Compounds and methods for the treatment of brain injuries
Patent Information
- Application Number
- EP2024886770
- Authority / Receiving Office
- EP · EP
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2024-08-21
- Filing Date
- 2024-10-30
- Publication Date
- 2026-09-09
AI Technical Summary
Current treatments for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) are ineffective due to the lack of understanding of the underlying mechanisms, particularly the differential vulnerability of brain cells to mechanical injury and the role of ion channels such as TRPV4 in axonal varicosity formation and injury.
The use of TRPV4 antagonists, such as GSK219, to inhibit CHIMERA-induced axonal varicosities, microglial activation, and cortical demyelination, offering a potential therapeutic approach for treating mTBI.
GSK219 significantly reduces axonal varicosity formation, microglial activation, and cortical demyelination following head impact, indicating its potential as an effective treatment for mTBI.
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Abstract
Description
Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 COMPOUNDS AND METHODS FOR THE TREATMENT OF BRAIN INJURIES STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
[0001] This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01 NS093073 and R01NS130308 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. CROSS‐REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
[0002] This application claims the benefit of US Provisional Applications 63 / 594,135, filed October 30, 2023, and 63 / 685,492, filed August 21, 2024, the contents of each are hereby incorporated in their entireties. BACKGROUND
[0003] Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) or concussion represents a major health problem worldwide. The mTBI is a diagnostic term for TBIs with loss of consciousness less than 30 minutes (min), an initial Glasgow Coma Scale of 13–25 after 30 min, and posttraumatic amnesia less than 24 hours (h). Accurate diagnosis and effective treatment remain difficult because many aspects of mTBI are still poorly understood. For instance, it is unknown why most mTBIs recover but approximately 15% of them develop long‐term deficits. The concussion threshold remains elusive. For instance, in studies of American football players, one of the most puzzling findings is that a given head impact that causes serious injury in some players often appears harmless for hundreds of other players. In contrast to those with high concussion tolerance, a mild head impact can cause devastating injury in people with familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) type 1, an autosomal dominant form of migraine with aura caused by gain‐ of‐function mutations in the calcium channel gene (CACNA1A). Moreover, why different brain regions display different vulnerabilities to a head impact is still unclear. Importantly, the root of these problems is the question of which type of brain cells within the same brain region is most prone to mechanical injury in mTBI.
[0004] It is the current theme that all brain cells are mechanosensitive. Neurons and relatively softer glial cells, including microglia, astrocytes, and pre‐myelinating oligodendrocytes, display differential viscoelastic properties that depend on their location in the brain, subcellular domains, and developmental and differentiation stages. In mTBI, which usually does not involve bleeding, an external mechanical force likely creates larger deformation in glial cells than their adjacent neurons, but the deformation threshold leading to cellular injury in different cell types may differ and remains poorly understood. Furthermore, both neuronal and glial cell damages are involved in the secondary injury of 1 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 mTBI, which shares some aspects of the secondary injury of moderate‐to‐severe TBIs, such as diffuse axonal injury, excitotoxicity, microglia‐mediated inflammation, demyelination, and astrogliosis. Due to the lack of early biomarkers in mTBI, these interlinked secondary injuries are often independently measured days or even weeks after head impact(s) in various studies, leading to no identifiable causal relationship. Thus, it remains unknown whether neurons and glia within the same brain region simultaneously or sequentially respond to the mechanical stress of a concussive head impact.
[0005] Many types of mechanical‐stress‐induced injury, such as axonal injury, microglial activation, excitotoxicity, demyelination, cell death, and oxidative stress, appear to involve aberrant calcium increase in neurons and / or glia. Among all the mechanosensitive and Ca2+‐permeable ion channels that are expressed in these brain cells, the N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor could act as an initial sensor for a head impact, especially because it can be directly activated in vitro by mechanical stress in the absence of ligand. Indeed, a concussive head impact can quickly trigger glutamate‐ mediated excitotoxicity. Excitotoxicity mediated by NMDA receptor hyperactivation has been implicated in synaptic alteration, microglial activation, and neuronal cell death in mTBI. However, NMDA receptor antagonists failed in clinical trials for treating TBIs likely resulting from their interference with the normal synaptic transmission.
[0006] TRPV4 transient receptor potential channel represents another mechanosensitive Ca2+‐ permeable ion channel. Gain‐of‐function missense mutations in the TRPV4 gene are linked to human diseases including two major groups, autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders (Charcot‐Marie‐ Tooth disease type 2C and distal spinal muscular atrophies) and skeletal disorders (skeletal dysplasias and osteoarthropathy). Our early studies implicated the TRPV4 channel in regulating mechanical stress‐ induced axonal varicosity formation in cultured central neurons, based on the results of ionic composition, channel blockers and activator, RNAi knockdown, immunostaining, and reconstitution in HEK293 cells. Axonal varicosities (swelling or beading), are enlarged, heterogeneous structures along axonal shafts, can be immediately induced by mechanical stress in vitro and in vivo, and hence represent an early biomarker for axonal injury. However, the potential role of the TRPV4 channel in axonal varicosity formation in vivo is further complicated by TRPV4’s broad expression in multiple types of brain cells, including neurons, microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, and endothelial cells. In particular, microglia were shown to be rapidly activated in brain injury as well. Thus, despite recent progress in structural understanding of TRPV4 channels, it remains unknown whether and how TRPV4 channel activation is involved in mTBI. 2 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1
[0007] There remains a need for improved systems and methods for treatment of brain injuries, including traumatic brain injuries. There remains a need for improved systems and methods for the treatment of concussion and concussion symptoms. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
[0008] Figure 1 depicts CHIMERA‐induced axonal varicosities precede cortical demyelination with partial recovery. (A) YFP+ cortical neurons from Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice: no impact (Sham, left), 0h (middle), or 60d (right) after one 0.9‐J head impact in CHIMERA. YFP fluorescence signals are inverted in low‐mag grayscale images (top) and are in green in high‐mag confocal images from EC (bottom). (B) Summary of the percentage of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC at different time points after CHIMERA. Mouse numbers are provided in the bars. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: *** p < 0.001, * p < 0.05. (C) Size distribution of axonal varicosities (Dvari / Dshaft ratio) in mice under three conditions, Sham, 0h, and 60d. Image numbers: 50 in each condition. (D) Cortical demyelination caused by CHIMERA. YFP is in green, dMBP staining in red, and Hoechst in blue in merged images (left). The dMBP signals are inverted in grayscale images (right). (E) Summary of dMBP staining levels in the mouse cortex at different time points after CHIMERA. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: *** p < 0.001. (F) TEM images from mouse cortex without head impact (Sham; left) or 24h after CHIMERA (right). High‐mag TEM images are at the bottom. Red arrowheads, damaged myelin sheath. Blue arrowheads, asymmetric synapses. (G) Summary of percentage of axons with damaged myelin in the cortex, gray matter. Image numbers are provided. Unpaired t‐test: *** p < 0.001. Scale bars, 250 µm in (A) (upper panels) and (D), 30 µm in (A)(lower panels), 2 µm and 300 nm in upper and lower panels in (F), respectively.
[0009] Figure 2 depicts memantine inhibits CHIMERA‐induced microglial activation and cortical demyelination but not axonal varicosity formation. (A) CHIMERA‐induced microglial activation in the cortex. Low‐mag images of the cortex from mice received no impact (Sham, left), or 0h, 4h, 24h, or 3d after head impact. The anti‐CD68 staining signals are in red, YFP in green, and Hoechst in blue. (B) Summary of the density of CD68+ cells in the mouse cortex under different conditions. Mouse numbers are provided within the bars. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001. (C) Diagram for the memantine experiment. Memantine was injected (via i.p. at 10 mg / kg each dose) 1.5 hours before CHIMERA and 3 hours afterward. (D) Representative images of induced axonal varicosities at 0h from vehicle (top) and memantine (bottom) treated Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice. YFP fluorescence signals are in green, the CD68 signals in red, and Hoechst in blue. (E) Summary of the effect of 3 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 memantine treatment on axonal varicosity induction in the cortex (left) and EC and CC (right) of Thy1‐ YFP transgenic mouse at 0h and 24h. Green lines, the basal levels in Sham. Unpaired t‐test: cortex vehicle 0h vs. cortex memantine 0h, p = 0.394; cortex vehicle 24h vs. cortex memantine 24h, p = 0.975; EC&CC vehicle 0h vs. EC&CC memantine 0h, p = 0.309; EC&CC vehicle 24h vs. EC&CC memantine 24h, p = 0.554. (F) Memantine treatment eliminated CD68+ cells in the cortex and significantly reduced CD68 staining signals in the EC 24h after CHIMERA. CD68 staining signals are inverted in grayscale images. High‐mag confocal images are on the right. (G) Memantine treatment markedly reduced CD68+ cells in the CC 24h after CHIMERA. High‐mag confocal images are at the bottom. (H) Summary of memantine’s effect on the density of CHIMERA‐induced CD68+ cells at 24h. Mouse numbers are provided. Unpaired t‐ test: ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. (I) Memantine treatment markedly reduced dMBP signals in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA. Mouse numbers are provided in the bars. Unpaired t‐test: ***p < 0.001. (J) Confocal image stacks of CD68 (green) and dMBP (red) costaining in the cortex of vehicle (left) and memantine‐treated mice 24h after CHIMERA. Scale bars, 250 µm in (A), (F) left, (G) upper, and (I); 25 µm in (D), (F) right, (G) lower, and (J).
[0010] Figure 3 depicts GSK219 markedly inhibits CHIMERA‐induced axonal varicosities, microglial activation, cortical demyelination, and behavioral alterations. (A) Diagram for the CHIMERA experiment with GSK219 pretreatment. Mice were gavaged with GSK219 (20 mg / kg) or vehicle (as control) once 3 hours before CHIMERA (0.9J). (B)‐(C) Confocal images of the cortex of Thy1‐YFP mice 24h after CHIMERA with the pretreatment of vehicle (B) or GSK219 (C). The dMBP staining signals are inverted in grayscale images (right) and in red in merged images (left), YFP in green, and Hoechst in blue. (D) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 0h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. The mouse numbers are provided in the chart. Unpaired t‐test: p = 0.0000021. (E) Summary of dMBP intensity in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. Unpaired t‐test: p = 7.481 × 10‐12. (F) Summary of CD68+ cell density in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSP219 pretreatment. The basal level in Sham is close to 0. Unpaired t‐test: p = 3.257× 10‐14. (G) Example traces of mouse movement in the elevated plus maze (EPM) before (cyan) or 3d after CHIMERA (black) with vehicle (left) or GSK219 pretreatment (right). (H) Summary of the percentage time of open arms, 100 × Topen / (Topen+Tclosed), in the EPM test. Unpaired t‐test: p = 0.00408 at 3 DPI. (I) Summary of the total travel distance in the EPM test. Unpaired t‐test: p = 0.0498 at 14 DPI. (J) Rotarod results before CHIMERA (‐3d), and 3d, 7d, 14d, and 30d after CHIMERA. Unpaired t‐test in 3d: trial 2 p = 0.0157; trial 3 p =0.00606; trial 4 p =0.000829; trial 5 p = 0.00133. (K) Diagram for the CHIMERA experiment with GSK219 post‐treatment. 4 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Mice were gavaged with GSK219 (20 mg / kg) or vehicle (as control) once 2 hours after CHIMERA (0.9J). (L) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 post‐ treatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. Unpaired t‐test: p = 0.000205. (M) Summary of dMBP intensity in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 post‐treatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. Unpaired t‐test: p = 0.0000517. (N) Summary of CD68+ cell density in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 post‐treatment. The basal level in Sham is close to 0. p = 0.957 Unpaired t‐test: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Scale bars, 20 µm in (B) and (C).
[0011] Figure 4 depicts the protective effects of GSK219 are absent in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice after head impact in CHIMERA. (A) Low‐mag (left) and confocal (right) images from the cortex of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice received no impact (Sham, top), or 0h after CHIMERA (0.9J) with vehicle (middle) or GSK219 pretreatment (bottom). YFP signals are inverted in gray‐scale images and green in confocal images. Scale bars, 200 µm in left panels, and 20 µm in right panels. (B) Summary of the effects of TRPV4 KO and GSK219 pretreatment on axonal varicosity formation at 0h after CHIMERA. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: *** p < 0.001. Mouse numbers are provided in the chart. (C) Summary of the effects of TRPV4 KO and GSK219 pretreatment on dMBP staining intensities in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: *** p < 0.001. (D) Protein changes in the brains of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice versus age‐ and sex‐ matched WT mice revealed by genome‐wide proteomics with mass spectrometry analysis. (E) Upregulated proteins in the TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brain in GO subgroups based on subcellular components. (F) Down‐regulated proteins in the TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brain in GO subgroups. (G) The upregulated ion channel proteins versus unchanged Cav channels. Unpaired t‐test; Kcnj3: *p = 0.0075; Cacna1a: *p = 0.0024; Cacna1e: *p =0.011; Mcu: *p = 0.0049 ; Grik2: *p = 0.038; Ryr2: *p =0.033; Scn2a: *p =0.027. (H) TRPV4 deletion was verified by Western blotting with WT and TRPV4‐ / ‐ brains. (I) Western blots of WT and TRPV4‐ / ‐ brains using antibodies against 3 Cav channel proteins. Numbers on the right, molecular weights in kDa. (J) Quantification summary of Western blot results. Unpaired t‐test: * p < 0.05.
[0012] Figure 5 depicts acute deletion of neuronal TRPV4 prevents CHIMERA‐induced axonal varicosity formation and adjacent glial changes. (A) Diagram of injecting AAV9‐hSyn‐Cre‐dTomato into the right cortex of mice. Adult WT and TRPV4fl / fl mice were used in CHIMERA about 1 month after the viral injection. A low‐mag image (bottom) shows the injection sites with dTomato fluorescence in green and Hoechst in blue. (B) Low‐mag gray‐scale images with dTomato signals inverted of the cortex and EC from a WT (top) or a TRPV4fl / fl (bottom) mouse injected with AAV9:Syn‐Cre;dTomato at 0h after CHIMERA. (C) Confocal images from the EC of the mice in (B). The dTomato signals are in green and Hoechst in blue. (D) Summary of the percentage of dTomato+ axons with varicosities in white matter (CC and EC) 5 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 and gray matter (cortical layers 1‐6) from WT (black) and TRPV4fl / fl (red) mice 0h or 24h after CHIMERA, comparing to Sham. Mouse numbers are provided in the chart. (E) Confocal images and quantification of TRPV4 protein (red) knockdown via the infection by AAV9‐Syn‐Cre‐dTomato (green) in the cortex of TRPV4fl / fl but not WT mice. (F) Confocal images from the Ipsilateral and Contralateral sides of the cortex from WT (top) or TRPV4fl / fl (bottom) mice 24h after CHIMERA. The dTomato signals are in green and dMBP signals are in red. (G) Summary of dMBP staining intensity from the mouse cortex under different conditions. Image number n = 20 in all groups. (H) Summary of CD68+ cell density in the cortex from WT or TRPV4fl / fl (Flox) mice with AAV injection 24h after CHIMERA. Image number n = 20 in all groups. Unpaired t‐test: **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001. Scale bars, 160 µm in (B); 40 µm in (C), (E), and (F).
[0013] Figure 6 GSK279 markedly inhibits CHIMERA‐induced axon‐glial changes in WT but not TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice. (A) Structural diagrams of GSK219 and GSK279. (B) Diagram for the CHIMERA experiment with GSK279 pretreatment. WT;Thy1‐YFP or TRPV4‐ / ‐; Thy1‐YFP mice (3‐4 months old) were injected via tail vein with GSK279 (18 µg / kg) or vehicle (as control) once 1.5 hours before CHIMERA (0.9J). Mice were perfused and fixed either immediately (0h) or 24h after head impact. (C) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 0h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK279 pretreatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. (D) Confocal images of the EC of WT (left) and TRPV4‐ / ‐ (right) mice 24h after CHIMERA with the pretreatment of vehicle (top) or GSK279 (bottom). The CD68 staining signals are inverted in grayscale images (right) and red in merged images (left), YFP in green, and Hoechst in blue. (E) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 24h after CHIMERA. (F) Summary of CD68+ cell density in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA. (G) The dMBP staining signals (inverted in gray‐scale images (right) and in red in merged images (left) in the cortex of WT mice 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle (top) or GSP279 (middle) pretreatment. The summary is at the bottom. (H) The dMBP staining signals in the cortex of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK279 pretreatment. Mouse numbers, n = 3 for all groups. Unpaired t‐test: ***, p < 0.001. Scale bars, 20 µm in (D), (G), and (H).
[0014] Figure 7 depicts TRPV4 blockers inhibit fluid mechanical stress‐induced axonal varicosities in cultured neurons. (A) The diagram of the micro biomechanical assay using local fluid puffing. The glass pipette (tip diameter ~50 μm) was connected to a syringe via tubing filled with Hank’s buffer. There was about 190 mm in vertical distance between the surface of Hank’s buffer in the syringe and the pipette tip. The pipette tip was positioned about 0.4 mm (vertical distance) above cultured neurons. (B) Cultured neurons were pretreated with either vehicle (top), GSK219 (0.5 µM; middle), or GSK279 (0.5 µM; bottom) for 20 min before puffing. Example axons at different time points (right before puffing or 0 sec; 5, 10, and 30 sec after puffing) were shown. (C) Summary of varicosity density (varicosity # / µm) 6 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 along axons at different time points after puffing. D) Summary of varicosity sizes (µm2). One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: *, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001. (E) Cultured hippocampal neurons at 21 DIV were costained for TRPV4 (green) and RhoA (red; signals are inverted in the grayscale image at the bottom). (F) Cultured hippocampal neurons at 10 DIV were costained for TRPV4 (green) and RhoA (red). Red arrowheads, TRPV4+ / RhoA+ axons; Green arrowheads, TRPV4+ / RhoA‐ axon. (G) Altered expression levels of RhoA and RhoB in the brain of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice. Genome‐wide proteomics with mass spectrometry analysis was performed using 3 WT and 3 TRPV4‐ / ‐mouse brains. In unpaired t‐test, the p values are provided. (H) RhoA proteins are not highly concentrated in puffing‐induced axonal varicosities. Cultured hippocampal neurons expressing YFP were puffed at 8 DIV and then fixed and stained for endogenous RhoA (red in the merged images). Cornered areas are enlarged and shown on the right. Scale bars, 10 µm in (B), 100 µm in (E) and (F), 50 µm in (H) left and 25 µm in (H) right.
[0015] Figure 8 Gabapentin markedly inhibits CHIMERA‐induced axon‐glial changes in TRPV4‐ / ‐mice, as well as WT mice. (A) Diagram for the CHIMERA experiment with gabapentin pretreatment. WT;Thy1‐ YFP or TRPV4‐ / ‐;Thy1‐YFP mice were injected via I.P. with gabapentin (50 mg / kg) or vehicle (as control) once 1.5 hours before CHIMERA (0.9J). Mice were perfused and fixed either immediately (0h) or 24h after head impact. (B) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 0h after CHIMERA with vehicle or gabapentin pretreatment. The green line, the basal level in Sham. (C) Summary of YFP+ axons with varicosities in EC 24h after CHIMERA. (D) Confocal images of the EC of WT (left) and TRPV4‐ / ‐ (right) mice 24h after CHIMERA with the pretreatment of vehicle (Veh; top) or gabapentin (Gab; bottom). The CD68 staining signals are inverted in grayscale images (right) and in red in merged images (left), YFP in green, and Hoechst in blue. (E) Summary of CD68+ cell density in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA. (F) The dMBP staining signals in the cortex of WT (left) or TRPV4‐ / ‐ (right) mice 24h after CHIMERA. (G) Summary of dMBP signals in the cortex 24h after CHIMERA. Mouse numbers, n = 3 for all groups. Unpaired t‐test: **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001. Scale bars, 25 µm in (D) and (F).
[0016] Figure 9 depicts CHIMERA‐induced axonal varicosities in different brain regions are partially reversible. Images from the corpus callosum (CC) (A) or the external capsule (EC) (B) of Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice that received no impact (Sham, left), or 0h (middle) or 3d (right) after one 0.9‐J head impact in CHIMERA. YFP signals are in green and Hoechst in blue. (C) Summary of percentage of YFP+ axons with varicosities in the CC (left) or the cortex (right) at different time points after CHIMERA. Mouse numbers are provided. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Scale bars, 250 ^m in (A), and 40 ^m in (B). 7 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1
[0001] Figure 10 depicts delayed cortical demyelination induced by CHIMERA. Low‐mag images of the cortex of the Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice received no impact (Sham) (A), 0h (B), and 24h (C) after CHIMERA (0.9J). The anti‐MBP staining signals are in red in merged images (left) and inverted in grayscale images (right). YFP is in green and Hoechst is in blue. (D) Confocal images of cortical layer 1 at 0h (upper) and 24h (bottom) after CHIMERA. MBP, red; YFP, green; Hoechst, blue. (E) Confocal images of cortical layer 6 from Sham mice (left), or 0h (middle) and 24h (right) after CHIMERA. Scale bars, 250 µm in (A)‐(C), 30 µm in (D) and (E).
[0002] Figure 11 depicts ultrastructural changes of the mouse cortex 24 hours after CHIMERA. (A) Example transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of myelinated axons and synapses in the cortex of sham mice. (B) Example TEM images of damaged myelin and synapses in the mouse cortex 24h after CHIMERA. Blue arrowheads: asymmetric synapses. Red arrowheads: damaged myelin. Scale bars, 300 nm
[0003] Figure 12 depicts a head impact in 0.9J CHIMERA does not cause bleeding in the mouse brain. (A) The experimental diagram for assessing the cerebrovascular integrity using Evans Blue (2% in saline; 2 ml / kg mouse body weight) via tail vein injection 1.5 h before the impact. (B)‐(E) Mouse brain examples under 4 different conditions are shown in the top (top) and sagittal (bottom) views, including Sham (B), CHIMERA 0.9J (C), CHIMERA 1.2J (D), and open‐skull controlled cortical impact (CCI) using a piston with 1.59 mm diameter (E). Mouse hippocampal slides from Sham (F), 24h after CHIMERA 0.9J (G), and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) with a clinical score (CS) of 4 (H) were stained with Hoechst (blue) and an anti‐CD4 antibody (red in merged images (top) and black in inverted gray‐scale images (bottom)). Red arrowheads, infiltrated CD4+ T lymphocytes. Scale bars, 250 µm.
[0004] Figure 13 depicts GSK219 pretreatment markedly reduced cortical demyelination, microglial activation, and behavioral alterations caused by CHIMERA. (A) GSK219 pretreatment markedly reduced cortical demyelination 24h after CHIMERA. The dMBP staining signals are in red in merged images (left) and inverted in grayscale images (right), YFP in green, and Hoechst in blue. (B) GSK219 pretreatment eliminated CD68 signals in the cortex and EC 24h after CHIMERA. The CD68 signals are in red in merged images and inverted in grayscale images (middle). Confocal images are on the right. (C) Balance‐beam results before CHIMERA (‐3d), and 3d, 7d, 14d, and 30d after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. Unpaired t‐test: 7d trial #2 *p = 0.0444; 7d trial #3 *p = 0.0121. (D) The total travel distance of mice in CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. (E) Summary of discrimination index ((TN‐TF) / (TN+TF) in the novel‐object‐recognition (NOR) test at different time points in CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. Unpaired t‐test: 30d *p = 0.0164. (F) Summary of spontaneous 8 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 alternation (%) in the Y‐maze test at different time points in CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 pretreatment. Unpaired t‐test: *, p < 0.05. Scale bars, 250 µm in (A) and (B) left; 30 µm in (B) right.
[0005] Figure 14 depicts GSK219 post‐treatment reduced axonal varicosity level and cortical demyelination but not microglial activation 24h after CHIMERA. Low‐mag (A) and confocal (B) images of the cortex and EC of Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle or GSK219 post‐ treatment. (C) Low mag (left) and confocal (right) images of the mouse cortex 24h after CHIMERA with vehicle post‐treatment. The dMBP staining signals are in red in merged images and inverted in gray‐ scale images. (D) Images 24h after CHIMERA with GSK219 post‐treatment. (E) GSK219 post‐treatment did not inhibit microglial activation revealed by increased CD68 staining signals. The CD68 staining signals are in red in the merged image and inverted in the gray‐scale image. Scale bars, 200 µm in (A), (C) left, (D) left, and (E); 20 µm in (B), (C) right, and (D) right. (F) The effect of GSK219 post‐treatment on the EPM result, the percentage of open‐arm time, in CHIMERA. Mouse numbers are provided in the chart. (G) The effect of GSK219 post‐treatment on the rotarod test (the 5th and last trial), Latency to fall, in CHIMERA. Unpaired t‐test: 20d p = 0.0481. (H) The effect of GSK219 post‐treatment on the balance‐ beam test (the 3rd and last trial), Time to cross, in CHIMERA. Unpaired t‐test: 7d p = 0.00458. Unpaired t‐test: *, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01.
[0006] Figure 15 depicts GSK219 pretreatment did not affect behavioral alterations induced by CHIMERA in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice. (A) The rotarod results from TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice in CHIMERA with vehicle (black) or GSK219 (red) pretreatment. (B) The balance‐beam results from TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice in CHIMERA with vehicle (black) or GSK219 (red) pretreatment. (C) The EPM results from TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice in CHIMERA with vehicle (black) or GSK219 (red) pretreatment. Mouse numbers are provided in the chart. Unpaired t‐test: no significant difference in all comparisons.
[0007] Figure 16 depicts upregulated proteins in the membrane protein complex and mitochondrial protein complex. Upregulated proteins in the top two GO categories are the membrane protein complex and mitochondrial protein complex. Individual proteins are shown in pink ovals and GO categories are in green rectangles. Cacna1a (Cav2.1) and Cacna1e (Cav2.3) proteins and mitochondrial protein complexes are highlighted in yellow.
[0008] Figure 17 depicts upregulation of Cav2.1 proteins in the brain of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice revealed by immunostaining. (A) Anti‐Cav2.1 staining signals in hippocampal CA3 and dentate gyrus, the cortex, and the corpus callosum of WT (TRPV4+ / +;Thy1‐YFP) mice. (B) Anti‐Cav2.1 staining signals in hippocampal CA3 and dentate gyrus, the cortex, and the corpus callosum of TRPV4‐ / ‐ (TRPV4‐ / ‐;Thy1‐YFP) mice. The 9 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 anti‐Cav2.1 staining signals are in red in merged images (left) and inverted in gray‐scale images (right). Scale bars, 400 µm.
[0009] Figure 18 depicts acute knockdown of TRPV4 in neurons significantly inhibited adjacent microglial activation induced by CHIMERA. TRPV4fl / fl (A)‐(C) or WT (D)‐(F) mice were injected with AAV9‐ Syn‐Cre‐dTomato and impacted with CHIMERA a month later. DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0010] Before the present methods and systems are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that the methods and systems are not limited to specific synthetic methods, specific components, or to particular compositions. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.
[0011] As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and / or to “about” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes¬ from the one particular value and / or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint.
[0012] “Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not.
[0013] Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the word “comprise” and variations of the word, such as “comprising” and “comprises,” means “including but not limited to,” and is not intended to exclude, for example, other additives, components, integers or steps. “Exemplary” means “an example of” and is not intended to convey an indication of a preferred or ideal embodiment. “Such as” is not used in a restrictive sense, but for explanatory purposes.
[0014] Disclosed are components that can be used to perform the disclosed methods and systems. These and other components are disclosed herein, and it is understood that when combinations, subsets, interactions, groups, etc. of these components are disclosed that while specific reference of each various individual and collective combinations and permutation of these may not be explicitly disclosed, each is specifically contemplated and described herein, for all methods and systems. This applies to all aspects of this application including, but not limited to, steps in disclosed methods. Thus, if 10 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 there are a variety of additional steps that can be performed it is understood that each of these additional steps can be performed with any specific embodiment or combination of embodiments of the disclosed methods.
[0015] Compounds disclosed herein may be provided in the form of acceptable salts, for example pharmaceutically acceptable salts. Examples of such salts are acid addition salts formed with inorganic acids, for example, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acids and the like; salts formed with organic acids such as acetic, oxalic, tartaric, succinic, maleic, fumaric, gluconic, citric, malic, methanesulfonic, p‐toluenesulfonic, napthalenesulfonic, and polygalacturonic acids, and the like; salts formed from elemental anions such as chloride, bromide, and iodide; salts formed from metal hydroxides, for example, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide; salts formed from metal carbonates, for example, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and magnesium carbonate; salts formed from metal bicarbonates, for example, sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate; salts formed from metal sulfates, for example, sodium sulfate and potassium sulfate; and salts formed from metal nitrates, for example, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate.
[0016] The term "alkyl" refers to a radical of a straight‐chain or branched hydrocarbon group having a specified range of carbon atoms (e.g., a "C1‐16 alkyl" can have from 1 to 16 carbon atoms). An alkyl group can be a saturated alkyl group or an unsaturated alkyl group, i.e., an alkyl group having one or more carbon‐carbon double / triple bonds, i.e., an alkenyl or alkynyl group. Unless specified to the contrary, an “alkyl” group includes both saturated alkyl groups and unsaturated alkyl groups.
[0001] The term "heteroalkyl" refers to an alkyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and / or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. By way of example, a heteroC1‐6alkyl (which may also be designated a C1‐6heteroalkyl) group includes, but is not limited to, the following structures: . bonded through the specified heteroatom. By way of example, a OC1‐6heteroalkyl group includes, but it not limited to, the following structures: 11 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 .
[0003] C2‐6, C2‐5, C2‐4, C2‐3, C3‐6, C3‐5, C3‐4, C4‐6, C4‐5, and C5‐6 alkyl.
[0004] Affixing the suffix "‐ene" to a group indicates the group is a polyvalent moiety, e.g., boned to two or more groups. Alkylene is the polyvalent moiety of alkyl, alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl, alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl, heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl, heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl, carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl, heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl, arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl, and heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl (each of which parent groups as defined herein).
[0005] The term "alkoxy" refers to an alkyl group, as defined herein, appended to the parent molecular moiety through an oxygen atom.
[0006] The term "aryl" refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6‐14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system ("C6‐14 aryl"). "Aryl" also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an "unsubstituted aryl") or substituted (a "substituted aryl") with one or more substituents.
[0007] "Aralkyl" is a subset of "alkyl" and refers to an alkyl group substituted by an aryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.
[0008] The term "heteroaryl" refers to a radical of a 5‐14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1‐4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur ("5‐14 membered heteroaryl"). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. "Heteroaryl" includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as 12 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. "Heteroaryl" also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (aryl / heteroaryl) ring system. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2‐indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5‐indolyl).
[0009] Exemplary heteroaryl and heterocyclyl rings include: benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, benzothiofuranyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, benzoxazolinyl, benzthiazolyl, benztriazolyl, benztetrazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzimidazolinyl, carbazolyl, 4aH carbazolyl, carbolinyl, chromanyl, chromenyL cirrnolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, 2H,6H~ 1,5,2‐dithiazinyl, dihydrofuro[2,3 b]tetrahydrofuran, furanyl, furazanyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolyl, lH‐indazolyl, indolenyl, indolinyl, indolizinyl, indolyl, 3H‐indolyl, isatinoyl, isobenzofuranyl, isochromanyl, isoindazolyl, isoindolinyl, isoindolyl, isoquinolinyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, methylenedioxyphenyl, morpholinyl, naphthyridinyl, octahydroisoquinolinyl, oxadiazolyl, 1,2,3‐oxadiazolyl, 1,2,4‐oxadiazolyl, 1,2,5‐ oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4‐oxadiazolyl, oxazolidinyl, oxazolyl, oxindolyl, pyrimidinyl, phenanthridinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxathinyl, phenoxazinyl, phthalazinyl, piperazinyl, piperidinyl, piperidonyl, 4‐piperidonyl, piperonyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, pyranyl, pyrazinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolyl, pyridazinyl, pyridooxazole, pyridoimidazole, pyridothiazole, pyridinyl, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolinyl, 2H‐pyrrolyl, pyrrolyl, quinazolinyl, quinolinyl, 4H‐quinolizinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinuclidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrazolyl, 6H‐1,2,5‐thiadiazinyl, 1,2,3‐thiadiazolyl, 1,2,4‐thiadiazolyl, 1,2,5‐thiadiazolyl, 1,3,4‐thiadiazolyl, thianthrenyl, thiazolyl, thienyl, thienothiazolyl, thienooxazolyl, thienoimidazolyl, thiophenyl, and xanthenyl.
[0010] Unless specified to the contrary, the alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups defined herein (and the “ene” versions of said groups) may be substituted or unsubstituted. A substituted group includes a non‐ hydrogen substituent at a position where in the unsubstituted version a hydrogen atom would be found. Substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, hydroxy, alkyl, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, oxo, carbocyclyl, carbocycloalkyl, heterocarbocyclyl, heterocarbocycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, 13 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 heteroarylalkyl, ‐NRaRb, ‐NRaC(=O)Rb, ‐NRaC(=O)NRaNRb, ‐NRaC(=O)ORb, ‐ NRaSO2Rb, ‐C(=O)Ra, ‐C(=O)ORa, ‐C(=O)NRaRb, ‐OC(=O)NRaRb, ‐ORa, ‐SRa, ‐SORa, ‐ S(=O)2Ra, ‐OS(=O)2Ra and ‐S(=O)2ORa. Ra and Rb in this context can be the same or different and independently hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxy, alkyl, amino, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carbocyclyl, carbocycloalkyl, heterocarbocyclyl, heterocarbocycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl.
[0011] As used herein, a chemical bond depicted: represents either a single, double, or triple bond, valency permitting. By way of example, .
[0012] interconvertible structural isomers that differ in the position of one or more protons or other labile atom. By way of example: .
[0013] attachment indicates that the substituent may be attached at any possible atom. For example, in a benzofuran depicted: O ,
[0014] As used herein, the term “null,” when referring to a possible identity of a chemical moiety, indicates that the group is absent, and the two adjacent groups are directly bonded to one another. By way of example, for a genus of compounds having the formula CH3‐X‐CH3, if X is null, then the resulting compound has the formula CH3‐CH3. A group having the subscript ‘0’ is understood to represent a null group as well. By way of example, in the compound CH3‐(X)z‐CH3, if X is CH2 and z is 0, then the compound has the formula CH3‐CH3. 14 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1
[0015] Unless stated to the contrary, a formula with chemical bonds shown only as solid lines and not as wedges or dashed lines contemplates each possible isomer, e.g., each enantiomer, diastereomer, and meso compound, and a mixture of isomers, such as a racemic or scalemic mixture. Unless stated to the contrary, a formula depicting one or more stereochemical features does not exclude the presence of other isomers.
[0016] Disclosed herein are methods of treating or preventing a traumatic brain injury in a subject in need thereof by administering to the subject a TRPV4 antagonist. In some implementations the traumatic brain injury is a mild traumatic brain injury, moderate traumatic brain injury, or severe traumatic brain injury. In some implementations the traumatic brain injury is a concussive brain injury.
[0017] Also disclosed herein are methods of reducing physical symptoms following a traumatic brain injury in a subject. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be used to reduce nausea, vomiting, dizziness, balance problems, headaches, light sensitivity, impaired memory, sleep abnormalities, impaired concentration, impaired vision, or a combination thereof in a subject following traumatic brain injury.
[0018] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered to the subject subsequent to the subject receiving the traumatic brain injury. For example, the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered within 10 minutes, within 30 minutes, within 1 hour, within 2 hours, within 4 hours, within 8 hours, within 12 hours, within 18 hours, or within 24 hours following the subject receiving the traumatic brain injury. In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered to the subject a single time. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist is administered multiple times to the subject, for example once every 0.5 hour, once every hour, once every 2 hours, once every 4 hours, once every 8 hours, once every 12 hours, once a day, once every other day, once every third day, or once every week, following traumatic brain injury. The TRPV4 antagonist may be administered until the traumatic brain injury symptoms have resolved.
[0019] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered to the subject prior to the subject undertaking an activity at risk of receiving a traumatic brain injury. For example, the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered to a subject prior to participating in a contact sport (football, American football, basketball, boxing, martial arts, wrestling, water polo, baseball / softball, lacrosse, hockey (field or ice) rugby, volleyball, handball, gymnastics, cheerleading, etc). In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered to a warfighter prior to engaging in combat or combat training. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered to a subject expected to be in proximity to a blast or other shockwave (for example in demolitions, mining, rocketry, etc.). 15 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1
[0020] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered to a subject experiencing post‐ concussion syndrome, defined herein as the persistence of concussion symptoms three months or more following the original concussive event.
[0021] In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered in combination with one or more additional therapies for traumatic brain injury to the subject. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered in combination with acetaminophen. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered in combination with an antihistamine, for example diphenhydramine, cyclizine, dimenhydrinate, doxylamine, mirtazapine, meclizine, promethazine, or hydroxyzine. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered in combination with medicine for headache, for example botulinum toxin (BOTOX®), topiramate, triptans such as sumatriptan, rizatriptan, naratriptan, eletriptan, donitriptan, almotriptan, frovatriptan, avitriptan, zolmitriptan, LY‐334370, or L‐694247. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered in combination with an anti‐nausea medication (anti‐emetic), for example a 5‐HT3 antagonist list dolasetron, granisetron, ondansetron, tropisetron, palonosetron, a dopamine antagonist like amisulpride, domperidone, droperidol, olanzapine, haloperidol, alizapride, prochlorperazine, chlorpromazine, metoclopramide, an NK1 receptor antagonist like aprepitant, casopitant, or rolapitant.
[0022] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist can be administered to a subject that is sequestered in a reduced sensatory environment.
[0023] The method of any of claims 1‐11, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK3395879, GSK3527497, GSK205, GSK3491943, GSK1016790A, GSK2798745, GSK2193874, HC‐067047, RN‐1734, RN‐1747, RN‐9893, PF‐05214030, rosmarinic acid or rosmarinic acid derivative, or a combination thereof.
[0024] In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: 16 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 N H H N NNN Bn
[0025] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is a compound having the formula: , L1 is CRaRb; L2 is CRcRd; 18 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Ra is H, halo, cyano, (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, (C3‐C5)cycloalkyloxy, or (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl, wherein any (C1‐ C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, (C3‐C5)cycloalkyloxy, and (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro; Rb is H, halo, cyano, (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, or (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl, wherein any (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, and (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro; or Ra and Rb taken together are oxo (═O) methylene (═CH2), or Ra and Rb taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a spiro(C3‐C5)cycloalkyl; Rc is H, halo, cyano, (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, (C3‐C5)cycloalkyloxy, or (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl, wherein any (C1‐ C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, (C3‐C5)cycloalkyloxy, and (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro; Rd is H, halo, cyano, (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, or (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl, wherein any (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, and (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro; or Rc and Rd taken together with the atoms to which they are attached form a fused cyclopropyl ring; or Rc and Rd taken together are oxo (═O) or methylene (═CH2), or Rc and Rd taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a spiro(C3‐C5)cycloalkyl; wherein at least one of Ra, Rb, Rc, and Rd is other than H; R1 is H, hydroxy, cyano, halo, methoxycarbonyl, cyclopropyl, (C1‐C3)alkyl, or (C1‐C3)alkoxy, wherein any cyclopropyl, (C1‐C3)alkyl, and (C1‐C3)alkoxy is optionally substituted with one or more groups independently selected from hydroxy, (C1‐C3)alkoxy, benzyloxy, cyano, and fluoro, or R1 and Rc taken together with the atoms to which they are attached form a fused cyclopropyl ring; each R2 is independently selected from the group consisting of halo, cyano, hydroxy, ethynyl, (C1‐ C3)alkylsulfonyl, cyclopropyl, (C1‐C3)alkyl, and (C1‐C3)alkoxy, wherein any cyclopropyl, (C1‐C3)alkyl, and (C1‐C3)alkoxy is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro; R4 is (C1‐C7)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, phenyl or a 6‐membered heteroaryl, wherein any R4 is optionally substituted with one or more Rx; each Rx is independently selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, cyano, C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐ C5)alkoxy, (C3‐C5)cycloalkyloxy, and (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, wherein any (C1‐C5)alkyl, (C1‐C5)alkoxy, (C3‐ C5)cycloalkyloxy, and (C3‐C5)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more groups independently selected from halo, cyano, C1‐C5)alkyl, and hydroxy; and A is 0, 1, or 2.
[0026] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is a compound having the formula: 19 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 , R1 is hydrogen, C1‐3alkyl, CH2OH, CH2—O—CH3, CH2OCH2Ph, CH2CN, CN, halo or C(O)OCH3; R2 is independently hydrogen, CN, CF3, halo, SO2C1‐3alkyl, C1‐3alkyl or C≡CH; R3 is hydrogen, C1‐2alkyl, CF3 or OH; R4 is hydrogen, halo or C1‐3alkyl; X is CR4 or N; A is (CH2)n‐Het; or A is (CH2)n—(CRaRb)—(CH2)m‐Het; Ra is hydrogen or C1‐3alkyl, wherein the C1‐3alkyl may be further substituted with one or more halos; Rb is C1‐3alkyl; or Ra and Rb together with the carbon atom they are attached form a C3‐6cycloalkyl group; or one of the carbon atoms in the C3‐6cycloalkyl group formed by Ra and Rb may be replaced with oxygen to form an oxetane, tetrahydrofuryl or tetrahydropyranyl group; or one of the carbon atoms in the C3‐6cycloalkyl group formed by Ra and Rb may be replaced with nitrogen to form a pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl group; Het is: CHF2, CF3, C3‐6cycloalkyl, (CH2)n—O—C1‐3alkyl, (CH2)n‐phenyl, (CH2)n‐pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, 20 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 CH(CH3)—O—C1‐3alkyl, CH(OH)—C1‐5alkyl, C(CH3)2—R5, C(O)N(CH3)p, N(C1‐3alkyl)p, NH2, C(O)NH2, oxetane, oxetane‐CH3, tetrahydrofuryl, tetrahydropyranyl, morpholinyl, or pyrazolyl; wherein the phenyl, pyrazolyl, and pyridyl substituent on the Het may be further substituted by one or two substituents chosen from: halo, CN, OCH3, C1‐3alkyl or CF3; and the C1‐5alkyl and C3‐6cycloalkyl substituent on the Het may be further substituted by CN or OH; R5 is CN, O—C1‐4alkyl, (CH2)m—OH, (CH2)P—O—C(O)—O—C1‐5alkyl, or O—(CH2)p—O—R6; R6 is C1‐4alkyl or P(O)2(CH3)2; n is independently 0, 1 or 2; m is independently 0, 1 or 2; p is independently 1 or 2; and y is 1, 2 or 3.
[0027] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[3‐(1,1‐dimethylethyl)‐ 5‐isoxazolyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(2‐cyanopropan‐2‐yl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[5‐(1,1‐ dimethylethyl)‐3‐isoxazolyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile;1‐{[(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(2‐pyridinylmethyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐methyl‐2‐(5‐ phenyl‐1,3,4‐oxadiazol‐2‐yl)propyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐(3‐ethyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)‐2‐methylpropyl]‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[3‐ methyl‐1‐(2‐pyrimidinyl)‐3‐pyrrolidinyl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(1‐phenyl‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐ yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐2‐ oxo‐3‐({1‐[5‐(trifluoromethyl)‐3‐pyridinyl]‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl}methyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[4‐chloro‐3‐(1,1‐ dimethylethyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐[5‐(trifluoromethyl)‐2‐pyridinyl]‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[6‐(ethyloxy)‐ 3‐pyridinyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐methoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐ethoxypyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ 21 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐ (6‐methoxy‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(1‐ethyl‐5‐methyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((7S)‐3‐(5‐ methoxypyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐chloropyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐ (dimethylamino)pyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; (2‐(5‐((5S,7S)‐7‐((6‐cyano‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazol‐1‐yl)methyl)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐3‐yl)isoxazol‐3‐yl)‐2‐methylpropyl)tert‐butyl carbonate; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(1‐hydroxy‐2‐methylpropan‐2‐yl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐ 3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(4,6‐ dimethoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐ethoxy‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐ethoxy‐4‐ methylpyridazin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(2‐(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidin‐5‐ yl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(3‐(trifluoromethyl)pyridin‐2‐yl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[(5‐chloro‐1‐benzothien‐3‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐{3‐[1‐ (ethyloxy)ethyl]‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl}‐2‐methylpropyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐(5‐methyl‐2‐pyridinyl)‐2‐oxo‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐ [3‐(1‐methylethyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐ 6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐[3‐(2‐methylpropyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(1‐tert‐butyl‐1H‐ pyrazol‐4‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐ethyl‐5‐isoxazolyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐cyclopropyl‐5‐isoxazolyl)‐7‐methyl‐ 2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(3‐phenyl‐5‐isoxazolyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[3‐(1,1‐dimethylethyl)‐1‐methyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐5‐yl]‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ ({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐[3‐(trifluoromethyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[3‐(1‐cyanocyclopropyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐ 7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(2‐fluoropropan‐2‐yl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐cyclobutylisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(tert‐butyl)‐4‐methylisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(4‐(tert‐butyl)oxazol‐2‐yl)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐3‐(1‐(tert‐butyl)‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(tert‐butyl)‐4‐fluoroisoxazol‐5‐ yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(1,1‐difluoroethyl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(tert‐ butyl)‐4‐methylisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐(tert‐butyl)‐4‐fluoroisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐ 3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐(tert‐ butyl)pyridazin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(tert‐butyl)pyrimidin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐ (tert‐butyl)‐2H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐(3‐(1‐methyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐3‐yl)isoxazol‐ 5‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐3‐(1‐(tert‐butyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(tert‐butyl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(5‐(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidin‐2‐yl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐(2‐methoxypropan‐2‐yl)pyridin‐ 3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(3‐(prop‐1‐en‐2‐yl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3,4‐ dimethylisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3,4‐dimethylisoxazol‐5‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({3‐[(5‐chloro‐1‐ benzothien‐3‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐indole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({3‐[(5‐chloro‐1‐benzothien‐3‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐2‐ (trifluoromethyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({3‐[(5‐chloro‐1‐benzothien‐3‐yl)methyl]‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[3‐(1‐ benzothien‐3‐ylmethyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(2‐phenyl‐1,3‐thiazol‐4‐yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(6‐phenyl‐2‐pyridinyl)methyl]‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐methyl‐ 2‐[3‐(tetrahydro‐2H‐pyran‐4‐yl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl]propyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(4‐phenyl‐1,3‐thiazol‐2‐ yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐ {[3‐(4‐chlorophenyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(3‐phenyl‐5‐isoxazolyl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[(1‐methyl‐5‐ phenyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐3‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐ 6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐({4‐[3‐methyl‐4‐(methyloxy)phenyl]‐1,3‐thiazol‐2‐yl}methyl)‐2‐oxo‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(3‐ phenyl‐1H‐1,2,4‐triazol‐5‐yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(5‐phenyl‐3‐pyridinyl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitriletrifluoro acetate; 4‐chloro‐1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐methyl‐2‐ (3‐phenyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)propyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐methyl‐2‐(3‐methyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)propyl]‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐ methyl‐2‐(3‐phenyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)propyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐ 1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐methyl‐2‐[3‐(1‐methylethyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐ yl]propyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ ({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐(3‐cyclopentyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)‐2‐methylpropyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐methyl‐2‐[3‐(5‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 pyrimidinyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl]propyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐[3‐(1,1‐dimethylethyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl]‐2‐ methylpropyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ [((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐methyl‐2‐[3‐(trifluoromethyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl]propyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐methyl‐2‐{3‐ [(methyloxy)methyl]‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl}propyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐ 1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{2‐methyl‐2‐[3‐(2‐methylpropyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐ 5‐yl]propyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ ({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2‐methyl‐2‐(3‐{[(1‐methylethyl)oxy]methyl}‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)propyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 4‐chloro‐1‐[((5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐ 3‐{[4‐(3‐phenyl‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl)tetrahydro‐2H‐pyran‐4‐yl]methyl}‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐ 7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 4‐chloro‐1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[4‐(3‐cyclopentyl‐1,2,4‐ oxadiazol‐5‐yl)tetrahydro‐2H‐pyran‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐ 1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐{[1‐(2‐pyridinyl)‐3‐pyrrolidinyl]methyl}‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(1‐ phenyl‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(4‐cyanophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(4‐ chlorophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐chlorophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(4‐ methylphenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐cyanophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐ ({1‐[3‐(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl}methyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐fluorophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐ yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ {[(5S,7S)‐3‐({1‐[3‐(methyloxy)phenyl]‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl}methyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐ methylphenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[(1‐cyclohexanyl‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐({1‐[4‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 cyano‐3‐(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl}methyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐ 7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐chloro‐5‐cyanophenyl)‐1H‐ 1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐({1‐[2‐(trifluoromethyl)‐4‐pyridinyl]‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐ yl}methyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐ {[1‐(3,5‐difluorophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐({1‐[4‐(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]‐ 1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl}methyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐{[1‐(3‐cyano‐5‐fluorophenyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐{[1‐ (1‐methylethyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl)methyl]‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5R,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐[(1‐phenyl‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐ yl)methyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐[((5S,7S)‐3‐ {[1‐(5‐chloro‐3‐pyridinyl)‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl]methyl}‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐ yl)methyl]‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(4‐chloro‐3‐(2‐cyanopropan‐2‐ yl)isoxazol‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐ 6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[4‐bromo‐3‐(1,1‐dimethylethyl)‐5‐isoxazolyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐ 3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐[2‐ (methyloxy)‐3‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[2,6‐bis(methyloxy)‐3‐pyridinyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[4‐methyl‐6‐ (methyloxy)‐3‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((7S)‐3‐(3,5‐dichloropyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐ethoxypyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐ 2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(5‐chloro‐3‐fluoropyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(5‐(trifluoromethyl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐ (tert‐butyl)pyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐ 6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐(5‐methylpyrazin‐2‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐ 7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐ethoxy‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐ 7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐chloro‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐chloro‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐ (5‐chloro‐3‐methylpyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐chloro‐4‐methoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(6‐chloro‐4‐methoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(4‐methyl‐2‐(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(6‐ethoxy‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐5‐fluoro‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐methoxy‐6‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(3‐methoxy‐5‐methylpyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐ 1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐chloro‐5‐methylpyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(3‐ethylpyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3,5‐dimethylpyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐ 3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐methyl‐ 5‐(trifluoromethyl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐methoxy‐5‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(6‐(2‐cyanopropan‐2‐yl)pyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐ 1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐(tert‐butyl)pyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐ 1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐ methyl‐3‐[5‐(methyloxy)‐2‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[6‐(ethyloxy)‐3‐pyridazinyl]‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(3‐chloro‐2‐ pyridinyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐[3‐(methyloxy)‐2‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐ 7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐[6‐(trifluoromethyl)‐ 3‐pyridinyl]‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((7S)‐7‐ methyl‐3‐(6‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[4,6‐bis(methyloxy)‐3‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[6‐(1‐methylethyl)‐ 3‐pyridinyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐((7‐ (hydroxymethyl)‐3‐(6‐methoxy‐4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐(4‐ (trifluoromethyl)pyridin‐3‐yl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐(dimethylamino)pyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐ (4‐methylpyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(2‐hydroxypropan‐2‐yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐(2‐ hydroxypropan‐2‐yl)pyrimidin‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(4‐methoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐ (dimethylamino)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐2‐oxo‐3‐(thieno[2,3‐b]pyridin‐3‐ylmethyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[trans)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐3‐ (thieno[2,3‐b]pyridin‐3‐ylmethyl)‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐ carbonitrile; 1‐({(5S,7S)‐3‐[(3‐bromothieno[2,3‐b]pyridin‐2‐yl)methyl]‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl}methyl)‐1H‐benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐{[(5S,7S)‐3‐(2‐methyl‐2‐{3‐[1‐ (methyloxy)ethyl]‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐5‐yl}propyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]dec‐7‐yl]methyl}‐1H‐ benzimidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐((5‐ethoxypyrazin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐((4‐ ethoxypyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐((5‐ethoxypyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐((4‐ fluoropyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐((5‐fluoropyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐ oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐ methyl‐3‐((4‐(1‐methyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl)pyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐ 7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐((6‐(1‐methyl‐1H‐ pyrazol‐4‐yl)pyridin‐2‐yl)methyl)‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(2‐methoxypropan‐2‐yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐ methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐ (((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(2‐(2‐methoxyethoxy)propan‐2‐yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 2‐((2‐(5‐((5S,7S)‐7‐((6‐ cyano‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazol‐1‐yl)methyl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐3‐ yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)propan‐2‐yl)oxy)ethyldimethylphosphinic acid; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5′‐fluoro‐4‐methyl‐ [2,2′‐bipyridin]‐5‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐7‐methyl‐3‐(4‐methyl‐6‐morpholinopyridin‐3‐yl)‐2‐ oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐ 3‐(5‐(2‐hydroxypropan‐2‐yl)pyridin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐ yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(1‐hydroxy‐2‐methylpropan‐2‐ yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decan‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐ 6‐carbonitrile; and 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(6‐cyclopropyl‐4‐methoxypyridin‐3‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐ azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: most preferably 1‐(((5S,7S)‐3‐(5‐(2‐ hydroxypropan‐2‐yl)pyrazin‐2‐yl)‐7‐methyl‐2‐oxo‐1‐oxa‐3‐azaspiro[4.5]decane‐7‐yl)methyl)‐1H‐ benzo[d]imidazole‐6‐carbonitrile
[0028] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: , ring A is a 5‐ to 11‐membered N‐heteroaryl or phenyl; each R1, if present, is independently F, Cl, cyano, oxo, C3‐C6cycloalkyl, 3‐ to 6‐membered heterocycle, C1‐ C5alkyl, C1‐C5haloalkyl, phenyl, or combinations thereof, wherein the phenyl is optionally substituted with up to three substituents, wherein each substituent is independently selected from halo, cyano, C1‐C5 alkyl, and C1‐C3alkoxy; R2 is halo, C1‐C4alkyl, C3‐C6cycloalkyl, C2‐C5alkenyl, C1‐C4alkoxy, C1‐C4haloalkoxy, C1‐C4haloalkyl, C3‐ C6cycloalkoxy, C3‐C6halocycloalkoxy, or ‐OS(O)2R4; 29 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 wherein R4 is C1‐C3 alkyl or C1‐C3 haloalkyl; R3a and each R3b are independently selected from hydroxy, C1‐C8alkyl, C3‐C6cycloalkyl, a 5‐ to 6‐ membered heterocycle, ‐N(R5)(S(O)2R6), ‐N(R5)C(O)OR6, and C1‐C6alkoxy, wherein: the C1‐C8alkyl is optionally substituted with up to three substituents selected from hydroxy, halo, oxo, carboxy, C1‐C3alkoxy, ‐S(O)2R6, ‐S(O)2NH2, ‐C(O)OR6, and ‐NR5R6; the 5‐ to 6‐membered heterocycle is optionally substituted with up to three substituents selected from oxo and C1‐C3alkyl; the C3‐C6cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with up to three substituents selected from oxo and hydroxy; and each R5 and R6 is independent selected from C1‐C3alkyl and H; each R7 and R8, if present, is independently selected from H, halo, and C1‐C3alkyl, or together with the atom to which they are bound create a 3‐ to 6‐membered carbocycle; X, Y, Z are each independently selected from CR9 and N; wherein each R9 is independently selected from H and halo; R10a and R10b are independently selected from H and D; m is 0 or 1; p is 0, 1, 2, or 3; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; and s is 0, 1, 2
[0029] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: , R1 and R2 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, (C1‐ C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, and phenyl(C0‐C4)alkyl; wherein the said (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl or phenyl(C0‐C4)alkyl is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)haloalkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, and (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy; or alternatively R1 and R2, together with the atom to 30 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 which they are attached, may form a 3 to 8 membered ring which may contain 0 to 4 heteroatoms independently selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen; wherein the said 3 to 8 membered ring is optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)alkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —C(═O)(C1‐ C6)alkyl, and —C(═O)(C1‐C6)haloalkyl; R3 is independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, fluoride, methyl, ethyl, and (C1‐C6)haloalkyl; X is selected from the group consisting of: a chemical bond, —N(R4)—, —(C(R5)(R6))n—, —(C3‐ C8)cycloalkyl‐, —C(R5)═C(R6)—, —C(═O)—, —CR4 (N(R5)(R6))—, —[(C(R5)(R6))nO]—, — [(C(R5)(R6))nN(R4)]—, —[(C(R5)(R6))nS]—, and —[N(R4)(C(R5)(R6))n]—; R4 is hydrogen or (C1‐C6)alkyl; R5 and R6 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, (C1‐ C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, hydroxyl(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, and (C1‐ C6)haloalkoxy; when R5 is two or more than two, R5 is same or different; when R6 is two or more than two, R6 is same or different; n is 1, 2, 3, or 4; q is 1, 2, 3, or 4; r is 1, 2, 3, or 4; s is 1, 2, 3, or 4; Ar1 is selected from aryl and heteroaryl which are optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxyl, — C(═O) R7, —C(═O) NR7R8, —NHSO2R7, —SO2NR7R8, (C1‐C6)alkylthio‐, (C4‐C6)haloalkylthio‐, (C1‐ C6)alkylsulfinyl, (C1‐C6)alkylsulfonyl, —NR7R8, tri(C1‐C6)alkylsilyl, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, (C3‐ C7)cycloalkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkenyl, aryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, heteroaryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, aryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, heterocyclyl(C3‐C4)alkyl, heterocyclyl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, heteroaryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, and substituent group Q; wherein the said (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkenyl, aryl(C0‐ C4)alkyl, heteroaryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, aryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, heterocyclyl(C0‐C4)alkyl, heterocyclyl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, or heteroaryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy is optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, cyano, (C4‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, (C1‐ C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy, phenyl, —NRaRb, RaRbN(C1‐C6)alkyl, RaRbN(C1‐C6)alkoxy, —C(═O)NRaRb, —C(═O)Ra, —SO2(C1‐C6)alkyl, —SO2NRaRb, and 31 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 RaRbNC(═O)(C1‐C6)alkoxy; wherein the said (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with hydroxyl or cyano; wherein the substituent group Q is Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 33 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 (C1‐C6)alkyl; (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl, hydroxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, benzyl, H2N(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkylNH(C1‐C6)alkyl, and [(C1‐C6)alkyl]2N(C1‐C6)alkyl; or R7 and R8, together with nitrogen atom to which they are attached, may form a 3 to 10 membered ring which may contain a heteroatom selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen; wherein the said 3 to 10 membered ring is optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, oxo, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)alkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —C(═O)(C1‐C6)alkyl, and —C(═O) (C1‐C6)haloalkyl; Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)haloalkyl, hydroxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, phenyl(C0‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)haloalkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, H2N(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkylNH(C1‐C6)alkyl, and [(C1‐C6)alkyl]2N(C1‐C6)alkyl; or Ra and Rb, together with nitrogen atom to which they are attached, may form a 3 to 7 membered ring which may contain a heteroatom selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen; wherein the said 3 to 7 membered ring is optionally substituted with 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from (C1‐ C6)alkyl; Ar2 is selected from aryl and heteroaryl which are optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxyl, — COR9, —CONR9R10, —NHSO2R9, —SO2NR9R10, (C1‐C6)alkylthio‐, (C1‐C6)alkylsulfinyl, (C1‐C6)alkylsulfonyl, —NR9R10, tri(C1‐C6)alkylsilyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkylthio‐, —SF5, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, (C3‐ C7)cycloalkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, aryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, heteroaryl(C3‐C4)alkyl, aryl(C3‐C6)alkoxy, phenoxy, heteroaryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, heterocyclyl(C0‐C4)alkyl, and heterocyclyl(C0‐C6)alkoxy; wherein the said (C1‐ 34 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkoxy, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, aryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, heteroaryl(C0‐C4)alkyl, aryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, phenoxy, heteroaryl(C0‐C6)alkoxy, heterocyclyl(C3‐C4)alkyl, or heterocyclyl(C0‐ C6)alkoxy is optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C3‐C7)cycloalkyl(C1‐C6)haloalkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐ C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy, —NRcRd, RcRdN(C1‐C6)alkyl, RcRdN(C1‐C6)alkoxy, — C(═O)NRcRd, RcRdNC(═O)(C1‐C6)alkoxy, benzyloxy, and cyano; R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐ C6)haloalkyl, hydroxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy(C1‐C6)alkyl, H2N(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkylNH(C1‐C6)alkyl, and [(C1‐C6)alkyl]2N(C1‐C6)alkyl; or R9 and R10, together with nitrogen atom to which they are attached, may form a 3 to 10 membered ring which may contain a heteroatom selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen; wherein the said 3 to 10 membered ring is optionally substituted with 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halogen, hydroxyl, oxo, (C1‐ C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)alkyl, —SO2(C1‐C6)haloalkyl, —C(═O)(C1‐C6)alkyl, and —C(═O)(C1‐C6)haloalkyl; and Rc and Rd are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkyl, hydroxy (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkoxy (C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)haloalkoxy (C1‐C6)alkyl, H2N(C1‐C6)alkyl, (C1‐C6)alkylNH (C1‐C6)alkyl, and [(C1‐C6)alkyl] 2N(C1‐C6)alkyl; or Rc and Rd, together with nitrogen atom to which they are attached, may form a 3 to 7 membered ring which may contain a heteroatom selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
[0030] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: , R1 is independently C1‐6 alkyl or C3‐6 cycloalkyl; R2 is independently OH, OC1‐4 alkyl, C1‐4 alkyl, CH2OH, F, CH2OC1‐4 alkyl, CF3, or CF2H; R3 is morpholinyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, or hexahydroazepinyl, all of which may be unsubstituted or substituted by one or two R2; or R3 is N(C4‐6 alkyl)2, wherein C1‐6 alkyl may be unsubstituted or substituted by OH or —OCH3; 35 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 R4 is independently CF3, halo, C1‐3 alkyl or OC1‐3 alkyl; R5 is independently SO2R1, NH2, NHSO2R1, NR1SO2R1, C(O)piperazinyl, pyrimidinyl, OH, OCH2CH2OH, OCH2CH2OR1, OCF3, OCH2CF3, OCH2CN, OR1 or CH2R7; wherein or pyrimidinyl may be unsubstituted or substituted with one or two halo, OH, OR1 or R1; or two adjacent R5 groups may be combined to form R6 is independently halo, methyl, or OMe; R7 is pyrrolidinyl, morpholinyl, or piperidinyl; n is independently 0, 1, or 2; X is N or C; and y is independently 0, 1 or 2
[0031] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: , wherein L is C(═O)NR10, SO2NR10, a C1‐C6 alkylene, or a bond; 36 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Y is N or CR10; Z is O, NR10, S, SO2 or C(R10)2; n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 are independently selected from at least one of hydro, alkyl, haloalkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, carboxyl, carboxyalkyl or amido; R6 and R7 are independently selected from at least one of hydro, alkyl, haloalkyl, heterocyclic or aryl, or R6 and R7 are connected to via a cyclic ring system; R8 is hydro, alkyl, haloalkyl, heterocyclic or aryl; and R10 is hydro, alkyl, haloalkyl, carboxyalkyl, carboxyl, alkyl methylene carbonate, methylene carbamoyl, thiophenyl or —S— carboxyalkyl.
[0032] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist has the formula: , R1 is selected from: aryl, aryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, heteroaryl, heteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, bicycloheteroaryl, and bicycloheteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra; R2 is selected from: aryl, aryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb, heteroaryl, heteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb, bicycloheteroaryl, and bicycloheteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb, and Y1 is selected from: C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from: 1 to 9 substitutents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OC1‐6alkyl, —OC1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —NH2, and —CN, mercapto, —S(O)H, — S(O)2H, oxo, hydroxy, amino, NHRx11, where Rx11 is selected from C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —NH2, —CN, —OC1‐5alkyl, —OC1‐5alkyl substituted from 1 to 6 times by fluoro and —NH2, NRx12Rx13, where Rx12 and Rx13 are each independently selected from C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —NH2, and —CN, —C(O)NH2, aryl, —Oaryl, heteroaryl, —Oheteroaryl, —S(O)2NH2, —NHS(O)2H, nitro, and cyano, or 37 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Y1 is taken together with the adjacent —OH to form a heterocyclic ring selected from: morpholinyl, morpholinyl substituted by —CH3, and oxazolidin‐2‐one; each Ra is independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OH, C1‐6alkyl, C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 5 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, C1‐4alkoxy, — OH, C1‐4alkyl, phenyl, oxo, —NO2, —NH2 and —CN, cyano, —OC1‐6alkyl, —OC1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 5 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, C1‐4alkoxy, —OH, C1‐4alkyl, phenyl, oxo, —NO2, —NH2 and —CN, —Ophenyl, —C(O)OC1‐6alkyl, —C(O)OC1‐6alkyl substituted 1 to 5 times by fluoro, and —Ocycloalkyl; and each Rb is independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OH, C1‐6alkyl, C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 5 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, C1‐4alkoxy, — OH, C1‐4alkyl, phenyl, oxo, —NO2, —NH2 and —CN, cyano, —OC1‐6alkyl, —OC1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 5 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, C1‐4alkoxy, —OH, C1‐4alkyl, phenyl, oxo, —NO2, —NH2 and —CN, phenyl, C1‐4alkylphenyl, —C≡C—Si(CH3)3, and —C≡C‐ cycloalkyl. Preferably: R1 is selected from: aryl, aryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, heteroaryl, heteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, bicycloheteroaryl, and bicycloheteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra. Preferably, R2 is selected from: aryl, aryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb heteroaryl, heteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb bicycloheteroaryl, and bicycloheteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Rb. Preferably: Y1 is selected from: C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from: 1 to 9 substitutents independently selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OC1‐6alkyl, —OC1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —NH2, and —CN, mercapto, —S(O)H, —S(O)2H, oxo, hydroxy, amino, —NHRx11, where Rx11 is selected from C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —NH2, —CN, —OC1‐5alkyl, —OC1‐5alkyl substituted from 1 to 6 times by fluoro and —NH2, —NRx12Rx13, where Rx12 and Rx13 are each independently selected from C1‐6alkyl, and C1‐6alkyl substituted with from 1 to 6 substituents independently selected from: fluoro, oxo, —OH, —COOH, —NH2, and —CN, —C(O)NH2, aryl, —Oaryl, heteroaryl, —Oheteroaryl, — S(O)2NH2, —NHS(O)2H, nitro, and cyano, or 38 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Y1 is taken together with the adjacent —OH to form a heterocyclic ring selected from: morpholinyl, morpholinyl substituted by —CH3, and oxazolidin‐2‐one. Ra is selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OH, C1‐6alkyl, cyano, —CF3, —C1‐5alkylCF3, —CHF2, — CH2F, —OC1‐5alkyl, —OCF3, —OC1‐5alkylCF3, —Ophenyl, —Obenzyl, —C1‐5alkylCN, —C(O)OC1‐5alkyl, — C(O)OH, and —Ocycloalkyl; and Rb is selected from: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, —OH, C1‐6alkyl, cyano, —CF3, —C1‐5alkylCF3, —CHF2, —CH2F, —OC1‐5alkyl, —OCF3, —OC1‐5alkylCF3, —C(O)CH3, —OCHF2, phenyl, —C≡C—Si(CH3)3, —C≡C‐ cycloalkyl, and —C≡C‐phenyl. In some implementations R1 is selected from: aryl, aryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, heteroaryl, heteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra, bicycloheteroaryl, and bicycloheteroaryl substituted from 1 to 4 times by Ra.
[0033] In further implementations the TRPV4 is a rosmarinic acid derivative having the formula: . additional active ingredients) enterally, parenterally, intranasally, vaginally, by inhalation, or a combination thereof. When the TRPV4 antagonist is administered enterally, it may be administered by oral administration, sublingual administration, buccal administration, rectal administration, or a combination thereof. When the TRPV4 antagonist is administered parenterally, it may be administered by intramuscular injection, intravenous injection, subcutaneous injection, or a combination thereof. In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered orally via swallowable dosage form or via sublingual administrations. In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered parenterally.
[0035] The TRPV4 antagonist may be formulated with one or more excipients appropriate for the intended administration route. For example, the TRPV4 antagonist may be provided in a solution suitable for injection, optionally containing buffers and / or preservatives. Alternatively, the TRPV4 antagonist may be provided in a lyophilized composition suitable for reconstitution in sterile water or 39 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 other medically appropriate aqueous solution. The TRPV4 antagonist may be provided in tablets, capsules (filled with powders, pellets, beads, mini‐tablets, pills, micro‐pellets, small tablet units, multiple unit pellet systems (MUPS), disintegrating tablets, or dispersible tablets. Suitable excipients may be used for formulating the dosage forms according to the present invention such as, but not limited to, surface stabilizers or surfactants, viscosity modifying agents, polymers including extended release polymers, stabilizers, disintegrants or super disintegrants, diluents, plasticizers, binders, glidants, lubricants, sweeteners, flavoring agents, anti‐caking agents, opacifiers, anti‐microbial agents, antifoaming agents, emulsifiers, buffering agents, coloring agents, carriers, fillers, anti‐adherents, solvents, taste‐masking agents, preservatives, antioxidants, texture enhancers, channeling agents, coating agents or combinations thereof.
[0036] In some implementations, the TRPV4 antagonist is administered at a dosage from 1‐5,000 mg, from 1‐2,500 mg, from 1‐1,000 mg, from 1‐500 mg, from 1‐250 mg, from 1‐100 mg, from 1‐50 mg, from 10‐100 mg, from 25‐100 mg, from 50‐250 mg, from 100‐500 mg, from 100‐1,000 mg, from 500‐1,000 mg, from 500‐2,500 mg, from 1,000‐5,000 mg, from 1,000‐2,500 mg, or from 2,500‐5,000 mg. In some implementations the TRPV4 antagonist is administered at a dosage from 5,000‐10,000. As used herein, the dosage refers to the total amount of TRPV4 antagonist (calculated as the free base in instances where the antagonist is formulated as a salt) that is administered to the subject in a 24‐hour period. EXAMPLES
[0037] The following examples are for the purpose of illustration of the invention only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention in any manner whatsoever. Mouse line crossing and maintenance
[0038] C57BL / 6L Thy1‐YFP‐H transgenic mice with the expression of the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) in a subset of projection neurons were used in the present and our earlier studies (The Jackson Laboratory Stock # 003782). TRPV4 global KO (TRPV4‐ / ‐) and floxed (TRPV4fl / fl) mouse lines were kindly provided by Dr. Hongzhen Hu at Washington University at St Louis. TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice and TRPV4fl / fl mice were genotyped. The PCR‐based genotyping strategy was used for maintaining and crossing these mouse lines. All experiments were conducted in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and were approved by the Ohio State University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). CHIMERA (Closed‐Head Impact Model of Engineered Rotational Acceleration)
[0039] CHIMERA, an mTBI mouse model. In this model, mice are anesthetized with 4% Isoflurane in oxygen and placed in a supine position on a foam / plastic cradle, with a 50 g free‐floating chrome‐coated 40 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 steel piston under the dorsal surface of the mouse head. The pressure regulator of the accumulator air tank was adjusted to 5.36 psi, resulting in a piston impact on top of the mouse's head (the midpoint between bregma and lambda) at a speed of approximately 5.8 m / s and with an impact energy of 0.9 joules (0.9J). This CHIMERA model mimics the conditions of concussion or mTBI in real‐life situations and provides precise control over the impact energy, ensuring that all mice are impacted in the same direction and position with the same impact energy. Before the head impact, mice were administered subcutaneously with meloxicam (1 mg / kg) and saline (1 mL / 100 g body weight) for pain control and hydration. After the head impact, the mice were placed in a warm cage and monitored for recovery of right reflexes. Any mice that did not properly recover in their heart beating and breathing or that exhibited any sign of bleeding were excluded from the analysis. We made Evans Blue (Catalog #: E2129; Sigma‐Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) stock solution (2% in saline) was injected it into tail vain (2 ml / kg mouse body weight) 1.5 h before CHIMERA or open‐skull impact. Approximately 4.5 h after head impact, we perfused and fixed the mouse brain to examine the integrity of the blood‐brain barrier. Behavioral assays
[0040] Rotarod: The motor function of mice was assessed using the rotarod apparatus (Panlab 76‐0770, Barcelona, Spain). The rotarod apparatus consisted of a rotating rod, a sensor below the rod, and a digital timer. The testing began by placing each mouse on the rod, which was initially set at 4 rpm for 30 seconds (sec) to allow for acclimation. The speed gradually increased to 40 rpm over 5 minutes (min). Mice that were unable to maintain their grip on the rod and fell onto the sensor below were recorded as having a latency to fall. The time that each mouse remained on the rod was recorded for a maximum of 5 min, and the test was performed five times per mouse.
[0041] Balance Beam: Motor coordination and vestibular function of mice were assessed using a balance beam test. The balance beam was 1 meter long and 5 mm wide, and elevated 1 meter above the desktop. The surface of the beam was smooth. A box with home cage bedding was placed at one end of the beam to attract the mice. Each mouse was placed on the opposite end of the beam and we recorded the time it took to reach the box. If a mouse fell off the beam or failed to reach the box within 60 sec, it was assigned a score of 60 sec. Each mouse underwent three trials with approximately 10 min of rest between trials.
[0042] Elevated plus maze: Mice were put into a plus‐shaped maze, which is 74 cm above the ground, and each arm of the maze is 34 cm long and 5 cm wide. Among the four arms, one pair of arms is an aisle with walls blocking the view, and the other pair of arms is a flat walkway without enclosure. Mice spend most of their time hiding in closed arms, occasionally venturing into open arms. Within 5 min 41 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 after placing the mice in the maze, a video camera fixed to the ceiling recorded the tracks and total distance traveled by the mice. When the center point of the mouse enters the open arms area, it is considered to be in the open arms. Then EthoVision software was used to count the time of the mice in the open arms and to calculate the proportion of the time spent in the open arms of the mice in the total time of 5 min.
[0043] Open field test: The open field test was conducted to evaluate the locomotion and risk avoidance behavior of mice. The open field arena was constructed as a cube box with a side length of 40 cm, with an opening on the top side. Upon placement in the arena, mice typically remained near the wall of the arena and occasionally ventured toward the center. A camera positioned directly above the arena recorded the mice's movements for 10 min. Recorded footage was analyzed using Ethovision software to determine the total distance moved by the mouse, which served as an indicator of locomotion. Additionally, the central area of the arena, measuring 25 cm x 25 cm, was defined as the risk area, and the percentage of time spent by the mouse in the central area during the 10‐min trial was used as a measure of risk avoidance behavior.
[0044] Novel object recognition test: The memory function of mice was assessed using a novel object recognition test. The test consisted of two phases: familiarization and testing. In the familiarization phase, two identical plastic objects were placed symmetrically in a 40 cm × 40 cm open field arena and allowed mice to explore freely for 5 min. In the testing phase, after 4 hours (h), one of the objects was replaced with another plastic object of the same material but different in shape and size and recorded the mice’s exploration behavior for another 5 min. It was considered that mice were exploring an object when their center point was within a radius of 5 cm of the object. The time spent by mice exploring the novel object (Tn) and the familiar object (Tf) was measured and the discrimination index as (Tn‐ Tf) / (Tn+Tf) was calculated. A positive discrimination index indicates a preference for the novel object, reflecting normal memory function.
[0045] Y maze test: The spatial working memory of mice was evaluated using a Y‐maze spontaneous alternation test. The test was conducted in a Y‐shaped maze with three arms of equal length (40 cm) and width (8 cm). The arms had opaque plastic walls (20 cm high) to prevent visual cues. We placed each mouse in the center of the maze and allowed it to explore the three arms freely for 5 min. We recorded the number of arm entries and the sequence of arm choices for each mouse. An arm entry was defined as when all four feet of the mouse were within the arm. A triad was a sequence of three consecutive arm entries. A spontaneous alternation was a triad in which the mouse visited all three arms in any order. We calculated the percentage of spontaneous alternation as the ratio of actual to 42 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 possible alternations multiplied by 100. A higher percentage of spontaneous alternation indicates better spatial working memory. Cardiac perfusion and brain fixation
[0046] Cardiac perfusion and brain fixation are performed. In brief, anesthesia was induced through intraperitoneal injection of 10 mg / ml Euthasol at 0.5 ml per mouse, and it was ensured the mouse was unresponsive to tail / toe pinches before proceeding. The mouse was then secured in the supine position and an incision was made through the brain to expose the thoracic field. The beating heart was secured with a hemostat, and a needle was immediately inserted into the left ventricle. Next, the right atrium was cut with scissors, and 1x PBS was infused until the fluid exiting the right atrium was entirely clear. The perfusion fluid was then switched to 4% formaldehyde in PBS. After decapitating the mouse and removing the brain, we cut the cranium along the mid‐sagittal suture and gently removed the brain using forceps. The brain was cut coronally into three pieces on a glass matrices block and soaked in the fixative for 1 h at 4 oC. After removing the fixative, we soaked the brain pieces in 30% sucrose in PBS and kept them at 4 oC until they sank to the bottom of the sucrose tube. Finally, we embedded the brain pieces in Tissue‐Tek O.C.T. Compound with a foil cube mold and kept them at ‐80 oC. The tissue blocks were sectioned into 40 µm slices using a cryostat microtome for subsequent analyses. Chemicals and antibodies
[0047] Antibodies used in this study include a rabbit polyclonal anti‐degraded MBP antibody that recognizes damaged MBP proteins (1:2000, anti‐dMBP; Catalog #: AB5864; Chemicon), a rat monoclonal anti‐MBP antibody (1:200; Catalog #: ab7349; abcam), a rabbit polyclonal anti‐human amyloid precursor protein (APP) (the epitope: amino acids 44‐61; 1:200; Catalog #: 07‐667; Sigma‐Aldrich), a rabbit polyclonal anti‐Iba1 antibody (1:100; Wako Pure Chemical Industries, Ltd ., Osaka, Japan), a rabbit polyclonal anti‐TRPV4 antibody (1:200; Catalog #: LS‐A8583; LifeSpan BioSciences, Seattle, Washington, USA), rabbit polyclonal anti‐Cav2.1, anti‐Cav2.2 and anti‐Cav2.3 antibodies (Catalog #s: ACC‐001, ACC‐ 002 and ACC‐006; Alomone Labs, Jerusalem, Israel), a mouse monoclonal anti‐RhoA (26C4) antibody (Catalog #: SC‐418; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Dallas, Texas, USA), and a rat monoclonal anti‐CD68 antibody (1:200; Catalog #: MCA1957GA; Bio‐Rad; Hercules, CA, USA), as well as Cy3 and Cy5‐conjugated secondary antibodies (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA, USA). The nuclear dye Hoechst was purchased from Vector Laboratories (Catalog #: FL‐1351–2; Burlingame, CA, USA). Immunofluorescence staining
[0048] The immunofluorescence staining protocol was as follows. Each brain slide was incubated in PBS / 1% Triton X‐100 for 1 h at room temperature (RT), then washed and blocked with 2.5% normal goat 43 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 or donkey serum in washing buffer (PBS / 0.02% Triton X‐100) for another hour at RT. The origin of the blocking serum matches with the secondary antibody host. Primary antibodies were diluted in blocking solution (1:100 or 1:200 depending on the antibody) and applied to each slide, covering each brain slide with parafilm. The slides were incubated overnight at 4°C, then rinsed with washing buffer 7 times for 5 min each at RT. Secondary antibodies were also diluted in blocking solution (1:100 or 1:200 depending on the antibody) and added to each slide, followed by aluminum foil to protect from light. The slides were incubated for 3 h at RT, then washed once with washing buffer. Hoechst was added to the washing buffer (1:10000) and applied to each slide for 10 min at RT, then rinsed 7 times for 5 min each at RT. Finally, Tris‐buffered Fluoro‐Gel mounting media Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA, USA) was added and the slides were cover‐slipped with Fisherbrand Microscope Cover Glass. Western blotting analysis of ion channel proteins
[0049] In brief, the brain tissue was first homogenized and solubilized in a buffer containing 50 mM Tris‐Cl, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 1% Triton X‐100, and complete protease inhibitors at 4°C for 2 h. The resulting mixture was then centrifuged at 10350 rpm for 30 min at 4°C to remove insolubilized materials. The supernatant was resolved in SDS‐PAGE electrophoresis, transferred onto a PVDF membrane, and blotted with a specific antibody, followed by an HRP‐conjugated secondary antibody. An ECL kit was used to detect protein bands. Fluorescence microscopy and image capture
[0050] For low‐magnification image capture below 20×, a Zeiss Axiophot (Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, Germany) upright microscope was utilized with objectives 4×, 10× and 20× Plan Apo. Grayscale images were captured at the wavelength corresponding to the coupled fluorescence and Hoechst nuclear dye. These grayscale images were merged into pseudo‐color images using Image J and / or Photoshop. Quantification was performed using low‐magnification raw images with the same exposure time. Confocal microscopy and 3D reconstruction
[0051] For high‐magnification image acquisition, a Zeiss LSM 900 confocal system from Airyscan SR and an Andor Revolution WD spinning disk laser confocal system with Neo sCMOS camera were used with 63x and 100x immersion oil objectives, respectively. Grayscale images at wavelengths corresponding to different secondary antibody‐coupled fluorophores and Hoechst stains were captured using 405 nm, 488 nm, 515 nm, 561 nm, or 640 nm laser lines. Fiji Image J was used to merge images from different wavelengths at the same location to form colored images. Additionally, Z‐stack images for selected regions of interest with a step size of ~0.20 µm were captured, and 3D videos were generated using Fiji Image J. 44 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 Drug treatment
[0052] GSK2193874 (GSK219) (Catalog #: 5106; Tocris Bioscience, Bristol, UK) was administered to mice via gavage at a dosage of 20 mg / kg body weight. For the pretreatment experiment, mice were gavaged with one dose of GSK219 3 h before the head impact in CHIMERA (0.9J). Then the pretreated mice are analyzed using anatomical or behavioral assays at different time points after the impact. In the posttreatment experiments, mice were gavaged with one dose of GSK219 3 h after the head impact and analyzed at different time points. In the memantine treatment experiment, we administered memantine hydrochloride (Sigma Aldrich, M9292, St Louis, MO) via intraperitoneal injection with a dosage of 10 mg / kg body weight, 1.5 h before and 3 h after the impact. In the GSK2798745 (GSK279)(Catalog #: HY‐ 19765; MedChemExpress LLC, Monmouth Junction, NJ, USA)(61) treatment experiment, we administered GSK279 via tail vein injection with a dosage of 20 µg / kg mouse body weight 1 h before the impact. In the gabapentin treatment experiment, we administered gabapentin (Catalog #: PHR1049; MilliporeSigma, Burlington, MA, USA) via I.P injection (50 mg / kg mouse body weight) 1.5 h before head impact. Some mice were perfused immediately after the impact (0h), while the rest of the mice were perfused 24 h after the impact (24h). Mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis
[0053] Mass spectrum analysis of both WT and TRPV4‐ / ‐ brain tissues was conducted at the Campus Chemical Instrument Center Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility at The Ohio State University. After the mice were euthanized, brain tissues were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and kept at ‐ 80°C. Protein extraction was performed by adding 3 mg of brain tissue to a test tube and digesting it in a solution containing RapiGest or ProteaseMax. The supernatant was then transferred to a new LoBind tube, and the protein concentration was measured using a Thermo Fisher Qubit Fluorometer. Alkylation of 30 μg of extracted proteins was performed with dithiothreitol (DTT) and iodoacetamide (IAA) and reconstituted with trypsin (Promega). Brain samples were analyzed on a Thermo Scientific Q Exactive Plus High Resolution Accurate Mass (HRAM) mass spectrometer with a C18 Easy‐Spray column (Thermo Scientific). The mass spectrometer acquired full‐scan mass spectra from m / z 375 to 1575 at a resolution of 70,000. The top 15 most abundant precursor ions per full MS1 spectrum were selected for fragmentation, and an isolation window of 1.6 m / z was used for fragmentation with a normalized collision energy of 30. Tandem mass spectra (MS2) were acquired at a resolution of 17,500. Peptide and protein identifications were obtained using Thermo Proteome Discoverer software and the Sequest search algorithm against the UniProt human database. Gene Ontology term enrichment is conducted using GOnet(95). 45 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 AAV vector and stereotaxic microinjection
[0054] AAV9 particles prepared from pAAV‐hSyn‐Cre‐P2A‐dTomato (107738‐AAV9, Addgene) were injected into the TRPV4fl / fl (or WT as control) mouse brain with the manufacturer's original Titer (≥ 7×10¹² vg / mL) on a stereotaxic apparatus. This virus targets and infects neurons in the mouse brain. The Cre‐Lox system allowed for the conditional knockout of TRPV4 in the infected neurons. The day before the operation, the mice were fed with 30 mg / kg / day ibuprofen drinking water and continued for 3‐7 days after the operation. Before surgery, the mice were weighed, and ophthalmic lubricant was applied to their eyes to prevent dryness. The mice were anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine (50‐100 mg / kg) and xylazine (5‐20 mg / kg), and received a first dose of buprenorphine (0.05 ‐ 0.1 mg / kg). After shaving the mouse's head and aseptically preparing the brain, the mouse was mounted on a stereotaxic apparatus. A midline incision (approximately 1 cm) was made in the scalp to expose the skull. The bregma and lambda points were identified, and the left and right sides of the mouse were leveled using a stereotaxic measurement. Using the bregma as a reference point, the target injection point (AP: ‐2.2 mm; ML: ‐1.0 mm; DV: ‐1.0 mm) was determined directly above the skull, and a 1‐mm‐diameter hole was drilled in the skull at this point. A guide cannula was then implanted through the burr hole into the selected brain region to determine the depth of the injection point. pAAV‐hSyn‐Cre‐P2A‐dTomato (~1‐10 µl) was injected slowly at 0.25 µL / min using a syringe connected to the guide cannula. The cannula was left in place for 2 min after the injection was completed, and the cannula was then gradually and slowly withdrawn. After the surgery, the mice were allowed to recover for 4 weeks. The success of AAV infection in the injected brain area was verified using dTomato fluorescence. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
[0055] To examine the ultrastructure of the mouse brain, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used. Cardiac perfusion with fixative (2% paraformaldehyde and 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer) was performed to ensure proper fixation. The brain tissue was then removed and fixed in 4% glutaraldehyde for at least 24 h. The gray and white matter samples were prepared at the Campus Microscopy and Imaging Facility at The Ohio State University. After fixation, the brain tissue was post‐fixed in 1% osmium tetroxide (Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA, USA) and then en bloc stained with 1% uranyl acetate (Ted Pella Inc.). A series of graded ethanol and then 100% acetone were used to fully dehydrate the brain tissue. The fully dehydrated brain tissue was embedded in Eponate 12 epoxy resin (Ted Pella Inc.) to make resin blocks, which were then cut with a Leica EM UC6 ultramicrotome (Leica microsystems, Inc., Deerfield, IL, USA) into thin sections of about 80 nm thickness. The thin sections were examined with a FEI Tecnai G2 Spirit BioTwin TEM (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) 46 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 operating at 80kV at the Campus Microscopy and Imaging Facility. Images were captured using a Macrofire digital camera (Optronics, Inc., Chelmsford, MA, USA) and AMT image capture software (Advanced Microscopy Techniques, Woburn, MA, USA). Primary neuron culture and fluid biomechanical assay
[0056] We prepared the primary culture of hippocampal neurons using either mouse E18 embryos or mouse pups at the postnatal day 0. In brief, at 2 days in vitro (DIV), we added 1 μM cytosine arabinose (Sigma‐Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) to neuronal culture media to inhibit glial growth, and then replaced the media with normal maintenance media two days later. For transient transfection, we incubated cultured neurons at 5–7 DIV in Opti‐MEM containing 0.8 μg of cDNA plasmid and 1.5 μl of Lipofectamine2000 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) for 20‐30 min at 37°C. In the fluid biomechanical assay, we used our fluid puffing system and live‐cell imaging, with a reduction of the puffing duration to 30 sec. An axonal varicosity is defined when its diameter is ≥ 300% of the diameter of its adjacent axonal shafts. Of note, under normal conditions without puffing, axon diameters are not perfectly uniform with the presence of a low level of varicosities. Thus, the baseline of varicosity density is not absolute zero. In the drug treatment experiment, GSK219 or GSK279 (or vehicle) was added 20 min before puffing with a 5‐sec interval in image capture. Statistical analysis
[0057] Sample sizes were chosen based on our previous experiments and publications, as well as related literature in the field. Mice of matching sex and age were allocated into various groups. No formal randomization was conducted. Investigators were blinded to genotype and treatment groups during behavioral analysis. In AAV injection experiments, post hoc analyses of viral infection and protein expression were used to exclude the mice with no or incorrect AAV infection from behavioral results. Statistical analysis was conducted using SigmaPlot 15.0 software. To assess normality, the Shapiro‐Wilk test was employed and the homogeneity of variances was evaluated using Brown‐Forsythe tests. Results were presented as the mean ± SEM. Two‐tailed Student’s t‐test was used for comparisons between two groups. One‐way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test was used for comparing two or more groups to one control group. (*) p < 0.05, (**) p < 0.01, and (***) p < 0.001 were considered statistically significant. A concussive head impact induces sequential axon‐glial changes with partial reversibility
[0058] To determine the fate of axonal varicosities induced by CHIMERA (0.9 Joule (0.9J)), we visualized the YFP+ axons in the brain of Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice at different time points after a single head impact. Axonal varicosities were immediately (or 0 hour (0h) after impact) induced in the corpus callosum (CC), external capsule (EC), and the cortex. Then, the level of axonal varicosities remained high 47 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 after 24 hours (24h) and declined after 3 days (3d) (Fig. 1A, 1B, and 9). Two months (60d) after CHIMERA, the varicosity level became much lower than the peak level at 24h, but was still significantly higher than that in sham in the CC and EC, with sparse but abnormally large axonal varicosities (3~5 fold larger diameter compared to the axonal varicosities induced at 0h) (Fig. 1A‐1C and 9). In particular, these large and residual axonal varicosities were comparable to a neuronal cell body in size and not present 0h or 24h after CHIMERA (Fig. 1A, 1C). We did not detect a significant increase of amyloid precursor protein (APP) expression at various time points after CHIMERA (0.9 J) or significantly higher APP intensity within those large axonal varicosities (data not shown).
[0059] Demyelination was reported across the spectrum of TBI severities including mTBI in both humans and animal models. To determine temporal and spatial patterns of potential myelin alterations in CHIMERA, we first examined the immunostaining intensity of myelin basic protein (MBP), a reliable marker for mature myelin internodes. There was a significant reduction of the density of MBP+ myelin internodes in the cortex 24h but not 0h after head impact (Fig. 10). We further analyzed the myelin damage in the cortex using a dMBP antibody that recognizes degraded MBP molecules, and found that dMBP+ signals in internodes started to increase at 4h after impact, reached the peak level at 24h, slowly declined after 3d, but did not return to the sham level even after 2 months (60d) (Fig. 1D, 1E).
[0060] To determine ultrastructural changes of myelinated axons induced by CHIMERA, we performed transmission electron microscope (TEM) on the cortex from sham mice or mice 0h or 24h after CHIMERA. At 24h but not at 0h or in sham, myelinated axons in the cortex were significantly reduced (Fig. 1F, 1G, and 11), consistent with the dMBP and MBP staining results. Different from the ones in white matter, the myelinated axons in gray matter (e.g. the cortex) were often observed with synapses nearby (Fig. 11A). Twenty‐four hours (24h) after CHIMERA, swelling presynaptic terminals with non‐ uniform synaptic vesicles were observed adjacent to axons with damaged myelin (Fig. 11B), raising a possible link between synaptic dysfunction and demyelination in the cortex. Nonetheless, CHIMERA‐ induced demyelination in the cortex took place after axonal varicosity formation.
[0061] Microglial activation has been implicated in axonal injury and demyelination in mTBI and other neurological disorders. To determine its potential relationship with axonal varicosities and cortical demyelination induced by CHIMERA, we stained brain slices for activated microglia using an anti‐CD68 antibody (labeling lysosomes in the soma of activated microglia) and performed fluorescence microscopy. CD68+ cell densities markedly increased 4h after CHIMERA in the cortex, as well as in CC and EC, compared to those at 0h and of sham; The CD68+ cell density and signal intensity sustained 24h after CHIMERA, and significantly reduced but not completely disappeared after 3 days or 2 months (Fig. 48 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 2A, 2B). Our results are consistent with a recent meta‐analysis for the activation time course of microglia in various mTBI animal models, in which the earliest time for microglial activation in white matter is 2 hours after a concussive head impact. The activated microglia shown by CD68 staining signals were distributed evenly throughout these brain regions. Furthermore, we examined the potential changes of astrocytes using an anti‐GFAP (Glial fibrillary acidic protein, an established marker of astrocytes) antibody at different time points after CHIMERA and only found a moderate increase of GFAP expression 2 months after head impact (data not shown). Taken together, in CHIMERA (0.9 J) axonal varicosities were observed immediately after head impact (0h), followed by cortical microglial activation at 4h and massive cortical demyelination at 24h. All of these changes can gain significant but incomplete recovery two months after a concussive head impact.
[0062] To determine whether 0.9J CHIMERA disrupts cerebrovasculature and hence causes white blood cells to cross the blood‐brain barrier to damage the brain tissue, we performed an experiment using Evans blue (Fig. 12A). Most mice (> 95%) receiving 0.9J CHIEMRA did not have bleeding in the brain similar to the sham, whereas many mice receiving 1.2J CHIMERA (~20%) or the mice having a skull‐ penetrating wound showed localized bleeding in the brain (Fig. 12B‐E). Our result is also consistent with those from an early comprehensive study in CHIMERA. To further evaluate immune cell infiltration into the brain, we performed the immunostaining for CD4, a specific marker for a subgroup of T lymphocytes. CD4+ cells were observed in the hippocampus of EAE (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; a well‐established murine model for multiple sclerosis) mice but not the sham or 0.9J CHIMERA mice (Fig. 12F‐H). Therefore, the mTBI model in the present study is unlikely to involve the potential damage caused by innate and adaptive immune responses from the blood. Memantine inhibits microglial activation and cortical demyelination, not axonal varicosities
[0063] To identify a new strategy to inhibit CHIMERA‐induced axonal and glial changes, we first examined memantine, a noncompetitive blocker for NMDA‐type glutamate receptors to combat glutamate excitotoxicity, which was approved by the FDA for treating Alzheimer’s disease. Memantine treatment was recently shown to inhibit synaptic changes and cognitive dysfunction in a mouse model for high‐frequency subthreshold head impact. This effect is consistent with the notion that NMDA receptor‐mediated excitotoxicity is involved in mTBI. Based on the pharmacokinetics of memantine from early studies(34), we treated the mice with the first dose of memantine 1.5 hours before head impact and the second dose 3 hours after head impact (Fig. 2C). The mice were perfused and fixed either 0h (receiving only one dose of memantine) or 24h after a head impact. Memantine pretreatment did not reduce the level of axonal varicosities induced by CHIMERA in the cortex, CC, or EC (Fig. 2C‐2E). 49 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1
[0064] Interestingly, memantine treatment markedly suppressed microglial activation in both the cortex and white matter CC and EC 24h after head impact (Fig. 2F‐2H). When mice were pretreated with memantine, whereas CD68+ cells were almost completely absent across different cortical layers, a low level of CD68+ cells was still observed in the CC and EC 24h after CHIMERA (Fig. 2F‐2H). Thus, while microglia in the cortical gray matter appeared exclusively activated by NMDA‐receptor‐mediated excitotoxicity, microglia in the EC and CC (white matter) could be partially activated by damage‐ associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are independent of NMDA receptors, such as ATP, heat shock proteins, and high mobility group box 1 protein(54). Furthermore, we found cortical demyelination at 24h revealed by the dMBP staining was eliminated by memantine treatment (Fig. 2I). Confocal images showed that CD68+ microglial processes and dMBP+ myelin internodes did not extensively colocalize (Fig. 2J). Taken together, these results suggest that whereas CHIMERA‐induced microglial activation and cortical demyelination are mainly mediated by NMDA receptor activation, axonal varicosity induction does not require NMDA receptor activation. GSK2193874 (GSK219) markedly inhibits mTBI‐induced axon‐glial and behavioral alterations
[0065] How TRPV4 channel activity affects mTBI or TBI remains unknown. To determine whether blocking TRPV4 channel activity can inhibit axonal varicosity induction in vivo, we first performed the pretreatment experiment using TRPV4 channel blocker GSK219 in CHIMERA (0.9J). GSK219 was shown orally active and highly selective for the TRPV4 channel and its half‐life in the body is approximately 10 hours. A single dose of GSK219 through gavage 3h before the impact markedly suppressed axonal varicosity formation in the cortex, CC, and EC 0h and 24h after CHIMERA (Fig. 3A‐3D). Interestingly, the GSK219 pretreatment also completely inhibited microglial activation and cortical demyelination as revealed by CD68 and dMBP staining, respectively, in these brain regions (Figs. 3B, 3C, 3E, 3F, 13A, 13B). As a negative control, vehicle gavage did not provide any protection. It was reported that TRPV4 regulates hypotonic morphological changes of retinal microglia and temperature‐dependent motility of microglia in the brain. TRPV4 activity also regulates the proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) but not their differentiation into mature oligodendrocytes. Thus, our results suggest that GSK219 may block TRPV4 channels in both neurons and glia to protect the brain from mTBI.
[0066] To determine how GSK219 pretreatment affects behavioral alterations induced by 0.9J CHIMERA, we performed a battery of behavioral assays. Reduced risk avoidance in the elevated plus maze (EPM) was caused by CHIMERA for up to 14 days, and GSK219 pretreatment suppressed the avoidance reduction (Fig. 3G‐3I). In rotarod, CHIMERA caused a marked worsening of motor coordination and activity at 3d and 7d but largely recovered after 14d, whereas the GSK219 50 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 pretreatment significantly improved the rotarod performance at 3d (Fig. 3J) and hence prevented poor performance in rotarod caused by CHIMERA. In the balance beam test, the motor balance was markedly impaired at 7d after CHIMREA and recovered at 14d, whereas the GSK219 pretreatment significantly improved the balance beam performance at 7d (Fig. 13C). In the open‐field test, the total travel distance significantly decreased after CHIMERA, and moderately increased afterward, whereas the GSK219 pretreatment had no effect (Fig. 13D). In the novel object recognition (NOR) test, CHIMERA reduced the recognition memory 3d after CHIMERA and this effect persisted, whereas the GSK219 pretreatment reversed the recognition memory deficit at 30d (Fig. 13E). In the Y‐maze test, CHIMERA did not change spontaneous alternation and the GSK219 pretreatment had no effect (Fig. 13F). Taken together, TRPV4 inhibition before the head impact almost completely suppressed axon‐glial and behavioral changes in CHIMERA. GSK219 appears to have much stronger protective effects on mTBI than memantine.
[0067] To determine how GSK219 posttreatment might mitigate mTBI, we gavaged the mice with a single dose of GSK219 3 hours after CHIMERA. Twenty‐four hours (24h) after head impact, mice with GSK219 posttreatment displayed less axonal varicosities compared to vehicle treatment at 24h, as well as reduced cortical demyelination (Figs. 3K‐3M and 14A‐14D). GSK219 posttreatment did not inhibit microglial activation at 24h (Figs. 3N and 14E). GSK219 posttreatment did not reduce time spent in the open arms of EPM at all time points but did significantly increase the latency to fall in rotarod 20d post‐ impact and decrease the time to cross a balance beam, suggesting that the posttreatment improved motor coordination, balance, and mobility (Fig. 14F‐H). GSK219 posttreatment did not change the results in the open‐field, NOR, and Y maze tests. Therefore, blocking TRPV4 activation after a concussive head impact increases the recovery of axonal injury and some behavior disturbances.
[0068] Since GSK219 has striking beneficial effects in protecting and mitigating brain injuries induced by CHIMERA (0.9 J), it is of paramount importance to verify its target(s). Although GSK219 has been shown highly selective to the TRPV4 channel (IC50 = 48 nM), GSK219 can target other ion channels as well with less efficacy, for instance, hERG or Kv11.1 (IC50 = 2300 nM), and L‐type Cav1.2 (IC50 = 5900 nM). Nonetheless, it is still important to address the potential off‐target effect of GSK219. TRPV4 KO mice do not respond to GSK219 and remain vulnerable in mTBI
[0069] To determine whether GSK219’s beneficial effects on mTBI were indeed through TRPV4 channels, we performed the GSK219 pretreatment in CHIMERA using TRPV4 global KO (TRPV4‐ / ‐) mice. We crossed TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice with Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice to label the axons of a subset of projection neurons, to generate TRPV4‐ / ‐;Thy1‐YFP mice. In sham, there was only the basal level of axonal varicosities in the background of TRPV4‐ / ‐, similar to that of WT mice. Markedly increased levels of 51 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 axonal varicosities (0h) and cortical demyelination (24h) were found after CHIMERA in TRPV4‐ / ‐;Thy1‐YFP mice either pretreated with vehicle or GSK219 (Fig. 4A‐4C). In behavioral testing, the pretreatment with either GSK219 or the vehicle had similar results in EPM, open field, rotarod, and balance beam tests of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice (Fig. 15). Therefore, the GSK219 pretreatment failed to prevent CHIMERA‐induced axon‐ glial and behavioral changes in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice, confirming that GSK219’s effects on WT mice in CHIMERA were indeed mediated by TRPV4 channels.
[0070] It is important to note that the TRPV4 global deletion did not render significant mTBI resistance in 0.9J CHIMERA. Axonal varicosity formation and behavioral alterations were still clearly found in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice after CHIMERA, similar to WT mice. We hypothesized that there might be a compensatory mechanism during development in the absence of TRPV4 channels. To assess potential changes other than the TRPV4 protein in the brain of TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice, we performed a genome‐wide mass spectrometry analysis using brains from TRPV4‐ / ‐ and their age‐ and sex‐matched WT mice. Among 3725 proteins that were detected, 231 proteins were upregulated and 194 were downregulated with statistical significance, while the rest 3300 proteins had no significant change (Fig. 4D). Among upregulated proteins, the gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that the top two changes were from the proteins associated with the plasma membrane and mitochondria (Figs. 4E and 16). Among the down‐regulated proteins, the GO analysis revealed different groups of proteins (Fig. 4F). Among upregulated Ca2+‐permeable ion channels, two voltage‐gated Ca2+ (Cav) channels, Cav2.1 (P / Q‐type) and Cav2.3 (R‐type) were on the top (Fig. 4G). TRPV4 proteins were not detected in mass spectrometry, but the Western blotting results verified the deletion of TRPV4 proteins (Fig. 4H). To verify the results from mass spectrometry, we performed the Western blot analysis for three Cav channels. Indeed, Cav2.1 and Cav2.3, but not Cav2.2, were significantly upregulated as revealed by Western blotting (Fig. 4I, 4J). Our immunostaining results of brain slides from WT and TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice revealed upregulation of Cav2.1 (Fig. 17) and Cav2.3 (data not shown). Thus, there are indeed many changes besides the deletion of the TRPV4 gene in the TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brain, which may be responsible for TRPV4‐independent mechanosensation in neurons and / or glial cells. Acute deletion of neuronal TRPV4 inhibits mTBI‐induced axonal varicosities and adjacent glial changes
[0071] To determine whether acute deletion of neuronal TRPV4 channels can prevent axonal varicosity formation and glial changes in CHIMERA, we injected AAV9‐hSyn‐Cre‐dTomato into the right cortex of TRPV4fl / fl mice to induce the conditional deletion of TRPV4 channels in infected neurons, or into the right cortex of WT mice as control. One month after injection, these mice were used in CHIMERA (0.9 J). Immediately (0h) or 24h after head impact, axonal varicosity induction was significantly reduced in 52 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 dTomato+ axons from TRPV4fl / fl but not WT mouse brains (Fig. 5A‐5D). The deletion of TRPV4 channel proteins was effective as shown in the comparison of anti‐TRPV4 staining for AAV‐WT and AAV‐TRPV4fl / fl injected with AAV9‐hSyn‐Cre‐dTomato (Fig. 5E). Importantly, 24h after CHIMERA, there was a significantly lower intensity of dMBP staining in the cortex of the injection side (ipsilateral), compared to the contralateral side in TRPV4fl / fl mice, and this effect was absent in WT mice (Fig. 5F, 5G). This result indicates that dMBP upregulation as a marker of demyelination is tightly linked to axonal varicosity formation. We further examined microglial activation using the anti‐CD68 antibody and found significantly reduced CD68+ cells in the ipsilateral side of the cortex with many AAV‐infected and dTomato+ neurons 24h after CHIMERA in TRPV4fl / fl but not WT mice (Figs. 5H and 18). Taken together, these results show that TRPV4‐dependent axonal varicosity formation after a concussive head impact activates adjacent microglia and causes demyelination of adjacent axons in the cortex. The subsequent microglial activation and cortical demyelination are independent of TRPV4 activity but mainly require NMDA receptor activation. GSK2798745 (GSK279) inhibits axon‐glial mechanotranduction in WT but not TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice
[0072] To further verify the role of TRPV4 channel activity in axon‐glial mechanotransduction, we examined another blocker, GSK279, which structurally differs from GSK219 (Fig. 6A). We injected GSK279 into the tail vein of Thy1‐YFP transgenic mice on the background of WT or TRPV4‐ / ‐ 1.5 hours before CHIMERA (0.9 J). Mice were perfused and fixed either immediately (0h) or 24h after head impact (Fig. 6B). The GSK279 pretreatment markedly decreased the levels of axonal varicosities 0h or 24h after CHIMERA in WT but not TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brains (Fig. 6C‐6E). Twenty‐four hours after CHIMERA, GSK279 pretreatment markedly reduced microglial activation and demyelination reflected by the staining intensities of CD68 and dMBP in the cortex, EC, and CC of WT but not TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brains (Fig. 6D, 6F‐ 6H). Therefore, similar to the effects of GSK219 pretreatment (Figs. 3A‐3F and 4A‐4C), GSK279 pretreatment also significantly reduces CHIMERA‐induced axon‐glial changes in WT mouse brain, whereas the protective effects are absent when TRPV4 is deleted. Taken together, our findings provide compelling evidence supporting the key role of TRPV4 in the axon‐glial mechanosensation of the CNS.
[0073] In the present study, we examined whether GSK219 and GSK279 can reduce puffing‐induced axonal varicosities in cultured CNS neurons. We used a puffing system that was previously described, to apply fluid mechanical stress onto cultured mouse hippocampal neurons (Fig. 7A). Cultured neurons were transfected with YFP cDNA at 5 days in vitro (DIV) and used in the puffing assay 2‐5 days after transfection. When being added 20 min before puffing, either 0.5 µM GSK219 or 0.5 µM GSK279 but not vehicle significantly reduced both the number and size of puffing‐induced axonal varicosities (30‐sec 53 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 puffing duration) (Fig. 7B‐7D). It is important to note that different axons did not respond to GSK279 (or GSK219) equally (Fig. 7B). Nonetheless, both GSK219 and GSK279 pretreatments inhibit puffing‐induced axonal varicosity formation, consistent with the effects of the other two blockers (RN1734 and HC067047).
[0074] TRPV4 channel is known to bind multiple signaling and structural molecules, such as protein kinase C and casein kinase substrate in neurons protein 3 (PACSIN3), microtubule‐associated protein 7 (MAP7), inositol triphosphate, α2 integrin, and Src tyrosine kinase (63‐67). Among those, the cytoskeleton remodeling of small GTPase RhoA may negatively regulate the activity of TRPV4 channels in axons. To evaluate the potential role of RhoA in the TRPV4‐mediated formation of axonal varicosities, we performed the costaining of cultured hippocampal neurons for endogenous TRPV4 and RhoA. In mature neurons at 21 DIV, TRPV4 and RhoA colocalized in their cell bodies and densely intertwined neurites (Fig. 7E). In relatively younger neurons at 10 DIV, TRPV4+ and isolated axons were observed and some of them had a low level of RhoA proteins (Fig. 7F). Our mass spectrometry analysis showed that RhoA and RhoB protein levels moderately and markedly increased in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mouse brains, respectively (Fig. 7G), suggesting a potential compensatory mechanism by its binding proteins in the absence of TRPV4. Our previous study showed that TRPV4 channel proteins were concentrated in puffing‐induced axonal varicosities in cultured CNS neurons. Our new results showed that puffing‐induced axonal varicosities did not contain a high level of RhoA proteins (Fig. 7H). Therefore, our in vitro results suggest that TRPV4+ / RhoA‐ axons are more likely to form varicosities after puffing than TRPV4+ / RhoA+ ones, consistent with the heterogeneity of varicosity formation observed in different axons. There are multiple potential signaling pathways downstream of TRPV4 activation. How they are involved in mechanical stress‐induced axonal varicosities and brain injury represents an important topic for future studies. Gabapentin pretreatment inhibits axon‐glial mechanotransduction in the absence of TRPV4
[0075] To assess the possibility of genetic compensation for the absence of TRPV4 in axon mechanosensation, we further examined Cav channels (Cav2.1 and Cav2.3) that were upregulated in the TRPV4‐ / ‐ brain identified by mass spectrometry analysis (Fig. 4D‐4J). In particular, Cav2.1 is an interesting lead, because its gain‐of‐function mutations were linked to FHM1 in humans. People with FHM1 have significantly increased susceptibility to mTBI. Thus, it is plausible that upregulated Cav2.1 channels in the absence of TRPV4 may mediate axon mechanosensation. However, the established specific blockers for Cav2.1 channels are toxin peptides and are unlikely to efficiently cross the blood‐brain barrier. Here, we focus on gabapentin, which is a ligand of the α2δ subunit of Cav channels. The α2δ is an auxiliary subunit 54 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 binding the main α1 subunit (the channel‐forming protein) of high voltage‐activated Cav channels, including not only Cav2.1 (P / Q‐type) and Cav2.3 (R‐type), but also Cav1 (L‐type) and Ca2.2 (N‐type). The α2δ subunit regulates Cav channel trafficking and biophysics properties. Gabapentin is an FDA‐approved drug to treat seizures, nerve pain, and restless legs syndrome, despite some side effects including respiratory depression.
[0076] To determine whether gabapentin pretreatment can inhibit CHIMERA‐induced axon‐glial mechanotransduction in the absence of TRPV4 channels, we injected a single dose of gabapentin into TRPV4‐ / ‐;Thy1‐YFP and TRPV4+ / +;Thy1‐YFP (as WT control) mice 1.5 hours before head impact (Fig. 8A). The mice were perfused and fixed either immediately (0h) or 24h after head impact. In sharp contrast to GSK219 and GSk279, gabapentin significantly inhibited axonal varicosity induction at both time points in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice, as well as in WT mice (Fig. 8B, 8C). Twenty‐four hours (24h) after CHIMERA, gabapentin pretreatment markedly reduced microglial activation and cortical demyelination in both TRPV4‐ / ‐ and WT brains (Fig. 8D‐8G). Interestingly, gabapentin appeared to have less protective effects for axonal varicosity induction and cortical demyelination at 24h in WT mice than those in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice (Fig. 8C, 8G). These results are consistent with our hypothesis that upregulated Cav2.1 (and Cav2.3) channels in the absence of TRPV4 may mediate axon mechanosensation. However, besides Cav2.1 channel regulation, gabapentin and α2δ can regulate many other Cav channels and even non‐Cav channel targets. Whether Cav2.1 / Ca2.3 alone or with other proteins mediates the genetic compensation remains to be further validated. Nonetheless, our results show that gabapentin inhibits axon‐glial mechanosensation in TRPV4‐ / ‐ mice, indicating the homeostasis of CNS mechanosensation and mechanotransduction.
[0077] The compositions and methods of the appended claims are not limited in scope by the specific compositions and methods described herein, which are intended as illustrations of a few aspects of the claims and any compositions and methods that are functionally equivalent are intended to fall within the scope of the claims. Various modifications of the compositions and methods in addition to those shown and described herein are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. Further, while only certain representative compositions and method steps disclosed herein are specifically described, other combinations of the compositions and method steps also are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims, even if not specifically recited. Thus, a combination of steps, elements, components, or constituents may be explicitly mentioned herein or less, however, other combinations of steps, elements, components, and constituents are included, even though not explicitly stated. The term “comprising” and variations thereof as used herein is used synonymously with the term “including” 55 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 and variations thereof and are open, non‐limiting terms. Although the terms “comprising” and “including” have been used herein to describe various embodiments, the terms “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of” can be used in place of “comprising” and “including” to provide for more specific embodiments of the invention and are also disclosed. Other than in the examples, or where otherwise noted, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood at the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, to be construed in light of the number of significant digits and ordinary rounding approaches. 56
Claims
Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 CLAIMS What is claimed is:
1. A method of treating or preventing a traumatic brain injury in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject a TRPV4 antagonist.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the traumatic brain injury is a mild traumatic brain injury, moderate traumatic brain injury, or severe traumatic brain injury.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the traumatic brain injury is a concussive brain injury.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is diagnosed with post‐concussion syndrome.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is experiencing nausea, vomiting, dizziness, balance problems, headaches, light sensitivity, impaired memory, sleep abnormalities, impaired concentration, impaired vision, or a combination thereof.
6. The method of claim 1, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administered to the subject subsequent to the subject receiving the traumatic brain injury.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administered within 10 minutes, within 30 minutes, within 1 hour, within 2 hours, within 4 hours, within 8 hours, within 12 hours, within 18 hours, or within 24 hours following the subject receiving the traumatic brain injury.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administered to the subject prior to the subject undertaking an activity at risk of receiving a traumatic brain injury.
9. The method of claim 6, wherein the activity at risk of receiving a traumatic brain injury is a sport, warfighting, or proximity to a blast or other shockwave.
10. The method of claim 1, further comprising administering one or more additional therapies for traumatic brain injury to the subject.
11. The method of claim 1, further comprising administering one or more additional therapeutic agents to the subject.
12. The method of claim 1, further comprising sequestering the subject in a reduced sensatory environment.
13. The method of any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK33995879, GSK3527497, GSK205, GSK3491943, GSK2798745, GSK2193874, HC‐067047, RN‐1734, RN‐1747, RN‐ 9893, PF‐05214030, or a combination thereof. 57 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 14. The method of any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is a compound having the formula: Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 H 15. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK33995879.
16. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK3527497. 59 Attorney Docket No. 103361‐611WO1 17. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK205.
18. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK3491943.
19. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK2798745.
20. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises GSK2193874.
21. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises HC‐ 067047.
22. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises RN‐1734.
23. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises RN‐1747.
24. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises RN‐9893.
25. The method according to any of claims 1‐12, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist comprises PF‐ 05214030.
26. The method of any of claims 1‐25, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administered at a dosage from 1‐5,000 mg, from 1‐2,500 mg, from 1‐1,000 mg, from 1‐500 mg, from 1‐250 mg, from 1‐100 mg, from 1‐50 mg, from 10‐100 mg, from 25‐100 mg, from 50‐250 mg, from 100‐500 mg, from 100‐1,000 mg, from 500‐1,000 mg, from 500‐2,500 mg, from 1,000‐5,000 mg, from 1,000‐2,500 mg, from 2,500‐ 5,000 mg, or from 5,000‐10,000 mg.
27. The method of any of claims 1‐26, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administered once every 0.5 hour, once every hour, once every 2 hours, once every 4 hours, once every 8 hours, once every 12 hours, once a day, once every other day, once every third day, or once every week, following traumatic brain injury.
28. The method of any of claims 1‐27, wherein the TRPV4 antagonist is administering orally, sublingually, or parenterally. 60