Electrical vehicle and method for operation thereof

Abstract

An electrical vehicle (EV) 10 includes one or more electrical motors 40, and a power module 70 for: storing energy in a battery energy storage module 120; generating energy using at least one energy c

Description

Technical field The present disclosure relates to electrical road vehicles (EV's) that are configured to be propelled by electrical power. Moreover, the present disclosure relates to methods for using aforesaid electrical vehicles (EV's) for transportation. Furthermore, the present disclosure relates to software products stored on a data carrier, wherein the software products are executable on computing hardware for implementing the aforesaid methods. Background Electrical motive power started in year 1827 when a Hungarian priest Anyos Jedlik built a first crude but viable electrical motor; in year 1828, he used it to power a small model car. The first mass-produced electrical vehicles appeared in the USA in the early 1900's. In year 1902, Studebaker Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electrical vehicles, though it also entered the gasoline vehicles market in year 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by Ford Motor Company, the popularity of electrical automobiles declined significantly thereafter. During the late 20th Century and early 21st Century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, has led to renewed interest in electrical transportation infrastructure. EV's differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume may be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewables such as solar power and wind power, or any combination of those. Recent advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure have addressed many of the earlier barriers to EV adoption, making electrical vehicles a more viable option for a wider range of consumers. A contemporary company Tesla® manufactures EV's, for example the Cybertruck® product. In China, many recent EV manufacturers have been established (for example BYD), together with battery manufacture in companies such as CATL. The aforesaid EV's include an energy storage arrangement, for example implemented as one or more rechargeable batteries; the energy storage arrangement stores energy for propelling the EV's via use of one or more electrical motors. The one or more rechargeable batteries are optionally supplemented with supercapacitors and / or ultracapacitors for enabling the energy storage arrangement to provide high peak power to the one or more electrical motors, for example during high acceleration. The one or more electrical motors are optionally configured to function both for providing propulsion as well as for braking purposes; for example, the one or more electrical motors may function as generators when the EV's are subject to braking, wherein energy generating during braking is fed back to recharge the energy storage arrangement, thereby increasing operating energy efficiency of the EV's. The one or more rechargeable batteries are beneficially Lithium-based batteries, for example Manganese-Cobalt Lithium batteries, Lithium Iron Phosphate batteries, Sodium Chloride batteries and / or solid-state batteries. When the batteries include Lithium, they may be prone to spontaneous thermal runaway, especially when their battery management system (BMS) is ineffective or malfunctions, as often occurs with severe damage resulting therefrom. A common problem faced by users of EV's is a lack of battery charging infrastructure. Such a lack may potentially lead to the users suffering "range anxiety", namely uneasiness about finding functional and appropriately configured battery charging facilities. The lack is even hampering adoption of EV's by the public. The present disclosure seeks to address shortcoming and problems encountered with known EV's. Summary According to a first aspect, there is provided an electrical vehicle as defined in appended claim 1. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method for operating the electrical vehicle of the first aspect, wherein the method is defined in appended claim 10. According to a third aspect, there is provided a software product recorded on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware for implementing the method of the second aspect. Embodiments of the present disclosure are of advantage in that they include an energy converter that functions to provide power input to the electrical vehicle to assist its operation. Description of the diagrams Embodiments of the present disclosure will be described with reference to the following diagrams, wherein: FIG. 1 is an illustration of an electrical vehicle pursuant to the present disclosure; FIG. 2 is a more detailed schematic illustration of component parts of the electrical vehicle of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an illustration of a method for operating the electrical vehicle of FIG. 2; FIG. 4A is a schematic plan-view illustration of an energy converter of the present disclosure, wherein the energy converter includes a photon bifurcation region A, a biasing region B, an acceleration region C, and an energy harvesting region D; FIG. 4B is an alternative implementation of the energy converter of FIG. 4A, wherein the region B and the region C are spatially coincident; FIG. 5 is an illustration of forces occurring between matter and anti-matter, as reported in the Pei et al. citation; the forces are used in the energy converter of FIGs. 4A, 4B; and FIG. 6 is an illustration of steps of a method for operating the energy converter of FIGs. 4A, 4B. Description of embodiments Referring to FIGs. 1 and 2, there is shown an electrical vehicle (EV) of the present disclosure; the electrical vehicle is indicated generally by 10. The electrical vehicle 10 includes a bodywork and chassis 20 provided with wheels 30 that are coupled to one or more electrical motors 40. Optionally, the wheels 30 and their respective motors 40 are implemented as in-wheel motors. Alternatively, optionally, the wheels 30 are coupled to their one or more electrical motors 40 via a mechanical drive train (not shown). The electrical vehicle 10 further includes a power unit 70 that is conveniently mounted, at least partially, in a lower floor region of the electrical vehicle 10, namely to provide the electrical vehicle 10 with a low centre of gravity, to improve its stability when used on roads and highways. The electrical vehicle 10 is configured to be driven by a user 50; optionally, the electrical vehicle 10 also includes a computer module (not shown) for providing the electrical vehicle 10 with self-driving functionality. Optionally, the user 50 is implemented as a computer-based self-driving apparatus; alternatively the user 50 is implemented as a human being. The power unit 70 will next be described in greater detail. The power unit 70 includes a vehicle management control unit 100 that is configured to receive driving commands from the user 50, for example steering direction commands, braking commands, acceleration commands, and direction indicating commands; the vehicle management control unit 100 includes computing hardware that is configured to execute one or more software products to enable the vehicle management control unit 100 to function as described herein. Moreover, the power unit 70 includes a battery energy storage module 120, an energy converter module 110 and a power interface and motor drive module 130; in operation, the control unit 100 and the modules 100, 110, 120, 130 are coupled together to deliver and receive energy from the one or more electric motors 40. The energy converter module 110 is implemented using one or more energy chips ("Dirac energy chip") as described in APPENDIX 1 and APPENDIX 2. As aforementioned, the control module 100 is configured in use to receive control commands from the user 50. The control module 100 is configured in communication with the modules 110, 120, 130 as illustrated, to control their operation. The energy converter module 110 is coupled to receive or supply energy to the battery energy storage module 120; for example, the battery energy storage module 120 is configured to provide electrical power to the energy converter module 110 to start operation of the energy converter module 110, wherein the energy converter module 110 converts electrical power into photons that are then bifurcated, accelerated and then harvested to provide output electrical power that may be fed back to at least one of the battery energy storage module 120 and the drive module 130 to energize the one or more motors 40. The battery energy module 120 is configured to receive commands from the control module 100, and at least one of: to receive or supply power to the energy converter module 110, to receive or supply power to the drive module 130 to energize the one or more motors 40 or to receive power generated by the one or more motors 40 when regenerative braking is used in operation of the electrical vehicle 10. The drive module 130 is configured to receive commands from the control module 100, and to couple power between the one or more electrical motors 40 and the battery energy storage unit 120; the drive module 130 is also configured to receive energy output from the energy converter module 110 to provide power to operate the one or more motors 40. Optionally, the battery energy storage module 120 is implemented using one or more batteries; for example, the one or more batteries include at least one of: solid state batteries, Lithium Iron Phosphate batteries, Sodium salt batteries, Manganese Cobalt Lithium batteries, aqueous flow batteries, but not limited thereto. Optionally, the battery energy storage module 120 also includes at least one of: ultracapacitors, supercapacitors; such ultracapacitors and supercapacitors are beneficially included for coping with short-term power surges to and from the one or more motors 40 when in operation. Beneficially, the one or more electrical motors 40 have a power rating in a range of 10 kW and 100 kW for personal vehicles, and in a range of 10 kW to 1 MW for freight vehicles (for example, trucks, construction vehicles, buses and such like). On account of including the energy converter module 110, the battery energy storage module 120 may have a lower capacity than for a conventional electrical vehicle, therefore reducing the road weight of the electrical vehicle 10. For example, for an automobile implementation, the battery energy storage module 120 may have a capacity of around 10 kWh to 20 kWh, and the energy converter module 110 may be configured to have an energy output of 10 kW. The energy converter module 110 is operable to provide a steady 10 kW output to power the one or more motors 40 when the electrical vehicle 10 is at cruising speed, for overcoming air and road friction resistance and drag. When the electrical vehicle 10 is required to accelerate, both the converter module 110 and the battery energy storage module 120 provide in combination power to the one or more electric motors 40. When the electrical vehicle 10 is required to decelerate or brake, the one or more electrical motors 40 beneficially function as generators to convert kinetic energy of the electrical vehicle 10 into power that is used to recharge the battery energy storage module 120. When the electrical vehicle 10 is parked and therefore stationary, the energy converter module 110 may be used to recharge the battery energy storage module 120. Optionally, the electrical vehicle 10 is provided with a battery charger module (not shown) that allows the electrical vehicle 10 to be plugged into a roadside electrical charger (not shown) for recharging the battery energy storage module 120; beneficially, such roadside electrical charging is achieved via a resonant inductive power coupling, for example as described in a published patent specification "Inductive Power Coupling Systems for Roadways", WO2013091875 (A2), hereby incorporated by reference. Operation of the electrical vehicle 10 will next be described in greater detail. In operation, the energy converter module 110 provides power for steady operation of the electrical vehicle 10, providing power from the energy converter module 110, namely from at least one Dirac powerchip included therein, via the drive module 130 to the one or more electrical motors 40. The energy storage module 120 supplements the energy converter module 110 to cope with surges in power demand by the one or more electrical motors 40, for example when the electrical vehicle 10 is accelerating quickly or the electrical vehicle 10 is being driven up a steep hill. Optionally, as aforementioned, the electrical vehicle 10 has regenerative braking, wherein the one or more electrical motors 40 are configured to provide a braking function by coupling kinetic energy of the electrical vehicle 10 into the battery energy storage module 120. As aforementioned, the battery energy storage module 120 also provides initial power to start up the converter module 110. The management control module 100 is coupled to driver-operated controls such as steering wheel, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, to control energy supplied to the one or more electrical motors 40 and optionally energy received from the one or more electrical motors 40. The various component parts of the electrical vehicle 10 are beneficially implemented in a modular manner as module unit / enclosures housed in at least one of: in a front region of the electrical vehicle 10, in a floor region of the electrical vehicle 10, in a rear region of the electrical vehicle 10. The electrical vehicle 10 may be implemented with one electric motor 40 per wheel to enable a high degree of vehicle control to be achieved in adverse weather conditions, for example when driving on wet roads or in icy / snowy conditions. A diminutive form of the electrical vehicle 10 may be implemented as an electrical unicycle, an electrical bicycle, an electrical tricycle, an electrical scooter, an electrical hoverboard, an electrical golfcart, but not limited thereto. Referring next to FIG. 3, a flow chart is indicated generally by 500. The flow chart 500 includes a series of steps 510, 520, 530 and 540. Moreover, the flow chart 500 relates to a method for operating the electrical vehicle 10. The method 500 relates to using the aforesaid electrical vehicle 10, wherein the electrical vehicle 10 includes the aforesaid modules 100, 110, 120, 130; the modules 100, 110, 120, 130 include: the control module 100 for controlling operation of the electrical module 10 in response to receiving commands from the user 50, for controlling energy generation occurring within the converter module 110, for controlling energy storage occurring within the battery energy storage module 120, and for controlling energy flow occurring within the electrical vehicle 10, as well as externally into the electrical vehicle 10 and out of the electrical 10 for providing utility power grid support. The method 500 includes: the step 510 for configuring the electrical vehicle 10 for power flows to occur therein when in operation; the step 520 for optionally configuring the electrical vehicle 10 to receive power from a utility power grid to contribute to the power flows; the step 530 for optionally configuring the electrical vehicle 10 to deliver power to the utility power grid derived from the power flows within the electrical vehicle 10;and the step 540 for configuring the electrical vehicle 10 to include an energy converter module 110 for delivering power to the electrical vehicle 10, wherein the energy converter module 110 is configured to bifurcate photons into corresponding electrons and positrons, to configure the electrons and positrons to undergo spontaneous mutual acceleration to provide corresponding accelerated electrons and positrons, and to harvest energy of the accelerated electrons and positrons to provide power to operate the electrical vehicle 10. APPENDIX 1: ENERGY CONVERTER AND METHOD FOR OPERATION THEREOF Technical field The present disclosure provides energy converters that are configured to convert energy from a first form into energy of a second form, for example from photon energy into electrical energy. Moreover, the present disclosure provides methods for using aforesaid energy converters for converting energy from a first form into energy of a second form. Background Energy converters are known, for example electrical generators for converting mechanical rotational energy into electrical energy, wind turbines for converting energy of air flows into electrical energy, and photovoltaic panels for converting photons of sunlight into electrical energy. A problem with photovoltaic panels is that they are inefficient in converting photons in sunlight into electrical power. Moreover, such photovoltaic panels are often bulky and thus unsuitable for incorporating into electrical vehicles. Summary The present disclosure seeks to provide an energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy with improved efficiency relative to known converters. According to a first aspect, there is provided an energy converter as defined in appended Statement 1. Optionally embodiments of the energy converter are defined in the appended sub-claims to Statement 1. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method for operating the energy converter of the first aspect, wherein the method is defined in appended Statement 5. Optionally embodiments of the method are defined in the appended sub-claims to Statement 6. Description of diagrams Embodiments of the present disclosure will be described with reference to the aforementioned appended drawings wherein: FIG. 4A is a schematic plan-view illustration of an energy converter of the present disclosure, wherein the energy converter includes a photon bifurcation region A, a biasing region B, an acceleration region C, and an energy harvesting region D FIG. 4B is an alternative implementation of the energy converter of FIG. 4A, wherein the region B and the region C are spatially coincident; FIG. 5 is an illustration of forces occurring between matter and anti-matter, as reported in the Pei et al. citation; the forces are used in the energy converter of FIGs. 4A, 4B; and FIG. 6 is an illustration of steps of a method for operating the energy converter of FIGs. 4A, 4B. Description of embodiments An energy converter of the present disclosure is beneficially implemented as an integrated circuit onto a substrate. The integrated circuit includes a combination of optical elements and electrical elements that are formed lithographically onto the substrate. The integrated circuit and the substrate are conveniently implemented as one or more optical waveguides and one or more conductive electrodes formed onto an optically active material, for example Lithium Niobate. Optionally, the integrated circuit and the substrate are implemented as a Lithium-Niobate-on-Insulator (LNOI) device. However, it will be appreciated that other optically non-linear materials, for example Barium-including materials, may be used alternatively to Lithium Niobate or additionally used in combination with Lithium Niobate; for example, the Baium-including materials include at least one of: BaGa4S7 (BGS), BaGa4Se7 (BGSe), BaGa2GeS6 (BGGS), BaGa2GeSe6 (BGGSe), and Ba2Ga8GeS16 (B2GGS). The aforesaid integrated circuit is conveniently implemented in spatial or function regions, as depicted in FIG. 4A; there are included regions A to region D. In the region A, there is provided an optical waveguide arrangement for receiving photons and bifurcating them into regions of enhanced probability of electrons and enhanced probability of positrons, whilst maintaining coherence of the photons. In the region B, a bias electrode arrangement is provided including at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose axes are substantially orthogonal to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. The bias electrode arrangement is configured to manipulate the bifurcated electrons and positrons into a configuration where the positrons and electrons mutually accelerate as depicted in FIG. 5. In the region C, the electrons and their associated positrons mutually accelerate, thereby gaining energy. In the region D, a harvesting electrode arrangement is used to extract energy from the accelerated electrons and positrons received from the region C; the harvesting electrode arrangement includes at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose elongate axes are substantially parallel to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. An output voltage signal is developed at the harvesting electrode arrangement. Optionally, the region A includes a beam splitter and a phase adjuster for adjusting parameters of the aforesaid bifurcation of photons to tune operation of the energy converter. Optionally, the optical waveguide arrangement is configured to support propagation of photons by way of Floquet-Bloch modes. Optionally, the waveguide arrangement includes a configuration of a plurality of elongate waveguides whose spatial separation is less than a coherence field of the photons propagating within the energy converter when in operation. Optionally, the energy converter is configured to receive photons from a laser arrangement, for example a laser arrangement configured to output photons within a wavelength range of 2000 nm to 500 nm. Optionally, the laser arrangement is configured to function in a pulsed manner. Optionally, the laser arrangement is implemented as at least one solid state laser. Optionally, the laser arrangement and the energy converter are configured to be spatially collocated into a photonics integrated circuit module. Design details and a manner of operation of the energy converter are described in the APPENDIX 2 that is appended below. The energy converter may be configured to provide less than unity energy gain; alternatively, the energy converter may be configured to provide greater than unity energy gain by breaking symmetry, as described in the Pei et al. citation, likewise in the Wimmer and Regensburger citation "Optical diametric drive acceleration", likewise in the Meis et al. citation "Quantum Vacuum Gravitational Matter-Antimatter Antigravity" and many other contemporary peer-reviewed research papers. The aforesaid integrated circuit FIG. 4A may be conveniently implemented with its regions B and C being spatially coincident and overlapping, as illustrated in FIG. 4B. In FIG. 4B, there are included regions A to region D, wherein regions B and C are spatially coincident and overlapping as aforementioned. In the region A in FIG. 4B, there is provided an optical waveguide arrangement for receiving photons and bifurcating them into regions of enhanced probability of electrons and enhanced probability of positrons, whilst maintaining coherence of the photons. In the spatially coincident regions B and C, a bias electrode arrangement is provided including at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose axes are substantially orthogonal to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. The bias electrode arrangement is configured to manipulate the bifurcated electrons and positrons into a configuration where the positrons and electrons mutually accelerate as depicted in FIG. 5. Thus, in the coincident regions C and D, the electrons and their associated positrons mutually accelerate, thereby gaining energy. In the region D, a harvesting electrode arrangement is used to extract energy from the accelerated electrons and positrons received from the coincident regions C and D; the harvesting electrode arrangement includes at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose elongate axes are substantially parallel to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. An output voltage signal is developed at the harvesting electrode arrangement. Optionally, the region A includes a beam splitter and a phase adjuster for adjusting parameters of the aforesaid bifurcation of photons to tune operation of the energy converter. Optionally, the optical waveguide arrangement is configured to support propagation of photons by way of Floquet-Bloch modes. Optionally, the waveguide arrangement includes a configuration of a plurality of elongate waveguides whose spatial separation is less than a coherence field of the photons propagating within the energy converter when in operation. Optionally, the energy converter is configured to receive photons from a laser arrangement, for example a laser arrangement configured to output photons within a wavelength range of 2000 nm to 500 nm. Optionally, the laser arrangement is configured to function in a pulsed manner. Optionally, the laser arrangement is implemented as at least one solid state laser. Optionally, the laser arrangement and the energy converter are configured to be spatially collocated into a photonics integrated circuit module. Design details and a manner of operation of the energy converter are described in the APPENDIX 2 that is appended below. The energy converter may be configured to provide less than unity energy gain; alternatively, the energy converter may optionally be configured to provide greater than unity energy gain, for example using phenomena as described in the Pei et al. citation, likewise in the Wimmer and Regensburger citation "Optical diametric drive acceleration", likewise in the Meis et al. citation "Quantum Vacuum Gravitational Matter-Antimatter Antigravity" and many other contemporary peer-reviewed research papers. A method for using the energy converter to convert photons to electrical energy is illustrated in FIG. 6, wherein the method includes steps of: (i) STEP 1: receiving photons at the energy converter (for example via a waveguide edge coupler or via a planar grating coupler formed into the energy converter) and bifurcating them spatially in the region A into higher electron probability regions and higher positron probability regions; (ii) STEP 2: configuring the electrons and positrons of the higher electron probability regions and high positron probability regions for mutual acceleration in the region B; (iii) STEP 3: configuring the electrons and positrons of region B to accelerate through an acceleration region, namely the region C, as illustrated in FIG. 4A; optionally, regions B and region C are spatially coincident as aforementioned and illustrated in FIG. 4B; and (iv) STEP 4: harvesting in region D the accelerated electrons and positrons received from region C to generate electrical output power in FIG. 4A, alternatively from the coincident regions B and C in FIG. 4B. The method is described in greater detail in the APPENDIX 2 below. Optionally, STEPS 1 to 4 may be configured to provide less than unity gain in the energy converter; alternatively, optionally, STEPS 1 to 4 may be configured to provide greater than unity gain in the energy converter. APPENDIX 2 Energy Generation from Photonic Lattices: The Dirac Drives Supercharger Dr. T imothv Norris DIRA C KS I IMITED, S3 Kir^ Sfrf t DI’r it»d Dr* Resch (Editor} .4 , Z?epartm< n? <d .4 prtioi Mathemetiics Urtivsr^itp of ^ajerfac, OfStsrso, Oiii-ait* ( -SOS'^ ) Abstract This paper presents an approximate ■calcuiatiors of the energy output from the Dirac Drives Supercharger, a novel device designed to harness repulsive gravitational energy m an optical lattice and convert it into electrical poner The Supercharger operates by utilizing a photonic 1*thco in which .i laser generated photon t'diirratcs info an electron-positroB pair within a cohereucc cm elope, driven by noulwreas optical eSects. The device consists of tour regions where the bifurcation, .’iccekfatton arid. energy generation process j-ccur In Region A, the photon bifurcates due to the ax. Kerr effect. gein.iatiug m election m one waveguide and <s ptMtreii in <inothcr waeegUidE Regions B and C are where tfifst- particles atc subjected to i bias vrltag" that udhi- ws their vdocitits. resulting in a small spatial separation. This separation allows for tlic acceleration of particles mn! the suteeciutmt genosiitioii of rnergy. Calculations. suggest that with .i 1 tJ inai r 10 mm energy chip pov.cied by a 10 mW lasm an output of 10 Watts could be achieved. rcpreseiitir>g a. significant cncigy gain The paper mrthei da-ciwet the potential fes even greater energy outputs, thcungh optunuaucn of design par.ijiit.ters and the u^, ot additional wmeguides. 1 Introduction The pursuit of efficient and sustainable energy sources has driven significant advancements in various fields of science and engineering. Among these, the exploration of photonic and quantum phenomena offers promising avenues for novel energy generation methods. Dirac Drives Limited has focused on leveraging the unique properties of light quanta to develop an innovative energy chip that harnesses the inherent potential of photonic lattices. The theoretical foundation of this technology is rooted in the concept that photons, traditionally understood as elementary particles of light, may be more accurately described as composite (couplet) particles consisting of electron-positron pairs. This hypothesis, supported by experimental evidence previously discussed in our paper (1), forms the foundation for advancing our work into practical, commercial applications, thereby underpinning the design of the Dirac Drive Supercharger, referred to as the Dirac Supercharger. In collaboration with academic and commercial partners, Dirac Drives has embarked on a series of experiments aimed at verifying the theoretical concepts, refining experimental techniques, and ultimately developing the prototype of the Dirac Supercharger. The device operates by inducing a bifurcation of photons within a nonlinear optical lattice, resulting in the separation of electrons and positrons. These particles are then manipulated through carefully designed regions of the chip to generate electrical energy. The process involves a series of stages, each contributing to the overall energy output, significantly amplified through the exploitation of repulsive gravitational forces and precise control of particle dynamics. In this paper, we present our ongoing efforts to verify these findings, characterize the experiments, and design a prototype Dirac. Supercharger. We include an approximate calculation of the energy output achievable by the Supercharger, detailing its operational principles, describing the functions of its key regions. and exploring the theoretical and practical implications of this technology. Our findings indicate that the Supercharger has the potential to revolutionize energy generation, offering a compact and highly efficient solution that could be integrated into various electronic devices. By optimizing the design parameters, this technology could pave the way for significant advancements in the field of energy conversion and photonic technology. 2 Motivation via Pei Experiments The concept of optical diametric drive acceleration, which underpins our work, draws significant inspiration from the groundbreaking experiments conducted by Pei st aL and presented in 2019 (2) and 2020 (3). These studies demonstrated that a single Gaussian-like light beam could spontaneously self-bend due to nonlinear effects within a uniform photonic lattice, leading to the beam’s separation into two components experiencing opposite types of diffraction—normal and anomalous. This separation resulted in a self-accelerating behavior analogous to the interaction between positive and negative mass objects, effectively breaking traditional action-reaction symmetry. Pei et al. validated this phenomenon experimentally using a one-dimensional photonic lattice created in a lithium niobate crystal, demonstrating a clear shift, in the beam’s position due to nonlinear effects. Their findings opened new avenues for applications in beam steering and optical switching, where diametric-drive acceleration could provide a simpler and more efficient alternative to traditional methods. Building upon these insights, Dirac Drives aims to further develop and refine the Pei experiments, integrating them into the context of creating a functional Dirac Supercharger. A significant advantage of our approach lies in out collaboration with the University of Southampton, particularly their Nanofabrication Centre, where the necessary lithium niobate waveguide arrays — crucial components in the Pei experiments — can be fabricated. This partnership has already yielded key milestones, including the successful separation of negative and positive mass beams within a waveguide array chip. This setup, now ready for experimental use, is expected to replicate the spontaneous self-acceleration of positive mass (electrons) and negative mass (positrons) observed in the Pei experiments. FHtthermore; we are adyanciug our efforts by integrating electrodes into additional chips to record energy gains, thus pushing the boundaries of what, is possible with this■ technology.'Milos NedcrjkQVic-has successfully generated M-beams and Gamma-beams, achieving segregation of a photon beam into electromrieh sod positron-rich streams. This not only demonstrates the generation of negative mass in a laboratory setting but also supports the hypothesis that photons are composite parrides composed of two halves. This finding aligns with Ian Clague’s published work, in (1), suggesting, a strong, repulsive gravitational force acting between the postive and negative masses. 3 Photon Propagation and Energy Conversion Regions In the design of the Dirac Drive: Supercharger, the manipulation of photons through carefully structured regions plays aeriticalrole in the device’s functionality'. These regions are illustrated in Fig. 1, each serving a distinct purpose to facilitate the conversion of photon energy into usable electrical power. The process begins in Region A, where incoming photons are split into electron-positron pairs within an optically nonlinear medium. As the particles-propagate through subsequent regions, their interactions—guided by electric fields and waveguide structures—lead to energy harvesting, cuRmnatihg in the generation of a. voltage output in Region D. Tins section details the speciSc operations withineach region shown in Fig. 1. highlighting the innovative use of photonic lattices .and nonlinear optical effects in achieving efficient energy conversion. Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the waveguide array. Region A: Photons from a laser, such as a compact 1500 am wavelength solid-state laser, propagate along an entrance waveguide until they reach a waveguide splitter, where the entrance of the waveguide bifurcates into two elongate working waveguides. Region A is constructed from an optically nonlinear material, such as Lithium Niobate on Insulator (LNOI), which exhibits the a.e. Kerr effect—a phenomenon where the refractive index of a material changes in response to the intensity of the light (i.e., electric field) passing through it, thereby creating a nonlinear interaction. In this region, the photons are split into electron-positron pairs, with one waveguide having a higher probability of electrons and the other of positrons. The two elongated waveguides are spaced less than a wavelength of the photons apart, placing them within the spatial coherence envelope of the photons. This coherence ensures that the resulting electron-positron pairs can propagate along their respective elongate working waveguides without the positrons annihilating with surrounding matter. As the photons bifurcate, their velocity decreases, converting part of their energy into the kinetic energy of the electron, mutatis mutandis into the kinetic energy of the positron. For optimal efficiency, Region A supports the propagation of Floquet-Bloch optical modes, which are special types of wave propagation that occur in periodically structured materials, enhancing the control, over the photon’s behavior.. Region B: In Region E, two elongate biasing electrodes are positioned orthogonally to the axes of the two elongate working waveguides, as shown in FIG. 1. These electrodes traverse the waveguides and. when activated, are biased by a voltage This voltage generates an electric field aligned along the axes of the elongate working waveguides. The primary function of I4ias is to control the movement of the electrons and positrons: it decelerates the electrons and accelerates the positrons, or vice versa. This results in a small spatial separation between the electron and positron along the waveguide, allowing for interactions between them. Specifically, the electron is attracted to the p-ositron through Coulombic forces, while the positron is repelled from the electron by strong gravitational forces, as depicted in FIG. 2. These interactions set the stage for further acceleration in Region C, where the particles gain energy. As with Region A, Region B is designed to support the propagation of Floquet-Bloch optical modes, which enhances the control and efficiency of the device. Region C: In Region C, interacting pairs of electrons and positrons accelerate along the elongate working electrodes, gaining energy through a unique mechanism that exploits the asymmetry in Newton’s Third Law of Motion. This asymmetry arises due to the negative mass of the positrons, which creates a situation where the reaction force does not counterbalance the action force in the usual manner. As a result, the particles can accelerate more effectively. Since the electrons and positrons have already been bifurcated, Fig. 2. Velocity directions arising from gravitation forces acting on an electron and a position within a spatial coherence field. their speed remains below the speed of light in a vacuum, allowing for controlled energy gain. As in the previous regions, Region C is designed to support the propagation of Floquet-Bloch optical modes, which enhances the overall efficiency of the device. Region D: Region D serves as the energy generation zone of the Dirac Drive Supercharger. In this region, elongate energy generating electrodes are positioned parallel to the elongate working waveguides, as depicted schematically in FIG. 1. These electrodes are strategically placed within the coherence envelope of the photons, ensuring that the propagating electrons and positrons can effectively couple to their respective energy generating electrodes. As these particles interact with the electrodes, a voltage is generated, which, along with the associated current flow, constitutes the power output of the drip. As with the previous regions, Region D is designed to support the propagation of Floquet-Bloch optical modes, optimizing the efficiency of energy conversion within the device. 4 Implementation Details Building on the design principles and. regional functionalities outlined in the previous section, the implementation of the Dirac Drive Supercharger requires' careful consideration of several practical factors to optimize performance. The laser, for instance, is best operated in pulsed mode, as the effectiveness of the photon bifurcation—driven by the nonlinear a.c. Kerr effect—is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field vector of the photons. The pulse repetition frequency can be conveniently adjusted to control the power output I^ut from the drip. Tbe power required to generate the bias voltage Vbsas can. be derived from the output I-out, as can the power required to energize the laser. Although only two elongate working waveguides are considered above, the design is flexible enough to incorporate an array of multiple waveguides, enhancing the chip’s functionality. The integration of the energy chip, its laser and power processing electronic components for processing the output may be spatially collocated onto a hybrid optical module assembly. This opens up possibilities for the incorporation into various electronic devices, such as mobile phones. Positioning the energy chip within a magnetic field, with lines orthogonal to its principal surface plane of the chip, further enhances the bifurcation of photons into their respective electrons and photons in Region A. This enhances the energy generation capabilities in Region D. Optionally, the Supercharger can also be mounted onto a slab Neodymium magnet that is magnetically polarized in an orientation so that the North pole is aligned with one major face of the slab, and the South pole is aligned with the opposite face. These two major faces are substantially parallel to each other. 5 Calculation Initial calculations for the arrangement that is schematically illustrated in FIG. 1 suggests an energy gain of 1000 times, potentially up to x 10.000 with optimized parameters. For a 10 mm x 10 mm Supercharger powered by a 1G mW solid-state laser, an output of 10 Watts is theoretically possible, assuming there are no coupling losses and lossless electron-positron propagation within the chip. More conservative estimates predict a practical output of 3 to 9 Watts output, power at still representing a substantial energy gain. Regions B and C can be spatially combined to allow for simultaneous acceleration and energy gain within the elect ric field, generated by further optimizing the chip’s design. The calculations outlined will now be presented. Below are the constants used for reference. Symbol Quantity Value c Speed of light in vacuum 3 x 10s m / s h Planck’s constant 6.626070 x 10-34 Joule Hz A Wavelength of light used for photons 1500 nm (standard telecoms components) Eq Permittivity of free space 8.S54187 x IO"12 F / m m Rest mass of electron 9.198 x IO”31 kg Newtonian gravitational force 6.674 x 10-11 m3 / (kg ■ ss) e Charge on electron 1.602 x IO”19 Coulombs L Distance Distance in Region B (see Fig. .1) H Distance Distance in Region C (see Fig. 1) The energy of a photon entering into Region A, denoted by E^, is defined as E^hf A 0) wher e c is the speed of light in a vacuum, ft is Planck’s constant, and A is the photon wavelength. The kinetic energy of an electron or positron, in the non-relativistie approximation, is given by E? = -Tnv2. The Cotitombie forces acting on two charges Qi and Q2 are described by T7S -QlQs .- / ,. Pc = 4^ e2 47T€QS"2 where r is the distance between the two charges, such as between an electron and its corresponding positron. The gravitational force generated between two masses Alt mid M2, according to Newton’s Law pertams to masses of at least macroscopic size, is expressed as GnMiMz ’ W When considering an electron and a positron separated by a distance r outside their mutual coherence envelope, (4) simplifies to _ Gum3 Eg = ■—— •r (5) However, at the quantum scale, when? falls within the spatial coherence range of a photon including an electron coupled to a positron, Clagne in (1) has theoretically shown that is not: applicable. Instead, a. strong grovitatipnal force (¾ — is experienced, modifying (5) to (S), i.e.. fg = Gsm2 (6) STAGE 1 As a photon enters Region A, it travels at the speed of light, c. Within Region A, it is hypothesized—simplifying the calculations—that the photon completely bifurcates into an electron and a positron within its coherence envelope. This bifurcation is a result of nonlinear optical effects occurring within the materials used to fabricate Region A. As an approximation, the energy of the photon (from (1) and (3)) is equally divided between the kinetic energies of the electron and positron he 2A -mV2 = 2 he mA As the photon bifurcates, the resulting electron and positron become more distinct, causing the photon to decelerate, consistent with Snell’s Law (where the velocity1" of a photon in an optical glass material is slower than in a vacuum). In the Dirac Drive Supercharger, telecom components are utilized for cost-effectiveness, with the wavelength A typically set at approximately 1500 nm. STAGE 2 In Region B, following the bifurcation caused by the a.c. Kerr effect in Region A, the electron and positron of the given photon are individually influenced by an electric field generated by the bias voltage, V^Sas-The velocities of the electron and positron can be expressed as: (7) where V'E is the velocity of the electron and is the velocity of the positron, both within the spatial, coherence field of their corresponding photon. The bias voltage slightly accelerates the positron and decelerates the electron, leading to a small spatial separation r between them along the axial axis of the elongate working waveguides, as illustrated in FIG. 1. To a first approximation, V„ r; with a slight difference due to the influence of The axial separation r {i.e., difference in position) between the electron and positron can be derived over a given distance L along the waveguide. If we consider the velocities in equations (7) and (8), the difference between them, AV = K —1^,, can be approximated for small using a first-order Taylor expansion. For convenience, we will let 1¾ = and use the fact that . , . . n(n-l) (1 -i- 3S) RS 1 -T m 4- —- Rewriting (7) and (8) in the form of (t + ar)*, we obtain \ 2 m Vg / where n = and ar is taken to be either .3. mV|f or — Then AV becomes mV® AV - K - Vp — v ^sY5_v / i “ - V >mlf J 0 V ~ 2 i< J _ 1 cf bias 1 eVbias “ 2'1^ + 2 n< _ cl’bias mVo As the electron, and positron travel along the waveguide, this velocity difference AV leads to a separation ov^r a distance L, the length of the region where the bias voltage is applied.. The spatial separation r between the electron and positron can be calculated as r= AV ¢, (9) where t is the time it takes for the particles to travel the distance L and is given by t = -p-. Hence r becomes r = AV t eV ■ L * bias mVo Vo _ cl'bi.aaT eVj,lals.L mX m he _ evbiMt£A he where r must, be less than the spatial coherence field of the photon. If we consider the following example with the numerical values for Vbi(1B = 1 mV, L = 1 mm and A = 1500 nm, then r ~ 1.2 pm. This calculation confirms that r = 1G_® meters lies within the spatial coherence field of a photon with a wavelength of A = 1500 nm. STAGE 3 In Region C, the bifurcated electrons and positrons undergo acceleration due to gravitational interaction. Th® force acting on the particles, defined by the strong gravitational constant Gs, causes acceleration according to Fa = ma where a is the acceleration of the electron and positron, and Fa is the gravitational force but is calculated using the strong gravitatfonal constant Gs. When the force Fg acts over a distance 77, i.e.t the length of Region C, the work W done is approximated by IF = Fs H f2hc\ m2 \ m2 y r2 27? lie Using the data from the device illustrated in Fig. 1, and assuming H = 3.025L, the energy gained per photon is calculated to be approximately 1..326 x 10“SB Joules per photon. The number of photons, denoted by Ar, in the laser beam injected into Region A can be determined by P A ^beam where Ptcam is th© photon power of the laser beam injected into Region A. For a IQ mW laser beam with A = 1500 nm, the number of photons TV is calculated to be 7.546 x 1016 photons per second. Thus, the approximate power output available at the generating electrodes Kut is Pout = TV IF = 10 Watts. This calculation suggests a power gain of 1000 times. By adjusting and the distances. L and 77, power gains on the order of 10,000 times are theoretically possible. Given that 10 Watts might be excessive for a small waveguide structure, an array of waveguides, as shown in FIG. 1, may be required to optimize the Dirac Drive Supercharger’s performance. 6 Chip Optimization While the theoretical calculations suggest substantial power gains from the Dirac Drives Supercharger, practical implementation requires careful consideration of real-world factors. The efficiency of the Supercharger is influenced by the precision of photon bifurcation, the stability of the bias voltage and the quality7 of the optical materials used. In particular, minimizing losses due to imperfect bifurcation and ensuring the coherence of the photon pairs are critical to achieving the projected energy gains. The performance of the Dirac Drives Supercharger can be significantly enhanced by optimizing several key variables: • Number of Electrons per Second ): Increasing controls the number of electrons that can be injected into the system, directly affecting the output power. Additionally, effective retention of positrons ensures that a larger fraction of them contribute to energy generation, optimizing the overall efficiency. • Positron Retention and Acceleration (Vw„): The bias voltage Vs,, not only accelerates electrons but also retards positrons. This retardation, combined with the opposing strong gravitational and electromagnetic forces on positrons, tends to keep them stationary, allowing for effective acceleration of multiple passing electrons. • Length of the Acceleration Zone (77 and £): The distance over which electrons and positrons are accelerated as well as the relationship between them directly influences the work done on each particle and therefore the energy generated. • Proximity to Positrons (Separation Distance, r): Minimizing the separation distance r between electrons and positrons increases the interaction strength and energy gain. ♦ Number of Positrons (Laser Power): Higher laser power increases the number of positrons generated, which in turn increases the potential output power. 7 Conclusion The Dirac Drives Supercharger, with an energy gain multiplier of 1000 times, represents a groundbreaking approach to energy generation from photonic lattices. By optimizing key parameters such as the bias voltage, acceleration zone length, and laser power, we can. further enhance the chip’s performance, paving the way for its integration into a wide range of dectronic devices. The practical application of the chip could revolutionize the way we approach energy generation, offering a compact and efficient solution suitable for integration into a wide range of electronic devices. Future work will focus on experimental validation of the theoretical predictions, optimization of the chip design, and examining other avenues in photonic technology. References Clagus, I. (2022). “Examination of the electromagnetic force and gravity through the composite (couplet) photon.” jidvanced Studies in Theoretical Physics, 16(2): 41-66. Pei, Yutniao, Yi Hu, Ping Zhang, Chuamei Zhang. Cibo Lou, Christian E. Riiter, Detlef Kip, Demetrios ChristodoulideS; Zhigang Chen, &Jingjun Xu. (2019). “Coherent propulsion with negative-mass fields in a photonic lattice.” Opties Letters 44(24): 5949-5952. Pci. Y., Wang, Z., Hu, Y.s Lou, C., Chen, Z., &Xu, .J. (2020). “Spontaneous diametric-drive .acceleration Initiated by a single beam in a photonic lattice? Optics Letters 45(11): 3175-3178. STATEMENTS Statement 1: An energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy, wherein the energy converter is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, wherein the energy converter includes a configuration of waveguides and electrodes that are configured to receive the photons, at least partially bifurcate the photons into their respective electrons and positrons, configure the at least partially bifurcated electrons and positrons so that they mutually accelerate to provide accelerated electrons and positrons, and harvest the accelerated electrons and positrons to generate the electrical energy. Statement 2: An energy converter of Statement 1, wherein the integrated circuit is implemented as a Lithium Niobate photonic integrated circuit or a Lithium-Niobate-On-Insulator photonic integrated circuit. Statement 3: An energy converter of Statement 1 or 2, wherein the waveguides are fabricated from an optically non-linear material that is configured to exhibit in use a non-linear optical characteristic. Statement 4: An energy converter of Statement 1, 2 or 3, wherein the waveguides are implemented in an array of mutually parallel elongate waveguides. Statement 5: An energy converter of Statement 1, 2, 3 or 4, wherein the energy converter includes a biasing and acceleration region (regions B and C) therein, wherein the biasing and acceleration region is configured to apply an electric field to the positrons and electrons to cause them to be configured to mutually accelerate to gain energy, wherein the electric field is orientated with its electric field vector substantially parallel to elongate axes of the waveguides along which the electrons and positrons propagate. Statement 6: A method for operating an energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy, wherein the energy converter is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, wherein the energy converter includes a configuration of waveguides and electrodes that are configured to receive the photons, wherein the method includes: (i) using the energy converter to at least partially bifurcate the photons into their respective electrons and positrons; (ii) configuring the at least partially bifurcated electrons and positrons so that they mutually accelerate to provide accelerated electrons and positrons; and (iii) harvesting the accelerated electrons and positrons to generate the electrical energy. Statement 7: A method of Statement 6, wherein the method includes using a biasing and acceleration region to apply an electric field to the positrons and electrons to cause them to be configured to mutually accelerate to gain energy, wherein the electric field is orientated with its electric field vector substantially parallel to elongate axes of the waveguides along which the electrons and positrons propagate. Statement 8: A photonics module including an energy converter of Statement 1 together with a laser arrangement including one or more lasers configured in use to generate photons for the energy converter to convert to electrical power.

Claims

1. An electrical vehicle (10) including one or more electrical motors (40), and a power module (70) for storing energy in a battery energy storage module (110), for generating energy using at least one energy converter module (110), and for controlling power flows within the electrical vehicle (10) in response to driving commands provided from a user (50), wherein the power module (70) is configured to control power delivered to and received from the one or more motors (40),whereinthe at least one energy converter module (110) is configured to bifurcate photons into corresponding electrons and positrons, to configure the electrons and positrons to undergo spontaneous mutual acceleration to provide corresponding accelerated electrons and positrons, and to harvest energy of the accelerated electrons and positrons to provide power to operate the electrical vehicle (10).

2. An electrical vehicle (10) of claim 1, wherein the format of power includes: direct current (d.c.), alternating current (a.c.).

3. An electrical vehicle (10) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the energy converter module (110; 300) is configured for converting photons into electrical energy, wherein the energy converter module (300) is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, wherein the energy converter module (300) includes a configuration of waveguides and electrodes that are configured to receive the photons, at least partially bifurcate the photons into their respective electrons and positrons, configure the at least partially bifurcated electrons and positrons so that they mutually accelerate to provide accelerated electrons and positrons, and harvest the accelerated electrons and positrons to generate the electrical energy.

4. An electrical vehicle (10) of claim 3, wherein the integrated circuit is implemented as a Lithium Niobate photonic integrated circuit or a Lithium-Niobate-On-Insulator photonic integrated circuit.

5. An electrical vehicle (10) of claim 3 or 4, wherein the waveguides are fabricated from an optically non-linear material that is configured to exhibit in use a non-linear optical characteristic.

6. An electrical vehicle (30) of claim 3, 4 or 5, wherein the waveguides are implemented in an array of mutually parallel elongate waveguides.

7. An electrical vehicle (10) of any one of claims 3 to 6, wherein the energy converter includes a biasing and acceleration region (regions B and C) therein, wherein the biasing and acceleration region is configured to apply an electric field to the positrons and electrons to cause them to be configured to mutually accelerate to gain energy, wherein the electric field is orientated with its electric field vector substantially parallel to elongate axes of the waveguides along which the electrons and positrons propagate.

8. A method (500) for operating an electrical vehicle of any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein the method (500) includes:configuring the electrical vehicle (10) for power flows to occur therein when in operation;optionally configuring the electrical vehicle (10) to receive power from a utility power grid to contribute to the power flows;optionally configuring the electrical vehicle (10) to deliver power to the utility power grid derived from the power flows within the electrical vehicle (10); andconfiguring the electrical vehicle (10) to include an energy converter module (110) for delivering power to the electrical vehicle (10), wherein the energy converter module (110) is configured to bifurcate photons into correspondingelectrons and positrons, to configure the electrons and positrons to undergo spontaneous mutual acceleration to provide corresponding accelerated electrons and positrons, and to harvest energy of the accelerated electrons and positrons to provide power to operate the electrical vehicle (10).

9. A software product stored on a machine-readable data storage carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware (210) for implementing the method of claim 8.

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