller the proportion of usable energy captured. The need for rapid transport and capture of charge carriers will be described in more detail below.

[0041] Casimir photoinjector. Photons striking the surface of a conductor can cause charge carriers (usually electrons) in the conductor to be photoexcited, resulting in hot carriers. If the conductor layer is thin enough, these hot carriers can pass through the conductor layer and into the material on the other side. This process is called internal light emission, also known as photoinjection. When this thin conductor layer is adjacent to a thin insulator (referred to herein as a transport medium or transport layer) next to a second conductor layer, hot carriers can pass through the transport layer and into the second conductor. Although charge carriers can also be thermally excited, this is not addressed in this specification because it typically does not generate a net current for the described device.

[0042] An example of a device that can harvest energy by utilizing the difference in flux of photoexcited charge carriers in two directions is the Casimir photoinjector. Figure 4 A schematic cross-sectional view of an exemplary Casimir light injector is provided. Figure 4The Casimir light injector includes a Casimir cavity 400, which is configured to be adjacent to or connected to an electronic device 450. The Casimir cavity 400 includes a first reflector 405, a second reflector 410, and a gap 415, which may optionally be filled with material as described above. The electronic device 450 includes a first conductive layer 455, a second conductive layer 460, and a transmission layer 465 located between the first conductive layer 455 and the second conductive layer 460. In this configuration, the first conductive layer 455 may at least partially serve as the second reflector 410 of the Casimir cavity 400.

[0043] Exemplary materials used for the first conductive layer 455 and / or the second conductive layer 460 include, but are not limited to, metals, semiconductors (e.g., low-bandgap semiconductors), two-dimensional conductive materials, and conductive ceramics. Exemplary metals include, but are not limited to, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au, Cu, Al, Ti, Cr, Nb, Ta, etc. Graphene is an example of a two-dimensional semiconductor. Other useful materials for the conductive layer include conductive ceramics and superconductors. Other useful materials for the conductive layer include molybdenum disulfide and niobium nitride. Other useful conductive materials include graphite, nickel silicide, or other silicides. In some cases, the first conductive layer 455 and / or the second conductive layer 460 may comprise a multilayer structure, such as a first layer of a first metal and a second layer of a second metal, wherein the second metal may be different from the first metal. Examples of a dual-layer structure may include a chromium layer and an aluminum layer. As described above, the first conductive layer 455 and the second conductive layer 460 may have different thicknesses. For example, the first conductive layer 455 may have a thickness of 3 nm to 100 nm, while the second conductive layer 460 may have a thickness of 5 nm to 5 cm.

[0044] Exemplary materials for transport layer 465 include, but are not limited to, dielectrics or some semiconductors. Exemplary dielectrics may include oxide dielectrics or nitride dielectrics, such as aluminum oxide, aluminum nitride, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, nickel oxide, titanium oxide, niobium oxide, and other insulating metal oxides or metal nitrides. In some cases, ceramic, glass, or plastic dielectrics may be used. An example of a semiconductor that can be used for transport layer 465 is hydrogenated amorphous silicon. In some cases, transport layer 465 may include a multilayer structure, such as a first layer of a first insulator and a second layer of a second insulator, the second insulator being different from the first insulator. An example of a two-layer structure may include a nickel oxide layer and an aluminum oxide layer. The thickness of transport layer 465 may differ from the thickness of the conductive layer. An exemplary thickness of transport layer 465 may be from 0.3 nm to 50 nm.

[0045] In the first conductive layer 455, there are at least two ways to excite carriers to a hot carrier state. One is by photons striking the outer surface of the conductor, generating photoexcited carriers as described above. Ignoring thermally generated (blackbody) photons, the photon source that can generate photoexcited carriers is the ambient quantum vacuum mode. Another non-thermal way to excite carriers comes from the internal zero-point energy fluctuations of the first conductive layer 455 material. The combination of these two methods generates hot carriers that can enter the transport layer 465.

[0046] In the second conductive layer 460, a similar situation exists, except that the second conductive layer 460 is too thick to allow photoexcited charge carriers generated on the outer surface of the conductor to penetrate the second conductive layer 460 and reach the transport layer 465. Instead, the photoexcited charge carriers are dispersed in the second conductive layer 460 and lose their excess energy, such as in the form of phonons and plasmons. Therefore, in the second conductive layer 460, the only non-thermal excitation source of hot charge carriers comes from the internal zero-point energy fluctuations of the material of the second conductive layer 460. Since the second conductive layer 460 is thicker than the first conductive layer 455, the overall internal generation rate of excited charge carriers available to pass through the transport layer 465 is greater than the internal generation rate in the thinner first conductive layer 455.

[0047] Under equilibrium conditions, the carrier current from the second conductive layer 460 must be exactly the same as the carrier current generated in the first conductive layer 455 by the combination of internal and external energy. Under equilibrium conditions, the carrier current from the first conductive layer 455 to the second conductive layer 460 is precisely balanced by the carrier current from the second conductive layer to the first conductive layer.

[0048] On the other hand, as the Casimir cavity 400 covers the first conductive layer 455, the photon flux striking the outer surface of the first conductive layer 455 decreases. Therefore, the generation rate of photoexcited charge carriers decreases. This disrupts the balance of charge carrier currents between the two conductive layers, resulting in a net charge carrier current (e.g., electron flow) from the second conductive layer 460 to the first conductive layer 455. Since charge carriers are typically negatively charged electrons, a conventional positively charged current flows from the first conductive layer 455 to the second conductive layer 460. In some cases, with... Figure 4 In contrast to the illustration, another Casimir cavity may be located near the second conductive layer, which may have a different critical size (i.e., gap) than the Casimir cavity 400, so that the carrier currents are unbalanced between the two conductive layers 455 and 460.

[0049] The Casimir cavity optical injector is a DC (direct current) device in which a voltage is generated between the first conductive layer 455 and the second conductive layer 460 by different average currents originating from the first conductive layer 455 and the second conductive layer 460. It can be directly connected to a load via electrical leads 495 connected to the first conductive layer 455 and the second conductive layer 460.

[0050] The time interval at which energy from a zero-point fluctuation must be extracted before becoming unavailable, before returning to its source or being eliminated by an opposing energy pulse, can be determined by a trade-off between the amount of energy ΔE that can be extracted from the vacuum and the available extraction time interval ΔT. This results in ΔEΔt ≤ a constant, therefore the greater the energy to be extracted, the shorter the available time. If this constant equals... ,in Dividing Planck's constant by 2π, based on this relationship, the energy required to collect 2 eV (ΔE) photons would indicate that Δt ≤ 0.16 fs. Since thermionic transport across the thin insulating layer can occur in a time close to 1 fs, the transport process can be used to extract at least a portion of the zero-point energy excited charge carriers in this case.

[0051] Casimir photoinjectors based on Schottky diodes. Other structures that support charge transport from internal photoemission can be used as Casimir photoinjectors in place of the conductor / transport layer / conductor arrangement described above. These structures include Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, Mott diodes, quantum well diodes, ballistic diodes, carbon nanotube diodes, superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) devices, and other structures that facilitate charge injection as known to those skilled in the art. Figure 5 An example of another Casimir light injector device including a Schottky diode is illustrated schematically, but it should be understood that other structures described are alternatives to the Schottky diode.

[0052] exist Figure 5 The diagram illustrates a Casimir cavity 500, comprising a first reflective layer 505 and a second reflective layer 510 separated by a gap 515. An electronic device 550 is shown, comprising a semiconductor 560 and a conductive layer 555, which at least partially corresponds to the second reflective layer 510. A contact between the conductive layer 555 and the semiconductor 560 provides a junction with a band structure different from the band structure of the conductor / insulator / conductor structure described herein. In a Schottky diode-based Casimir photoinjector, hot carriers are not directly transported from the first conductive layer through a transport layer to the second conductive layer, but rather from the conductive layer 555 through an accumulation layer or depletion layer to the body of the semiconductor 560, where hot carriers can be trapped. Electrical leads 595 can be connected to the conductive layer 555 and the semiconductor 560 to extract a net electron flow for use by an external load.

[0053] The transport distance and therefore the transport time of a Schottky diode can be greater than that of the conductor / transport layer / conductor structure described herein. Due to the longer transport time, the proportion of hot carriers trapped and collected can be reduced. A shorter accumulation or depletion width can result in a faster trapping time. To reduce the width of the accumulation or depletion layer, the semiconductor can be heavily doped, for example, with a doping concentration of 10⁻⁶. 15 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 Or its sub-regions. In some cases, thin semiconductor regions between the conductive layers (variants of the Schottky barrier known as thin Mott barriers) can be used to reduce the transmission distance. Both of these methods of reducing transmission distance reduce transmission time, thereby increasing the proportion of hot carriers that are trapped and collected.

[0054] Casimir photoinjector energy harvesting. The energy or power that can be captured using a Casimir photoinjector may depend on the characteristics of the Casimir cavity and the materials and structure of the electronics.

[0055] As mentioned above, the energy density from the quantum vacuum is provided by the temperature-independent term in Equation 1, which is:

[0056] Equation 2

[0057] Photon flux (the number of photons per unit frequency per unit area) is given by the following formula.

[0058] Equation 3

[0059] Where c is the arrival velocity, hf is the photon energy, and 1 / 4 is the geometric factor of the radiation. The total flux (number of photons per unit area) is...

[0060] Equation 4

[0061] Where hf2 is the highest photon energy suppressed by the Casimir cavity, and hf1 is the lowest photon energy that provides sufficient energy for photoexcited electrons to cross the potential barrier and tunnel through the transport layer. This is due to an approximation of low-energy cutoff (the cutoff is actually asymptotic), as the reduction in photon energy follows the Airy function, which describes the allowed cavity modes. The current generated by this flux is approximately

[0062] A / µm 2 Equation 5

[0063] Where e is the elementary charge.

[0064] For the Casimir cavity to provide a high-energy photon cutoff of 2.6 eV and a low-energy barrier cutoff of approximately 1.6 eV, the resulting current is 3.2 mA / μm. 2 The actual current is likely much smaller because the light injection probability, which depends on the photon absorption rate in the first conductive layer, is not uniform, and practical Casimir cavities are imperfect. With a light injection probability of 0.05% and a Casimir cavity blocking efficiency of only 25%, the resulting current drops to 0.4 μA / μm. 2 It should be understood that these figures are provided for illustrative purposes only and are not restrictive. Actual output may be smaller or larger depending on the characteristics, geometry, materials, etc. of the Casimir light injector.

[0065] In some cases, a light injection probability of 0.05% may be sufficient to achieve a usable current output. However, if the light injection probability is increased, even more power can be obtained. As mentioned above, the carrier currents between the two conduction layers are balanced, both in the case of equilibrium and without a Casimir cavity. To maintain this balance, if the efficiency of photoexcited hot carriers in the first conduction layer traversing the transport layer is improved, then the generation rate of internally generated hot carriers in the first conduction layer traversing the transport layer must be compensatingly reduced. Since the generation rate of photoexcited hot carriers is suppressed by adding a Casimir cavity, the carrier current suppressed by adding a Casimir cavity is larger when the efficiency of photoexcited hot carriers in the first conduction layer traversing the transport layer is greater. This suppression leads to a larger imbalance between the current of carriers from the first conduction layer to the second conduction layer and the current of carriers from the second conduction layer to the first conduction layer, resulting in a larger net current. Therefore, it may be advantageous to provide the most efficient method possible for generating and / or injecting photoexcited hot carriers in the first conduction layer traversing the transport layer.

[0066] In some cases, structures that achieve this can be integrated into the conductive layers of electronic devices, such as plasmonic nanostructures embedded in or on the surface of one or more conductive layers. Plasmonic nanostructures are a class of metamaterials in which nanoscale arrangements of materials (such as metals) can efficiently couple electromagnetic radiation into the material and enhance hot carrier emission. Examples of plasmonic nanostructures used to enhance light absorption are known in the art. See, for example: Wang et al., 2011, “Harvesting Plasma Energy by Hot Carrier Extraction,” Nano Letters, 11:12, 5426-5430; Atar et al., 2013, “Plasma-Enhanced Hot Electron Generation for Photovoltaic Devices,” Optics Letters, 21:6, 7196-7201; and Clavero, 2014, “Plasma-Induced Hot Electron Generation at Nanoparticle / Metal Oxide Interfaces for Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Devices,” Nature Photonics, 8:2, 95-103; these references are incorporated herein by reference. Examples of plasmonic nanostructures that provide enhanced hot carrier emission and injection (such as factors up to 25x) are known in the art. See, for example: Knight et al., 2013, “Embedded Plasmonic Nanostructure Diodes Enhance Hot Electron Emission,” Nano Letters, 13:4, 1687-1692; Chalabi et al., 2014, “Hot Electron Photodetection with Plasmonic Nanostrip Antennas,” Nano Letters, 14:3, 1374-1380; and Brongersma, 2015, “Plasma-Induced Hot Carrier Science and Technology,” Nature Nanotechnology, 10:1, 25-34, which are incorporated herein by reference. Exemplary plasmonic nanostructures used in conjunction with the embodiments disclosed herein may include, but are not limited to, nanoparticles of conductive material (e.g., metal) embedded in or on the surface of a conductive layer, such as on a non-conductive or insulating material on the surface of a conductive layer, and patterns of the surface or interface of a conductive material. Figure 6 and Figure 7 The image schematically illustrates an example of a Casimir light injector device incorporating plasma nanostructures.

[0067] exist Figure 6The Casimir light injector device includes a Casimir cavity 600, which includes a first reflective layer 605 and a second reflective layer separated by a gap 615. An electronic device 650 is positioned adjacent to the Casimir cavity 600 such that the second reflective layer of the Casimir cavity 600 at least partially corresponds to the first conductive layer 655 of the electronic device 650. The electronic device 650 also includes a second conductive layer 660 and a transport layer 665 located between the first and second conductive layers 655. Here, the first conductive layer 655 includes a plasmonic nanostructure (schematically represented by element 670) that can, for example, modify the light absorption characteristics of the first conductive layer 655 or significantly improve the efficiency of hot carrier injection into the transport layer 665. Electrical leads 695 can be connected to the first and second conductive layers 655 and 660 to extract a net electron flow for use by an external load.

[0068] exist Figure 7 The Casimir light injector device includes a Casimir cavity 700, which includes a first reflective layer 705 and a second reflective layer separated by a gap 715. An electronic device 750 is positioned adjacent to the Casimir cavity 700 such that the second reflective layer of the Casimir cavity 700 at least partially corresponds to the first conductive layer 755 of the electronic device 750. The electronic device 750 also includes a second conductive layer 760 and a transport layer 765 located between the first conductive layer 755 and the second conductive layer 760. Here, the second conductive layer 760 includes a plasmonic nanostructure (schematically represented by element 770) that can, for example, modify the light absorption characteristics of the second conductive layer 760 or significantly improve the efficiency of hot carrier injection into the transport layer 765. Electrical leads 795 can be connected to the first conductive layer 755 and the second conductive layer 760 to extract a net electron flow for use by an external load.

[0069] To achieve high power output, device arrays can be configured with multiple devices in an array, thereby integrating the power of each device to provide a higher total array power output. Figure 8 An exemplary array 800 is schematically shown. Array 800 is shown as an array of individual devices 805 connected in a combination of series and parallel connections, having two output electrodes 810 and 815. Figure 8 Each device 805 in the document represents any suitable device, such as Figure 3 The apparatus depicted includes the Casimir cavity 300 and the transmission medium 350, or other apparatus described herein. The load is not in... Figure 8 As shown, but may be connected between electrodes 810 and 815. The load may correspond to any suitable electrical device, such as, but not limited to, a battery, motor, light-emitting device, electrolysis system for producing chemical fuels, communication device, computer, circuit component, or any combination thereof.

[0070] In the 64-device array shown, the DC output voltage between electrodes 810 and 815 is the sum of the voltages along the series path between the output electrodes. In this case, there are eight devices 805 connected in series, so if each device provides 0.25V at its maximum power point, the total output voltage is, for example, 2V. The current is proportional to the number of devices 805 connected in parallel. In this case, there are eight devices connected in parallel. For example, if each device 805 produces 400nA at its maximum power point, the total output current is 3.2μA. In this configuration, the total output power is calculated (using P=IV) as 2V x 3.2μA or 6.4μW.

[0071] It should be understood that these values ​​are provided as examples only and are not intended to limit the output voltage or current provided by any particular array of devices. Furthermore, it should be understood that a 64-device array with 8 series devices and 8 parallel devices is also an example, and other array sizes and configurations can be used. For example, linear arrays, square arrays with the same number of series and parallel devices, rectangular arrays with different numbers of series and parallel devices, or irregular arrays can be used.

[0072] Although linear arrays (i.e., a one-dimensional array of only series-connected devices 805 or only parallel-connected devices 805) are considered, advantages are gained by using devices 805 with a combination of series and parallel connections. For example, in the event of a short circuit between any individual device 805 in array 800, the voltage between electrodes 810 and 815 drops only slightly, not completely (i.e., drops to 0V), as is the case in an array with only parallel connections having a short circuit at any one device. Similarly, in the event of an open or broken path at any individual device 805 in array 800, the current between electrodes 810 and 815 drops only slightly, not completely (i.e., drops to 0A), as is the case in an array with only series connections having open or broken paths.

[0073] Each device 805 in array 800 can have any suitable size and physical arrangement. As an example, the devices can be arranged in a planar configuration across regions, such as... Figure 8 As depicted in [the text]. In a specific example, each of the devices 805 may have a 1 μm [size / diameter]. 2 The area of ​​each device (e.g., 1 μm x 1 μm) is separated from the others by a 2 μm pitch. The interconnections between the different devices and the leads used to carry DC power are likely sufficient for the operation of such an array and may not require additional complex support circuitry. For an array with a 2 μm pitch (the total area occupied by each device 805 and the accompanying space between adjacent devices is 4 μm), the area of ​​each device is approximately 1 μm. 2A 10cm x 10cm array can comprise 2.5 billion individual devices 805. For the voltage and current (0.25V and 400nA) of each of these devices, the output of a 10cm x 10cm array can reach up to 250W.

[0074] Although 250W from a 10cm x 10cm panel is substantial (i.e., 25kW / m²), 2 However, if the light injection probability can be increased, the output power achievable by the Casimir light injector device described herein could be much greater. In some cases, if desired, heat transfer and temperature control can be addressed using thermal management techniques known in the art. A light injection probability of 0.05% may be sufficient to achieve the 250W value provided above. Plasmon nanostructures or photonic metamaterials (such as those referenced above) can also be used. Figure 6 and Figure 7 The above can be used to increase the light injection probability. For example, in some cases, an increase of 25 times or more is possible, which may result in a light injection probability of up to 1.25%.

[0075] The devices and arrays described above have been illustrated with reference to a planar configuration. To form a compact system with a greater area density, multiple layers of these devices may optionally be stacked on top of each other and separated by an insulator or free space. The devices may also be formed in a non-planar configuration. For example, the devices may be formed on the surface of trenches formed in a substrate or on a rollable flexible substrate.

[0076] The device manufacturing is described below according to Figure 9A An exemplary manufacturing process for pattern 901 shown in the Casimir light injector device 900, such as... Figure 9B The cross-section is shown in the figure.

[0077] A Casimir light injector device 900 is shown comprising a conductor / insulator / conductor device including a first metal layer 905, a transmission layer 910, and a second metal layer 915 adjacent to a Casimir cavity, which includes the second metal layer 915, a cavity layer 920, and a reflective layer 925. Pattern 901 includes a first metal layer pattern 906, a transmission layer pattern 911, a second metal layer pattern 916, and a Casimir cavity pattern 921.

[0078] In the example, the cell including the Casimir light injector device 900 can have an effective area of ​​25 μm x 25 μm. As described above, the Casimir light injector device 900 can be electrically connected to those adjacent cells to form an array including series and parallel combinations. For cells with a spacing of 40 μm, in order to have sufficient area around the active region for interconnection, a total of 56.25 million elements can be present in an array with a total substrate area of ​​30 cm x 30 cm.

[0079] First metal layer. The first metal layer 905 forms the substrate layer of the Casimir light injector device 900 and provides interconnection between adjacent devices. The first metal layer 905 can be fabricated using the following steps, by way of example:

[0080] 1. Spin-coat the negative photoresist onto the substrate 902 and perform soft baking.

[0081] 2. Using the alignment tool, Figure 9A The first metal layer pattern 906 shown is exposed, and then post-exposure baking, development and washing are performed.

[0082] 3. Evaporate 50 nm of nickel onto the substrate and strip it with acetone, then use isopropanol and rinse with water to form a first metal layer 905 according to the first metal layer pattern 906.

[0083] Transport layer. Hot electrons generated in the first metal layer 905 are injected through transport layer 910. Transport layer 910 can be fabricated by, for example, using the following steps:

[0084] 1. The material of transport layer 910 is initially deposited over the entire surface. It consists of Al2O3 and is sputtered from an Al2O3 target to a thickness of 3 nm in an argon and oxygen atmosphere.

[0085] 2. Spin-coat the positive photoresist onto the substrate and perform soft baking.

[0086] 3. Using an aligner, expose the field of the transfer layer pattern 911, then perform post-exposure baking, development, and washing.

[0087] 4. The exposed Al2O3 was etched with CF4-Ar plasma to form the transport layer 910.

[0088] 5. Remove the remaining photoresist using oxygen plasma.

[0089] A second metal layer. The second metal layer 915 forms the upper layer, absorbs photons from the Casimir cavity to generate hot electrons, and is in contact with the first metal layer 905 from an adjacent device. By way of example, the second metal layer 915 can be fabricated using the following steps:

[0090] 1. A 15 nm palladium layer is evaporated onto a substrate to form a second metal layer 915.

[0091] 2. Spin-coat the positive photoresist onto the substrate and perform soft baking.

[0092] 3. Using an aligner, expose the second metal layer pattern 916 to the field, then perform post-exposure baking, development, and washing.

[0093] 4. The exposed palladium is etched with CF4-Ar plasma to complete the patterning of the second metal layer 915.

[0094] 5. Remove the remaining photoresist using oxygen plasma.

[0095] Cavity transparent layer and mirror (Kasimir cavity). As mentioned above, the Kasimir cavity confines the quantum vacuum energy modes on one side of the device. The Kasimir cavity can be fabricated using the following steps, by way of example:

[0096] 1. 30nm SiO2 is sputtered onto a substrate to serve as cavity layer 920, and then 150nm aluminum is used as reflective layer 925.

[0097] 2. Spin-coat the positive photoresist onto the substrate and perform soft baking.

[0098] 3. Using an alignment tool, expose the field of the Casimir cavity pattern 921, then perform post-exposure baking, development, and washing.

[0099] 4. The exposed aluminum and SiO2 are etched with a 6:1 buffered oxide etch (BOE) and then rinsed with water to form the Casimir cavity pattern 921.

[0100] 5. Remove the remaining photoresist using oxygen plasma.

[0101] It should be understood that the above description of the manufacturing scheme for the Casimir light injector device 900 is merely exemplary, and those skilled in the art can use a variety of different sizes, processing schemes, materials, patterns, etc. to prepare Casimir resistor elements.

[0102] Exemplary Size Range Although a 25μm x 25μm cell size has been described above, other cell sizes may also be used. Exemplary cell sizes can range from 0.1μm to 1 meter at the edge. In some examples, the chosen size may be determined by (i) desired output characteristics, (ii) redundancy to compensate for defective cells, and (iii) ease of manufacture.

[0103] The following example is illustrative regarding the desired output characteristics. For producing an open-circuit voltage of 0.1V (V... OC ) and 100kA / m 2 The current-carrying unit (i.e., including the Casimir light injector device), a 1cm x 1cm unit generates a short-circuit current (ISC) of 10. Then the unit resistance V... OC / I SCThe resistance is 0.01 ohms. This resistance may be too low to be practical because the connection resistance with the load or another unit would be roughly the same or higher, resulting in more than half of the power generated by the unit being dissipated in the connection. For this reason, given the figures in this diagram, smaller units might be needed to allow each unit to have a higher resistance, resulting in a connection resistance much lower than the unit resistance, and only a small fraction of the power being consumed in the connection.

[0104] Regarding redundancy, the following example is illustrative. For a specific manufacturing process, there might be a defect that causes the device to be approximately 1 cm... 2 Short circuit within the area. If the unit area is 1 cm² 2 If so, approximately 50% of the cells will be defective and useless. On the other hand, if the cell area is 0.01 cm²... 2 If so, approximately one in 100 cells is defective. Using an array design that adapts to defects, such as the one shown in Figure 9, the power loss may be only about 2%.

[0105] Regarding ease of manufacturing, smaller units may require more expensive or complex manufacturing processes. For example, large-area devices with feature sizes of at least 1 millimeter can be patterned using inexpensive screen printing, while submicron features may require very expensive deep ultraviolet lithography. However, there are exceptions. For instance, nanoimprint lithography can produce certain types of submicron features at a lower cost, while roll-to-roll manufacturing can produce small features over large areas at a lower cost. Generally, however, larger features are easier to manufacture.

[0106] All of these factors can influence the choice of cell size. For example, the 25μm x 25μm cell size and 100kA / m² given above... 2 The current density and V0.1 OC It can produce a resistance of 1.6kΩ, which could be a useful resistor. The cell size is small enough that the probability of a defect in a given cell is likely to be small, and the need for redundancy is likely to be minimal. Although these dimensions may require photolithography, they are inexpensive enough to be achieved using cost-effective methods.

[0107] The first conductive layer can be thick enough to provide low sheet resistance (e.g., greater than 10 nm), but thin enough not to create a large step for the second conductive layer to cover (e.g., less than 10 μm). In some examples, more complex patterning that provides a smooth transition can alleviate this requirement.

[0108] The transport layer can be thin enough to allow for large injected electron currents, but thick enough to provide sufficiently high resistance to support sufficiently high voltages. Below is an example illustrating the trade-offs involved.

[0109] For a unit area of ​​25μm x 25μm, a transport layer of a specific material with a thickness of 2nm can provide a unit resistance of 10 ohms. For 200kA / m... 2 The current generated can produce a unit short-circuit current of 125 μA, thus generating an open-circuit voltage of 1.25 mV. Due to the thin transmission layer and low resistance, this voltage is much lower than the target voltage of 0.1 V. The power generated by the unit is equal to (short-circuit current) x (open-circuit voltage) x (fill factor), and for these devices using a 1 / 4 fill factor, it is likely to be about 39 nanowatts.

[0110] Current and resistance can vary approximately exponentially with thickness, so even a small change in the thickness of the transport layer can cause a large difference in these two quantities. Continuing with the illustrative example, consider a 3nm thick transport layer providing a unit resistance of 1000 ohms and 100kA / m. 2 If the current is such that the unit's short-circuit current is 62.5 microamps, and the resulting voltage is 0.0625V, which is close to the target voltage. The power generated by the unit is equal to (short-circuit current) x (open-circuit voltage) x 1 / 4 = 0.97 microwatts, which is 25 times greater than the 10-ohm case. Therefore, a thicker transmission layer may be advantageous.

[0111] On the other hand, when the transport layer becomes too thick, the current is greatly reduced because the possibility of electrons being injected through the material is much smaller. For example, if a 5nm thick transport layer provides a unit resistance of 100kΩ and a current of 1kA / m... 2 If the current is such that the unit's short-circuit current is 0.625 microamps, and the resulting voltage is 0.0625 V, close to the target voltage. The power generated by the unit is short-circuit current x open-circuit voltage x 1 / 4 = 9.8 nanowatts. This power is far lower than that of a 3 nm thick transport layer, so 5 nm may be too thick for this illustrative example.

[0112] One contributing factor is the possibility of native oxides already grown on the first conductive layer, increasing the overall transport layer thickness. This can be taken into account when selecting the thickness to be deposited. The desired transport layer thickness can also depend on the barrier height created by a particular combination of materials. A higher barrier increases resistance and reduces injection current. In some examples, the transport layer thickness can fall between 0.5 nm and 20 nm.

[0113] The thickness of the second conductive layer can be important for generating high currents. There is a trade-off between a film that is too thin to absorb light and too thick to provide injected electrons. If the second conductive layer is too thin, it may absorb too little incident photon flux from the Casimir cavity. In the case of an extremely thin second conductive layer, its thin-layer conductivity will be too small and will limit the available current. If the second conductive layer is too thick, the hot electrons generated at the Casimir cavity interface may not reach the transport layer before being scattered. For example, the ballistic mean free path length of gold is 38 nm, while that of palladium is lower. In some examples, the thickness of the second conductive layer can fall in the range of 5 nm to 50 nm. For metals patterned to take advantage of the plasmonic effects described elsewhere in this specification, the metal can be thicker, while for other thin-film materials such as graphene and molybdenum disulfide, the material can be as thin as a single monolayer.

[0114] Another function of the second conductive layer is to provide sufficient thin-layer conductivity to transfer current to the adjacent first conductive layer. This conductivity can be supplemented by a metallic mesh formed above or below the second conductive layer, as may be included in the metallization of a solar cell. For lines with appropriate pitch and size, the mesh can also provide plasma enhancement of absorption as described elsewhere in this application. The mesh lines can be generalized to form metamaterials to enhance photon absorption and hot electron emission.

[0115] illustrative aspects

[0116] As used below, any reference to a series of aspects (e.g., “aspects 1 to 4”) or an unlisted group of aspects (e.g., “any preceding or subsequent aspect”) shall be understood as a selective reference to each of those aspects (e.g., “aspects 1 to 4” shall be understood as “aspects 1, 2, 3 or 4”).

[0117] Aspect 1 is an apparatus comprising: an electronic device; and a zero-point energy density reduction structure adjacent to the electronic device, the zero-point energy density reduction structure providing an asymmetry relative to the electronic device that drives an energy flow, particle flow, or wave flow through the electronic device even in the absence of an external light source.

[0118] Aspect 2 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least a portion of the electronic device includes a component of a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0119] Aspect 3 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the symmetry generates a voltage difference between a first side and a second side of the electronic device or wherein the asymmetry can generate a net charge flow between the first side and the second side of the electronic device.

[0120] Aspect 4 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the asymmetry reduces the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device compared to the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device in the absence of a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0121] Aspect 5 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the asymmetry provides a difference between a first zero-point energy density on a first side of the electronic device and a second zero-point energy density on a second side of the electronic device, the difference driving energy flow.

[0122] Aspect 6 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein a first side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of a first conductive layer of the electronic device, and wherein a second side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of a second conductive layer of the electronic device.

[0123] Aspect 7 is a device according to any of the preceding or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device exhibits a structure that allows the transfer or capture of charge carriers in the range of 1 ps or less, 100 fs or less, 10 fs or less, 1 fs or less, or 0.1 fs or less.

[0124] Aspect 8 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes a Casimir cavity that is adjacent to, adjacent to or connected to an electrical device.

[0125] Aspect 9 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, which includes or corresponds to a Casimir light injector.

[0126] Aspect 10 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes: a first conductive layer adjacent to a Casimir cavity or a component including a Casimir cavity; a transmission layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with an electrically insulating layer.

[0127] Aspect 11 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metal, a semiconductor, a two-dimensional conductive material or a conductive ceramic, and wherein the second conductive layer comprises a metal, a semiconductor, a two-dimensional conductive material or a conductive ceramic.

[0128] Aspect 12 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the conductive layer comprises a dielectric or a semiconductor.

[0129] Aspect 13 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the barrier height between the transport layer and one or both of the first or second conductive layer is 0 eV to 10 eV.

[0130] Aspect 14 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer has a thickness of 3 nm to 100 nm.

[0131] Aspect 15 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the transport layer has a thickness of 0.3 nm to 50 nm.

[0132] Aspect 16 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second conductive layer has a thickness of 5 nm or at least 5 nm to 1 cm.

[0133] Aspect 17 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least one of the first conductive layer or the second conductive layer includes a multilayer structure, the multilayer structure including one or more conductive sublayers.

[0134] Aspect 18 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a photonic metamaterial or a plasma nanostructure that increases the optical absorption properties of the first conductive layer or enhances the emission of hot carriers optionally toward the second conductive layer.

[0135] Aspect 19 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second conductive layer comprises a photonic metamaterial or a plasma nanostructure.

[0136] Aspect 20 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances the optical absorption properties of the first conductive layer.

[0137] Aspect 21 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances the emission of hot carriers optionally toward the second conductive layer.

[0138] Aspect 22 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the Casimir cavity includes: a first reflective layer; a cavity layer; and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer.

[0139] Aspect 23 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer has a thickness of 10 nm to 2 μm.

[0140] Aspect 24 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer includes a venting or filling gap layer or a condensed phase optically transparent material layer.

[0141] Aspect 25 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a condensed phase optically transparent material layer.

[0142] Aspect 26 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm.

[0143] Aspect 27 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer each independently have a thickness of at least 10 nm or 10 nm to 1 cm; and / or wherein, for at least some light wavelengths of 100 nm to 10 μm, the reflectivity of at least one of the first reflective layer or the second reflective layer is greater than 50%.

[0144] Aspect 28 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first reflective layer comprises a metal, a dielectric reflector, a diffractive reflector, or an interface providing a refractive index step located between the cavity layer and an adjacent material.

[0145] Aspect 29 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second reflective layer includes one or more components of an electronic device.

[0146] Aspect 30 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes a diode selected from metal / insulator / metal diodes (MIM), Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, MOT diodes, quantum well diodes, ballistic diodes, or carbon nanotube diodes, or wherein the electronic device includes a superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) device.

[0147] Aspect 31 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes: a conductive layer that is adjacent to or adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure or includes a component of the zero-point energy density reduction structure; and a semiconductor layer that is configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the conductive layer.

[0148] Aspect 32 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the semiconductor layer has 10 15 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 10 15 cm -3 Up to 10 16 cm -3 10 16 cm -3 Up to 10 17 cm -3 10 17 cm -3 Up to 10 18 cm -3 10 18 cm -3Up to 10 19 cm -3 10 19 cm -3 Up to 10 20 cm -3 Or 10 20 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 The concentration of dopants.

[0149] Aspect 33 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a load positioned to receive current from one or more conductive layers of an electronic device.

[0150] Aspect 34 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a substrate, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

[0151] Aspect 35 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a substrate, wherein the electronic device is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

[0152] Aspect 36 is an array of devices comprising: a plurality of devices arranged in an array configuration according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects.

[0153] Aspect 37 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of apparatuses is arranged in a series configuration.

[0154] Aspect 38 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of apparatuses is arranged in a parallel configuration.

[0155] Aspect 39 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein a plurality of apparatuses are arranged in a combination of series and parallel configurations.

[0156] Aspect 40 is a device stack comprising: a plurality of device layers arranged in a stacked configuration, wherein each device layer comprises one or more devices according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects.

[0157] Aspect 41 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein each apparatus layer is positioned above and / or below another apparatus layer.

[0158] Aspect 42 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein each apparatus layer corresponds to an array comprising a plurality of apparatuses.

[0159] Aspect 43 is an apparatus comprising: an electronic device; and a zero-point energy density reduction structure adjacent to the electronic device, wherein the electronic device exhibits a structure that allows the transfer or capture of charge carriers passing through the electronic device in a time of 1 ps or less.

[0160] Aspect 44 is a device according to any of the preceding or subsequent aspects, wherein the structure allows the transmission or capture of charge carriers in the range of 100 fs or less, 10 fs or less, 1 fs or less, or 0.1 fs or less.

[0161] Aspect 45 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure provides an asymmetry relative to the electronic device, which drives an energy flow or particle flow or wave flow through the electronic device even in the absence of an external light source.

[0162] Aspect 46 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the symmetry generates a voltage difference between a first side of the electronic device and a second side of the electronic device.

[0163] Aspect 47 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the asymmetry generates a net charge flow between the first side of the electronic device and the second side of the electronic device.

[0164] Aspect 48 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the asymmetry reduces the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device compared to the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device in the absence of a zero-point energy density reduction structure.

[0165] Aspect 49 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the asymmetry provides a difference between a first zero-point energy density on a first side of the electronic device and a second zero-point energy density on a second side of the electronic device, the difference driving energy flow even in the absence of an external lighting source.

[0166] Aspect 50 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein a first side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of a first conductive layer of the electronic device, and wherein a second side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of a second conductive layer of the electronic device.

[0167] Aspect 51 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure includes a Casimir cavity adjacent to an electronic device.

[0168] Aspect 52 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, which includes or corresponds to a Casimir light injector.

[0169] Aspect 53 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes: a first conductive layer adjacent to a Casimir cavity or a component including a Casimir cavity; a transmission layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer configured to be adjacent to and in contact with an electrically insulating layer.

[0170] Aspect 54 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metal, a semiconductor, a two-dimensional conductive material or a conductive ceramic, and wherein the second conductive layer comprises a metal, a semiconductor, a two-dimensional conductive material or a conductive ceramic.

[0171] Aspect 55 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the transport layer includes a dielectric.

[0172] Aspect 56 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the transport layer comprises a semiconductor.

[0173] Aspect 57 is an apparatus according to any of the preceding or subsequent aspects, wherein the barrier height between the transport layer and one or both of the first or second conductive layer is between 0 eV and 10 eV.

[0174] Aspect 58 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer has a thickness of 3 nm to 100 nm.

[0175] Aspect 59 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the transport layer has a thickness of 0.3 nm to 50 nm.

[0176] Aspect 60 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second conductive layer has a thickness of 5 nm to 1 cm.

[0177] Aspect 61 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least one of the first conductive layer or the second conductive layer includes a multilayer structure, the multilayer structure including one or more conductive sublayers.

[0178] Aspect 62 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a photonic metamaterial or a plasma nanostructure that increases the optical absorption properties of the first conductive layer or enhances the emission of hot carriers optionally toward the second conductive layer.

[0179] Aspect 63 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second conductive layer comprises a photonic metamaterial or a plasma nanostructure.

[0180] Aspect 64 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances the optical absorption properties of the first conductive layer.

[0181] Aspect 65 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances the emission of hot carriers optionally toward the second conductive layer.

[0182] Aspect 66 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the Casimir cavity includes: a first reflective layer; a cavity layer; and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer.

[0183] Aspect 67 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer has a thickness of 10 nm to 2 μm.

[0184] Aspect 68 is a device according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer includes a venting or inflation gap layer or an optically transparent material layer.

[0185] Aspect 69 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a condensed phase optically transparent material layer.

[0186] Aspect 70 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm.

[0187] Aspect 71 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer each independently have a thickness of at least 10 nm or 10 nm to 1 cm; and / or wherein, for at least some light wavelengths of 100 nm to 10 μm, the reflectivity of at least one of the first reflective layer or the second reflective layer is greater than 50%.

[0188] Aspect 72 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first reflective layer comprises a metal, a dielectric reflector, a diffractive reflector, or an interface providing a refractive index step located between the cavity layer and an adjacent material.

[0189] Aspect 73 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the second reflective layer includes one or more components of an electronic device.

[0190] Aspect 74 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes a diode selected from metal / insulator / metal diodes (MIM), Schottky diodes, metal / insulator / semiconductor (MIS) diodes, Mott diodes, quantum well diodes, ballistic diodes, or carbon nanotube diodes, or wherein the electronic device includes a superconductor / insulator / superconductor (SIS) device.

[0191] Aspect 75 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the electronic device includes: a conductive layer that is adjacent to or adjacent to a zero-point energy density reduction structure or includes a component of the zero-point energy density reduction structure; and a semiconductor layer that is configured to be adjacent to and in contact with the conductive layer.

[0192] Aspect 76 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the semiconductor layer has 10 15 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 10 15 cm -3 Up to 10 16 cm -3 10 16 cm -3 Up to 10 17 cm -3 10 17 cm -3 Up to 10 18 cm -3 10 18 cm -3 Up to 10 19 cm -3 10 19 cm -3 Up to 10 20 cm -3 Or 10 20 cm -3 Up to 10 21 cm -3 The concentration of dopants.

[0193] Aspect 77 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a load positioned to receive current from one or more conductive layers of an electronic device.

[0194] Aspect 78 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a substrate, wherein the zero-point energy density reduction structure is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

[0195] Aspect 79 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, further comprising a substrate, wherein the electronic device is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

[0196] Aspect 80 is an array of devices comprising: a plurality of devices arranged in an array configuration according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects.

[0197] Aspect 81 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of apparatuses is arranged in a series configuration.

[0198] Aspect 82 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of apparatuses is arranged in a parallel configuration.

[0199] Aspect 83 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein a plurality of apparatuses are arranged in a combination of series and parallel configurations.

[0200] Aspect 84 is a device stack comprising: a plurality of device layers arranged in a stacked configuration, wherein each device layer comprises one or more devices according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects.

[0201] Aspect 85 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein each apparatus layer is positioned above and / or below another apparatus layer.

[0202] Aspect 86 is an apparatus according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein each apparatus layer corresponds to an array comprising a plurality of apparatuses.

[0203] Aspect 87 is a Casimir cavity comprising: a first reflective layer; a cavity layer; and a second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer, and wherein the cavity layer comprises a solid, a liquid, or a liquid crystal.

[0204] Aspect 88 is a Casimir cavity according to any of the preceding or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer has a thickness of 10 nm to 2 μm.

[0205] Aspect 89 is a Casimir cavity according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some optical wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm.

[0206] Aspect 90 is a Casimir cavity according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer each independently have a thickness of at least 10 nm or from 10 nm to 1 cm.

[0207] Aspect 91 is a Casimir cavity according to any of the foregoing or subsequent aspects, wherein, for at least some light wavelengths from 100 nm to 10 μm, the reflectivity of at least one of the first or second reflective layers is greater than 50%.

[0208] Aspect 92 is a Casimir cavity according to any of the preceding or subsequent aspects, wherein the first and second reflective layers independently comprise a metal, a dielectric reflector, a diffractive reflector, or an interface providing a refractive index step located between the cavity layer and an adjacent material.

[0209] References

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[0240] Statement regarding references and changes to the merge

[0241] All references throughout this application, such as patent documents, including published or granted patents or equivalents, patent application publications, non-patent documents, or other source materials, are incorporated herein by reference as if they were incorporated separately.

[0242] All patents and publications mentioned in this specification represent the skill level of a person skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. References cited herein are incorporated by way of citation to indicate the state of the art as of their submission date in certain circumstances, and may be used herein, if necessary, to exclude (e.g., abandon) specific embodiments in the prior art.

[0243] When a group of substitutes is disclosed herein, it should be understood that all individual members of that group, as well as all subgroups and classes that can be formed using the substitutes, are disclosed separately. When the Markusi group or other groupings are used herein, all individual members of that group, as well as all possible combinations and subcombinations of that group, are intended to be included separately in this disclosure. As used herein, “and / or” means that one, all, or any combination of items separated by “and / or” in a list is included in the list; for example, “1, 2, and / or 3” is equivalent to “1” or “2” or “3” or “1 and 2” or “1 and 3” or “2 and 3” or “1, 2, and 3”.

[0244] Unless otherwise stated, every combination of formulations or components described or illustrated can be used to practice this invention. Specific names of materials are intended as examples, as it is well known that those skilled in the art can give the same materials different names. It should be understood that other methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods may be used in the practice of this invention without the need for excessive experimentation, in addition to those specifically illustrated methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods. All functional equivalents known in the art of any such methods, apparatus elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods are intended to be included in this invention. Whenever ranges are given in the specification, such as temperature ranges, time ranges, or composition ranges, all intermediate ranges and sub-ranges, as well as all individual values ​​included within a given range, are intended to be included in this disclosure.

[0245] As used herein, “comprising” is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized in,” and is inclusive or open-ended, and does not exclude additional, unlisted elements or method steps. As used herein, “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or component not specified in the elements of the claim. As used herein, “consisting substantially of” does not exclude materials or steps that do not substantially affect the essential and novel features of the claim. Any expression of the term “comprising” herein, particularly in the description of the components of a composition or the elements of an apparatus, is to be understood to cover compositions and methods that are substantially composed of and constituted by the stated components or elements. The invention described illustratively herein may be suitably practiced without the presence of any one or more elements or limitations not specifically disclosed herein.

[0246] The terms and expressions used are for description and not limitation, and their use is not intended to exclude any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it should be recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the claimed invention. Therefore, it should be understood that although the invention has been specifically disclosed through preferred embodiments and optional features, modifications and variations of the concepts disclosed herein can be made by those skilled in the art, and such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

Claims

1. An apparatus for generating electrical energy, the apparatus comprising: An electronic device, the electronic device comprising: First conductive layer; The transport layer adjacent to and in contact with the first conductive layer; and The second conductive layer adjacent to and in contact with the transport layer; and A Casimir cavity, adjacent to the electronic device; in: The Casimir cavity establishes the difference between the first zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device and the second zero-point energy density on the second side of the electronic device; The difference between the first zero-point energy density and the second zero-point energy density drives the energy flow across the electronic device; and The first conductive layer of the electronic device functions at least partially as a reflector for the Casimir cavity.

2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the difference between the first zero-point energy density and the second zero-point energy density generates a net charge flow between the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer.

3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the Casimir cavity reduces the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device compared to the zero-point energy density on the first side of the electronic device in the absence of the Casimir cavity.

4. The device of claim 1, wherein the first side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of the first conductive layer, and The second side of the electronic device corresponds to at least a portion of the second conductive layer.

5. The device of claim 1, wherein the electronic device exhibits a structure that allows the transmission or capture of charge carriers passing through the electronic device in a time of 1 ps or less.

6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the energy flow occurs even in the absence of an external lighting source.

7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metal.

8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the transmission layer comprises a dielectric.

9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the transport layer comprises a semiconductor.

10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first conductive layer has a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 nm.

11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the transport layer has a thickness in the range of 0.3 nm to 50 nm.

12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the second conductive layer has a thickness in the range of 5 nm to 1 cm.

13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer comprises a multilayer structure, the multilayer structure comprising one or more conductive sublayers.

14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances the optical absorption properties of the first conductive layer.

15. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first conductive layer comprises a metamaterial that enhances hot carrier emission.

16. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the Casimir cavity comprises: First reflective layer; Cavity layer; as well as A second reflective layer, wherein the cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer.

17. The device of claim 16, wherein the cavity layer has a thickness in the range of 10 nm to 2 μm.

18. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the cavity layer comprises a condensed phase optically transparent material layer.

19. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some electromagnetic radiation wavelengths in the range of 100 nm to 10 μm.

20. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the first reflective layer has a thickness in the range of 10 nm to 1 cm.

21. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein at least one of the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer has a reflectivity greater than 50%.

22. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the first reflective layer comprises metal.

23. The device of claim 16, wherein the first conductive layer of the electronic device functions at least in part as the second reflective layer of the Casimir cavity.

24. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electronic device comprises a diode.

25. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer comprises a semiconductor layer.

26. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a load positioned to receive current from at least one of the first and second conductive layers of the electronic device.

27. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a substrate, wherein the Casimir cavity is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

28. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a substrate, wherein the electronic device is configured to be adjacent to and supported by the substrate.

29. An array of devices, the array of devices comprising: Multiple devices arranged in an array configuration; Each of the plurality of devices is an example of the device of claim 1.

30. The device array of claim 29, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of devices is arranged in a series configuration.

31. The device array of claim 29, wherein at least a subset of the plurality of devices is arranged in a parallel configuration.

32. The device array of claim 29, wherein the plurality of devices are arranged in a combination of series and parallel configurations.

33. A device stack, the device stack comprising: Multiple device layers arranged in a stacked configuration; Each of the plurality of device layers includes one or more devices, each of the one or more devices being an instance of the device of claim 1.

34. The device stack of claim 33, wherein one or more devices in each device layer form an array.

35. A Casimir cavity, said Casimir cavity comprising: First reflective layer; Cavity layer; as well as Second reflective layer; in: The cavity layer is located between the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer; and The cavity layer may be solid, liquid, or liquid crystal.

36. The Casimir cavity of claim 35, wherein the cavity layer has a thickness in the range of 10 nm to 2 μm.

37. The Casimir cavity of claim 35, wherein the cavity layer comprises a material having a transmittance of greater than 20% for at least some light wavelengths in the range of 100 nm to 10 μm.

38. The Casimir cavity of claim 35, wherein each of the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer independently comprises a metal, a dielectric reflector, a diffractive reflector, or an interface between the cavity layer and an adjacent material providing a step change in refractive index.

39. The Casimir cavity according to claim 35, wherein at least one of the first reflective layer and the second reflective layer has a reflectivity greater than 50%.

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