Magnetohydrodynamic electric power generator

Abstract

A power generator that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos identifiable by unique analytical and spectroscopic signatures, (ii) a reaction mixture comprising at least two components chosen from: a source of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst; a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; reactants to form the source of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst and a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and a molten metal to cause the reaction mixture to be highly conductive, (iii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump such as an electromagnetic pump that provides a molten metal stream and at least one reservoir that receives the molten metal stream, (iv) an ignition system comprising an electrical power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics of the hydrino reaction and an energy gain due to forming hydrinos, (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma, (vi) a molten metal recovery system, and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting the high-power light output from a blackbody radiator of the cell into electricity using concentrator thermophotovoltaic cells or (b) converting the energetic plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.

Description

[0001] MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC ELECTRIC POWER GENERATOR CROSS-REFERENCES OF RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos.62 / 594,936, filed December 5, 2017, 62 / 612,304, filed December 29, 2017, 62 / 618,444, filed January 17, 2018, 62 / 630,755, filed February 14, 2018, 62 / 644,392, filed March 17, 2018, 62 / 652,283, filed April 3, 2018, 62 / 688,990, filed June 22, 2018, 62 / 698,025, filed July 14, 2018, 62 / 714,732, filed August 5, 2018, 62 / 728,716, filed September 7, 2018,

[0003] 62 / 738,966, filed September 28, 2018, 62 / 748,955, filed October 22, 2018, and 62 / 769,483, filed November 19, 2018, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0004] The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation and, in particular, to systems, devices, and methods for the generation of power. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, which produce optical power, plasma, and thermal power and produces electrical power via a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, an optical to electric power converter, plasma to electric power converter, photon to electric power converter, or a thermal to electric power converter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use the ignition of a water or water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure.

[0005] Power generation can take many forms, harnessing the power from plasma.

[0006] Successful commercialization of plasma may depend on power generation systems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then capturing the power of the plasma produced.

[0007] Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel source. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be harnessed by an electric converter of the present disclosure. The ions and excited state atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. The optical power can be converted to electricity with photovoltaics.

[0008] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes such as solid or molten metal electrodes configured to deliver power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and produce a plasma; a source of electrical power configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one magnetohydrodynamic power converter positioned to receive high temperature and pressure plasma or at least one photovoltaic (“PV”) power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0009] In an embodiment, a SunCell® power system that power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprises at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric and reactants comprising: (i) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; (ii) at least one source of H2O or H2O; (iii) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (iv) a molten metal. The system further comprises a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir that contains some of the molten metal and a molten metal pump with an injector tube that provides a molten metal stream and at least one non-injector reservoir that receives the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power to supply electrical power to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma; at least one reactant supply system to replenish reactants that are consumed in a reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of the electrical energy and thermal energy; at least one power converter or output system of at least one of the light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power. The power system may further comprise at least one of a heater to melt a metal to comprise the molten metal and a molten metal recovery system wherein the molten metal recovery system may comprise at least one molten metal overflow channel from the non-injection reservoir to the injector system reservoir that further creates breaks in the molten metal overflow stream to interrupt any current path through the overflowing molten metal. The molten metal recovery system may comprises the non- injector reservoir having its inlet to receive molten metal from the injector tube of the injector system at an elevation above the injector tube and further comprising a drip edge to break-up the overflow stream. The non-injector reservoir inlet may lie in a plane, and the plane may be aligned perpendicular to the initial direction of the molten metal stream from the injection tube. The non-injector reservoir and the injector tube of the injector system may both be aligned along an axis at an angle greater than zero from a horizontal axis that is transverse to the Earth’s gravitational axis such as an angle in the range of about 25° to 90° from the horizontal. The injector reservoir may comprise an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir may comprise an electrode that makes contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system. The ignition system may comprises a source of electrical power to supply opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes that supplies current and power flow through the stream of molten metal to cause the reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside of the vessel. The source of electrical power may deliver a high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma. The source of electrical power may comprise at least one

[0010] supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may comprises one of (i) a DC or AC

[0011] conduction type comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field, or (ii) an induction type comprising a source of alternating magnetic field through a shorted loop of molten metal that induces an alternating current in the metal and a source of in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field. The current from the molten metal ignition system power may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the molten metal stream to cause ignition to further cause an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The molten metal may comprise at least one of (i) silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper, (ii) a metal has a melting point below 700 °C, and (iii) at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, preferably gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Rose’s metal, Cerrosafe, Wood’s metal, Field’s metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Galinstan. The power system may further comprise a vacuum pump and at least one heat exchanger. At least one reservoir may comprise boron nitride. The reactants may comprise a vessel gas comprising at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and water wherein the vessel gas may further comprise an inert gas. The power system may further comprise a reactants supply and an inert gas supply wherein the supplies maintain the vessel gas at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 200 atm. At least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output may comprise at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external-combustor type Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal- combustion type engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may comprise a light transparent photovoltaic (PV) window to transmit light from the inside of the vessel to a photovoltaic converter and at least one of a vessel geometry and at least one baffle to cause a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent the molten metal from coating the PV window wherein the vessel geometry may comprise a decreasing cross sectional area towards the PV window. The PV converter may comprise concentrator photovoltaic cells that comprise at least one compound chosen from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb),

[0012] InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe;

[0013] GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs;

[0014] GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP- GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; a Group III nitride; GaN; AlN; GaAlN, and InGaN. The magnetohydrodynamic power converter may comprise a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system. In an embodiment, at least one component of the power system comprises at least one of a ceramic such as at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and a glass ceramic such as Li2O × Al2O3× nSiO2system (LAS system), the MgO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (MAS system), the ZnO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (ZAS system) and a metal such as at least one of a stainless steel and a refractory metal. In an embodiment, the molten metal of the power system comprises silver and the

[0015] magnetohydrodynamic converter further comprises a source of oxygen to form silver particles nanoparticles and accelerate the nanoparticles through magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power produced in the vessel. The reactants supply system may additionally supply and control the source of oxygen to form the silver nanoparticles. In an embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the nanoparticles coalesce as molten metal in the metal collection system, the molten metal at least partially absorbs the oxygen, the metal comprising absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by the metal recirculation system, and the oxygen is released by the plasma in the vessel wherein plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of the oxygen by the molten metal. The electromagnetic pump may comprise a two-stage pump comprising a first stage that comprises a pump of the metal recirculation system, and a second stage that comprises the pump of the metal injector system. In an embodiment, the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst in the power system may comprise at least one of the following: a hydrogen product with a Raman peak at about 1900 to 2000 cm-1; a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman peaks spaced at an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV; a hydrogen product with an infrared peak at about 1900 to 2000 cm-1; a hydrogen product with a plurality of infrared peaks spaced at an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV; a hydrogen product with at a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks in the range of about 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.3 eV; a hydrogen product with a plurality of electron- beam emission spectral peaks in the range of about 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of about 0.2 to 0.3 eV; a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman spectral peaks in the range of about 5000 to 20,000 cm-1having a spacing at an integer multiple of about 1000 ±200 cm-1; a hydrogen product with a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at an energy in the range of about 490 to 525 eV; a hydrogen product that causes an upfield MAS NMR matrix shift; a hydrogen product that has an upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift of greater than about -5 ppm relative to TMS; a hydrogen product comprising macro- aggregates or polymers Hn(n is an integer greater than 3); a hydrogen product comprising macro-aggregates or polymers Hn(n is an integer greater than 3) having a time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peak of about 16.12 to 16.13; a hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; a hydrogen product comprising at least one of H16and H24; a hydrogen product comprising an inorganic compound MxXyand H2wherein M is a cation and X in an anion having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peaks of M(MxXyH2)n wherein n is an integer; a hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2 having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF- SIMS) peaks of and respectively; a magnetic hydrogen

[0016]

[0017] product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal; a hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry; a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least one of very high g factors, very low g factors, extraordinary line width, and proton splitting; a hydrogen product comprising a hydrogen molecular dimer wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at about 2800-3100 G and ΔH of about 10 G to 500 G; a hydrogen product comprising a gas having a negative gas chromatography peak with hydrogen carrier; a hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e of about wherein p is an integer; a protonic hydrogen product comprising a

[0018] molecular dimer having an end over end rotational energy for the integer J to J + 1 transition in the range of about (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20 cm-1 wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer comprising deuterium is ½ that of the dimer comprising protons; a hydrogen product comprising molecular dimers having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of about 1.028 Å ±10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of about 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of about 0.0011 eV ±10% ; a hydrogen product comprising a solid having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of about 1.028 Å ±10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of about 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of about 0.019 eV ±10% ; a hydrogen product having at least one of (i) FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (a) (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20 cm-1, (b) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (c) 23 cm-1 ±10% ; (ii) an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of about 1.028 Å ±10% , and (c) a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of about 0.0011 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen; a solid hydrogen product having at least one of (i) FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (a) (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20 cm-1, (b) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (c) 23 cm-1 ±10% ; (ii) an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of about 1.028 Å ±10% , and (iii) a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of about 0.019 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen. In an embodiment, the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst in the power system may comprise at least one of H(1 / 4) and H2(1 / 4) wherein the hydrogen product has at least one of the following: the hydrogen product has a Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) comprising at least one of the H2(1 / 4)rotational energy at about 1940 cm-1 ±10% and libation bands in the finger print regionwherein other high energy features are absent; the hydrogen product has a proton magic- angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum (1H MAS NMR) comprising an upfield matrix peak; the hydrogen product has a thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) result showing the decomposition of at least one of a metal hydride and a hydrogen polymer in the temperature region of about 100 °C to 1000 °C; the hydrogen product has an e-beam excitation emission spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band in the 260 nm region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced at about 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other; the hydrogen product has an e-beam excitation emission spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4) ro- vibrational band in the 260 nm region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced at about 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other wherein the peaks decrease in intensity at cryo-temperatures in the range of about 0 K to 150 K; the hydrogen product has a photoluminescence Raman spectrum comprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band in the 260 nm region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced at about 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other; the hydrogen product has a photoluminescence Raman spectrum comprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band comprising a plurality of peaks in the range of about 5000 to 20,000 cm-1having a spacing at an integer multiple of about 1000 ±200 cm-1; the hydrogen product has a Raman spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4) rotational peak at about 1940 cm-1±10%;the hydrogen product has an X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) comprising thetotal energy of H2(1 / 4) at about 490-500 eV; the hydrogen product comprises macro- aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n(n is an integer greater than 3); the hydrogen product comprises macro-aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n(n is an integer greater than 3) having a time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peak of about 16.12 to 16.13; the hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W and the hydrogen comprises H(1 / 4); the hydrogen product comprises at least one of H(1 / 4)16and H(1 / 4)24; the hydrogen product comprises an inorganic compound MxXyand H(1 / 4)2wherein M is a cation and X is an anion and at least one of the electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI-ToF) and the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) comprises peaks of M(MxXyH(1 / 4)2)n wherein n is an integer; the hydrogen product comprises at least one of K2CO3H(1 / 4)2and KOHH(1 / 4)2and at least one of the electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI-ToF) and the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) comprises peaksof and , respectively; the hydrogen product is magnetic and comprises a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); the hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal and H is H(1 / 4) wherein the product demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry; the hydrogen product comprises a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at about 2800-3100 G and ΔH of about 10 to 500 G; the hydrogen product comprises a [H2(1 / 4)]2wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at about 2800-3100 G and ΔH of about 10 G to 500 G; the hydrogen product comprises or releases H2(1 / 4) gas having a negative gas chromatography peak with hydrogen carrier; the hydrogen product comprisesH2(1 / 4) having a quadrupole moment / e of about the hydrogen product

[0019]

[0020] comprises [H2(1 / 4)]2or [D2(1 / 4)]2having an end over end rotational energy for the integer J to J + 1 transition in the range of about (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1and about (J+1)22.15 cm-1±10 cm-1, respectively; the hydrogen product comprising [H2(1 / 4)]2having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 1.028 ű10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii)a van der Waals energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 0.0011 eV ±10% , and thehydrogen product comprising a solid of H2(1 / 4) molecules having at least one parameter fromthe group of (i) a separation distance of H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 1.028 Å ±10% , (ii) avibrational energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii) a van derWaals energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of about 0.019 eV ±10% ;the [H2(1 / 4)]2producthaving at least one of (i) FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (a) about (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (b) about (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (c) about 23 cm-1 ±10% ; (ii) an X-ray orneutron diffraction pattern showing a H2(1 / 4) molecule separation of about 1.028 Å ±10% ,and (iii) a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of about 0.0011 eV±10% per H2(1 / 4), and the solid H2(1 / 4) product having at least one of (i) FTIR and Ramanspectral signatures of (a) about (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20 cm-1, (b) about (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10cm-1 and (c) about 23 cm-1 ±10% ; (ii) an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing ahydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% , and (iii) a calorimetric determination of theenergy of vaporization of about 0.019 eV ±10% per H2(1 / 4). The hydrogen product formedby reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst in the power system may comprise at least one of a hydrino species selected from the group of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p) alone or complexed with at least one of (i) an element other than hydrogen, (ii) an ordinary hydrogen species comprising at least one of H+, ordinary H2, ordinary H-, and ordinary H+

[0021] 3 , an organic molecular species, and (iv) an inorganic species. The hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst may comprise an oxyanion compound. The hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst may comprise at least onecompound having the formula selected from the group of: MH, MH2, or M2H2, wherein Mis an alkali cation and H is a hydrino species; MHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earthcation and H is hydrino species; MHX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as halogen atom, a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion such as halogen anion, and H is a hydrino species; MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is H is a hydrino species; MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrino species; M2HX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrino species; MHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline cation and the hydrogen content Hnofthe compound comprises at least one hydrino species; M2Hnwherein n is an integer, M is analkaline earth cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; M2XHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singlynegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; M2X2Hnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singlynegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; M2X3H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negativelycharged anion, and H is a hydrino species; M2XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earthcation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; M2XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X’ is a double negatively charged anion, and H is hydrino species; MM’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; MM’XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; MM’XH wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion and H is a hydrino species; MM’XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X and X’ are singly negatively charged anion and H is a hydrino species; MXX’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, X’ is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; MHnwherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; MXHnwherein n is aninteger, M is an cation such as an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;

[0022] wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;

[0023] wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an

[0024] integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; wherein M is an alkalication or other +1 cation, n is an integer and the hyd rogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; ( MHMOH )n wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an

[0025] alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species, and

[0026] wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or

[0027] alkaline earth cation, X and X' are a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species. The anion of hydrogen compound product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst may comprise at least one or more singly negatively charged anions, halide ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, nitrate ion, double negatively charged anions, are carbonate ion, oxide, and sulfate ion. The hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst may comprise at least one hydrino species embedded in a crystalline lattice. In an exemplary embodiment, the compound comprises least one of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p) embedded in a salt lattice wherein the salt lattice comprises at least one of an alkali salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, alkaline earth salt, an alkaline earth halide, and an alkaline earth hydroxide.

[0028] In one embodiment, an electrode system comprises: a first electrode and a second electrode; a stream of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with said first and second electrodes; a circulation system comprising a pump to draw said molten metal from a reservoir and convey it through a conduit (e.g., a tube) to produce said stream of molten metal exiting said conduit, and a source of electrical power configured to provide an electrical potential difference between said first and second electrodes wherein said stream of molten metal is in simultaneous contact with said first and second electrodes to create an electrical current between said electrodes. In one embodiment, the electrical power of the electrode system is sufficient to create an arc current. In one embodiment, an electrical circuit comprises: a heating means for producing molten metal; a pumping means for conveying said molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit to produce a stream of said molten metal exiting said conduit; and a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply means for creating an electrical potential difference across said first and second electrode wherein said stream of molten metal is in simultaneous contact with said first and second electrodes to create an electrical circuit between said first and second electrodes. In one embodiment of an electrical circuit comprising a first and second electrode, the improvement comprises passing a stream of molten metal across said electrodes to permit a current to flow there between.

[0029] In an embodiment, a SunCell® power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprises at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric and reactants comprising: (i) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O, (ii) at least one source of H2O or H2O, (iii) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and (iv) a molten metal; a molten metal injection system comprising at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising a pump and an injector tube; at least one reactant supply system to replenish reactants that are consumed in a reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of the electrical energy and thermal energy; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power to supply opposite voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising an

[0030] electromagnetic pump, and at least one power converter or output system of at least one of the light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power.

[0031] The molten metal injection system may comprise at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising an electromagnetic pump to inject streams of the molten metal that intersect inside of the vessel wherein each reservoir may comprise a molten metal level controller comprising an inlet riser tube. The ignition system may comprise a source of electrical power to supply opposite voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising an electromagnetic pump that supplies current and power flow through the intersecting streams of molten metal to cause the reaction of the reactants comprising ignition to form a plasma inside of the vessel. The ignition system may comprise: (i) the source of electrical power to supply opposite voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising an electromagnetic pump and (ii) at least two intersecting streams of molten metal ejected from the at least two molten metal reservoirs each comprising an electromagnetic pump wherein the source of electrical power is capable of delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma. The source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma may comprise at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may comprise one of a (i) DC or AC conduction type comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field, or (ii) an induction type comprising a source of alternating magnetic field through a shorted loop of molten metal that induces an alternating current in the metal and a source of in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field. At least one union of the pump and corresponding reservoir or another union between parts comprising the vessel, injection system, and converter may comprise at least one of a wet seal, a flange and gasket seal, an adhesive seal, and a slip nut seal wherein the gasket may comprise carbon. The DC or AC current of the molten metal ignition system may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy may comprise at least one of the following:

[0032] a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA;

[0033] a DC or peak AC current density in the range of at least one of 100 A / cm2to

[0034] 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2;

[0035] the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times the resistance of the solid fuel sample;

[0036] the DC or peak AC voltage is in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and

[0037] the AC frequency is in range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0038] The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the intersection of the molten metal streams to cause ignition to further cause an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The induction-type electromagnetic pump may comprise ceramic channels that form the shorted loop of molten metal. The power system may further comprise a heater such as an inductively coupled heater to form the molten metal from the corresponding solid metal wherein the molten metal may comprise at least one of silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper. The power system may further comprise a vacuum pump and at least one chiller. The power system may comprise a system to recover the products of the reactants such as at least one of the vessel comprising walls capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and the reservoir in

[0039] communication with the vessel and further comprising a cooling system to maintain the reservoir at a lower temperature than another portion of the vessel to cause metal vapor of the molten metal to condense in the reservoir wherein the pressure in the vessel may be maintained by the condensation. The recovery system comprising an electrode

[0040] electromagnetic pump may comprise at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector-crossed ignition current component. The power system may comprise at least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output such as at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The boiler may comprise a radiant boiler. A portion of the reaction vessel may comprise a blackbody radiator that may be maintained at a temperature in the range of 1000 K to 3700 K. The reservoirs of the power system may comprise boron nitride, the portion of the vessel that comprises the blackbody radiator may comprise carbon, and the electromagnetic pump parts in contact with the molten metal may comprise an oxidation resistant metal or ceramic. The hydrino reactants may comprise at least one of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water. The reactants supply may maintain each of the methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr. The light emitted by the blackbody radiator of the power system that is directed to the

[0041] thermophotovoltaic converter or a photovoltaic converter may be predominantly blackbody radiation comprising visible and near infrared light, and the photovoltaic cells may be concentrator cells that comprise at least one compound chosen from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge;

[0042] GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe;

[0043] GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs;

[0044] GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP- GaInAs-Ge. The light that is emitted by the reaction plasma and that is directed to the thermophotovoltaic converter or a photovoltaic converter may be predominantly ultraviolet light, and the photovoltaic cells may be concentrator cells that comprise at least one compound chosen from a Group III nitride, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN. The

[0045] thermophotovoltaic converter may convert low temperature blackbody radiation (BBR) such as BBR from a radiator such as 5b4 in the temperature range of about 1500 K to 2500 K. The corresponding PV cell may comprise bismuth.

[0046] In an embodiment, the PV converter may further comprise a UV window to the PV cells. The PV window may replace at least a portion of the blackbody radiator. The window may be substantially transparent to UV. The window may be resistant to wetting with the molten metal. The window may operate at a temperature that is at least one of above the melting point of the molten metal and above the boiling point of the molten metal.

[0047] Exemplary windows are sapphire, quartz, MgF2, and fused silica. The window may be cooled and may comprise a means for cleaning during operation or during maintenance. The SunCell® may further comprise a source of at least one of electric and magnetic fields to confine the plasma in a region that avoids contact with at least one of the window and the PV cells. The source may comprise an electrostatic precipitation system. The source may comprise a magnetic confinement system. The plasma may be confined by gravity wherein at least one of the window and PV cells are at a suitable height about the position of plasma generation.

[0048] Alternatively, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter may comprise a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system wherein the reactants may comprise at least one of H2O vapor, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The reactants supply may maintain each of the O2, the H2, and a reaction product H2O at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr. The reactants supply system to replenish the reactants that are consumed in a reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of the electrical energy and thermal energy may comprise at least one of O2and H2gas supplies, a gas housing, a selective gas permeable membrane in the wall of at least one of the reaction vessel, the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the metal collection system, and the metal recirculation system, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors, flow controllers, at least one valve, and a computer to maintain at least one of the O2and H2pressures. In an embodiment, at least one component of the power system may comprise ceramic wherein the ceramic may comprise at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and a glass ceramic such as Li2O × Al2O3× nSiO2system (LAS system), the MgO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (MAS system), the ZnO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (ZAS system). The molten metal may comprise silver, and the magnetohydrodynamic converter may further comprise a source of oxygen to form an aerosol of silver particles supplied to at least one of the reservoirs, reaction vessel, magnetohydrodynamic nozzle, and magnetohydrodynamic channel wherein the reactants supply system may additionally supply and control the source of oxygen to form the silver aerosol. The molten metal may comprise silver. The magnetohydrodynamic converter may further comprise a cell gas comprising ambient gas in contact with the silver in at least one of the reservoirs and the vessel. The power system may further comprise a means to maintain a flow of cell gas in contact with the molten silver to form silver aerosol wherein the cell gas flow may comprise at least one of forced gas flow and convection gas flow. The cell gas may comprise at least one of a noble gas, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2. The means to maintain the cell gas flow may comprise at least one of a gas pump or compressor such as a magnetohydrodynamic gas pump or compressor, the magnetohydrodynamic converter, and a turbulent flow caused by at least one of the molten metal injection system and the plasma.

[0049] The inductive type electromagnetic pump of the power system may comprise a two- stage pump comprising a first stage that comprises a pump of the metal recirculation system, and the second stage comprises the pump of the metal injection system to inject the stream of the molten metal that intersects with the other inside of the vessel. The source of electrical power of the ignition system may comprise an induction ignition system that may comprise a source of alternating magnetic field through a shorted loop of molten metal that generates an alternating current in the metal that comprises the ignition current. The source of alternating magnetic field may comprise a primary transformer winding comprising a transformer electromagnet and a transformer magnetic yoke, and the silver may at least partially serve as a secondary transformer winding such as a single turn shorted winding that encloses the primary transformer winding and comprises as an induction current loop. The reservoirs may comprise a molten metal cross connecting channel that connects the two reservoirs such that the current loop encloses the transformer yoke wherein the induction current loop comprises the current generated in molten silver contained in the reservoirs, the cross connecting channel, the silver in the injector tubes and injector tubes, and the injected streams of molten silver that intersect to complete the induction current loop. In the case of ceramic injector tubes, the tubes may be submerged such that the loop comprises the molten silver contained in the reservoirs, the cross connecting channel, and the injected streams of molten silver that intersect to complete the induction current loop.

[0050] In an embodiment, the emitter generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy wherein the emitter comprises at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric; reactants, the reactants comprising: a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; b) at least one source of H2O or H2O; c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen that may permeate through the wall of the vessel; d) a molten metal such as silver, copper, or silver-copper alloy; and e) an oxide such as at least one of CO2, B2O3, LiVO3, and a stable oxide that does not react with H2; at least one molten metal injection system comprising a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one reactant ignition system comprising a source of electrical power to cause the reactants to form at least one of light-emitting plasma and thermal- emitting plasma wherein the source of electrical power receives electrical power from the power converter; a system to recover the molten metal and oxide; at least one power converter or output system of at least one of the light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power; wherein the molten metal ignition system comprises at least one of ignition system comprising i) an electrode from the group of: a) at least one set of refractory metal or carbon electrodes to confine the molten metal; b) a refractory metal or carbon electrode and a molten metal stream delivered by an electromagnetic pump from an electrically isolated molten metal reservoir, and c) at least two molten metal streams delivered by at least two electromagnetic pumps from a plurality of electrically isolated molten metal reservoirs; and ii) a source of electrical power to deliver high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma wherein the molten metal AC, DC or AC-DC-mixtures ignition system current is in the range of 50 A to 50,000 A; wherein the molten metal injection system comprises an electromagnetic pump comprising at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and current source to provide a vector-crossed current component; wherein the molten metal reservoir comprises an inductively coupled heater; the emitter further comprising a system to recover the molten metal and oxide such as at least one of the vessel comprising walls capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity and the reservoir in communication with the vessel and further comprising a cooling system to maintain the reservoir at a lower temperature than then the vessel to cause metal to collect in the reservoir; wherein the vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric comprises an inner reaction cell comprising a high temperature blackbody radiator, and an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric; wherein the blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature in the range of 1000 K to 3700 K; wherein the inner reaction cell comprising a blackbody radiator comprises a refractory material such as carbon or W; wherein the blackbody radiation emitted from the exterior of the cell is incident on the light-to-electricity power converter; wherein the at least one power converter of the reaction power output comprises at least one of a

[0051] thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter; wherein the light emitted by the cell is predominantly blackbody radiation comprising visible and near infrared light, and the photovoltaic cells are concentrator cells that comprise at least one compound chosen from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), Group III / V semiconductors, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs;

[0052] GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP- Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, and the power system further comprises a vacuum pump and at least one heat rejection system and the blackbody radiator further comprises a blackbody temperature sensor and controller. Optionally, the emitter may comprise at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein the additional reactants comprise: a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; b) at least one source of H2O or H2O, and c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen. The additional reactant injection system may further comprise at least one of a computer, H2O and H2pressure sensors, and flow controllers comprising at least one or more of the group of a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a high precision electronically controllable valve; the valve comprising at least one of a needle valve, proportional electronic valve, and stepper motor valve wherein the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2pressure at a desired value; wherein the additional reactants injection system maintains the H2O vapor pressure in the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0053] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. In the drawings:

[0054] FIGURE 2I161 is a schematic drawing of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter components of a cathode, anode, insulator, and bus bar feed-through flange in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIGURES 2I162-2I166 are schematic drawings of a SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs and a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a pair of MHD return EM pumps in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0055] FIGURES 2I167-2I173 are schematic drawings of a SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs and a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a pair of MHD return EM pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0056] FIGURES 2I174-2I176 are schematic drawings of SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a pair of MHD return EM pumps in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0057] FIGURE 2I177 is a schematic drawing of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and a straight MHD channel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0058] FIGURE 2I178 is a schematic drawing of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, and a straight MHD channel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0059] FIGURES 2I179-2I183 are schematic drawings of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and gas addition housing in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0060] FIGURE 2I184 is schematic drawings of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generators comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, and single-stage induction EM pumps for injection and either single-stage induction or DC conduction MHD return EM pumps in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0061] FIGURE 2I185 is a schematic drawing of a single-stage induction injection EM pump in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0062] FIGURE 2I186 is a schematic drawing of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, and an induction ignition system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0063] FIGURE 2I187 is a schematic drawing of the reservoir baseplate assembly and connecting components of the inlet riser tube, injector tube and nozzle, and flanges in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0064] FIGURE 2I188 is a schematic drawing of a two-stage induction EM pump wherein the first stage serves as the MHD return EM pump and the second stage serves as the injection EM pump in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0065] FIGURE 2I189 is a schematic drawing of an induction ignition system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0066] FIGURES 2I190-2I191 are schematic drawings of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return each having a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0067] FIGURE 2I192 is a schematic drawing of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return each having a forced liquid cooling system, an induction ignition system, and inductively coupled heating antennas on the EM pump tubes, reservoirs, reaction cell chamber, and MHD return conduit in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0068] FIGURES 2I193-2I198 are schematic drawings of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return each having an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0069] FIGURE 2I199 is a schematic drawing of a single-stage induction injection EM pump in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0070] FIGURE 2I200 is a schematic drawing of a two-stage induction EM pump wherein the first stage serves as the MHD return EM pump and the second stage serves as the injection EM pump in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0071] FIGURE 2I201 is a schematic drawing of a two-stage induction EM pump wherein the first stage serves as the MHD return EM pump and the second stage serves as the injection EM pump wherein the Lorentz pumping force is more optimized in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0072] FIGURES 2I202-2I203 are schematic drawings of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return each having a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0073] FIGURE 2I04 are schematic drawings showing an exemplary helical-shaped flame heater of the SunCell® and a flame heater comprising a series of annular rings in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0074] FIGURE 2I205 is a schematic drawing showing an electrolyzer in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0075] FIGURE 2I206 is a schematic drawing showing a housing for containing H2+ O2with a dilution gas to be recombined in desired surfaces of SunCell® to serve as a chemical heater in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0076] FIGURE 2I207 shows schematic drawings of SunCell® thermal power generators, one comprising a half-spherical-shell-shaped radiant thermal absorber heat exchanger having walls with embedded coolant tubes to receive the thermal power from reaction cell comprising a blackbody radiator and transfer the heat to the coolant and another comprising a circumferential cylindrical heat exchanger and boiler in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0077] FIGURES 2I208-2I2012 are schematic drawings of SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a half-spherical-shell-shaped radiant thermal absorber heat exchanger having walls with embedded coolant tubes to receive the thermal power from reaction cell comprising a blackbody radiator and transfer the heat to the coolant in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0078] FIGURES 2I213-2I214 are schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator heat exchanger comprising a half-spherical-shell-shaped radiant thermal absorber heat exchanger having walls with embedded coolant tubes to receive the thermal power from reaction cell comprising a blackbody radiator and transfer the heat to the coolant in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0079] FIGURE 2I215 is a schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an extended non-injector reservoir as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0080] FIGURES 2I216-2I217 are schematic drawings showing details of SunCell® thermal power generators each comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an extended non-injector reservoir as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0081] FIGURE 2I218 is a schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a half-spherical-shell-shaped radiant thermal absorber heat exchanger, a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, and an extended non-injector reservoir as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0082] FIGURE 2I219 are schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0083] FIGURES 2I220-2I221 are schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and a partially inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes and a tapered reaction cell chamber to suppress metallization of a PV window in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0084] FIGURES 2I222-2I223 are schematic drawings of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® power generator comprising two recuperators and two paired gas compressors wherein each recuperator removes heat from the MHD gas flow before the corresponding compressor and returns the heat to the compressed gas output of the compressor in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0085] FIGURES 2I224-2I226 are schematic drawings of a supercritical CO2SunCell® electrical power generator comprising a SunCell® with a heat exchanger (shown separately in excerpt), high temperature and low temperature recuperators, a precooler, a recompression compressor, a main compressor, CO2working medium lines, a turbine that turns a generator shaft, and an electrical generator in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0086] FIGURES 2I227-2I228 are schematic drawings of a closed Rankine SunCell® electrical power generator comprising a SunCell® (shown separately in excerpt), a boiler, a turbine that turns a generator shaft, an electrical generator, a condenser, a coolant pump, and coolant lines in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0087] FIGURES 2I229-2I231 are schematic drawings of an external-combustor-type, open Brayton SunCell® electrical power generator comprising a turbine compressor to draw in air, a SunCell® with heat exchanger to extract heat from the SunCell® and transfer it to the air, a heat exchanger coolant tank and pump, a power turbine that turns a gear box and compressor shaft, a gear box, an electrical generator, and an air exhaust duct in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0088] FIGURE 2I232 is a cross sectional schematic drawing of an external-combustor-type, open Brayton SunCell® electrical power generator showing the airflow pattern using arrows in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIGURE 2I233 is a schematic drawing of components of an external-combustor-type, open Brayton SunCell® electrical power generator showing details of the turbine compressor to draw in air, the heat exchanger to extract heat from the SunCell® and transfer it to the air, a power turbine, and an air exhaust duct in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0089] FIGURES 2I234-2I235 are schematic drawings of an open Rankine SunCell® electrical power generator comprising a SunCell®, a boiler, a turbine that turns a generator shaft, an electrical generator, a cooling tower, and coolant recirculation and support systems in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0090] FIGURES 2I236-2I237 are schematic drawings of a Sterling engine SunCell® electrical power generator comprising a SunCell®, a heat exchanger, and a Sterling engine that drives an electrical generator shaft in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0091] FIGURE 3 is a schematic drawing of the silver-oxygen phase diagram from Smithells Metals Reference Book-8thEdition, 11-20 in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0092] FIGURES 4A-C are electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) spectra of hydrino reaction products comprising lower-energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrino dimer in different matices in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) The product formed by the detonation of Sn wire in an atmosphere comprising water vapor in air. (B) The product formed by the ball milling NaOH and KCl having waters of hydration. (C) The product formed by the detonation of Zn wire in an atmosphere comprising water vapor in air wherein the effect of cryogenic temperature was determined on the EPR spectrum at 298K (red trace) and 77K (blue trace).

[0093] FIGURE 5 is a schematic drawing of a hydrino reaction cell chamber comprising a means to detonate a wire to serve as at least one of a source of reactants and a means to propagate the hydrino reaction to form macro-aggregates or polymers comprising lower- energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrino in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0094] FIGURE 6 is Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum of the reaction product comprising lower-energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrino formed by the detonation of Zn wire in an atmosphere comprising water vapor in air in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0095] FIGURES 7A-B is the1H MAS NMR spectrum relative to external TMS of an initial KOH-KCl (1:1) getter that shows the known down-field shifted matrix peak at +4.41 ppm and the1H MAS NMR spectrum relative to external TMS of the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from a scale-up 5 W stack of 10 CIHT cells comprising [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MgO / NiO] that output 1029 Wh at 137% gain that shows upfield shifted matrix peaks at -4.06 and -4.41 ppm in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0096] FIGURE 8 is a vibrating sample magnetometer recording of the reaction product comprising lower-energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrino formed by the detonation of Mo wire in an atmosphere comprising water vapor in air in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0097] FIGURE 9 is the absolute spectrum in the 5 nm to 450 nm region of the ignition of a 80 mg shot of silver comprising absorbed H2and H2O from gas treatment of silver melt before dripping into a water reservoir showing an average NIST calibrated optical power of 1.3 MW, essentially all in the ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet spectral region in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0098] FIGURE 10 is the spectrum (100 nm to 500 nm region with a cutoff at 180 nm due to the sapphire spectrometer window) of the ignition of a molten silver pumped into W electrodes in atmospheric argon with an ambient H2O vapor pressure of about 1 Torr showing UV line emission that transitioned to 5000K blackbody radiation when the atmosphere became optically thick to the UV radiation with the vaporization of the silver in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0099] FIGURE 11 is the high resolution visible spectrum of the 800 Torr argon-hydrogen plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction in a Pyrex SunCell® showing a Stark broadening of 1.3 nm corresponding to an electron density of 3.5X1023 / m3and a 10% ionization fraction requiring about 8.6 GW / m3to maintain in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0100] FIGURE 12 is the ultraviolet emission spectrum from electron beam excitation of argon gas comprising some water that is assigned to the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational P branch in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0101] FIGURE 13 is the ultraviolet emission spectrum from electron beam excitation of KCl that was impregnated with hydrino reaction product gas showing the H2(1 / 4) ro- vibrational P branch in the crystalline lattice in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0102] FIGURE 14 is the ultraviolet emission spectrum from electron beam excitation of KCl that was impregnated with hydrino showing the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational P branch in the crystalline lattice that changed intensity with temperature confirming the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibration assignment in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0103] FIGURE 15 is the Raman-mode second-order photoluminescence spectrum of the KOH-KCl (1:1 wt%) getter exposed to the product gases of the ignition of solid fuel samples of 100 mg Cu with 30 mg deionized water sealed in the DSC pan using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS 325nm laser with a 1200 grating over a range of 8000-19,000 cm-1Raman shift. FIGURE 16 is the Raman spectrum obtained using a Thermo Scientific DXR

[0104] SmartRaman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser on a In metal foil exposed to the product gas from a series of solid fuel ignitions under argon, each comprising 100 mg of Cu mixed with 30 mg of deionized water showing an inverse Raman effect peak at 1982 cm-1that matches the free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV).

[0105] FIGURES 17A-B are the Raman spectra obtained using the Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer and the 780 nm laser on copper electrodes pre and post ignition of a 80 mg silver shot comprising 1 mole% H2O, wherein the detonation was achieved by applying a 12 V 35,000 A current with a spot welder, and the spectra showed an inverse Raman effect peak at about 1940 cm-1that matches the free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV) in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0106] FIGURES 18A-B are the XPS spectra recorded on the indium metal foil exposed to gases from sequential argon-atmosphere ignitions of the solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg deionized water sealed in the DSC pan in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) A survey spectrum showing only the elements In, C, O, and trace K peaks were present. (B) High-resolution spectrum showing a peak at 498.5 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4) wherein other possibilities were eliminated based on the absence of any other corresponding primary element peaks in the survey scan.

[0107] FIGURES 19A-B are the XPS spectra of the Fe hydrino polymeric compound having a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4) wherein other possibilities such Na, Sn, and Zn were eliminated since only Fe, O, and C peaks are present and other peaks of the candidates are absent in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) Survey scan. (B) High resolution scan in the region of the 496 eV peak of H2(1 / 4).

[0108] FIGURES 20A-B are the XPS spectra of the Mo hydrino polymeric compound having a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4) wherein other possibilities such Na, Sn, and Zn were eliminated since only Mo, O, and C peaks are present and other peaks of the candidates are absent. Mo 3s which is less intense than Mo3p was at 506 eV with additional samples that also showed the H2(1 / 4) 496 eV peak in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) Survey scan. (B) High resolution scan in the region of the 496 eV peak of H2(1 / 4).

[0109] FIGURES 21A-B are the XPS spectra on copper electrodes post ignition of a 80 mg silver shot comprising 1 mole% H2O, wherein the detonation was achieved by applying a 12 V 35,000 A current with a spot welder in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The peak at 496 eV was assigned to H2(1 / 4) wherein other possibilities such Na, Sn, and Zn were eliminated since the corresponding peaks of these candidates are absent. Raman post detonation spectra (FIGURES 17A-B) showed an inverse Raman effect peak at about 1940 cm-1that matches the free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). FIGURE 22 is a gas chromatograph of hydrino gas in argon recorded with an Agilent column and hydrogen carrier gas showing a negative peak at 74 minutes that eliminates any other assignment other than hydrino in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Disclosed herein are catalyst systems to release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states wherein the electron shell is at a closer position relative to the nucleus. The released power is harnessed for power generation and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition.

[0110] Classical physics gives closed-form solutions of the hydrogen atom, the hydride ion, the hydrogen molecular ion, and the hydrogen molecule and predicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m · 27.2 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called“hydrino atoms,” wherein n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,…, 1 / p (p≤137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding energy rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potentialenergy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m⋅27.2 eV foranother (m +1 )th H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics;

[0111] September 2016 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and- streaming / (“Mills GUTCP”)]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through-space energy transfer such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands with short wavelength cutoffs and energies ofIn

[0112] addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts m⋅ 27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease inthe magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy may also serve as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Then, by the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by a thermodynamically favorable reduction of a metal oxide is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H( 1 / 4 ) with an energy release of 204 eV, comprising an 81.6 eV transfer to HOH and a release of continuum radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV). In the H -atom catalyst reaction involving a transition to the state, m

[0113] Hatoms serve as a catalyst of m⋅27.2 eV for another ( m +1 )th H atom. Then, the reactionbetween m +1 hydrogen atoms whereby m atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept m⋅27.2 eV from the ( m +1 )th hydrogen atom such that mH serves as the catalyst is givenby

[0114]

[0115] And, the overall reaction is

[0116] The catalysis reaction(m = 3)regarding the potential energy of nascent H2O [R.Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / ] is

[0117]

[0118] After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate is formed having the radius of the H atom and a central field of m + 1 times the

[0119] central field of a proton. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius of 1 / (m + 1) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of m2⋅13.6 eV of energy. The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the intermediate (e.g. Eq. (2) and Eq. (6)) is

[0120] predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy given by

[0121] and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme- ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the H*[aH / 4] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = m2·13.6 = 9·13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) [where p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3 in Eq. (9)] and extending to longer wavelengths. The continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm and going to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower-energy, so called“hydrino” state H(1 / 4), was observed only arising from pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen. Another observation predicted by Eqs. (1) and (5) is the formation of fast, excited state H atoms from recombination of fast H+. The fast atoms give rise to broadened Balmer α emission.

[0122] Greater than 50 eV Balmer α line broadening that reveals a population of extraordinarily high-kinetic-energy hydrogen atoms in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas is a well-established phenomenon wherein the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H was previously observed in continuum-emitting hydrogen pinch plasmas.

[0123] Additional catalyst and reactions to form hydrino are possible. Specific species (e.g. He+, Ar+, Sr+, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n=integer)) identifiable on the basis of their known electron energy levels are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiative energy transfer followed by q⋅13.6 eV continuum emission or q⋅13.6 eV transfer to H to form

[0124] extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen that corresponds to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom:

[0125] where aHis the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of thecharge of the electron, and εois the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum numbers:

[0126] replace the well known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excitedstates and represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atoms called“hydrinos.” The n = 1 state of

[0127] 1

[0128] hydrogen and thestates of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between

[0129] two nonradiative states, say n = 1 to n = 1 / 2 , is possible via a nonradiative energy transfer.Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by where In order to conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the

[0130]

[0131] hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of an integer of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n = 1 state, and the radius transitions to Hydrinos are formed by

[0132] reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of

[0133] where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m⋅27.2 eV . It has been found that catalysts having anet enthalpy of reaction within ±10% , preferably ±5% , of m⋅27.2 eV are suitable for mostapplications.

[0134] The catalyst reactions involve two steps of energy release: a nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is given by

[0135]

[0136] the overall reaction is

[0137] q, r , m , and p are integers. has the radius of the hydrogen atom

[0138]

[0139] (corresponding to the 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to ( m + p ) timesthat of a proton, andis the corresponding stable state with the radius of

[0140]

[0141] that of H .

[0142]

[0143] The catalyst product, H( 1 / p ) , may also react with an electron to form a hydrinohydride ion H−( 1 / p ) , or two H( 1 / p ) may react toform the corresponding molecularhydrino H2(1 / p). Specifically, the catalyst product, H(1 / p), may also react with anelectron to form a novel hydride ion H−(1 / p)with a binding energy EB:

[0144]

[0145] where p = integer > 1 , s = 1 / 2 , h is Planck's constant bar, μois the permeability ofvacuum, meis the mass of the electron, μeis the reduced electron mass given bywhere mpis the mass of the proton, aois the Bohr radius, and the ionic

[0146] radius isFrom Eq. (19), the calculated ionization energy of the

[0147]

[0148] hydride ion is 0.75418 eV , and the experimental value is 6082.99 ± 0.15 cm−1 (0.75418 eV).The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions may be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

[0149] Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence of the existence of lower-energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to ordinary hydride ion and having an increase in diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)):

[0150] where the first term applies to H− with p = 1 and p = integer >1 for H−(1 / p)and α is thefine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary hydride ion. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H-, H, H2, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, - 22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 relative to a bare proton, may be -(p29.9 + p22.74) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be -(p29.9 + p21.59 X 10-3) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydrino atom, hydride ion, or molecule in a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. The NMR determination may comprise magic angle spinning1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS1H NMR).

[0151] + H( 1 / p ) may react with a proton and two H( 1 / p ) may react to form H2( 1 / p ) and , respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current

[0152] density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the constraint of nonradiation.

[0153] The total energy ETof the hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of + pe ateach focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0154]

[0155] where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass.The total energy of the hydrogen molecule having a central field of + pe at each focus of theprolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0156]

[0157] The bond dissociation energy, ED, of the hydrogen molecule is the

[0158]

[0159] difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms and ET

[0160] where

[0161]

[0162] H2(1 / p)may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) wherein theionization product in addition to the ionized electron may be at least one of the possibilities such as those comprising two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, amolecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and wherein the energies may be shifted

[0163] by the matrix.

[0164] The NMR of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of . In general, the 1H NMR resonance of is

[0165] predicted to be upfield from that of H2due to the fractional radius in elliptic coordinateswherein the electrons are significantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift, for

[0166] H2(1 / p)is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electronsand the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eqs. (11.415-11.416)):

[0167] where the first term applies to H2with p = 1 and p = integer >1 for H2(1 / p). Theexperimental absolute H2gas-phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is in excellent agreementwith the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of -28.01 ppm (Eq. (28)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary H2. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H-, H, H2, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, - 31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be -(p28.01 + p22.56) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of±5 ppm,±10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be - (p28.01 + p21.49 X 10-3) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%.

[0168] The vibrational energies, Evib, for the υ = 0 to υ = 1 transition of hydrogen-typemolecules are

[0169]

[0170]

[0171] where p is an integer .

[0172] The rotational energies, Erot, for the J to J +1 transition of hydrogen-typemolecules are

[0173] where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Ro-vibrational emission of H2(1 / 4)was observed on e-beam excited molecules in gases and trapped in solid matrix.

[0174] The p2 dependence of the rotational energies results from an inverse p dependenceof the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertiaI. The predicted internuclear distance

[0175] At least one of the rotational and vibration energies of H2(1 / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3(M = alkali; X = halide) matrix.

[0176] In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm-1. The peak is enhanced by using a conductive material comprising roughness features or particle size comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports a Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak. I. Catalysts

[0177] In the present disclosure the terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction such as that of Eqs. (15-18)) of a catalyst defined by Eq. (14) with atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12). The corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants for hydrino formation, reactants that produce or form lower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to the reaction mixture that performs the catalysis of H to H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12).

[0178] The catalytic lower-energy hydrogen transitions of the present disclosure require a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV , that accepts the energy fromatomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g. m = 3 for Li andmay further comprise the concerted reaction of a bond cleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the partners of the initial bond (e.g. m = 2 for

[0179] NaH→ Na2+ + H ). He+ fulfills the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process withan enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizes at 54.417 eV ,which is 2⋅27.2 eV . An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also serve as the catalyst ofan integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. catalyst is capable of accepting energy from atomichydrogen in integer units of one of about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and

[0180]

[0181] In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M wherein the ionization of t electrons from the atom or ion M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately one of m i 27.2 eV and

[0182] where m is an integer.

[0183]

[0184] In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH wherein the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of the bond energy and ionization energies of the

[0185] 27.2

[0186] telectrons is approximately one of m⋅27.2 eV and m i eV where m is an integer.

[0187]

[0188] In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises atoms, ions, and / or molecules chosen from molecules of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH,SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3and atoms or ions ofLi, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs,Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He+ , Ti2+ , Na+ , Rb+ , Sr + , Fe3+ , Mo2+ , Mo4+ , In3+ ,He+ , Ar+ , Xe+ , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne+ and H + .

[0189] In other embodiments, MH- type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos provided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization oftelectrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of electron affinity (EA) of MH and A, M- H bond energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M is approximately m⋅27.2 eV wheremis an integer. MH- type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a netenthalpy of reaction of approximatelym⋅27.2 eVare OH-, SiH-, CoH-, NiH-, and SeH-In other embodiments, MH+type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos are provided by the transfer of an electron from an donor A which may be negatively charged, the breakage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of ionization energies of MH and A, bond M-H energy, and ionization energies ofthe t electrons from M is approximately m⋅27.2 eV where m is an integer.

[0190] In an embodiment, at least one of a molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion serves as a catalyst that accepts about m27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion by about m27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are H2O, OH, amide group NH2, and H2S.

[0191] O2may serve as a catalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atomare 13.61806 eV , 35.11730 eV , and 54.9355 eV , respectively. The reactions

[0192] O2→ O + O2+ ,O2→ O + O3+ , and 2O→ 2O+ provide a net enthalpy of about 2, 4, and 1times Eh, respectively, and comprise catalyst reactions to form hydrino by accepting theseenergies from H to cause the formation of hydrinos. II. Hydrinos

[0193] A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given bywhere p is an

[0194] integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is the product of the H catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eqs. (10) and (12) is hereafter referred to as a“hydrino atom” or“hydrino.” The designation for a hydrino of radius,where aHis the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer, is

[0195] Ahydrogen atom with a radius aHis hereinafter referred to as“ordinary hydrogen

[0196] atom” or“normal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0197] According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H-) having a bindingenergy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 , and less for p = 24 (H-) is provided. For p = 2 to p = 24 ofEq. (19), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided herein.

[0198] Exemplary compounds are also provided comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a“hydrino hydride compound.”

[0199] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) H+

[0200] 3 , 22.6 eV (“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to forms of hydrogen, “normal” and“ordinary” are synonymous.

[0201] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1

[0202] times where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) a hydride ion ( H−) having a binding energy of about

[0203]

[0204] within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

[0205]

[0206] 226

[0207] binding energy of about such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

[0208] where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of

[0209] 153

[0210] aboutsuch as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times where p is an

[0211] integer from 2 to 137; (f) a dihydrino molecular ion with a binding energy of about

[0212] such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times where p is an integer,

[0213] preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

[0214] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having a total energy of about

[0215]

[0216] such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

[0217]

[0218] Planck's constant bar, meis the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, andμ is the reduced nuclear mass, and (b) a dihydrino molecule having a total energy of about

[0219]

[0220] such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

[0221]

[0222] integer and aois the Bohr radius.

[0223] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary H+

[0224] 2, or ordinary H+

[0225] 3 . A method is provided herein for preparing compounds comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as“hydrino hydride compounds.” The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of aboutwhere m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an

[0226] integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of aboutwhere p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

[0227] A further product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0228] In an embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy may be achieved by the hydrogen undergoing transitions to hydrinos of high p values in Eq. (18) in a process herein referred to as disproportionation as given in Mills GUTCP Chp.5 which is incorporated by reference. Hydrogen atomsH (1 / p ) p = 1,2,3,...137can undergo further transitions tolower-energy states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m⋅ 27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition ofH (1 / p )toH (1 / ( p+ m ) )induced by a resonance transfer of m⋅ 27.2 eV toH(1 / p ' )given by Eq. (32) is represented by

[0229] The EUV light from the hydrino process may dissociate the dihydrino molecules and the resulting hydrino atoms may serve as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction comprises the catalysis H to H(1 / 17) by H(1 / 4) wherein H(1 / 4) may be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Disproportionation reactions of hydrinos are predicted to given rise to features in the X-ray region. As shown by Eqs. (5-8) the reaction product of HOH catalyst is . Consider a likely transition reaction in

[0230] hydrogen clouds containing H2O gas wherein the first hydrogen-type atom is an H

[0231] atom and the second acceptor hydrogen-type atomserving as a catalyst is

[0232]

[0233] Since the potential energy o is 42⋅27.2 eV =16⋅27.2 eV = 435.2 eV , the transition

[0234] reaction is represented by

[0235]

[0236] The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the

[0237]

[0238] intermediate (e.g. Eq. (16) and Eq. (34)) is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy given by

[0239]

[0240] and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of theintermediate is

[0241]

[0242] predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 eV ; 0.35625 nm and extending to longer wavelengths. A broad X-ray peak with a 3.48 keV cutoff was observed in the Perseus Cluster by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and by the XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R. K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S. W. Randall,“Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters,” The

[0243] Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse,“An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy cluster,” (2014),arXiv:1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]] that has no match to any known atomic transition. The 3.48 keV feature assigned to dark matter of unknown identityby BulBul et al. matches the transition and further confirms

[0244] hydrinos as the identity of dark matter.

[0245] The novel hydrogen compositions of matter can comprise:

[0246] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter“increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy

[0247] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the

[0248] corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions

[0249] (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is negative; and

[0250] (b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as“increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.”

[0251] By“other element” in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0252] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0253] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter“increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy

[0254] (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or is negative; and (b) at least one other element.

[0255] The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the present disclosure has a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as an“increased binding energy hydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eq. (19) forp = 24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of ordinary hydrideion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p = 24 is much greater than thetotal energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

[0256] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0257] (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy

[0258] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the

[0259] corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0260] (b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as“increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.”

[0261] The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0262] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0263] (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy

[0264] (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

[0265] (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as“increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.”

[0266] In an embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species chosen from (a) hydride ion having a binding energy according toEq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 upto 23 , and less for p = 24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or“hydrino hydrideion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or“hydrino”); (c) hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or“dihydrino”); and (d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or“dihydrino molecular ion”). In the disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds is also referred to as lower-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise an increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower- energy hydrogen species. III. Chemical Reactor

[0267] The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for producing increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalysis are power and optionally plasma and light depending on the cell type. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a“hydrogen reactor” or“hydrogen cell.” The hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. In an embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of the HOH and H is ice. In an embodiment, the cell comprises an arc discharge cell and that comprises ice at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0268] In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a vessel, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source of water such as a reservoir and a means to form and supply H2O droplets. The droplets may travel between the electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma comprises H and HOH that may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and the corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The source of high voltage may comprise at least one high voltage capacitor that may be charged by a high voltage power source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means such as a power converter such as one of the present invention such as at least one of a PV converter and a heat engine to convert the power from the hydrino process such as light and heat to electricity. Exemplary embodiments of the cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a liquid-fuel cell, a solid-fuel cell, a heterogeneous-fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT or SunCell® cell. Each of these cells comprises: (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst chosen from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof for making hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term“hydrogen,” unless specified otherwise, includes not only proteum (1H ),but also deuterium ( 2H ) and tritium ( 3H ). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures andreactors may comprise SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this Chemical Reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in the parameters such as the reactants, reactant wt%’s, H2pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactors of the present disclosure by predicted continuum radiation bands of an integer times 13.6 eV, otherwise unexplainable extraordinarily high H kinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines, inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields, and anomalously plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills Prior Publications. The data such as that regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuels has been validated independently, off site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure was also confirmed by electrical energies that were continuously output over long-duration, that were multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10 with no alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H NMR that showed a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of about -4.4 ppm, ToF-SIMS and ESI- ToFMS that showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to a getter matrix as m / e = M + n2 peaks wherein M is the mass of a parent ion and n is an integer, electron-beam excitation emission

[0269] spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy that showed the predicted rotational and vibration spectrum of H2(1 / 4) having 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the energies of H2, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy that showed the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) of 1950 cm-1, being 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the rotational energy of H2, XPS that showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) of 500 eV, and a ToF- SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m / e=1 peak that corresponded to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV that matched the predicted energy release for H to H(1 / 4) with the energy transferred to a third body H as reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski,“Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell”, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey,“High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014) which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0270] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure such as ones comprising a solid fuel to generate thermal power was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels that exceed the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 times. The MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of about -4.4 ppm. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm-1matched the free space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He,“Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”, (2014) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. IV. SunCell and Power Converter

[0271] In an embodiment, a power system that generates at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy comprises at least one vessel, reactants comprising: (a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix, and at least one set of electrodes such as liquid electrodes, a source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy, and at least one direct converter such as at least one of a plasma to electricity converter such as PDC, magnetohydrodynamic converter, a photovoltaic converter, an optical rectenna such as the one reported by A.

[0272] Sharma, V. Singh, T. L. Bougher, B. A. Cola,“A carbon nanotube optical rectenna”, Nature Nanotechnology, Vol.10, (2015), pp.1027–1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, and at least one thermal to electric power converter. In a further embodiment, the vessel is capable of a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and below atmospheric. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma to electricity converter can comprise at least one of the group of plasmadynamic

[0273] ^ ^

[0274] power converter,E × B direct converter, magnetohydrodynamic power converter, magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, charge drift converter, Post or Venetian Blind power converter, gyrotron, photon bunching microwave power converter, and photoelectric converter. In a further embodiment, the at least one thermal to electricity converter can comprise at least one of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine-cycle engine, a Brayton-cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary thermal to electric systems that may comprise closed coolant systems or open systems that reject heat to the ambient atmosphere are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0275] In addition to UV photovoltaic and thermal photovoltaic of the current disclosure, the SunCell® may comprise other electric conversion means known in the art such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbine, microturbine, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. The Rankine cycle turbine may comprise supercritical CO2, an organic such as hydrofluorocarbon or fluorocarbon, or steam working fluid. In a Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, the SunCell® may provide thermal power to at least one of the preheater, recuperator, boiler, and external combustor-type heat exchanger stage of a turbine system. In an embodiment, the Brayton cycle turbine comprises a

[0276] SunCell® turbine heater integrated into the combustion section of the turbine. The SunCell® turbine heater may comprise ducts that receive airflow from at least one of the compressor and recuperator wherein the air is heated and the ducts direct the heated compressed flow to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of the gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed wherein the power converter further comprises at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0277] The converter may be one given in Mills Prior Publications and Mills Prior

[0278] Applications. The hydrino reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and SunCell® systems may comprise those of the present disclosure or in prior US Patent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, filed PCT 4 / 24 / 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, filed PCT 7 / 29 / 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT filed 3 / 18 / 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US11 / 28889, filed PCT 3 / 17 / 2011; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT / US12 / 31369 filed 3 / 30 / 2012; CIHT Power System, PCT / US13 / 041938 filed 5 / 21 / 13; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / IB2014 / 058177 filed PCT 1 / 10 / 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US14 / 32584 filed PCT 4 / 1 / 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 033165 filed PCT 5 / 29 / 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same,

[0279] PCT / US2015 / 065826 filed PCT 12 / 15 / 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power

[0280] Generator, PCT / US16 / 12620 filed PCT 1 / 8 / 2016; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Network, PCT / US2017 / 035025 filed PCT 12 / 7 / 2017; Thermophotovoltaic

[0281] Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972 filed PCT 1 / 18 / 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635 filed PCT 01 / 05 / 2018;

[0282] Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US18 / 17765 filed PCT 2 / 12 / 2018; and Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842 filed PCT 5 / 29 / 18 (“Mills Prior Applications”) herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. In an embodiment, H2O is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the form of at least one of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (“Ignition” in the present disclosure denotes a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos that may be manifest as a burst, pulse or other form of high power release.) H2O may comprise the fuel that may be ignited with the application a high current such as one in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. This may be achieved by the application of a high voltage such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V to first form highly conducive plasma such as an arc. Alternatively, a high current may be passed through a conductive matrix such as a molten metal such as silver further comprising the hydrino reactants such as H and HOH, or a compound or mixture comprising H2O wherein the conductivity of the resulting fuel such as a solid fuel is high. (In the present disclosure a solid fuel is used to denote a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst such as HOH and H that further reacts to form hydrinos. The plasma volatge may be low such as in the range of about 1 V to 100V. However, the reaction mixture may comprise other physical states than solid. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be at least one state of gaseous, liquid, molten matrix such as molten conductive matrix such a molten metal such as at least one of molten silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper, solid, slurry, sol gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, pneumatic flow, and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In an embodiment, the solid fuel having a very low resistance comprises a reaction mixture comprising H2O. The low resistance may be due to a conductor component of the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel is at least one of in the range of about 10-9ohm to 100 ohms, 10-8ohm to 10 ohms, 10-3ohm to 1 ohm, 10-4ohm to 10-1ohm, and 10-4ohm to 10-2ohm. In another embodiment, the fuel having a high resistance comprises H2O comprising a trace or minor mole percentage of an added compound or material. In the latter case, high current may be flowed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing breakdown to form a highly conducting state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0283] In an embodiment, the reactants can comprise a source of H2O and a conductive matrix to form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants comprising a source of H2O can comprise at least one of bulk H2O, a state other than bulk H2O, a compound or compounds that undergo at least one of react to form H2O and release bound H2O. Additionally, the bound H2O can comprise a compound that interacts with H2O wherein the H2O is in a state of at least one of absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physisorbed H2O, and waters of hydration. In embodiments, the reactants can comprise a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo at least one of release of bulk H2O, absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physisorbed H2O, and waters of hydration, and have H2O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, the at least one of the source of nascent H2O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen can comprise at least one of: (a) at least one source of H2O; (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In an embodiment of a SunCell®, the reactants to form hydrinos are subject to a low voltage, high current, high power pulse that causes a very rapid reaction rate and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, a 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak, the current ranges from 100 A / cm2and 50,000 A / cm2peak, and the power ranges from 1000 W / cm2and 750,000 W / cm2. Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers in ranges of about 1 / 100 times to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of 100 A / cm2to 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2. The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range chosen from about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range chosen from about 10-6s to 10 s, 10-5s to 1 s, 10-4s to 0.1 s, and 10-3s to 0.01 s.

[0284] In an embodiment, the transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen catalyzed to a hydrino state results in the ionization of the catalyst. The electrons ionized from the catalyst may accumulate in the reaction mixture and vessel and result in space charge build up. The space charge may change the energy levels for subsequent energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst with a reduction in reaction rate. In an embodiment, the application of the high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, the high current such as an arc current causes the reactant such as water that may serve as a source of H and HOH catalyst to be extremely elevated in temperature. The high temperature may give rise to the thermolysis of the water to at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture of the SunCell® comprises a source of H and a source of catalyst such as at least one of nH (n is an integer) and HOH. The at least one of nH and HOH may be formed by the thermolysis or thermal decomposition of at least one physical phase of water such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. The thermolysis may occur at high temperature such as a temperature in at least one range of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K. In an exemplary

[0285] embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 to 4000K such that the mole fraction of atomic H is high as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J Villermaux [J. Lédé, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux,“Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water”,

[0286] International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp.675–679; H. H. G. Jellinek, H. Kachi,“The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp.677–688; S. Z. Baykara,“Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp.1451–1458; S. Z. Baykara,“Experimental solar water thermolysis”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp.1459–1469 which are herein incorporated by reference]. The thermolysis may be assisted by a solid surface such as one of the cell compoments. The solid surface may be heated to an elevated temperature by the input power and by the plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction. The thermolysis gases such as those down stream of the ignition region may be cooled to prevent recombination or the back reaction of the products into the starting water. The reaction mixture may comprise a cooling agent such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gaseous phase that is at a lower temperature than the temperature of the product gases. The cooling of the thermolysis reaction product gases may be achieved by contacting the products with the cooling agent. The cooling agent may comprise at least one of lower temperature steam, water, and ice.

[0287] In an embodiment, the SunCell® generator comprises a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprising:

[0288] at least one vessel;

[0289] reactants comprising:

[0290] a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; b) at least one source of H2O or H2O;

[0291] c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and

[0292] d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;

[0293] at least one reactants injection system;

[0294] at least one reactants ignition system to cause the reactants to form at least one of light- emitting plasma and thermal-emitting plasma;

[0295] a system to recover reaction products of the reactants;

[0296] at least one regeneration or resupply system to regenerate additional reactants from the reaction products or resupply additional reactants,

[0297] wherein the additional reactants comprise:

[0298] a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O; b) at least one source of H2O or H2O;

[0299] c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and

[0300] d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and

[0301] at least one power converter or output system of at least one of the light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power such as at least one of the group of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, and a heater.

[0302] In an embodiment, the fuel or reactants may comprise at least one of a source of H, H2, a source of catalyst, a source of H2O, and H2O. Suitable reactants may comprise a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may comprise at least one of MgCl2·6H2O, BaI2·2H2O, and ZnCl2·4H2O. Alternatively, the reactants may comprise at least one of silver, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

[0303] At least one of the reaction cell chamber H2O vapor pressure, H2presure, and O2pressure may be in at least one range of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atm, 0.1 Torr to 10 atm, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atm. The EM pumping rate may be in at least one range of about 0.01 ml / s to 10,000 ml / s, 0.1 ml / s to 1000 ml / s, and 0.1 ml / s to 100 ml / s.

[0304] The ignition system may comprise:

[0305] a) at least one set of solid or liquid metal electrodes to at least one of confine the reactants or provide a conductive matrix or circuit; and

[0306] b) a source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy wherein the short burst of high-current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma. The source of electrical power may receive electrical power from the power converter. In an embodiment, the reactants ignition system comprises at least one set of electrodes that are separated to form an open circuit, wherein the open circuit is closed by the injection of the reactants to cause the high current to flow to achieve ignition. In another embodiment, the electrodes comprise liquid metal from a plurality of injectors such as electromagnetic (EM) pump injectors wherein the electrical circuit of the ignition system is closed by the intersection of at least two injected molten metal streams.

[0307] In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise liquid electrodes. The electrodes may comprise liquid metal. The liquid metal may comprise the molten metal of the fuel. The injection system may comprise at least two reservoirs 5c and at least two electromagnetic pumps that may be substantially electrically isolated from each other. The nozzles 5q of each of the plurality of injections system may be oriented to cause the plurality of molten metal streams to intersect. Each stream may have a connection to a terminal of a source of electricity 2 to provide voltage and current to the intersecting streams. The current may flow from one nozzle 5q through its molten metal stream to the other stream and nozzle 5q and back to the corresponding terminal of the source of electricity 2. The cell comprises a molten metal return system to facilitate the return of the injected molten metal to the plurality of reservoirs. The return system may comprise a gravity flow system. In another embodiment, the ignition current may comprise an induction current maintained by a changing magnetic field through the current loop comprising the intersecting molten metal streams. The source of electricity may comprise an AC power source that supplies a primary transformer winding that supplies the changing magnetic field through the current loop comprising the intersecting molten metal streams. In an embodiment, the EM pump comprises an inlet riser 5qa (FIGURE 2I168) comprising a hollow conduit such as a tube. The conduit may be connected to the EM pump tube 5k6 on the inlet side of the EM pump magnets 5k4. The tube comprises at least one inlet for the flow of silver. The inlet may comprise at least one of an opening at the top of the tube and at least one hole in the side of the tube. In an exemplary embodiment, the inlet riser may comprise an open-end conduit or tube having a height of the desired height of the reservoir molten metal level. A submerged inlet riser submered in moletern metal in its reservoir permits molten metal to flow into the EM pump until the molten metal level of the resrvior matches that of the lowest inlet of the inlet riser 5qa. The inlet riser may comprise a refractory material such as a refractory metal, carbon, or a ceramic such as magnesi, hafnia, zirconia, aluimin, or other refractory material of the disclosure. The lowest inlet of the inlet riser may have a higher height relative to the nozzle 5q to maintain the nozzle as always submerged during operation. Alternatively, the highest inlet of the inlet riser may have a lower height relative to the nozzle 5q to maintain the inlet riser as always submerged during operation. The submersion of either the nozzle 5q or inlet riser 5qa may reduce or eliminate the potential for the ignition current to electrically short to the nozzle or inlet riser. The submerged nozzle may be the positive electrode that may be submerged to protect it form the hydrino reaction plasma. The inlet riser may be non-conducting. The inlet riser may be coated with a coating such as a coating of the disclosure. The coating may be a non- conductor. The inlet riser that may comprise a refractory metal such as Mo that may be covered with a sheath or cladding. The sheath or cladding may comprise a non-conductor. In an embodiment, the EM pump may comprise at least one of a voltage and current sensor to measure the induction or conduction EM pump voltage and current. A processor may use the sensor data and control the voltage and current to control the pumping rates. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may be at least one of monitored and controlled by a wireless device such as a cell phone. The SunCell® may comprise an antenna to send and receive data and control signals.

[0308] In an embodiment, the ignition system comprises a switch to at least one of initiate the current and interrupt the current once ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by reactants that completes the gap between the electrodes. The switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. The current may be interrupted following ignition in order to optimize the output hydrino generated energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch to allow controllable amounts of energy to flow into the fuel to cause detonation and turn off the power during the phase wherein plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following:

[0309] a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA;

[0310] a DC or peak AC current density in the range of at least one of 1 A / cm2to 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2;

[0311] wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times the resistance of the solid fuel sample;

[0312] the DC or peak AC voltage is in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and

[0313] the AC frequency is in range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0314] The output power of the SunCell cell may comprise at least one of thermal and plasma power that may be converted to electricity by at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a magnetohydrodynamic converter. Alternatively, the power may be collected by a heat exchanger to provide thermal power.

[0315] In an embodiment comprising dual molten metal injectors, the trajectory of the molten metal stream from one nozzle may be in a first plane and the plane of the trajectory of the molten metal stream from the second nozzle may be in a second plane that is rotated about at least one of the two Cartesian axes of the first plane. The streams may approach each other along oblique paths. In an embodiment, the trajectory of molten metal stream of the first nozzle is in the yz-plane, and the second nozzle may be displaced laterally from yz-plane and rotated towards that yz-plane such that the streams approach obliquely. In an exemplary embodiment, the trajectory of molten metal stream of the first nozzle is in the yz-plane, and the trajectory of molten metal stream of the second nozzle is in a plane defined by a rotation of the yz-plane about the z-axis such that second nozzle may be displaced laterally from yz- plane and rotated towards that yz-plane such that the streams approach obliquely. In an embodiment, the trajectories intersect at a first stream height and a second stream height that is each adjusted to cause the intersection. In an embodiment, the outlet tube of the second EM pump is off set from the outlet tube of the first EM pump tube, and the nozzle of second EM pump is rotated towards the nozzle of the first EM pump such that the molten streams approached each other obliquely, and stream intersection can be achieved by adjusting the relative heights of the streams. The stream heights may be controlled by a controller such as one that controls the EM pump current of at least one EM pump.

[0316] In an embodiment comprising two nozzles of two injectors initially aligned in the same yz-plane, the oblique relative trajectory of the injected molten metal streams to achieve intersection of the injected streams may be achieved by at least one operation of the rotation of at least one corresponding reservoir 5c slightly about the z-axis and the operation of slightly bending the nozzle that was translated out of the yz-plane by the rotation towards the yz-plane.

[0317] In another embodiment, the injection system may comprise a field source such as a source of at least one of a magnetic and an electric field to deflect at least one molten metal stream to achieve alignment of the injected streams. At least one of the injected molten metal streams may be deflected by a Lorentz force due the movement of corresponding conductor through an applied magnetic field and the force between at least one current such as the Hall and ignition current and the applied magnetic field. The deflection may be controlled by controlling at least one of the magnetic field strength, the molten metal flow rate, and the ignition current. The magnetic field may be provided by at least one of permanent magnets, electromagnets that may be cooled, and superconducting magnets. The magnetic field strength may be controlled by at least one of controlling the distance between the magnets and the molten stream and the magnetic field strength by controlling the current.

[0318] The ignition current or resistance may be measured to determine the optimal intersection. The optimal alignment may be achieved when the current is maximized at a set voltage or the resistance is lowest. A controller that may comprise at least one of a programmable logic controller and a computer may achieve the optimization.

[0319] The SunCell® generator comprises the components having the parameters such as those of the disclosure that are sensed and controlled. In embodiments the computer with sensors and control systems may sense and control, (i) the inlet and outlet temperatures and coolant pressure and flow rate of each chiller of each cooled system such as at least one of the power converter, EM pump magnets, and the inductively coupled heater, (ii) the ignition system voltage, current, power, frequency, and duty cycle, (iii) the EM pump injection flow rate (iv) the voltages, currents, and powers of the inductively coupled heater and the electromagnetic pump 5k, (v) the pressure in the cell, (vi) the wall temperature of cell components, (vii) the heater power in each section, (viii) current and magnetic flux of the electromagnetic pump, (ix) the silver melt temperature, flow rate, and pressure, (xi) the pressure, temperature, and flow rate of each permeated or injected gas such as H2, O2, and H2O and mixtures formed by a regulator that may be delivered through a common gas injection manifold or housing, (xi) the intensity of incident light to the PV converter or plasma power to the MHD converter, (xii) the voltage, current, and power output of the converter, (xiii) the voltage, current, power, and other parameters of any power conditioning equipment, and (xiv) the SunCell® generator output voltage, current, and power to at least one of the parasitic loads and the external loads, (xv) the voltage, current, and power input to any parasitic load such as at least one of the inductively coupled heater, the electromagnetic pump, the chillers, and the sensors and controls, and (xvi) the voltage, current, and charge state of the starter circuit with energy storage. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may be at least one of monitored and controlled by a wireless device such as a cell phone. The

[0320] SunCell® may comprise an antenna to send and receive data and control signals.

[0321] The system further comprises a startup power / energy source such as a battery such as a lithium ion battery. Alternatively, external power such as grid power may be provided for startup through a connection from an external power source to the generator. The connection may comprise the power output bus bar. The startup power energy source may at least one of supply power to the heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, power the injection system, and power the ignition system.

[0322] The SunCell® may comprise a high-pressure water electrolyzer such as one comprising a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer having water under high pressure to provide high-pressure hydrogen. Each of the H2and O2chambers may comprise a recombiner to eliminate contaminant O2and H2, respectively. The PEM may serve as at least one of the separator and salt bridge of the anode and cathode compartments to allow for hydrogen to be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode as separate gases. The cathode may comprise a dichalcogenide hydrogen evolution catalyst such as one comprising at least one of niobium and tantalum that may further comprise sulfur. The cathode may comprise one known in the art such as Pt or Ni. The hydrogen may be produced at high pressure and may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 directly or by permeation such as permeation through the blackbody radiator. The SunCell® may comprise a hydrogen gas line from the cathode compartment to the point of delivery of the hydrogen gas to the cell. The SunCell® may comprise an oxygen gas line from the anode compartment to the point of delivery of the oxygen gas to a storage vessel or a vent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises sensors, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller. The sensors may sense at least one of (i) the hydrogen pressure in at least one chamber such as the electrolysis cathode compartment, the hydrogen lines, the outer chamber 5b3a1, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31, (ii) the power output of the SunCell®, and (iii) the electrolysis current. In an embodiment, the hydrogen supply into the cell is controlled by controlling the electrolysis current. The hydrogen supply may increase with increasing electrolysis current and vice versa. The hydrogen may be at least one of under high pressure and comprise a low inventory such that the hydrogen supply to the cell may be controlled with a quick temporal response by controlling the electrolysis current.

[0323] In another embodiment, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis using supplied water and the heat generated by the SunCell®. The thermolysis cycle may comprise one of the disclosure or one known in the art such as one that is based on a metal and its oxide such as at least one of SnO / Sn and ZnO / Zn. In an embodiment wherein the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition systems only consume power during startup, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis such that the parasitic electrical power requirement is very low. The SunCell® may comprise batteries such as lithium ion batteries to provide power to run systems such as the gas sensors and control systems such as those for the reaction plasma gases. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Converter

[0324] Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions or an electrically conductive medium in a crossed magnetic field is well known art as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. The positive and negative ions undergo Lorentzian direction in opposite directions and are received at corresponding MHD electrode to affect a voltage between them. The typical MHD method to form a mass flow of ions is to expand a high- pressure gas seeded with ions through a nozzle to create high-speed flow through the crossed magnetic field with a set of MHD electrodes crossed with respect to the deflecting field to receive the deflected ions. In an embodiment, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric, and the directional mass flow may be achieved by hydrino reaction to form plasma and highly conductive, high-pressure-and-temperature molten metal vapor that is expanded to create high-velocity flow through a cross magnetic field section of the MHD converter. The flow may be through an MHD converter may be axial or radial. Further directional flow may be achieved with confining magnets such as those of Helmholtz coils or a magnetic bottle.

[0325] Specifically, the MHD electric power system shown in FIGURES 2I161-2I206 may comprise a hydrino reaction plasma source of the disclosure such as one comprising an EM pump 5ka, at least one reservoir 5c, at least two electrodes such as ones comprising dual molten metal injectors 5k61, a source of hydrino reactants such as a source of HOH catalyst and H, an ignition system comprising a source of electrical power 2 to apply voltage and current to the electrodes to form a plasma from the hydrino reactants, and a MHD electric power converter. The components of the MHD power system comprising a hydrino reaction plasma source and a MHD converter may be comprised of at least one of oxidation resistant materials such as oxidation resistant metals, metals comprising oxidation resistant coatings, and ceramics such that the system may be operated in air. In a dual molten metal injector embodiment, a high electric field is achieved by maintaining a pulsed injection comprising intermittent current. The plasma is pulsed by the silver streams disconnecting and reconnecting. The voltage may be that applied until the dual molten metal streams connect. The pulsing may comprise a high frequency by causing a corresponding high frequency of disconnect-reconnect of the metal steams. The connection-reconnection may occur spontaneously and may be controlled by controlling at least one of the hydrino reaction power by means such as those of the disclosure and the rate of molten metal injection by means of the disclosure such as by controlling the EM pump current. In an embodiment, the ignition system may comprise a source of voltage and current such as a DC power supply and a bank of capacitor to deliver pulsed ignition with the capacity for high current pulses. The magnetohydrodynamic power converter shown in FIGURES 2I161-2I206 may comprise a source of magnetic flux transverse to the z-axis, the direction of axial molten metal vapor and plasma flow through the MHD converter 300. The conductive flow may have a preferential velocity along the z-axis due to the expansion of the gas along the z-axis. Further directional flow may be achieved with confining magnets such as those of Helmholtz coils or a magnetic bottle. Thus, the metal electrons and ions propagate into the region of the transverse magnetic flux. The Lorentzian force on the propagating electrons and ions is given by

[0326] F= ev ×B (38)The force is transverse to the charge’s velocity and the magnetic field and in opposite directions for positive and negative ions. Thus, a transverse current forms. The source of transverse magnetic field may comprise components that provide transverse magnetic fields of different strengths as a function of position along the z-axis in order to optimize the crossed deflection (Eq. (38)) of the flowing charges having parallel velocity dispersion.

[0327] The reservoir 5c molten metal may be in at least one state of liquid and gaseous. The reservoir 5c molten metal may defined as the MHD working medium and may be referred to as such or referred to as the molten metal wherein it is implicit that the molten metal may further be in at least one state of liquid and gaseous. A specific state such as molten metal, liquid metal, metal vapor, or gaseous metal may also be used wherein another physical state may be present as well. An exemplary molten metal is silver that may be in at least one of liquid and gaseous states. The MHD working medium may further comprise an additive comprising at least one of an added metal that may be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state at the operating temperature range, a compound such as one of the disclosure that may be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state at the operating temperature range, and a gas such as at least one of a noble gas such as helium or argon, water, H2, and other plasma gas of the disclosure. The MHD working medium additive may be in any desired ratio with the MHD working medium. In an embodiment, the ratios of the medium and additive medium are selected to give the optional electrical conversion performance of the MHD converter. The working medium such as silver or silver-copper alloy may be run under supersaturated conditions.

[0328] In an embodiment, the MHD electrical generator 300 may comprise at least one of a Faraday, channel Hall, and disc Hall type. In a channel Hall MHD embodiment, the expansion or generator channel 308 may be oriented vertically along the z-axis wherein the molten metal plasma such as silver vapor and plasma flow through an accelerator section such as a restriction or nozzle throat 307 followed by an expansion section 308. The channel may comprise solenoidal magnets 306 such as superconducting or permanent magnets such as a Halbach array transverse to the flow direction along the x-axis. The magnets may be secured by MHD magnet mounting bracket 306a. The magnet may comprise a liquid cryogen or may comprise a cryo-refrigerator with or without a liquid cryogen. The cryo- refrigerator may comprise a dry dilution refrigerator. The magnets may comprise a return path for the magnetic field such as a yoke such as a C-shaped or rectangular back yoke. An exemplary permanent magnet material is SmCo, and an exemplary yoke material is magnetic CRS, cold rolled steel, or iron. The generator may comprise at least one set of electrodes such as segmented electrodes 304 along the y-axis, transverse to the magnetic field ( B ) to receive the transversely Lorentzian deflected ions that creates a voltage across the MHD electrodes 304. In another embodiment, at least one channel such as the generator channel 308 may comprise geometry other than one with planar walls such as a cylindrically walled channel. Magnetohydrodynamic generation is described by Walsh [E. M. Walsh, Energy Conversion Electromechanical, Direct, Nuclear, Ronald Press Company, NY, NY, (1967), pp.221-248] the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0329] The MHD magnets 306 may comprise at least one of permanent and electromagnets. The electromagnet(s) 306 may be at least one of uncooled, water cooled, and

[0330] superconducting magnets with a corresponding cryogenic management. Exemplary magnets are solenoidal or saddle coils that may magnetize a MHD channel 308 and racetrack coils that may magnetize a disc channel. The superconducting magnet may comprise at least one of a cryo-refrigerator and a cryogen-dewar system. The superconducting magnet system 306 may comprise (i) superconducting coils that may comprise superconductor wire windings of NbTi or NbSn wherein the superconductor may be clad on a normal conductor such as copper wire to protect against transient local quenches of the superconductor state induced by means such as vibrations, or a high temperature superconductor (HTS) such as YBa2Cu3O7, commonly referred to as YBCO-123 or simply YBCO, (ii) a liquid helium dewar providing liquid helium on both sides of the coils, (iii) liquid nitrogen dewars with liquid nitrogen on the inner and outer radii of the solenoidal magnet wherein both the liquid helium and liquid nitrogen dewars may comprise radiation baffles and radiation shields that may be comprise at least one of copper, stailess steel, and aluminum and high vacuum insulation at the walls, and (iv) an inlet for each magnet that may have attached a cyropump and compressor that may be powered by the power output of the SunCell® generator through its output power terminals.

[0331] In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter is a segmented Faraday generator. In another embodiment, the transverse current formed by the Lorentzian deflection of the ion flow undergoes further Lorentzian deflection in the direction parallel to the input flow of ions (z-axis) to produce a Hall voltage between at least a first MHD electrode and a second MHD electrode relatively displaced along the z-axis. Such a device is known in the art as a Hall generator embodiment of a magnetohydrodynamic power converter. A similar device with MHD electrodes angled with respect to the z-axis in the xy- plane comprises another embodiment of the present invention and is called a diagonal generator with a "window frame" construction. In each case, the voltage may drive a current through an electrical load. Embodiments of a segmented Faraday generator, Hall generator, and diagonal generator are given in Petrick [J. F. Louis, V. I. Kovbasyuk, Open-cycle Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Generation, M Petrick, and B. Ya Shumyatsky, Editors, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, (1978), pp.157-163] the complete disclosure of which is incorporated by reference.

[0332] In a further embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, the flow ofions along the z-axis with may then enter a compression section comprising an

[0333] increasing axial magnetic field gradient wherein the component of electron motion parallel tothe direction of the z-axis is at least partially converted into to perpendicular motion v⊥

[0334] due to the adiabatic invariantconstant . An azimuthal current due to v⊥is formed

[0335]

[0336] around the z-axis. The current is deflected radially in the plane of motion by the axial magnetic field to produce a Hall voltage between an inner ring and an outer ring MHD electrode of a disk generator magnetohydrodynamic power converter. The voltage may drive a current ^^ thro ^^ugh an electrical load. The plasma power may also be converted to electricityusing a E× B direct converter or other plasma to electricity devices of the disclosure or known in the art.

[0337] The MHD generator may comprise a condenser channel section 309 that receives the expansion flow and the generator further comprises return flow channels or conduits 310 wherein the MHD working medium such as silver vapor cools as it loses at least one of temperature, pressure, and energy in the condenser section and flows back to the reservoirs through the channels or conduits 310. The generator may comprise at least one return pump 312 and return pump tube 313 to pump the return flow to the reservoirs 5c and EM pump injectors 5ka. The return pump and pump tube may pump at least one of liquid, vapor, and gas. The return pump 312 and return pump tube 313 may comprise an electromagnetic (EM) pump and EM pump tube. The inlet to the EM pump may have a greater diameter than the outlet pump tube diameter to increase the pump outlet pressure. In an embodiment, the return pump may comprise the injector of the EM pump-injector electrode 5ka. In a dual molten metal injector embodiment, the generator comprises return reservoirs 311 each with a corresponding return pump such as a return EM pump 312. The return reservoir 311 may at least one of balance the return molten metal such as molten silver flow and condense or separate silver vapor mixed in with the liquid silver. The reservoir 311 may comprise a heat exchanger to condense the silver vapor. The reservoir 311 may comprise a first stage electromagnetic pump to preferentially pump liquid silver to separate liquid from gaseous silver. In an embodiment, the liquid metal may be selectively injected into the return EM pump 312 by centrifugal force. The return conduit or return reservoir may comprise a centrifuge section. The centrifuge reservoir may be tapered from inlet to outlet such that the centrifugal force is greater at the top than at the bottom to force the molten metal to the bottom and separate it from gas such as metal vapor and any working medium gas.

[0338] Alternatively, the SunCell® may be mounted on a centrifuge table that rotates about the axis perpendicular to the flow direction of the return molten metal to produce centrifugal force to separate liquid and gaseous species.

[0339] In an embodiment, the condensed metal vapor flows into the two independent return reservoirs 311, and each return EM pumps 312, pumps the molten metal into the

[0340] corresponding reservoir 5c. In an embodiment, at least one of the two return reservoirs 311 and EM pump reservoirs 5c comprises a level control system such as one of the disclosure such as an inlet riser 5qa. In an embodiment, the return molten metal may be sucked into a return reservoir 311 due at a higher or lower rate depending on the level in the return reservoir wherein the sucking rate is controlled by the corresponding level control system such as the inlet riser.

[0341] In an embodiment, the MHD converter 300 may further comprise at least one heater such as an inductively coupled heater. The heater may preheat the components that are in contact with the MHD working medium such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, MHD condensation section 309, return conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, return EM pumps 312, and return EM pump tube 313. The heater may comprise at least one actuator to engage and retract the heater. The heater may comprise at least one of a plurality of coils and coil sections. The coils may comprise one known in the art. The coil sections may comprise at least one split coil such as one of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise at least one cooling system such as heat exchanger 316. The MHD converter may comprise coolers for at least one cell and MHD component such as at least one of the group of chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD magnets 306, MHD electrodes 304, MHD generator section 308, MHD condensation section 309, return conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, return EM pumps 312, and return EM pump tube 313. The cooler may remove heat lost from the MHD flow channel such as heat lost from at least one of the chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, and MHD condensation section 309. The cooler may remove heat from the MHD working medium return system such as at least one of the return conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, return EM pumps 312, and return EM pump tube 313. The cooler may comprise a radiative heat exchanger that may reject the heat to ambient atmosphere.

[0342] In an embodiment, the cooler may comprise a recirculator or recuperator that transfers energy from the condensation section 309 to at least one of the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD channel 308. The transferred energy such as heat may comprise that from at least one of the remaining thermal energy, pressure energy, and heat of vaporization of the working medium such as one comprising at least one of a vaporized metal, a kinetic aerosol, and a gas such as a noble gas. Heat pipes are passive two- phase devices capable of transferring large heat fluxes such as up to 20 MW / m2over a distances of meters with a few tenths of degree temperature drop; thus, reducing dramatically the thermal stresses on material, using only a small quantity of working fluid. Sodium and lithium heat pipes can transfer large heat flues and remain nearly isothermal along the axial direction. The lithium heat pipe can transfer up to 200 MW / m2. In an embodiment, a heat pipe such as molten metal one such as liquid alkali metal such as sodium or lithium encased in a refractory metal such as W may transfer the heat from the condenser 309 and recirculate it to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or nozzle 307. In an embodiment, at least one heat pipe recovers the silver heat of vaporization and recirculates it such that the recovered heat power is part of the power input to the MHD channel 308.

[0343] In an embodiment, at least one of component of the SunCell® such as one comprising a MHD converter may comprise a heat pipe to at least one of transfer heat from one part of the SunCell® power generator to another and transfer heat from a heater such as an inductively coupled heater to a SunCell® component such as the EM pump tube 5k6, the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the MHD molten metal return system such as the MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM tube. Alternatively, the SunCell® or at least one component may be heated within an oven such as one known in the art. In an embodiment, at least one SunCell® component may be heated for at least startup of operation.

[0344] The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400 °C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element such as a resistive wire element may comprise a NiCr alloy that may operate in the 1100 °C to 1200 °C range such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC that is capable of operating in the 1500 °C to 1800 °C range in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with Alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an Alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at a temperature of up to 1625 °C.

[0345] The SunCell® heater 415 may comprise an internal heater that may be introduced through thermowells or indentations of the component wall that are open to the outside, but closed to the inside of the SunCell® component. The SunCell® heater 415 may comprise an internal resistive heater wherein power may be coupled to the internal heater by magnetic induction across the wall of the heated SunCell® component or by liquid electrodes that penetrate the wall of the heated SunCell® component.

[0346] The SunCell® heater may comprise insulation to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may comprise a ceramic such as one known by those skilled in the art such as an insulation comprising alumina-silicate. The insulation may be at least one of removable or reversible. The insulation such as ceramic fiber insulation may comprise gas voids. The insulation may be reversible by applying a low heat transfer gas such as air, nitrogen, or SF6(33.8 mW / m K at 600K, 1 atm) during heating and then replacing it with a high heat transfer gas such as helium (252.4 mW / m K at 600K, 1 atm) following heat up. Alternatively, the insulation may be removed following startup to more effectively transfer heat to a desired receiver such as ambient surroundings or a heat exchanger. The insulation may be mechanically removed. The insulation may comprise a vacuum capable chamber and a pump, wherein the insulation is applied by pulling a vacuum, and the insulation is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas such as helium. A vacuum chamber with a heat transfer gas such as helium that can be added or pumped off may serve as adjustable insulation. The SunCell® may comprise a gas circulation system to cause force convection heat transfer with its activation to switch from a thermally insulating to non-thermally insulating mode.

[0347] In another embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a particle insulation and at least one insulation reservoir having at least one chamber about the component to be thermally insulated to house the insulation during warm-up of the SunCell®. Exemplary particulate insulation comprises at least one of sand and ceramic beads such as alumina or alumina- silicate beads such as Mullite beads. The beads may be removed following warm up. The beads may be removed by gravity flow wherein the housing may comprise a shoot for bead removal. The beads may also be removed mechanically with a bead transporter such as an auger, conveyor, or pneumatic pump. The particulate insulation may further comprise a fluidizer such as a liquid such as water to increase the flow when filling the insulation reservoir. The liquid may be removed before heating and added during insulation transport. The insulation-liquid mixture may comprise slurry. The SunCell® may comprise at least one additional reservoir to fill or empty the insulation from the insulation reservoir. The fill reservoir may comprise a means to maintain slurry such as an agitator.

[0348] In an embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a liquid insulation reservoir circumferential to the components to be insulated, liquid insulation, and a pump wherein the reversible insulation may comprise the liquid that may be drained or pumped away following startup. In an embodiment, the liquid insulation reservoir may have a low thermal resistance such that the heat transfer from the SunCell® to a load is facilitated once the liquid insulation is removed. The liquid insulation reservoir may comprise thin-walled quartz. An exemplary liquid insulation is gallium having a heat transfer coefficient of 29 W / m K, and an other is mercury having a heat transfer coefficient of 8.3 W / m K.

[0349] The liquid insulation may comprise at least one radiation shield wherein the liquid reflects radiation. The liquid insulation may comprise a low emissivity. The radiation shields may be refrigerated by a refrigeration means. The liquid insulation reservoir may comprise means to disperse the liquid insulation such as a stack of separators having intervening gallium layers such as thin liquid layers having a thickness in at least one range of 1 micron to 10 cm, 10 micron to 1 cm, and 100 micron to 1 mm. The layers may comprise thin films. The separators may comprise a material that is transparent to the radiation emitted by the at least one of the heater and the SunCell® such as visible radiation and blackbody radiation in the temperature range of about 100 °C to 3000 °C. Exemplary separators comprise ceramic particles, beads, or plates such as sapphire or quartz beads that have surfaces that cause the reflection of the incident radiation back onto at least one of the heater and the SunCell® source of emission. For cylindrical components, the plates may comprise concentric tubes such as concentric sapphire tubes wherein the liquid insulation such as liquid gallium forms a film or layer between each tube. The dispersion may provide a plurality of reflecting surfaces to decrease radiative power losses from the heater during SunCell® startup. The separators may be optically transparent to the radiation that is desired to be reflected and not melt under operating conditions. The separators may comprise a ceramic, zirconia, ceria, alumina, sapphire, LiF, MgF2, and CaF2, other alkaline earth halides such as fluorides such as BaF2, CdF2, quartz, fused quartz, alkali-aluminosilicate glass such as Gorilla Glass, borosilicate glass, ceramic glass, and Infrasil (ThorLabs). In another embodiment, the liquid insulation reservoir may comprise a plurality of chambers comprising gas or vacuum separators that have a low thermal conductivity. Insulation such as at least one of superinsulation and floating shields may be interspersed between the radiation shields such as refrigerated radiation shields.

[0350] At least one of the liquid insulation reservoir wall material or a coating, liquid insulation, or a liquid insulation additive may be selected such that the liquid reservoir wall is not wetted by the liquid insulation when it is drained or pumped away. An agent such as Ga2O3may be applied to the inner liquid reservoir wall to prevent the liquid insulation such as Galistan from wetting the wall of the liquid insulation reservoir such as one comprising quartz when the liquid insulation is removed by means such as by draining or pumping. In an embodiment, the liquid insulation such as gallium is hermetically sealed in the liquid insulation reservoir to prevent it from oxidizing. In an exemplary embodiment, the avoidance of the formation of Ga2O3may prevent gallium from wetting the wall of a quartz liquid insulation reservoir. Different liquid reservoir coatings, liquid insulation additives, and liquid metals or alloys are selected by one skilled in the art to avoid liquid insulation wall wetting during liquid insulation removal. In an exemplary embodiment, the introduction of up to 47.9 at% Ag, 9.2 at% Ni, and 68 at% Cu into gallium avoids wetting the walls of a quartz liquid insulation reservoir when removing the liquid insulation.

[0351] In another embodiment, the liquid insulation may comprise a molten salt such as a molten eutectic mixture of salts such as a mixture of a plurality of at least two of alkali and alkaline earth halides, carbonates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfates, and nitrates. Exemplary mixture are LiF-BeF2(also known as FLiBe [67-33 mol%]), LiF-NaF-KF (also known as FLiNaK [46.5-11.5-42 mol%]), KCl-MgCl2(67-33 mol%), LiCl-NaCl-KCl, LiF-NaF-KF, and NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2. NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2with relative composition of 7.5-23.9-68.6 mol% has a melting point of 204 °C and an upper operating temperature in excess of 800 °C. Li2CO3- Na2CO3-K2CO3with relative composition of 32.1-33.4-34.5 mol% has a melting point of 400 °C and an upper operating temperature of 658 °C. The liquid insulation reservoir may be capable of vacuum, atmospheric pressure, or pressure above atmospheric pressure. The liquid insulation reservoir may be selected to be resistant to corrosion with the molten salt insulation. In exemplary embodiments, the liquid insulation reservoir for molten carbonates and chlorides may comprise stainless steel (SS) such as 316 SS and alumina, respectively. The SunCell® may further comprise at least one of a liquid insulation cooling reservoir to permit the liquid to cool to a temperature suitable for pumping and a liquid insulation pump such as a centrifugal pump such as a submersible centrifugal pump such as a GVSO model from Rheinhuette Pumps, LLC (http: / / www.rh-pumps.com / pumps / gvso-submersible- chemical-pump-in-metallic-materials / ). The pump may comprise a mechanical pump. The pump may comprise one used to pump molten salt coolant such as one known in the art such as known for coolant circulation in nuclear power plants. The liquid may flow into the cooling reservoir by gravity flow or by active pumping. The liquid may be pumped against gravity to a holding reservoir that may comprise at least one valve such as an outlet valve. In another embodiment, the cooling reservoir containing the insulation may be transported against gravity to become the holding reservoir. The holding reservoir may comprise a heater in the case that the liquid insulation must be melted before flowing into the liquid insulation reservoir. The liquid may be flowed into the liquid insulation reservoir by gravity flow or by active pumping. The liquid insulation reservoir may be pre-heated by a heater such as the SunCell® heater prior to receiving the liquid insulation. In another embodiment, the liquid may be agitated, stirred, or circulated following startup to control the heat transfer from the heated SunCell® component to a load wherein the liquid insulation remains in the liquid insulation reservoir.

[0352] The liquid insulation may comprise a pressurized liquid or supercritical liquid such as CO2or water.

[0353] In an embodiment, the reversible insulation may comprise a material that significantly increases its thermal conductivity with temperature over at least the range of about the melting of the molten metal such as silver to about the SunCell® operating temperature. The reversible insulation may comprise a solid compound that may be insulating during heat up and becomes thermally conductive at a temperature above the desired startup temperature. Quartz is an exemplary insulating material that has a significant increase in thermal conductivity over the temperature range of the melting point of silver to a desired operating temperature of a quartz SunCell® of about 1000 °C to 1600 °C. The quartz insulation thickness may be adjusted to achieve the desired behavior of insulation during startup and heat transfer to a load during operation. Another exemplary embodiment comprises a highly porous semitransparent ceramic material.

[0354] In an embodiment, the reversible insulation may comprise a material that changes properties under power input such as electrical input or thermal input. The reversible insulation may comprise a solid compound that may be insulating as a solid and become thermally conductive at a temperature above the desired startup temperature. The reversible insulation may comprise a solid that is insulating wherein the solid melts above the desired startup temperature of the SunCell® to become significantly more thermally conductive. An exemplary pure element with the lowest thermal conductivity of any pure metal is manganese having a thermal conductivity of 7.7 W / mK and a melting point of 1246 °C. The reversible insulation may comprise a solid such as a metal oxide that is thermally insulating wherein the solid may be converted to the corresponding metal that is thermally conductive following startup. The conversion may be achieved by electrolysis or other known method. In another embodiment, the reversible insulation may comprise an anisotropic material such as oriented graphite that has poor thermal conductivity in one direction and high thermal conductivity in another. In another embodiment, the anisotropic material may be oriented with an electric or magnetic field to control the desired thermal conductivity.

[0355] The heater insulation may comprise a material that is circumferential to the resistive heater and heats up slower than heat is transferred to the wall of the heated SunCell® component. The insulation may comprise at least one resistive heater insulating coating such as a ceramic such as at least one of SiO2, alumina, Mullite, glass, fused quartz, vitreous silica, fused silica, slip cast quartz, and powdered quartz. The coating and its thickness relative to the wall thickness of the heated SunCell® component may be selected such that heat from the heater is transferred inside of the wall on a faster time scale than to the outer surface of the coating comprising the surface radial from the wall. After startup, the outer surface may heat to a temperature similar to that of the wall temperature. Heat may be transferred from the outer surface to a load. The load may comprise a space or process heating system or a thermal to electric converter. The heat transfer may be achieved by at least one of radiation, convection, and conduction. The transfer may be facilitated by a coolant or a heat exchanger. At least one of the surface area and emissivity of the outer surface of the coating may be selected to achieve the desired heat transfer rate to the load wherein the heat transfer rate may control the operating temperature of at least one of the wall and the coating. In an exemplary embodiment, the insulation comprises SiO2insulation circumferential to resistive heater elements such as resistive wire wrapping such as Kanthal wire wrapping.

[0356] In another embodiment, heat is loss from the heated SunCell® is predominantly by radiation. The insulation may comprise at least one of a vacuum chamber housing the SunCell® and radiation shields. The radiation shields may be removed following startup. The SunCell® may comprise a mechanism to at least one of rotate and translate the heat shields. The heat shields may further comprise a backing layer of insulation such as silica or alumina insulation. In an exemplary embodiment, the radiation shields may be turned to decrease the reflecting surface area. In another embodiment, the radiation shields may further comprise heating elements such as MoSi2heating elements.

[0357] The heater may comprise a plurality of heating elements wherein each element may be dedicated to a specific zone or component of the SunCell®. The resistive heater may comprise resistive heating zones.

[0358] The heater may comprise sections that separate circumferentially. The sections may comprise complementary pieces that surround the heated cell components during startup that may be removed following startup. The sections may comprise complementary shapes such as mirror images in the case of a cylindrically component. The sections may comprise clamshell heaters that separate. The heater may comprise a servo-mechanism such as a mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric, electromagnetic, or other servo-mechanism known in the art to retract the heater sections following startup. The heater sections may be retracted to prevent interference with a component that operates by inductive fields such as magnetic fields such as those of a transformer such as the EM pump or ignition transformers, respecitively.

[0359] The heater may comprise a heat transfer element or means that spreads the heat to avoid heat gradients in the heated component. The heat transfer element or means may comprise at least one of heat transfer paste such as one of the disclosure, a cladding such as a refractory oxidation resistant metal such as SS 625, or the cell may comprise a material that is more favorable for spreading heat such as Pyrex. The heater may comprise a continuous resistive wire wrapping such as a continuous Kanthal wire wrapping. In an embodiment, the wire has high resistance to eliminate IR losses in the bus bars and to simplify them. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a housing about a component or components to be heated. The housing may contain a heat transfer medium to serve as a heating bath with the housing. The heat transfer medium may be liquid at its desired temperature such as one in the temperature range of 1000 °C to 2000 °C. An exemplary heat transfer medium is a metal with a high boiling point such as gallium, a molten salt such as LiBr, or sand wherein the melting point may be lowered by addition of an additive such as potash. The heating element may heat the bath that heats the component. An exemplary bath heating element comprises MoSi2or SiC. In an embodiment, the surface of the component to be heated, such as one comprising quartz, is at least one of coated with a low-emissivity coating and polished to lower the emissivity and corresponding radiative power loss. The low-emissivity component is suitable for use in a vacuum chamber to achieve variable insulation.

[0360] The SunCell® may comprise permanent insulation and a system to remove heat internal to the SunCell®. The SunCell® may comprise a heat exchanger internal to the insulation wherein the coolant may be flowed to remove heat following heating by the heater during startup. The heater may be shut off and the coolant flow of the heat exchanger commenced following SunCell® startup. In an embodiment, theSunCell® may comprise a heat pipe to remove internal heat. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise an external heat exchanger to remove internal heat. Molten silver may be pumped through the external heat exchanger to transfer heat externally to the SunCell®. The heat exchanger may serve as a space or process heater. The SunCell® may comprise at least one addition pump such as an EM pump to pump the molten metal such as silver through the external heat exchanger. Alternatively, the injection EM pumps may further serve to pump the molten metal through the external heat exchanger. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a heat exchanger internal to the insulation.

[0361] The resistive heater 415 may be powered by at least one of series and parallel wired circuits to selectively heat SunCell® different components. The resistive heating wire may comprise a twisted pair to prevent interference by systems that cause a time-varying field such as induction systems such as at least one induction EM pump, an induction ignition system, and electromagnets. The resistive heating wires may be oriented such that any linked time-varying magnetic flux is minimized. The wire orientation may be such that any closed loops are in a plane parallel with the magnetic flux. In an embodiment, coupling of the flux of at least one of the inductive EM pump winding 401 and the induction ignition transformer winding 411 with the resistive heater wire is reduced by increasing the resistive heater wire resistance. In an embodiment, the resistive heater comprises wire with higher resistivity. The heater wire may comprise a small diameter to increase the resistance. The resistance may be increased by operating the wire at elevated temperature.

[0362] In an embodiment, the inductive current such as that induced in the EM pump tube sections 405 and 406 may cause the silver in the EM pump section 405 to melt by resistive heating. The current may be induced by EM pump transformer winding 401. The EM pump tube section 405 may be pre-loaded with silver before startup. In an embodiment, the heat of the hydrino reaction may heat at one SunCell® component. In an exemplary embodiment, a heater such as an inductively coupled heater heats the EM pump tube 5k6, the reservoirs 5c, and at least the bottom portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. At least one other component may be heated by the heat release of the hydrino reaction such as at least one of the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, MHD channel 308, MHD condensation section 309, and MHD molten metal return system such as the MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM tube. In an embodiment, the MHD molten metal return system such as the MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM tube may be heated with elevated temperature molten metal or metal vapor such as molten silver or vapor having a temperature in at least one range of about 1000 °C to 7000 °C, 1100 °C to 6000 °C, 1100 °C to 5000 °C, 1100 °C to 4000 °C, 1100 °C to 3000 °C, 1100 °C to 2300 °C, 1100 °C to 2000 °C, 1100 °C to 1800 °C, and 1100 °C to 1500 °C. The elevated temperature molten metal or metal vapor may be caused to flow through the MHD

[0363] component with bypass or disablement of the MHD conversion into electricity. The disablement may be achieved by removing the electric field or by electrically shorting the electrodes.

[0364] In an embodiment, at least one component of the cell and MHD converter may be insulated to prevent heat loss. At least one of the group of chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, MHD condensation section 309, return conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, return EM pumps 312, and return EM pump tube 313 may be insulated. Heat lost from the insulation may be dissipated in the corresponding cooler or heat exchanger. In an embodiment, the working fluid such as silver may serve as a coolant. The EM pump injection rate may be increased to provide silver to absorb heat to cool at least one cell or MHD component such as the MHD nozzle 307. The vaporization of silver may cool the nozzle MHD 307. A recirculator or recuperator may comprise the working medium used for cooling. In an exemplary embodiment, silver is pumped over the component to be cooled and is injected into the reaction cell chamber and MHD converter to recover the heat while providing the cooling.

[0365] At least the high-pressure components such as the reservoirs 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and high-pressure portions of the MHD converter 307 and 308 may be maintained in the pressure chamber 5b3a1 comprising housing 5b3a and 5b3b. The pressure chamber 5b3a1 may be maintained at a pressure to at least counter balance at least a portion of the high internal reaction chamber 5b31 and MHD nozzle 307 and MHD generator channel 308. The pressure balance may reduce the strain on the joints of the generator components such as those between the reservoirs 5c and the EM pump assembly 5kk. The high-pressure vessel 5b3a may selective house the high-pressure components such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoirs 5c, and the MHD expansion channel 308. The other cell components may be housed in a lower-pressure vessel or housing.

[0366] A source of hydrino reactant such as at least one of H2O, H2, CO2, and CO may be permeated thorugh a permeable cell components such as at least one of the cell chamber 5b31, the reservoirs 5c, the MHD expansion channel 308, and the MHD condensation section 309. The hydrino reaction gases may be introduced into the molten metal stream in at least one location such as through the EM pump tube 5k6, the MHD expansion channel 308, the MHD condensation section 309, the MHD return conduit 310, the return reservoir 311, the MHD return pump 312, the MHD return EM pump tube 313. The gas injector such as a mass flow controller may be capable of injecting at high pressure on the high-pressure side of the MHD converter such as through at least one of the EM pump tube 5k6, the MHD return pump 312, and the MHD return EM pump tube 313. The gas injector may be capable of injection of the hydrino reactants at lower pressure on the low-pressure side of the MHD converter such as at least one location such as through the MHD condensation section 309, the MHD return conduit 310, and the return reservoir 311. In an embodiment at least one of water and water vapor may be injected through the EM pump tube 5k4 by a flow controller that may further comprise a pressure arrestor and a back-flow check valve to present the molten metal from flowing back into the water supplier such as the mass flow controller. Water may be injected through a selectively permeable membrane such as a ceramic or carbon membrane. In an embodiment, the converter may comprise a PV converter wherein the hydrino reactant injector is capable of supplying reactants by at least one of means such as by permeation or injection at the operating pressure of the site of delivery. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a source of hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen gas wherein the two gases are combined to provide water vapor in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The source of hydrogen and the source of oxygen may each comprise at least one of a corresponding tank, a line to flow the gas into reaction cell chamber 5b31 directly or indirectly, a flow regulator, a flow controller, a computer, a flow sensor, and at least one valve. In the latter case, the gas may be flowed into a chamber in gas continuity with the reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as at least one of the EM pump 5ka, the reservoir 5c, the nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, and other MHD converter components such as any return lines 310a, conduits 313a, and pumps 312a. In an embodiment, at least one of the H2and O2may be injected into the injection section the EM pump tube 5k61. O2and H2may be injected through separate EM pump tubes of the dual EM pump injectors. Alternatively, a gas such as at least one of oxygen and hydrogen may be added to the cell interior through an injector in a region with lower silver vapor pressure such as the MHD channel 308 or MHD condensation section 309. At least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be injected through a selective membrane such as a ceramic membrane such as a nano-porous ceramic membrane. The oxygen may be supplied through an oxygen permeable membrane such as one of the disclosure such as BaCo0.7Fe0.2Nb0.1O3-δ(BCFN) oxygen permeable membrane that may be coated with Bi26Mo10O69to increase the oxygen permeation rate. The hydrogen may be supplied through a hydrogen permeable membrane such as a palladium-silver alloy membrane. The SunCell® may comprise an electrolyzer such as a high-pressure electrolyzer. The electrolyzer may comprise a proton exchange membrane where pure hydrogen may be supplied by the cathode compartment. Pure oxygen may be supplied by the anode compartment. In an embodiment, the EM pump parts are coated with a non-oxidizing coating or oxidation protective coating, and hydrogen and oxygen are injected separately under controlled conditions using two mass flow controllers wherein the flows may be controlled based on the cell concentrations sensed by corresponding gas sensors.

[0367] In an embodiment, hydrogen may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by permeation or diffusion across a permeable membrane. The membrane may comprise a ceramic such as polymers, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, carbon, or a metal such as Pd-Ag alloy, niobium, Ni, Ti, stainless steel or other hydrogen permeable material known in the art such as one reported by McLeod [L. S. McLeod,“Hydrogen permeation through microfabricated palladium-silver alloy membranes”, PhD thesis Georgia Institute of

[0368] Technology, December, (2008),

[0369] https: / / smartech.gatech.edu / bitstream / handle / 1853 / 31672 / mcleod_logan_s_200812_phd.pdf] which is incorporate by reference in its entirety. The H2permeation rate may be increased by at least one of increasing the pressure differential between the supply side of the H2permeable membrane such as a Pd or Pd-Ag membrane and the reaction cell chamber 5b31, increasing the area of the membrane, decreasing the thickness of the membrane, and elevating the temperature of the membrane. The membrane may comprise a grating or perforated backing to provide structural support to operate under at least one condition of higher pressure differential such as in the range of about 1 to 500 atm, larger area such as in the range of about 0.01 cm2to 10 m2, decreased thickness such as in the range of 10 nm to 1 cm, and elevated temperature such as in the range of about 30 °C to 3000 °C. The grating may comprise a metal that does not react with hydrogen. The grating may be resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. An exemplary embodiment, a Pd-Ag alloy membrane having a permeation coefficient of 5 X 10-11m m-2s-1Pa-1, an area of 1 X 10-3m2, and a thickness of 1 X 10-4m operates at a pressure differential of 1 X 107Pa and a temperature of 300 °C to provide a H2flow rate of about 0.01 moles / s.

[0370] The permeation rate may increased by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise a semipermeable membrane that may comprise an electrode of a plasma cell such as a cathode of a plasma cell. The

[0371] SunCell® such as one shown in FIGURES 2I216-2I219 may comprise an outer sealed plasma chamber comprising an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of cell 5b3 wherein a portion of the metal wall of the cell 5b3 comprises an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber may comprise a chamber around the cell 5b3 such as housing 427 (FIGURE 2I206) wherein the wall of cell 5b3 may comprise a plasma cell electrode and the housing 427 or an independent electrode in the chamber may comprise the counter electrode. The SunCell® may further comprise a plasma power source, and plasma control system, a gas source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regular, and a vacuum pump. In another embodiment, the hydrogen may be injected as a gas through a gas injector. In an embodiment, the hydrogen gas may be maintained at an elevated pressure such as in the range of 1 to 100 atm to decrease the required flow rate to maintain a desired power.

[0372] In an embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell® and MHD converter comprising an interior compartment such as the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, the MHD condensation section 309, and other MHD converter components such as any return lines 310a, conduits 313a, and pumps 312a are housed in a gas-sealed housing or chamber wherein the gases in the chamber equilibrate with the interior cell gas by diffusion across a membrane permeable to gases and impermeable to silver vapor. The gas selective membrane may comprise a semipermeable ceramic such as one of the disclosure. The cell gases may comprise at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and a noble gas such as argon or helium. The outer housing may comprise a pressure sensor for each gas. The SunCell® may comprise a source and controller for each gas. The source of noble gas such as argon may comprise a tank. The source for at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may comprise an electrolyzer such as a high-pressure electrolyzer. The gas controller may comprise at least one of a flow controller, a gas regulator, and a computer. The gas pressure in the housing may be controlled to control the gas pressure of each gas in the interior of the cell such as in the reservoirs, reaction cell chamber, and MHD converter components. The pressure of each gas may be in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 20 atm. In an exemplary embodiment shown in FIGURES 2I179-2I206, the straight MHD channel 308 and MHD condensation section 309 comprises a gas housing 309b, a pressure gauge 309c, and gas supply and evacuation assembly 309e comprising a gas inlet line, a gas outlet line, and a flange wherein the gas permeable membrane 309d may be mounted in the wall of the MHD condensation section 309. The mount may comprise a sintered joint, a metalized ceramic joint, a brazed joint, or others of the disclosure. The gas housing 309b may further comprise an access port. The gas housing 309b may comprise a metal such as an oxidation resistant metal such as SS 625 or an oxidation resistant coating on a metal such as an iridium coating on a metal of suitable CTE such as molybdenum. Alternatively, the gas housing 309b may comprise ceramic such as a metal oxide ceramic such as zirconia, alumina, magnesia, hafnia, quartz, or another of the disclosure. Ceramic penetrations through a metal gas housing 309b such as those of the MHD return conduits 310 may be cooled. The penetration may comprise a carbon seal wherein the seal temperature is below the carbonization temperature of the metal and the carbo-reduction temperature of the ceramic. The seal may be removed for the hot molten metal to cool it. The seal may comprise cooling such as passive or forced air or water-cooling.

[0373] In exemplary embodiments, the inductively coupled heater antenna 5f may comprise one coil, three separate coils as shown in FIGURES 2I178-2I179, three continuous coils as shown in FIGURES 2I182-2I183, two seperated coils, or two continuous coils as shown in FIGURES 2I180-2I181. An exemplary inductively coupled heater antenna 5f comprises an upper elliptical coil and a lower EM pump tube pancake coil that may comprise a spiral coil that may comprise concentric boxes with a continuous circumferential current direction (FIGURES 2I180-2I181). The reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD nozzle 307 may comprise planar, polygonal, rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, or other desired geometry as shown in FIGURES 2I162-2I206. The inductively coupled heater antenna 5f may comprise a continuous set of three turnings comprising two helices circumferential to each reservoirs 5c and a pancake coil parallel to the EM pump tubes as shown in FIGURES 2I182-2I183. The turns of the opposing helices about the reservoirs may be wound such that the currents are in the same direction to reinforce the magnetic fields of the two coils or opposite directions to cancel in the space between the helices. The inductively coupled heater antenna 5f may further serve to cool at least one component such as at least one of the EM pump 5kk, the reservoirs 5c, the walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the yoke of an induction ignition system. At least one cooled component may comprise a ceramic such as one of the disclosure such as silicon nitride, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnia.

[0374] The SunCell® may comprise one MHD working medium return conduit from the end of the MHD expansion channel to the reservoir 5c wherein the reservoir 5c may comprise a sealed top cover that isolates lower pressure in the reservoir from the higher reaction cell chamber 5b31 pressure. The EM pump injector section 5k61 and nozzle 5q may penetrate the cover to inject molten metal such as silver in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The penetration may comprise a seal of the disclosure such as a compression seal, slip nut, gasket braze, or stuffing box seal. The reservoir may comprise an inlet riser tube 5qa to control the molten metal level in the reservoir 5c. The covered reservoir and EM pump assembly 5kk that receives return molten metal flow may comprise a first injector of a dual molten metal injector system. The second injector comprising a second reservoir and EM pump assembly may comprise an open reservoir that receives return flow indirectly from the first injector. The second injector may comprise the positive electrode. The second injector may be maintained submerged below the molten metal level in the reservoir. The corresponding inlet riser tube 5qa may control the submersion.

[0375] The SunCell® may comprise at least one gaseous metal return conduit 310 from the end of the MHD generator channel 308 to at least one reservoir 5c of a molten metal injector system. The SunCell® may comprise two return conduits 310 from the end of the MHD generator channel 308 to the two corresponding reservoirs 5c of a dual molten metal injector system. Each reservoir 5c may comprise a sealed top cover that isolates lower pressure in the reservoir 5c from the higher reaction cell chamber 5b31 pressure. The EM pump injector section 5ka and 5k61 and nozzle 5q may penetrate the reservoir top cover to inject molten metal such as silver in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The penetration may comprise a seal of the disclosure such as a compression seal, slip nut, gasket, braze, or stuffing box seal. Each reservoir 5c may comprise an inlet riser tube 5qa to control the molten metal level in the reservoir 5c. The temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be above the boiling point of the molten metal such that the liquid metal that is injected into reaction cell chamber is vaporized and is returned through return conduits 310.

[0376] The SunCell® may comprise at least one MHD working medium return conduit 310 from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 to at least one reservoir 5c of a molten metal injector system. The SunCell® may comprise two MHD working medium return conduits 310 from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 to the two corresponding reservoirs 5c of a dual molten metal injector system. Each reservoir 5c may comprise a sealed top cover that isolates lower pressure in the reservoir 5c from the higher reaction cell chamber 5b31 pressure. The EM pump injector section 5ka and 5k61 and nozzle 5q may penetrate the reservoir top cover to inject molten metal such as silver in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The penetration may comprise a seal of the disclosure such as a compression seal, slip nut, gasket, braze, or stuffing box seal. Each reservoir 5c may comprise an inlet riser tube 5qa to control the molten metal level in the reservoir 5c. The temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be above the boiling point of the molten metal such that the liquid metal that is injected into reaction cell chamber is vaporized, the vapor is accelerated through the MHD nozzle section 307, the kinetic energy of the vapor is converted to electricity in the generator channel 308, the vapor is condensed in the MHD condenser section 309, and the molten metal is returned through return conduits 310.

[0377] The SunCell® may comprise at least one MHD working medium return conduit 310, one return reservoir 311, and corresponding pump 312. The pump 312 may comprise an electromagnetic (EM) pump. The SunCell® may comprise dual molten metal conduits 310; return reservoirs 311, and corresponding EM pumps 312. A corresponding inlet riser tube 5qa may control the molten metal level in each return reservoir 311. The return EM pumps 312 may pump the MHD working medium from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 to return reservoirs 311 and then to the corresponding injector reservoirs 5c. In another embodiment, molten metal return flow is through the return conduit 310 directly to the corresponding return EM pumps 312 and then to the corresponding injector reservoirs 5c. In an embodiment, the MHD working medium such as silver is pumped against a pressure gradient such as about 10 atm to complete a molten metal flow circuit comprising injection, ignition, expansion, and return flow. To achieve the high pressure, the EM pump may comprise a series of stages. The SunCell® may comprise a dual molten metal injector system comprising a pair of reservoirs 5c, each comprising an EM pump injector 5ka and 5k61 and an inlet riser tube 5qa to control the molten metal level in the corresponding reservoir 5c. The return flow may enter the base 5kk1 of the corresponding EM pump assembly 5kk. In an embodiment, the velocity of the working medium in at least one position comprising the at position in an MHD component such as the entrance of the nozzle, the nozzle, exit of the nozzle, and a desired portion of the MHD channel may be sufficiently high such that condensation such as shock condensation does not occur even in the case that metal vapor saturation conditions are met. The condensation may not occur due to the short transit time compared to the condensation time. The condensation kinetics may be altered or selected by controlling the plasma pressure, plasma temperature, jet velocity, working medium composition, and magnetic field strength. The metal vapor such as silver vapor may condense on the condenser 309 that may have high surface area, and the collected liquid silver may be returned through the return conduit and EM pumping system. In an

[0378] embodiment, a short transit time in the nozzle that avoids shock condensation is exploited to allow the production of favorable MHD conversion conditions in the MHD channel 307 that otherwise would result in shock condensation.

[0379] In an embodiment, the MHD expansion or generator channel also know as the MHD channel comprises a flared MHD channel to continuously derive power conversion with the heat gradient converted to a pressure gradient that drives kinetic energy flow. Heat from silver condensation may contribute to the pressure gradient or mass flow in the MHD channel. The heat of vaporization released by the condensing silver may serve the function of an afterburner in a jet engine to create higher velocity flow. In an exemplary embodiment, the silver heat of vaporization serves the function of combustion in a jet afterburner to increase or contribute to the velocity of the silver jet stream. In an embodiment, the heat of vaporization released by condensation of the silver vapor increases the pressure above the pressure in the absence of the condensation. The MHD channel may comprise geometry such as a flare or nozzle geometry to convert the pressure into directed flow or kinetic energy that is converted into electricity by the MHD converter. The magnetic field provided by the MHD magnets 306 may be adjusted to prevent plasma stall in the case that the silver vapor condenses with a corresponding change in conductivity. In an embodiment, the walls of the MHD channel 308 are maintained at an elevated temperature to prevent metal vapor condensation on the walls with the corresponding mass and kinetic energy loss. The high electrode temperature may also protect from plasma arcing that may occur in the opposite case of cooled electrodes having a less electrically conductive or more insulating boundary layer relative to hotter plasma.

[0380] The MHD channel 308 may be maintained at a desired elevated temperature by transferring heat from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the walls of the MHD channel. The MHD converter may comprise a heat exchanger to transfer the heat from the reaction cell chamber to the walls of the MHD channel. The heat exchanger may comprises a conductive or convective heat exchanger such as one comprising heat transfer blocks that conducts heat from the reaction cell chamber to the walls of the MHD channel. The heat exchanger may comprise a radiative heat exchanger wherein the outer wall of at least a portion of reaction cell chamber comprises a blackbody radiator to emit power and at least a portion of the wall of the MHD channel may comprise a blackbody radiator to absorb the blackbody radiation. The heat exchanger may comprise a coolant that may be pumped. The pump may comprise an EM pump wherein the coolant is a molten metal. In another embodiment, the hydrino reaction is further propagated and maintained in the MHD channel 308 to maintain the MHD channel wall temperature above the condensation temperature of the metal vapor flowing in the channel. The hydrino reaction may be maintained by supplying reactants such as H and HOH catalyst or sources thereof. The reaction may be selectively maintained at the electrodes due to their conductivity that supports and accelerates the hydrino reaction rate. The MHD converter may comprise at least one temperature sensor to record the MHD channel wall temperature and a controller to control at least one of the heat transfer means such as a heat exchanger and the hydrino reaction rate to maintain the desired MHD channel wall temperature. The hydrino reaction rate may be controlled by means of the disclosure such as means to control the flow of hydrino reactants to the MHD channel.

[0381] In another embodiment, at least one of the plasma, metal vapor, and condensed metal vapor is confined to the channel and prevented from collecting on the MHD walls by a channel confinement means such as one comprising a source of at least one of electric and magnetic fields. The confinement means may comprise a magnetic confinement means such as a magnetic bottle. The confinement means may comprise an inductively couple field such as an RF field. The MHD converter may comprise at least one of an RF power source, at least one antenna, electrostatic electrodes and power source, and at least one magnetostatic magnetic field source to achieve the confinement.

[0382] In an embodiment, the working medium comprises a vaporized metal in the MHD channel 308 wherein the pressure and temperature of working medium is increased by the heat released by condensation of the metal vapor along the MHD channel as it looses kinetic energy due to MHD conversion to electricity. The energy from the condensation of the silver may increase at least one of the pressure, temperature, velocity, and kinetic energy of the working medium in the MHD channel. The flow velocity may be increased by a channel geometry that exploits the Venturi effect or Bernoulli principle. In an embodiment, flowing liquid silver may serve as an aspirator medium for the vapor to cause it to flow in the MHD channel.

[0383] In an embodiment, at least one of the MHD channel 308 diameter and volume are reduced as a function of the distance along the flow axis or z-axis of the MHD channel from the nozzle 307 exit to the MHD channel 308 exit. The MHD channel 308 may comprise a channel that converges alone the z-axis. In another embodiment, the channel size along the z-axis remains the same or diverges less than that of a conventional seeded-gas MHD working medium converter. The channel volume may be reduced to maintain pressure and velocity along the z-axis as the silver condenses and releases heat to maintain energetic plasma. The heat of vaporization released from condensing silver vapor (254 kJ / mole) with plasma flow along the z-axis may increase the temperature and pressure of the working medium to cause increased flow of the non-condensed silver at any given position along the z-axis of the channel. The increase in flow velocity may be caused by the Venturi effect or Bernoulli principle. The magnetic flux may be varied permanently or dynamically along the flow axis (z-axis) of the MHD channel to extract MHD power as a function of z-axial position to maintain a desired pressure, temperature, velocity, power, and energy inventory along the channel wherein the channel size as a function of distance along the z-axis may be matched to z-axial magnetic flux variation to at least partially achieve the extraction of the energy of the heat of vaporization from the vaporized metal as electricity. The plasma gas flow may also serve as a carrier gas for the condensed silver vapor.

[0384] The condensed silver may comprise a mist or fog. The fog state may be favored due to the tendency of silver to form an aerosol at a temperature well below its boiling point at a given pressure. The working medium may comprise oxygen and silver wherein molten silver has a tendency to form an aerosol in the presence of oxygen at a temperature well below its boiling point at a given pressure wherein silver may absorb large amounts of oxygen. The working medium may comprise an aerosolizing gas such as nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, or a noble gas such as argon in addition to metal vapor such as silver vapor to form an aerosol of condensed silver. In an embodiment, the pressure of the aerosolizing gas throughout the reaction cell chamber and MHD channel may be maintained at its steady state distribution under operating conditions. The MHD converter may further comprise a supply of the aerosolizing gas such as a tank of the aerosolizing gas, a pump, and at least one gauge to selectively measure the aerosolizing gas pressure at one or more locations. The aerosolizing gas inventory may be maintained at a desired level by addition or removal of aerosolizing gas using the pump and aerosolizing gas supply. In an exemplary embodiment, liquid silver forms a fog or aerosol at a temperature just above the melting point such that a constant ambient pressure aerosolizing gas such as argon in the MHD channel 308 causes the silver vapor to liquid transition to occur in the form of an aerosol that may be carried with the plasma flow and aggregated on the MHD condenser 309. In an embodiment, the velocity of the condensing vapor is conserved in the condensate. The velocity of the condensate may increase from the release of the heat of vaporization. The MHD channel may comprise a geometry that converts the heat of vaporization into condensate kinetic energy. In an embodiment, the channel may narrow to convert the heat of vaporization into condensate kinetic energy. In another embodiment, the heat of vaporization may increase the channel pressure, and the pressure may be converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle. In an

[0385] embodiment, copper or silver-copper alloy may replace silver. In an embodiment, the molten metal that serves as the source of metal aerosol comprises at least one of silver, copper, and silver-copper alloy. The aerosol may form in the presence of a gas such as at least one of oxygen, water vapor, and a noble gas such as argon.

[0386] In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a means to maintain a flow of cell gas in contact with molten silver to form molten metal aerosol such as silver aerosol. The gas flow may comprise at least one of forced gas flow and convection gas flow. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoirs 5c may comprise at least one baffle to cause a circulation of the cell gas to increase the gas flow. The flow may be driven by at least one of convection and pressure gradients such as those caused by at least one of thermal gradients and pressure from the plasma reaction. The gas may comprise at least one of a noble gas, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2. The means to maintain the gas flow may comprise at least one of a gas pump or compressor such as MHD gas pump or compressor 312a, the MHD converter, and the turbulent flow caused by at least one of the EM pump molten metal injectors and the hydrino plasma reaction. At least one of the gas flow rate and composition of the gas may be controlled to control that aerosol production rate. In an embodiment wherein water vapor is recirculated, the SunCell® further comprises a recombiner to recombine any H2O thermalized into H2and O2back into H2O, a condenser to condense the water vapor to liquid water, and a liquid water pump to inject pressurized water into a line that supplies at least one interior cell component such as the reservoir 5c or reaction cell chamber 5b31 wherein the pressurized water may transition into steam in route to injection inside of the cell. The recombiner may be one known in the art such as one comprising at least one of Raney nickel, Pd, and Pt. The water vapor may be recirculated in a loop comprising high-pressure compartments such as between the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoirs 5c.

[0387] In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoirs 5c and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprises a source of gas having a temperature sufficiently low to at least one of condense silver vapor to silver aerosol and cool silver aerosol. The heat released by the energetic hydrino reaction may form the silver vapor. The vaporization may occur in the hydrino reaction plasma. The ambient gas in contact with the hydrino reaction comprises the cell gas. A portion of at least one of the cell gas and aerosol may be cooled by a heat exchanger and chiller in a region inside of at least one of the reservoirs and reaction cell chamber containing at least one of gas, aerosol, and plasma. At least one of the cell gas and aerosol may be sufficiently cooled to at least one of condense silver vapor to aerosol and cool aerosol. At least one of the vapor condensation rate and the temperature and pressure of the cool cell gas- aerosol-vapor mixture may be controlled by controlling at least one of heat transfer during cooling and the temperature and pressure of the cool cell gas and aerosol.

[0388] In an embodiment to avoid mass loss along the channel, the silver vapor is caused to from fog as the vapor is condenses. The molar fraction that loses its kinetic energy to electricity along the channel may be caused to form fog wherein the corresponding heat of vaporization imparts kinetic energy to the corresponding aerosol particles to maintain the constant initial velocity of the otherwise lost mass. The channel may be straight to converging to maintain the velocity with reduced particle number due to partial atomic aggregation into aerosol particles flowing with remaining gas atoms. In an embodiment, the MHD channel 308 walls may be maintained at a temperature such as greater than the melting point of silver to avoid condensed liquid condensation by supporting fog formation.

[0389] In an embodiment, the MHD channel components and surfaces that the silver plasma jet contacts may comprise materials that resist wetting by the silver liquid. At least one of the MHD channel walls 308 and MHD electrodes 304 may comprise surfaces that resist wetting.

[0390] The aerosol particles may be charged and collected. The collection may occur at the end of the MHD channel. The aerosol particles may be removed by electrostatic precipitation or electrospray precipitation. In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise an aerosol particle charging means such as at least one particle charging electrode, an electrical power supply such as a source of high voltage, and a charged particle collector such as at least one electrode that is electrically biased to collect the charged particles. The charged particles may be collected at the end of the MHD channel by an applied electric field.

[0391] In an embodiment, metal vapor droplets are carried out by the plasma flow. The droplets may form a thin film on the surface of at least one of the MHD electrodes and MHD channel walls. Excess condensed liquid may be mechanically ablated and carried with the plasma and mass flow. In an embodiment, a Faraday current passes through condensed metal vapor such as condensed silver vapor and a Hall current is produced that forces the condensed silver particles along the trajectory of the plasma jet from the MHD nozzle 307. The Hall current may cause condensed silver to flow out of the MHD channel to be returned to the reservoirs 5c. The current may preferentially flow though the condensed silver due to the higher conductivity than the metal vapor. In another embodiment, the transport may be assisted by at least one of a divergence and convergence of the MHD channel. In an embodiment, the MHD converter such as a disc generator may comprise electrodes that contact the plasma at the entrance and exit of the MHD channel such that the effect of molten metal shorting in the channel is ameliorated.

[0392] In an embodiment, the working medium comprises a metal such silver that may sublime at a temperature below its boiling point to prevent the metal from condensing on the walls of the MHD channel such that it flows to the recirculation system. In an embodiment, the pressure at the exit of the MHD channel is maintained at a low pressure such as one below atmospheric pressure. A vacuum may be maintained at the exit of the MHD channel such that the working medium metal vapor does not condense in the MHD channel 308. The vacuum may be maintained by a MHD gas pump or compressor 312a (FIGURES 2I67-2I73).

[0393] In an embodiment, the MHD channel may comprise a generator in the entrance section and a compressor in the exit section. The compressor may cause condensed vapor to be pumped out of the MHD channel. The MHD converter may comprise a source of current and a current controller to controllably apply current to the working medium of the MHD channel in a perpendicular direction to the applied magnetic field to cause the condensed working medium vapor to flow from the channel wherein the channel conditions may be controlled to cause vapor condensation to achieve the release of the heat of vaporization of the vapor.

[0394] In another embodiment, the heat of vaporization of the metal vapor such as silver metal vapor may be recovered by condensing the vapor at a heat exchanger such as MHD condenser 309. The condensation may occur at a temperature that is higher than the boiling point of the metal such as silver. The heat may be transferred to a portion of the reservoir 5c by a means known in the art such as by convection, conduction, radiation, or by a coolant. The heat transfer system may comprise refractory heat transfer blocks such as Mo, W, or carbon bocks that transfer the heat by conduction. The heat may cause the silver in the reservoir to vaporize. The heat may be conserved in the heat of vaporization. The hydrino reaction may further increase the pressure and temperature of the vaporized metal. In an embodiment comprising a working medium additive such as a noble gas such as argon or helium, the MHD converter further comprises a gas pump or compressor 312a (FIGURES 2I67-2I73) to recirculate the gas from the low-pressure to the high-pressure part of the MHD converter. The gas pump or compressor 312a may comprise a drive motor 312b and blades or vanes 312c. The MHD converter may comprise a pump inlet that may comprise a gas passage 310a from the MHD condensation section 309 to the pump inlet and a pump outlet that may comprise a gas passage 313a from the pump or compressor 312a to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The pump may pump gas from a low pressure such as about 1 to 2 atm to high pressure such as about 4 to 15 atm. The inlet conduit 310a from the MHD condensation section 309 to the pump 312a may comprise a filter such as a selective membrane or metal condenser at the inlet to separate the gas such as a noble gas from the metal vapor such as silver vapor. Baffles 309a in the MHD condenser section 309 may direct the molten metal such as that condensed in the MHD condensation section 309 into the MHD return conduit 310. At least one of the height of the baffles in the center and the molten metal return inlet to the MHD return conduit 310 may be at a position wherein the upward gas pressure exceeds the force of gravity on condensed or liquid molten metal particles to facilitate their flow into the MHD return conduit 310.

[0395] The SunCell® may comprise a metal vapor condenser such as a constant pressure condenser that may be located in the MHD condensation section 309 and may comprise a heat exchanger 316. The working medium may comprise metal vapor seeded carrier or working gas such as silver vapor seeded noble gas such as helium or argon. The condenser may condense the metal vapor so that liquid metal and noble gas may be separately pumped. The separation may be by at least one of method of the group of gravity sedimentation, centrifugal separation, cyclone separation, filtration, electrostatic precipitation, and other methods known to those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the separated noble gas is removed from the top of the condenser, and the separated liquid metal is removed from the bottom of the condenser. The liquid and gas may be separated by at least one of baffles 309a, filters, a selectively permeable membrane, and a liquid barrier that is passable for the gas.

[0396] A compressor 312a may pump or cause the gas to recirculate to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. An EM pump 312 may pump the liquid silver to return it to the reservoir 5c to be re-injected into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The compressor 312a and EM pump 312 re-pressurizes the working medium gas such as argon or helium and liquid metal such as liquid silver, respectively. The working medium gas may be returned to reaction cell chamber through a conduit 313a that may connect at least one of the EM pump tube 5k6, the reservoir 5c, the base 5kk1 of the EM pump assemble 5kk, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Alternatively, the gas may be returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 through a conduit 313a connected to a delivery tube 313b such as one that provides a direct passage into the reservoir 5c or the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The gas may serve to inject the molten metal into the reaction cell chamber. The molten metal may become entrained in the gas injection to replace or supplement the EM pump molten metal injectors. The injected molten metal and vapor such as the liquid and gaseous silver vapor flow rates may be controlled by controlling the gas flow rate, gas pressure, gas temperature, reservoir temperature, reaction cell temperature, nozzle inlet pressure, MHD nozzle flow rate, MHD nozzle outlet pressure, and hydrino reaction rate.

[0397] The return conduit tube 313b for at least one of the working medium gas and molten metal such as one that runs through the molten metal of the reservoir 5c may comprise a refractory material such as at least one of Mo, W, rhenium, rhenium coated Mo or W, a ceramic such as a metal oxide such as ZrO2, HfO2, MgO, Al2O3, and another of the disclosure. The conduit may comprise a refractory material tube that is threaded into a collar or seat in the EM pump tube assembly base 5kk1. The height of the return conduit tube 313b may be one desired to deliver the gas while allowing desired performances of other components such as metal injection and level control by the injection section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the inlet riser tube 5qa, respectively. The height may be about the reservoir molten metal level.

[0398] In an embodiment shown in FIGURES 2I71-2I73, the gas pump or compressor 312a may pump a mixture of gaseous working medium species such as at least two of noble gas, molten metal seed, and molten metal vapor such as silver vapor. In an embodiment, the gas pump or compressor 312a may pump both gaseous and liquid working medium such as at least one of noble gas, metal vapor and liquid molten metal such as liquid silver. The liquid and gas may be returned to reaction cell chamber through a conduit 313a that may connect at least one of the EM pump tube 5k6, the reservoir 5c, the base 5kk1 of the EM pump assemble 5kk, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Alternatively, the gas may be returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 through a conduit 313a connected to a delivery tube 313b such as one that provides a direct passage into the reservoir 5c or the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0399] In an embodiment, the gas and liquid may flow through the EM pump tube 5k6. The gas may serve to inject the molten metal into the reaction cell chamber. The molten metal may become entrained in the gas injection to at least one of augment and replace the EM pump to pump molten metal through the injector tubes 5k61 and nozzles 5q. The injection rate may be controlled by controlling at least one of the flow rate and pressure of the gas pump or compressor 312a and by other means of the disclosure. The molten metal levels of the reservoirs 5c may be controlled by a level sensor and controller of the disclosure that controls at least one of the pressure and flow rate of one gas pump or compressor 312a relative to the other of a pair.

[0400] In an embodiment comprising a gas pump or compressor that pumps all of the working medium such as silver-seeded noble gas and an embodiment comprising a gas pump or compressor that pumps noble gas alone, the compression may be operated isothermally. The MHD converter may comprise a heat exchange or cooler to at least one of cool the gaseous working medium before and during compression. The gas pump or compressor may comprise an intercooler. The gas pump or compressor may comprise a plurality of stages such as a multistage intercooler compressor. The cooling may increase the efficiency of compressing the gas to match the operating pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0401] After the pumping stage in the return cycle, the return gaseous working medium may be heated to increase its pressure. The heating may be achieved with a heat exchanger that receives heat from the MHD converter or the regenerator that may receive heat from the MHD condensation section 309 or other hot component such at least one of the group of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, and MHD condensation section 309. In an embodiment, the gas pump power may be reduced substantially, by using inlet and outlet valves for gas flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and out the MHD nozzle, respectively, wherein low pressure gas is pumped into the reaction cell chamber and the pressure is increased to the desired pressure such as 10 atm by the plasma reaction power. The resulting pulsed MHD power may be conditioned to steady DC or AC power. The return MHD gas tube 313a may comprise a valve that opens to permit flow of gas of lower pressure than the peak reaction cell chamber operating pressure, and the MHD nozzle section 307 may comprise a valve that opens to allow high pressure gas to flow out the nozzle following the gas heating by the reaction cell chamber 5b31 plasma. The valves may facilitate low-pressure gas injection into the reaction cell chamber by the gas pump or compressor wherein the gas is heated to high pressure by the hydrino reaction plasma. The valves may be synchronized to permit the reaction chamber pressure build up by plasma heating. The valves may be 180° out of phase. The valves may comprise a rotating shutter type. The MHD nozzle may be cooled to permit operation of the MHD nozzle valve. The return gas conduit 313a valve may be at or near the base of the EM pump assembly 5kk1 to avoid silver condensation in the corresponding gas delivery tube 313b. The MHD converter may comprise a pulsed power system such as the one comprising inlet and outlet valves for the working medium gas of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The pulsed MHD power may be leveled to a constant power output by power conditioning equipment such as equipment comprising power storage such as batteries or capacitors.

[0402] In an embodiment, the molten metal such as silver that is recirculated remains in a gaseous state wherein the temperatures of the MHD converter including any return lines 310a, conduits 313a, and pumps 312a are maintained at a temperature above the boiling temperature of the silver at the operating pressure or silver partial pressure in the MHD system.

[0403] The pump 312a may comprise a mechanical pump such as a gear pump such as a ceramic gear pump or another known in the art such one comprising an impeller. The pump 312a may operate at high temperature such as in the temperature range of about 962 °C to 2000 °C. The pump may comprise a turbine type such as that used in a gas turbine or of the type used as a turbocharger of an internal combustion engine. The gas pump or compressor 312a may comprise at least one of a screw pump, an axial compressor, and a turbine compressor. The pump may comprise a positive displacement type. The gas pump or compressor may create a high gas velocity that would be converted to pressure in a fixed reaction cell chamber volume according to Bernoulli’s law. The return gas conduit 313a may comprise valves such as backpressure arresting valves to force the flow from the compressor into the reaction cell chamber and then the MHD converter.

[0404] The mechanical parts that are prone to wear by the working medium such as the pump 312a vanes or turbine blades may be coated with molten metal such as molten silver to protect them from abrasion or wear. In an embodiment, at least one component of the gas and molten metal return system comprising a gas pump or compressor such as the

[0405] components of the group of the MHD return conduit 310a, the return reservoir 311a, the MHD return gas pump or compressor 312a parts in contact with the return gas and molten metal such as the vanes, and the MHD pump tube 313a (FIGURES 2I67-2I73) comprise a coating that performs at least one function of thermal protection and prevention of wetting by the molten metal to facilitate the return metal flow to the reservoir 5c.

[0406] In an embodiment, during SunCell® startup the compressor 312a may recirculate the working medium such as helium or argon gas to preheat at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and an MHD component such as the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD channel 308, the MHD condensation section 309, and at least one component of the EM return pump system comprising the MHD return conduit 310, the return reservoir 311, the MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM pump tube 313. The working medium may be diverted to at least one component of the EM return pump system. The inductively coupled heater such as that corresponding to antenna 5f may heat the working medium that may be recirculated to cause preheating of at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and at least one MHD component.

[0407] In an exemplary embodiment, the MHD system comprises a working medium comprising silver-seeded or silver-copper-alloy-seeded argon or helium wherein most of the pressure may be due to argon or helium. The silver or silver-copper alloy mole fraction drops with increasing noble gas such as argon gas partial pressure that is controlled using an argon supply, sensing, and control system. The SunCell® may comprise cooling systems for the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD components such as at least one of the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD channel 308, and the MHD condensation section 309. At least one parameter such as the wall temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD channel, and the reaction and gas mixture conditions may be controlled that determines the optimal silver or silver-copper alloy inventory or vapor pressure. In an embodiment, an optimal silver vapor pressure is one that optimizes the conductivity and energy inventory of the metal vapor to achieve optimal power conversion density and efficiency. In an embodiment, some metal vapor condenses in the MHD channel to release heat that is converter to additional kinetic energy and converted to electricity in the MHD channel. The pump or compressor 312a may comprise one such as a mechanical pump for both silver and argon, or the MHD converter may comprise two pump types, gas 312a and molten metal 312.

[0408] In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise a plurality of nozzles to create high velocity conducting streams of molten metal in a plurality of stages. The first nozzle may comprise nozzle 307 in connection with the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Another nozzle may be positioned at the condensation section 309 wherein heat released from condensing silver may create high pressure at the entrance of the nozzle. The MHD converter may comprise an MHD channel having crossed magnets and electrodes downstream of each nozzle to convert the high velocity conductive flow into electricity. In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise a plurality of reaction cell chambers 5b31 such as in a position immediately preceding the nozzle.

[0409] In an embodiment comprising no return reservoirs 311 wherein the end of the MHD channel 309 behaves like the lower hemisphere of the blackbody radiator 5b41 and the return EM pump 312 speeds are fast (not return rate limiting), then the silver will distribute back to the injector reservoirs 5c in the same manner as it does in the blackbody radiator design of the disclosure. The relative injection rates may then be controlled by the inlet riser tube 5qa of each reservoir 5c as in the case of the blackbody radiator design of the disclosure.

[0410] In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an EM pump at the position just downstream of the acceleration nozzle 307 to pump condensed molten metal back to at least one reservoir of a molten metal injector system such as the reservoirs 5c of an open dual molten metal injector system 5ka and 6k61.

[0411] In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises other combinations and configurations of return conduits 310 and 310a, return reservoirs 311 and 311a, return EM pumps 312 and compressors 312a, open injector reservoirs 5c, closed injector reservoirs 5c, open EM pump injector sections 5k61 and nozzles 5q, and closed EM pump injector sections 5k61 and nozzles 5q that may be selected by one skilled in the art to achieve the desired flow circuit of the MHD working medium through the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD converter 300. In an embodiment, the molten metal level controller 5qa of any reservoir such as at least one of the return reservoir 311 and the injector reservoir 5c may comprise at least one of an inlet riser tube 5qa, another of the disclosure, and one known to those skilled in the art.

[0412] In an embodiment, the working medium may comprise a mixture of gaseous and liquid phases such as at least one liquid metal and at least one gas such as at least one of a metal vapor and a gas such as a noble gas. Exemplary working media comprise liquid silver and gaseous silver or liquid silver, gaseous silver, and at least one other gas such as a noble gas or another metal vapor.

[0413] In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise a liquid metal MHD (LMMHD) converter such as one known in the art. The LMMHD converter may comprise a heat exchanger to cause heat to flow form the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the LMMHD converter. The MHD converter may comprise systems that exploit at least one of the

[0414] Rankine, Brayton, Ericsson, and Allam cycles. In an embodiment, the working medium comprises a high density and retains a high density relative to a noble gas such that at least one of recuperation and recirculation pumping of the working fluid is achieved with at least one of less expansion of the working fluid and more heat retention. The working medium may comprise a molten metal and its vapor such as silver and silver vapor. The working medium may further comprise at least one of an additional metal in at least one of liquid and vapor state and a gas such as a noble gas, steam, nitrogen, Freon, nitrogen, and other known in the art of liquid metal MHD (LMMHD) converters. In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise at least one of an EM pump, a MHD compressor, and a mechanical compressor or pump to recirculate the working medium.

[0415] The MHD converter may further comprise a mixer to mix liquid with gas wherein at least one phase may be heated prior to mixing. Alternatively, the mixed phases may be heated. The hot working medium comprising the mixture of phases flows into the MHD channel to generate electricity due to the pressure created in the working medium due to the heating. In another embodiment, the liquid may comprise a plurality liquids such as one that serves as the conductive matrix such as silver and another that has a lower boiling point to serve as the gaseous working medium due to its vaporization in the reaction cell chamber. The vaporization of the metal may permit a thermodynamic MHD cycle. Electrical power is generated with two-phase conductive flow in the MHD channel. The working medium may be heated by a heat exchanger to produce the pressure to provide the flow in the channel. The reaction cell chamber may provide the heat to the inlet of the heat exchanger that flows to the heat exchanger outlet and then to the working medium.

[0416] In an embodiment, the hydrino plasma vapor is mixed with liquid silver in a mixer to form a two-phase working medium. The heating creates a high-pressure flow of

[0417] predominantly molten silver through the MHD channel wherein the thermal-kinetic energy is converted to electricity and the cooler, lower-pressure working medium at the exit of the MHD channel is recirculated by the MHD EM pumps.

[0418] In an embodiment comprising a hybrid cycle that is an open gas cycle and a closed metal cycle, the working medium may comprise at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, and air that is seeded with metal vapor such as silver metal vapor. Liquid metal such as silver that is vaporized in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to comprise gas seed may be condensed upon exit of the MHD channel 308 and recirculated to the reservoirs 5c. The gas such as air that exists the MHD channel may be separated from the seed and may be vented to atmosphere. The heat may be recuperated from the vented gas. Ambient gas such as air may be drawn in by the gas pumps or compressors 312a.

[0419] In an embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise a homogeneous MHD generator comprising a metal or metal mixture that is heated to cause metal vaporization at the inlet to the MHD channel. The converter may further comprise a channel inlet heat exchanger to transfer heat from the reaction cell chamber to the working medium to cause it to vaporization before the entrance to the MHD channel. The homogeneous MHD generator may further comprise a channel outlet heat exchanger at the exit of the MHD channel to serve as a regenerator to transfer heat to the working medium before it flow to the inlet heat exchanger. The inlet heat exchanger may comprise a working medium conduit through the reaction cell chamber. The metal working medium may be condensed at a condensation heat exchanger downstream of the outlet heat exchanger wherein the molten metal is then pumped by a recirculation EM pump.

[0420] In an embodiment, the working medium comprises a metal and a gas that is soluble in the molten metal at low temperature and insoluble or less soluble in the molten metal at elevated temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, the working medium may comprise at least one of silver and oxygen. In an embodiment, the oxygen pressure in the reaction cell chamber is maintained at a pressure that substantially prevents the molten metal such a silver form undergoing vaporization. The hydrino reaction plasma may heat the oxygen and liquid silver to a desired temperature such as 3500K. The mixture comprising the working medium may flow under pressure such as 25 atm through a tapered MHD channel wherein the pressure and temperature drop as the thermal energy is converted into electricity. As the temperature drops, the molten metal such as silver may absorb the gas such as oxygen. Then, the liquid may be pumped back to the reservoir to be recycled in the reaction cell chamber wherein the plasma heating releases the oxygen to increase the maintain the desired reaction cell chamber pressure and temperature condition to drive the MHD conversion. In an embodiment, the temperature of the silver at the exit of the MHD channel is about the melting point of the molten metal wherein the solubility of oxygen is about 20 cm3of oxygen (STP) to 1 cm3of silver at one atm O2. The recirculation pumping power for the liquid comprising the dissolved gas may be much less than that of the free gas. Moreover, the gas cooling requirements and MHD converter volume to drop the pressure and temperature of the free gas during a thermodynamic power cycle may be substantially reduced.

[0421] In an embodiment, the MHD channel may be vertical and the pressure gradient of the working medium in the channel may be greater than the pressure equivalent due to the force of gravity such that working medium flow of the molten metal is maintained in a cycle from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the exit of the MHD channel where the molten metal is pumped back to the reservoirs 5c. In an embodiment, the minimum pressure P is

[0422] P= ρgh (39)wherein ρ is the density ( 1.05 X 104 kg / m3 for silver) g is the gravitational constant, and his the height of the metal column. For an exemplary h = 0.2 m, P = 0.2 atm.

[0423] The expansion in the nozzle 307 may be isentropic. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction conditions in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may provide and maintain a suitable MHD nozzle 307 temperature and pressure such that the nozzle may produce a high velocity jet while avoiding condensation shock. At least one of about a constant velocity condition and continuity condition whereby the product of the density, velocity, and area is about constant may be maintained during the expansion in the MHD channel 308. In an

[0424] embodiment, supersonic silver vapor is injected at the entrance to the MHD channel 308 from the MHD nozzle 307. Some silver may condense in the channel, but due to the isentropic expansion, the condensation may be limited. Remaining energy in the jet comprising vapor and any condensed liquid as well as the heat of vaporization of the silver may be by at least partially recovered by condensation at the condenser 309 and recirculation by a recirculator or regenerator such as a heat pipe. In an embodiment, regeneration is achieved using a heat pipe whereby the heat pipe recovers at least the silver heat of vaporization and recirculates it such that the recovered heat power is part of the power input to the MHD channel; then this component of power balance is only reduced by the efficiency of the heat pipe. The percentage of the metal vapor that condenses may be insignificant such as in the range of about 1 to 15%. In an embodiment, condensed vapor may be caused to form an aerosol. The reaction cell chamber, nozzle, and MHD channel may contain a gas such as argon that causes the condensing vapor to from an aerosol. The vapor may be condensed at the end of the MHD channel 308 at condenser such as condenser 309. The liquid metal may be recirculated, and the heat of vaporization may be at least partially recovered by the regenerator such as one comprising a heat pipe.

[0425] In another embodiment, the vapor may be forced to condense in a desired region such as the nozzle 307 section. The nozzle expansion may be isentropic wherein condensation of a pure gas such as silver vapor is limited to a liquid mole fraction of 50% starting at the critical temperature and critical pressure which for silver are 506.6 MPa and 7480 K, respectively. In an embodiment, this limitation for condensation from expansion of a pressurized vapor may be overcome by means such as at least one of removal of heat such that the entropy may decrease and by pressurizing the condensing region with at least one other gas. The gas pressure may be equal in all portions of the regions in which there is gas continuity such as in the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD channel 308 regions. The MHD converter may further comprise a tank of other gas, a gas pressure gauge, a gas pump, and a gas pressure controller. The at least one other gas pressure may be controlled by the pressure controller. The gas pressure may be controlled to cause the metal vapor to condense to a greater extent than that of the isentropic expansion of the pure metal vapor. In an embodiment, the gas comprises one that is soluble in the vapor metal. In an exemplary embodiment, the metal comprises silver and the gas comprises at least one of O2and H2O.

[0426] In an embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and MHD channel 308 is achieved by the creation of a condensation shock when the metal vapor phase is quickly condensed onto a stream of the liquid metal, producing rapid transformation from two-phase into single-phase flow with a resulting release of the heat of vaporization. The energy release is manifest as kinetic energy of the liquid stream. The kinetic energy of the liquid stream is converted into electricity in the MHD channel 308. In an embodiment, the vapor is condensed as a fog or aerosol. The aerosol may form in a gas ambient atmosphere such as one comprising an aerosol-forming gas such as oxygen and optionally a noble gas such as argon. The MHD channel 308 may be straight to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel flow. The aerosol-forming gas such as oxygen and optionally a noble gas such as argon may be flowed through at least one of the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, and other MHD converter components such as any return lines 310a, conduits 313a, and pumps 312a. The gas may be recirculated by the MHD return gas pump or compressor 312a.

[0427] In an embodiment, the nozzle 307 comprises a condensing jet injector comprising a two-phase jet device in which the molten metal in the liquid state is mixed with its vapor phase, producing a liquid stream with a pressure that is higher than the pressure of either of the two inlet streams. The pressure may be developed in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and in the nozzle 307. The nozzle pressure may be converted to stream velocity at the exit of the nozzle 307. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber plasma comprises one phase of the jet device. Molten metal from at least one EM pump injector may comprise the other phase of the jet device. In an embodiment, the other phase such as the liquid phase may be injected by an independent EM pump injector that may comprise an EM pump 5ka, a reservoir such as 5c, an nozzle section of the EM pump tube 5k61, and a nozzle 5q.

[0428] In an embodiment, the MHD nozzle 307 comprises an aerosol jet injector that converts the high-pressure plasma of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 into an high velocity aerosol flow or jet in the MHD channel 308. The kinetic energy of the jet may be from at least one source of the group of the pressure of the plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the heat of vaporization of metal vapor condensed to form the aerosol jet. In an embodiment, the molar volume of the condensed vapor is about 50 to 500 times smaller than the corresponding vapor at standard conditions. The condensation of the vapor in the nozzle 307 may cause a decrease in pressure at the exit section of the nozzle. The decreased pressure may result in an increase in velocity of the condensed flow that may comprise at least one of a liquid and aerosol jet. The nozzle may be extended and may be convergent to convert the local pressure into kinetic energy. The channel may comprise a larger cross sectional area than that of the nozzle exit, and may be straight to allow the propagation of the aerosol flow. Other nozzle 307 and MHD channel 308 geometries such as ones having convergent, divergent, and straight sections may be selected to achieve the desired condensation of the metal vapor with at least a portion of the energy converted to a conductive flow in the MHD channel 308.

[0429] In an embodiment, some residual gas may remain uncondensed in the MHD channel 308. The uncondensed gas may support plasma in the MHD channel to provide an electrically conductive MHD channel flow. The plasma may be maintained by the hydrino reaction that may be propagated in the MHD channel 308. The hydrino reactants may be provided to at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD channel 308.

[0430] In an embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and MHD channel 308 is achieved by the condensation of the metal vapor such as silver metal vapor with a release of the heat of vaporization. The energy release is manifest as kinetic energy of the condensate. The kinetic energy of the flow may be converted into electricity in the MHD channel 308. The MHD channel 308 may be straight to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel flow. In an embodiment, the vapor is condensed as a fog or aerosol. The aerosol may form in an ambient atmosphere comprising an inert gas such as one comprising argon. The aerosol may form in an ambient atmosphere comprising oxygen. The MHD converter may comprise a source of metal aerosol such as silver aerosol. The source may comprise at least one of the dual molten metal injectors. The aerosol source may comprise an independent EM pump injector that may comprise an EM pump 5ka, a reservoir such as 5c, an nozzle section of the EM pump tube 5k61, and a nozzle 5q wherein the molten metal injection at least partially converts to metal aerosol. The aerosol may flow or be injected into the region wherein it is desired to condense the metal vapor such as in the MHD nozzle 307. The aerosol may condense the metal vapor to a greater extent than that possible for metal vapor that undergoes isentropic expansion such as isentropic nozzle expansion. The metal vapor condensation may release the metal vapor heat of vaporization that may increase at least one of the temperature and pressure of the aerosol. The corresponding energy and power may contribute to the kinetic energy and power of the aerosol and plasma flow at the exit of the nozzle. The power of the flow may be converted to electricity with an increase in efficiency due to the contribution of the power from the metal vapor heat of vaporization. The MHD converter may comprise a controller of the source of metal aerosol to control at least one of the aerosol flow rate and aerosol mass density. The controller may control the rate of EM pumping of an EM pump source of aerosol. The aerosol injection rate may be controlled to optimize the vapor condensation to recover the vapor heat of vaporization and the MHD power conversion efficiency.

[0431] In an embodiment, the heat of vaporization released by the condensation of vapor in the nozzle is at least partially transferred to the reaction cell chamber plasma directly or indirectly. The nozzle may comprise a heat exchanger to transfer heat to the reaction cell chamber. The heat may be transferred by at least one method of radiation, conduction, and convection. The nozzle may be heated by the released heat of vaporization and the heat may be transferred by conduction to the reaction cell chamber. The nozzle may comprise a material that is highly heat conductive such as a refractory heat conductor that may comprise an oxidation resistant coating. In exemplary embodiments, the nozzle may comprise boron nitride or carbon that may be coated with an oxidation resistance refractory coat such as a ZrO2coating. The material may comprise other refractory materials and coatings of the disclosure.

[0432] In an embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and MHD channel 308 is achieved by the condensation of the metal vapor such as silver metal vapor with a release of the heat of vaporization. The energy release is manifest as kinetic energy of the condensate. The kinetic energy of the flow may be converted into electricity in the MHD channel 308. The MHD channel 308 may be straight to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel flow. In an embodiment, the vapor is condensed as a fog or aerosol. The aerosol may form in an ambient atmosphere such as one comprising at least one of argon and oxygen. The aerosol may be formed by injection, passive flow, or forced flow of at least one of oxygen and a noble gas through the liquid silver. The gas may be recirculated using the compressor 312a. The gas may be recirculated in a high-pressure gas flow loop such as one that receives gas at the reaction cell chamber 531 and recirculates it to the reservoir 5c wherein it flows through molten silver to increase the aerosol formation. In an embodiment, the silver may comprise an additive to increase the aerosol formation rate and extent. In an alternative embodiment, a high rate of aerosol production may be a formed by circulating the liquid metal at a high rate. The metal may be injected at high rate by at least one molten metal injector such as the dual molten metal injectors comprising EM pumps 5kk. The pump rate may be in at least one range of about 1 g / s to 10 g / s, 10 g / s to 100 g / s, 1 kg / s to 10 kg / s, 10 kg / s to 100 kg / s, and 100 kg / s to 1000 kg / s. In an embodiment, the energy efficiency to form silver aerosol by pumping molten metal in a maintained cell atmosphere such as one comprising a desired concentration of oxygen may be higher than pumping the gas through the molten silver.

[0433] The MHD converter may comprise a source of metal aerosol such as silver aerosol. The source may comprise one or more of at least one of the dual molten metal injectors and aerosol formation from at least one reservoir due to a temperature of the metal contained in the reservoir of above the metal’s melting point. The aerosol source may comprise an independent EM pump injector that may comprise an EM pump 5ka, a reservoir such as 5c, an nozzle section of the EM pump tube 5k61, and a nozzle 5q wherein the molten metal injection at least partially converts to metal aerosol. The aerosol may flow or be injected into the region wherein it is desired to condense the metal vapor such as in the MHD nozzle 307. The aerosol may condense the metal vapor to a greater extent than that possible for metal vapor that undergoes isentropic expansion such as isentropic nozzle expansion. The metal vapor condensation may release the metal vapor heat of vaporization that may increase at least one of the temperature and pressure of the aerosol. The corresponding energy and power may contribute to the kinetic energy and power of the aerosol and plasma flow at the exit of the nozzle. The power of the flow may be converted to electricity with an increase in efficiency due to the contribution of the power from the metal vapor heat of vaporization. The MHD converter may comprise a controller of the source of metal aerosol to control at least one of the aerosol flow rate and aerosol mass density. The controller may control the rate of EM pumping of an EM pump source of aerosol. The aerosol injection rate may be controlled to optimize the vapor condensation to recover the vapor heat of vaporization and the MHD power conversion efficiency.

[0434] The entropy decrease to cause condensation of the silver vapor during otherwise isentropic expansion can be estimated by the entropy of vaporization of silver ΔSvapgiven by

[0435] wherein Tvapis the silver boiling point and ΔHvapis the silver enthalpy of vaporization. Inthe case that silver vapor contacts silver fog or aerosol having the exemplary temperature of the reservoir of 1500 K, the entropy change to reach the boiling point is

[0436] wherein dHfogis the differential fog enthalpy, Tfogis the fog temperature, Cpis the specific heat capacity of silver at constant pressure, and Tresis the reservoir and the initial fogtemperature. Thus, in the case that the mass flow of fog is about 8 times that of the metal vapor, the metal vapor will condense to release its heat of vaporization in the nozzle with the corresponding energy available to be significantly converted to kinetic energy. Given that an exemplary molar volume of the condensed vapor as fog or aerosol is about 50 times smaller than the corresponding vapor, the fog flow need only be about 15% of the total gas / plasma volumetric flow to achieve condensation of the vapor to result in about pure fog or aerosol plasma flow. The flog flow rate may be controlled by controlling the reservoir temperature, the fog source injection rate such as the EM pump rate, and the pressure of the aerosol- forming gas such as oxygen and optionally argon.

[0437] In an embodiment, the MHD thermodynamic cycle comprises the process of maintaining a hydrino reaction plasma that maintains superheated silver vapor and condensing it to a high kinetic energy aerosol jet of liquid droplets by adding at least one of cold silver aerosol or liquid silver metal injection. The aerosol jet power inventory may comprise predominantly kinetic energy power. The electrical power conversion may be predominantly from the kinetic energy power change in the MHD channel 308. The mode of operation of the MHD converter may comprise the opposite of that of a railgun or the opposite of a DC conductive electromagnetic pump.

[0438] The vapor condensation to form the high kinetic energy jet of liquid silver droplets may substantially avoid the loss of the heat of vaporization in the energy and power balance. The cold silver aerosol may be formed in the reservoirs and transported to at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD nozzle 307. The cell may further comprise a mixing chamber at the down-stream side of the plasma flow through the reaction cell chamber to the MHD converter. The mixing of cold aerosol and superheated vapor may occur in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the mixing chamber, and the MHD nozzle 307. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of oxygen to form fuming molten silver to facilitate silver aerosol formation. The oxygen may be supplied to at least one of the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, the MHD condensation section 309, and another interior chamber of the SunCell®-MHD converter generator. The oxygen may be absorbed by molten silver to form an aerosol. The aerosol may be enhanced by the presence of a noble gas such as an argon atmosphere inside of the generator. The argon atmosphere may be added and maintained at a desired pressure by systems of the disclosure such as an argon tank, line, valve, controller and injector. The injector may be in the condensation section 309 or other appropriate region to avoid silver back flow. In an embodiment, the super heated silver vapor may be condensed to form an aerosol jet by the injection of silver directly or indirectly into the nozzle. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be operated under at least one of lower temperature and lower pressure to permit a larger fraction of the vapor to be liquefied under expansion such as isentropic expansion. An exemplary lower temperature and pressure are about 2500 K and about 1 atm, versus 3500 K and 10 atm, respectively.

[0439] In the case that the flow velocity decreases, the density of the fog may increase to maintain constant flow in the channel. The density may increase by aggregation of silver fog droplets. The channel may comprise a straight channel. In other embodiments, the channel may be convergent or divergent or have another geometry appropriate to optimize the MHD power conversion.

[0440] In an embodiment, the nozzle may comprise at least one channel for relatively cold metal vapor aerosol and at least another for silver vapor or super heated silver vapor. The channels may deliver corresponding aerosol to be mixed in the nozzle 307. The mixing may decrease the entropy to cause silver vapor condensation. The condensation and nozzle flow may result in a fast aerosol jet at the nozzle exit. The flow rate of the relatively cold aerosol may be controlled by controlling the temperature of the source such as the reservoir temperature wherein the reservoir may serve as the source. The flow rate of the superheated vapor may be controlled by controlling at least one of the hydrino reaction rate and the rate of molten metal injection. In an embodiment, the SunCell® output power may be varied by varying the silver mass flow by controlling the EM pumps according the mass derivative term of Eq. (42). The hydrino reactants may be synchronously controlled to match the reaction rate and power to the desired output electrical power.

[0441] In an embodiment, the nozzle exit pressure and temperature are about those at theMHD channel 308 exit, and the input power at the entrance of the MHD channel 308 is

[0442] about that given by the kinetic energy associated with the mass flow ratem ^at its velocityv.

[0443] The electrical conversion power Pelectricin the MHD channel is given by

[0444] wherein V is the MHD channel voltage, I is the channel current, E is the channel electric field, J is the channel current density, L is the channel length, σ is the flow conductivity, v is the flow velocity, B is the magnetic field strength, A is the current cross sectional area (the nozzle exit area), d is the electrode separation, and W is the loading factor (ratio of the electric field across the load to the open circuit electric field). The efficiency η is given by the ratio of the electrical conversion power in the MHD channel (Eq. (43)) and the input power (Eq. (42)):

[0445] In the case that the mass flow m^is 1 kg / s, the conductivity σ is 50,000 S / m, thevelocity is 1200 m / s, the magnetic flux B is 0.25 T, the load factor W is 0.5, the channelwidth and the electrode separation d of the exemplary straight square rectangular channel is 0.05 m, and the channel length L is 0.2 m, the powers and efficiency are:

[0446]

[0447] Eq. (47) is the total enthalpic efficiency when the total energy inventory is essentially the kinetic energy wherein the heat of vaporization is also converted to kinetic energy in the nozzle 307.

[0448] In an embodiment, the differential Lorentz force is proportional to the silver

[0449] plasma flow velocity and the differential distance dx along the MHD channel 308:

[0450]

[0451] The differential Lorentz force (Eq. (48)) can be rearranged as

[0452] or

[0453] wherein (i) the conductivity σ and the magnetic flux B may be constant along the channel, (ii) ideally there is no mass loss along the channel such that the mass m is a constant with respect to distance and the mass flow rate in the channel m^is constant due to a constant rate of injection into the channel entrance and continuity of flow under steady state conditions, d

[0454] and (iii) the differential of velocity with distance is time independent at a steady flow

[0455] condition. The constant mass flow rate with decreasing velocity along the channel may correspond to increasing aggregation of aerosol particles to the limit of complete liquefaction at the MHD channel exit. Then, the rate of change in velocity with respect to channel distance is proportional to the velocity:

[0456] wherein k is a constant determined by the boundary conditions. Integration of Eq. (51) gives By c omparing Eq. (51) to Eq. (50) the constantkis

[0457] By combinin and Eq. (53), the velocity as a function of channel distance is

[0458] From Eq. (43), the corresponding power of the channel is given by

[0459]

[0460] In the case that the mass flow m ^ is 0.5 kg / s, the conductivity σ is 50,000 S / m, the velocity is 1200 m / s, the magnetic flux B is 0.1 T, the load factor W is 0.7, the channel width and theelectrode separationdof the exemplary straight square rectangular channel is 0.1 m, and the channel length L is 0.25 m, the powers and efficiency are:

[0461] and

[0462]

[0463] Eq. (58) corresponds to 54% of the initial channel kinetic energy converted to electricity to power an external load and 46% of the power dissipated in the internal resistance wherein the electrical power density is 80 kW / liter.

[0464] The electrical power converges to the kinetic energy power input to the MHD channel 0.5m ^v2

[0465] 0 times the loading factor W of the MHD channel. The power density may be increased by increasing the input kinetic energy power and by decreasing the channel dimensions. The latter may be achieved by increasing at least one of the mass flow rate, the magnetic flux density, and the flow conductivity. In the case that the mass flow m ^ is 2 kg / s, the conductivity σ is 500,000 S / m, the velocity is 1500 m / s, the magnetic flux B is 1 T, the load factor W is 0.7, the channel width and the electrode separation d of the exemplarystraight square rectangular channel is 0.05 m, and the channel length L is 0.1 m, the powers and efficiency are:

[0466] and

[0467]

[0468] Eq. (61) corresponds to 70% of the initial channel kinetic energy converted to electricity to power an external load and 30% of the power dissipated in the internal resistance wherein the electrical power density is 6.3 MW / liter.

[0469] The power given by Eq. (55) may be expressed as

[0470] wherein K0is the initial channel kinetic energy. The maximum power output can bedetermined by taking the derivative ofPwith respect toWand setting it equal to 0.

[0471]

[0472] wherein

[0473]

[0474] In the exemplary case of Eqs. (59-61) wherein s = 125, using a reiterative method, the power is optimal when W = 0.96. In this case, the efficiency for the conditions of Eqs. (59-60) is 96%.

[0475] In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the nozzle 307 may comprise a magnetic bottle that may selectively form a plasma jet along the longitudinal axis of the MHD channel 308. The power converter may comprise a magnetic mirror which is a source of a magnetic field gradient in a desired direction of ion flow where the initial parallel velocity of plasma electrons v||increases as the orbital velocity v⊥ decreases with conservation of energy according to the adiabatic invariant constant , the linear energy

[0476] being drawn from that of orbital motion. As the magnetic flux B decreases, the ion cyclotron radius a will increase such that the flux πa2B remains constant. The invariance of the flux linking an orbit is the basis of the mechanism of a "magnetic mirror". The principle of a magnetic mirror is that charged particles are reflected by regions of strong magnetic fields if the initial velocity is towards the mirror and are ejected from the mirror otherwise. The adiabatic invariance of flux through the orbit of an ion is a means to form a flow of ions along the z-axis with the conversion of v⊥ to v||such that v||> v⊥ . Two magnetic mirrors or more may form a magnetic bottle to confine plasma such as that formed in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Ions created or contained in the bottle in the center region will spiral along the axis, but will be reflected by the magnetic mirrors at each end. The more energetic ions with high components of velocity parallel to a desired axis will escape at the ends of the bottle. The bottle may be more leaky at the MHD channel end. Thus, the bottle may produce an essentially linear flow of ions from the end of the magnetic bottle into the channel entrance of the magnetohydrodynamic converter.

[0477] Specifically, the plasma may be magnetized with a magnetic mirror that causes the component of ion motion perpendicular to the direction of the MHD channel or z-axis v⊥ to at least partially convert into to parallel motion v||due to the adiabatic invariant

[0478] constant . The ions have a preferential velocity along the z-axis and propagate into the

[0479] magnetohydrodynamic power converter wherein Lorentzian deflected ions form a voltage at electrodes crossed with the corresponding transverse deflecting field. The voltage may drive a current through an electrical load. In an embodiment, the magnetic mirror comprises an electromagnet or a permanent magnet that produces the field equivalent to a Helmholtz coil or a solenoid. In the case of an electromagnetic magnetic mirror, the magnetic field strength may be adjustable by controlling the electromagnetic current to control the rate at which ions flow from the reaction cell chamber to control the power conversion. In the case that

[0480] at the entrance to the MHD channel 308, the velocity given

[0481] may be is about 95% parallel to the z-axis.

[0482]

[0483] In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction mixture may comprise at least one of oxygen, water vapor, and hydrogen. The MHD components may comprise materials such as ceramics such as metal oxides such as at least one of zirconia and hafnia, or silica or quartz that are stable under an oxidizing atmosphere. In an embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 may comprise a material that may be less susceptible to corrosion or degradation during operation. In an embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 may comprise a conductive ceramic such as a conductive solid oxide. In another embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 may comprise liquid electrodes. The liquid electrodes may comprise a metal that is liquid at the electrode operating temperature. The liquid metal may comprise the working medium metal such as molten silver. The molten electrode metal may comprise a matrix impregnated with the molten metal. The matrix may comprise a refectory material such as a metal such as W, carbon, a ceramic that may be conductive or another refractory material of the disclosure. The negative electrode may comprise a solid refractory metal. The negative polarity may protect the negative electrode from oxidizing. The positive electrode may comprise a liquid electrode.

[0484] The liquid electrode may comprise a means to apply electromagnetic restraint (Lorentz force) to maintain free surface liquid metal. The liquid metal electrodes may comprise a source of magnetic field and a source of current to maintain the electromagnetic restraint. The magnetic field source may comprise at least one of the MHD magnets 306 and another set of magnetic such a permananet magnets, electromagnets, and superconducting magnets. The current source may comprise at least one of the MHD current and an applied current from an external current source.

[0485] In an embodiment, the conductive ceramic electrodes may comprise one of the disclosure such as a carbide such as ZrC, HfC, or WC or a boride such as ZrB2or composites such as ZrC-ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2-SiC, and ZrB2with 20% SiC composite that may work up to 1800 °C. The electrodes may comprise carbon. In an embodiment, a plurality of liquid electrodes may be supplied liquid metal through a common manifold. The liquid metal may be pumped by an EM pump. The liquid electrodes may comprise molten metal impregnated in a non-reactive matrix such as a ceramic matrix such as a metal oxide matrix.

[0486] Alternatively, the liquid metal may be pumped through the matrix to continuous supply molten metal. In an embodiment, the electrodes may comprise continuously injected molten metal such as the ignition electrodes. The injectors may comprise a non-reactive refractory material such as a metal oxide such as ZrO2. In an embodiment, each of the liquid electrodes may comprise a flow stream of molten metal that is exposed to the MHD channel plasma.

[0487] In an embodiment, the electrodes may be arranged in a Hall generator design. The negative electrode may be in proximity to the entrance of the MHD channel and the positive electrode may be in proximity to the exit of the MHD channel. The electrode may be in proximity to the entrance of the MHD channel may comprise a liquid electrode such as a submerged electrode. The electrode in proximity to the exit of the MHD channel may comprise a conductor that is resistant to oxidation at the electrode operating temperature wherein the operating temperature may be significantly lower at the exit than that entrance of the MHD channel. Exemplary oxidation resistant electrodes at the MHD exit may comprise a carbide such as ZrC or a boride such as ZrB2. In an embodiment, the electrodes may comprise a series of electrode sections separated by insulator sections that comprise protrusions of the MHD channel wall that may comprise and electrical insulator. The protruding sections may be maintained at a temperature that prevents the metal vapor from condensing. The insulating sections may comprise wall strips that are at least one of heated and insulated to maintain the strip temperature above the boiling point of the metal at the operating pressure of the MHD channel. The electrode at the exit of the channel may comprise an oxidation resistant electrode such as a carbide or boride that may be stable to oxidation at the exit temperature. In an embodiment, the MHD channel may be maintained at a temperature below that which results in at least one of condensation of metal vapor on the insulator portion of the walls and corrosion of the electrodes such as carbide or boride electrodes such as ones comprising ZrC or ZrB2or composites such as ZrC-ZrB2and ZrC- ZrB2-SiC composite that may work up to 1800 °C. In an embodiment, the working medium comprises a metal such silver that may sublime at a temperature below its boiling point to prevent the metal from condensing on the walls of the MHD channel such that it flows to the recirculation system.

[0488] In an embodiment, the MHD magnets 306 may comprise alternating field magnets such as electromagnets that may apply a sinusoidal or alternating magnetic field to the MHD channel 308. The sinusoidal or alternating applied field may cause the MHD electrical output to be alternating (AC) power. The alternating current and voltage frequency may be a standard one such as 50 or 60 Hz. In an embodiment, the MHD power is transferred out of the channel by induction. The induction generator may eliminate the electrodes that contact the plasma.

[0489] The unions and seals between components such as the seal 314 connecting the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD acceleration channel or nozzle 307 to the MHD expansion or generator channel 308 may comprise a gasketed flange seal or other of the disclosure. Other seals such as ones of the return conduits 310, the return reservoirs 311, the return EM pumps 312, the injector reservoirs 5c, and the injection EM pump assembly 5kk may comprise one of the disclosure. An exemplary gasket comprises carbon such as graphite or Graphoil wherein joined metal oxide parts such as ones comprising at least one of alumina, hafnia, zirconia, and magnesia are maintained below the carboreduction temperature such as below the range of about 1300 °C to 1900 °C. The components may comprise different materials of the disclosure such as the refractory materials and stainless steel based on their operating parameters and requirements. In an exemplary embodiment, i.) at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, return conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, and return EM pump tube 312 comprises stainless steel wherein the inside may be coated with an oxidation protective coating such as nickel, Pt, rhenium, or other noble metal, ii.) at least one of the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD expansion section 308 comprises an electrical insulating refractory material such as boron nitride or a refractory oxide such as MgO (M.P.2825 °C), ZrO2(M.P.2715 °C), magnesia zirconia that is stable to H2O, strontium zirconate (SrZrO3M.P.2700 °C), HfO2(M.P.2758 °C), or thorium dioxide (M.P.3300 °C) that is stable to oxidation at the operating temperature, iii.) the reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprises graphite such as at least one of isotropic and pyrolytic graphite, and iv.) at least one of the inlet riser tube 5qa, the nozzle section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the nozzle 5q, and the MHD electrodes 304 may comprise at least one of carbon, Mo, W, rhenium, rhenium coated Mo, rhenium coated W. In an exemplary embodiment, at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, return conduits 310a, return reservoirs 311a, and return gas pump or compressor 312a comprises stainless steel wherein the inside may be coated with an oxidation protective coating such as nickel, Pt, rhenium, or other noble metal.

[0490] The electrodes may comprise a noble metal coated conductor such as Pt on copper, nickel, nickel alloys, and cobalt alloys or these metals uncoated wherein cooling may be applied by a backing heat exchanger or cold plate. The electrodes may comprise spinel type electrodes such as 0.75 MgAl2O4-0.25 Fe304, 0.75 FeAl204-0.25 Fe304, and lanthanum chromite La(Mg)CrO3. In an embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 may comprise liquid electrodes such as liquid silver coated refractory metal electrodes or cooled metal electrodes. At least one of the Ni and rhenium coatings may protect the coated component from reaction with H2O. The MHD atmosphere may comprise hydrogen to maintain a reducing condition of metals such as those of the EM pump tube 5k6, inlet riser tube 5qa, the nozzle section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the nozzle 5q, and the MHD electrodes 304. The MHD atmosphere may comprise water vapor to maintain the oxide ceramic such as strontium zirconate, hafnia, ZrO2or MgO of the ceramic components such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD expansion section 308. Metal oxides parts may be glued or cemented together using ceramic glues such as zirconia phosphate cement, ZrO2cement, or calcia-zirconia cement. Exemplary Al2O3adhesives are Rescor 960 Alumina (Cotronics) and Ceramabond 671. Further exemplary ceramic glues are Resbond 989 (Cotronics) and Ceramabond 50 (Aremco). In an embodiment, the wall components may comprise a thermally insulating ceramic such as ZrO2or HfO2that may be stabilized with MgO, and the electrode insulators of the segmented electrodes may comprise a thermally conducting ceramic such as MgO. To prevent loss by vaporization from the outer surface, the ceramic may be at least one of thick enough to be sufficiently cool externally, actively or passively cooled, or wrapped in insulation. In an embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell® and MHD converter may comprise a composite of a ceramic such as zirconium carbide and the metal such as tungsten.

[0491] Several oxides may be add to the ZrO2(zirconia) or HfO2(hafnia) to stabilize the materials such as yttrium oxide (Y2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide (CaO), strontium oxide (SrO), tantalum oxide (Ta2O5), boron oxide (B2O3), TiO2, cerium oxide (Ce2O3), SiC, yttrium, and iridium. The crystal structure may be cubic phase that is referred to as cubic stabilized zirconia (hafnia) or stabilized zirconia (hafnia). In an embodiment, at least one cell component such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 is permeable to at least one of oxygen and oxide ions. An exemplary oxide permeable material is ZrO2. The oxygen content of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be controlled by controlling the oxide diffusion rate through the oxide permeable or oxide mobile material such as ZrO2. The cell may comprise a voltage and current source across the oxide permeable material and a voltage and current control system wherein the flow of oxide ions across the material is controlled by the voltage and current. Other suitable refractory component materials comprise at least one of SiC (M. P. = 2830 °C), BN (M. P. = 2970 °C), HfB2(M. P. = 3250 °C), and ZrB2(M. P. = 3250 °C).

[0492] To avoid MHD electrode electrical shorting by the molten metal vapor, the electrodes 304 (FIGURE 2I161) may comprise conductors, each mounted on an electrical-insulator- covered conducting post 305 that serves as a standoff for lead 305a and may further serve as a spacer of the electrode from the wall of the generator channel 308. The electrodes 304 may be segmented and may comprise a cathode 302 and anode 303. Except for the standoffs 305, the electrodes may be freely suspended in the generator channel 308. The electrode spacing along the vertical axis may be sufficient to prevent molten metal shorting. The electrodes may comprise a refractory conductor such as W or Mo. The leads 305a may be connected to wires that may be insulated with a refractory insulator such as BN. The wires may join in a harness that penetrates the channel at a MHD bus bar feed through flange 301 that may comprise a metal. Outside of the MHD converter, the harness may connect to a power consolidator and inverter.

[0493] In an exemplary embodiment, the blackbody plasma initial and final temperatures during MHD conversion to electricity are 3000K and 1300K. In an embodiment, the MHD generator is cooled on the low-pressure side to maintain the plasma flow. The Hall or generator channel 308 may be cooled. The cooling means may be one of the disclosure. The MHD generator 300 may comprise a heat exchanger 316 such as a radiative heat exchanger wherein the heat exchanger may be designed to radiate power as a function of its temperature to maintain a desired lowest channel temperature range such as in a range of about 1000 °C to 1500 °C. The radiative heat exchanger may comprise a high surface are to minimize at least one of its size and weight. The radiative heat exchanger 316 may comprise a plurality of surfaces that may be configured in pyramidal or prismatic facets to increase the radiative surface area. The radiative heat exchanger may operate in air. The surface of the radiative heat exchanger may be coated with a material that has at least one property of the group of (i) capable of high temperature operation such as a refractory material, (ii) possesses a high emissivity, (iii) stable to oxidation, and provides a high surface area such as a textured surface with unimpeded or unobstructed emission. Exemplary materials are ceramics such as oxides such as MgO, ZrO2, HfO2, Al2O3, and other oxidative stabilized ceramics such as ZrC-ZrB2and ZrC-ZrB2-SiC composite.

[0494] The generator may further comprise a regenerator or regenerative heat exchanger. In an embodiment, flow is returned to the injection system after passing in a counter current manner to receive heat in the expansion section 308 or other heat loss region to preheat the metal that is injected into the cell reaction chamber 5b31 to maintain the reaction cell chamber temperature. In an embodiment, at least one of working medium such as at least one of silver and a noble, a cell component such as the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and an MHD converter component such as at least one of the MHD condensation section 309 or other hot component such as at least one of the group of the reservoirs 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, and MHD condensation section 309 may be heated by a heat exchanger that receives heat from at least one other cell or MHD component such as at least one of the group of the reservoirs 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, and MHD condensation section 309. The regenerator or regenerative heat exchanger may transfer the heat from one component to another.

[0495] In an embodiment, at least one of the emissivity, area, and temperature of the radiative heater exchanger 316 may be controlled to control the rate of heat transfer. The area may be controlled by controlling the extent of covering of a heat shield over the radiator. The temperature may be controlled by controlling the heat flow to the radiator. In another embodiment, the heat exchanger 316 may comprise coolant loops wherein the MHD heat exchanger 316 receives coolant through the MHD coolant inlet 317 and removes heat through the MHD coolant outlet 318. The heat may be used in the regenerative heat exchanger to preheat the return silver flow, a cell component or a MHD component. Alternatively, the heat may be used for heating and cogeneration applications.

[0496] The nozzle throat 307 may comprise a refractory material that is resistant to wear such as a metal oxide such as ZrO2, HfO2, Al2O3, or MgO, a refractory nitride, a refractory carbide such as tantalum carbide, tungsten carbide, or tantalum tungsten carbide, pyrolytic graphite that may comprise a refractory cladding such as tungsten, or another refractory material of the disclosure alone or one that may be clad on a refractory material such as carbon. The electrodes 304 may comprise a refractory conductor such as W or Mo. The generator channel 308 or an electrically insulating support 305 such as those of the electrodes 304 may be a refractory insulator such as one of the disclosure such as a ceramic oxide such as ZrO2, boron nitride, or silicon carbide. In another embodiment wherein the MHD component is cooled, the MHD component such as at least one of the nozzle 307 and channel 308 may comprise a transition metal such as Cu or Ni that may be coated with a refractory material such as Al2O3, ZrO2, Mullite, or another of the disclosure. The electrodes may comprise a transition metal that may be cooled wherein the surface may be coated with a refractory conductor such as W or Mo. The component may be cooled by water, molten salt, or other coolant known by those skilled in the art such as at least one of thermal oils such as silicon based polymers, molten metals such as Sn, Pb, Zn, alloys, molten salts such as alkali salts and eutectic salt mixtures such as alkali halide-alkali hydroxide mixtures (MX-MOH M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X = F, Cl, Br, I). The hot coolant may be recirculated to preheat the molten metal injected into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The corresponding heat recovery system may comprise a recuperator.

[0497] In an embodiment, the MHD component such as the MHD nozzle 307, MHD channel 308, and MHD condensation section 309 may comprise a refractory material such as one of the disclosure such as at least one of carbide, carbon, and boride, and metal. The refractory material may be susceptible to oxidation to at least one of oxygen and water. To suppress the oxidation reaction, the source of oxygen for the HOH catalyst may be comprise a compound comprising oxygen such as at least one of CO, an alkaline or alkaline earth oxide, or another oxide or compound comprising oxygen of the disclosure. The boride may comprise ZrB2that may be doped with SiC. The carbide may comprise at least one of ZrC, WC, SiC, TaC, HfC, and Ta4HfC5. Conductive materials such as carbides may be electrically isolated with an insulating spacer or bushing where indicated such as in the case of electrical isolation of at least one of the ignition and MHD electrodes.

[0498] An exemplary MHD volumetric conversion density is about 70 MW / m3(70 kW / liter). Most of the problems with historical MHD originate from the low conductivity feature in the gas-fired case and in the low conductivity plus slagging environments in the coal-fired counterpart. The conductivity of the silver SunCell® plasma is estimated to be about 1 mΩ from the current of 10,000 A at a voltage of 12 V. From the arc dimensions, the

[0499] corresponding conductivity is estimated to be 1 X 105S / m compared to about 20 S / m for an alkali seeded inert MHD working gas wherein the power density is proportional to the conductivity.

[0500] In an embodiment, the working medium may comprise at least one of silver vapor and silver-vapor-seeded noble gas such as He, Ne, or Ar. In an embodiment, the conductivity of the working medium may be controlled by controlling at least one of the molten metal vapor pressure such as the silver vapor pressure and the ionization of the working medium. The ionization of the working medium may be controlled by controlling at least one of the hydrino reaction power, the intensity of the EUV and UV light emitted by the hydrino reaction, the ignition voltage, the ignition current, the EM pumping rate of the molten metal streams, and the operating temperatures such as at least one of the gas, electron, ion, and blackbody temperatures. At least one temperature may be controlled by controlling at least one of the ignition and hydrino reaction conditions. Exemplary hydrino reaction conditions are the gas pressure and gas composition such as H2O, H2, and inert gas composition. The hydrino reaction conditions and the corresponding controls may be ones of the disclosure or other suitable ones.

[0501] In an embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a molten metal overflow system such as one comprising an overflow tank, at least one pump, a cell molten metal inventory sensor, a molten metal inventory controller, a heater, a temperature control system, and a molten metal inventory to store and supply molten metal as required to the SunCell® as may be determined by at least one sensor and controller. A molten metal inventory controller of the overflow system may comprise a molten metal level controller of the disclosure such as an inlet riser tube and an EM pump. The overflow system may comprise at least one of the MHD return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, return EM pump 312, and return EM pump tube 313.

[0502] In an embodiment, the expansion of the working medium is maintained under conditions to assure isentropic flow. In an embodiment, the inlet working medium conditions are selected for the supersonic nozzle expansion that would ensure reversible expansion in the nozzle and a strong driving pressure gradient in the MHD channel. Since saturation, if it occurs in the nozzle, will lead to strong non-equilibrium sub-cooling due to the rapid cooling rate (such as of about 15 K / us) and this may further will trigger condensation shock in the diverging portion of the nozzle, the nozzle inlet conditions may be highly superheated in order that the vapor does not become saturated during the expansion. In an embodiment, condensation shock is to be avoided because it causes irreversibilities that deviates from the desired isentropic flow condition and sharply reduces the nozzle exit velocity, and the resulting highly dense liquid Ag droplets entrained in the vapor flow in the

[0503] supersonic / diverging part of the nozzle may lead to accelerated erosion of the nozzle surface. In an embodiment wherein the Lorentz force acts adverse to the flow direction such that a weak driving pressure gradient in the MHD channel may lead to reduced volume flow through the system, the nozzle inlet temperature is as high as possible to allow adequate superheat, and the pressure is also moderately high to assure a strong driving pressure gradient in the MHD section downstream of the nozzle. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 pressure at the nozzle entrance is about 6 atm, and the plasma temperature is about 4000 K to result in an isentropic expansion and dry vapor exiting the nozzle at about Mach number 1.24 with about 722 m / s velocity and a pressure of more than 2 atm. Lower inlet temperatures are also possible but these may each yield smaller exit velocity and pressure.

[0504] In an embodiment wherein the Lorentz force may stall the plasma jet before the desired MHD channel 308 exit temperature is achieved, at least one of the plasma

[0505] conductivity, magnetic field strength, gas temperature, electron temperature, ion temperature, channel inlet pressure, jet velocity, and working medium flow parameters are optimized to achieve the desired MHD conversion efficiency and power density. In an embodiment comprising a molten metal seeded noble gas plasma such as a silver vapor seeded argon or helium plasma, the relative flow of metal vapor to noble gas is controlled to achieve at least one of the desired conductivity, plasma gas temperature, reaction chamber 5b31 pressure, and MHD channel 308 inlet jet velocity, pressure, and temperature. In an embodiment, the noble gas and metal vapor flows may be controlled by controlling the corresponding return pumps to achieve the desired relative ratios. In an embodiment, the conductivity may be controlled by controlling the amount of seeding by controlling the relative noble gas and metal injection rates to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the conductivity may be controlled by controlling the hydrino reaction rate. The hydrino reaction rate may be controlled by means of the disclosure such as by controlling the injection rate of at least one of the source of catalyst, the source of oxygen, the source of hydrogen, water vapor, hydrogen, the flow of the conductive matrix such as the injection of molten silver, and the ignition parameters such as at least one of the ignition voltage and current. In an

[0506] embodiment, the MHD converter comprises sensors and control systems for the hydrino reaction and MHD operating parameters such as (i) the reaction conditions such as reactant pressures, temperatures, and relative concentrations, reactant flows such as those of HOH and H or their sources and the flow and pumping rate of the conductive matrix such as liquid and vaporized silver, and ignition conditions such as the ignition current and voltage, (ii) plasma and gas parameters such as pressures, velocities, flow rates, conductivities, and temperatures through the stages of the MHD converter, (iii) return and recycle material parameters such as the pumping rates and physical parameters of the noble gas and molten metal such as flow rates, temperatures, and pressures, and (iv) plasma conductivity sensors in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD channel 308, and MHD condensation section 309.

[0507] In an embodiment, a source of gas such as hydrogen such as at least one of H2gas and H2O may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The SunCell® may comprise at least one mass flow controller to supply the source of hydrogen such as at least one of H2gas and H2O that may be in at least one of liquid and gaseous form. The supply may be through at least one of the base if the EM pump assembly 5kk1, the reservoir 5c wall, the wall of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the injection EM pump tube 5k6, the MHD return conduit 310, the MHD return reservoir 311, the pump tube of the MHD return EM pump 312, and the MHD return EM pump tube 313. The gas added to the cell or MHD interior may be injected in the MHD condensor section 309 or at any convenient cell or MHD converter component that is connected to the interior. In an embodiment, hydrogen gas may be supplied through a selective membrane such as a hydrogen permeable membrane. The hydrogen supply membrane may comprise a Pd or Pd-Ag H2permeable membrane or similar membrane known by those skilled in the art. The penetration into the EM pump tube wall for the gas may comprise a flange that may be welded-in or threaded in. The hydrogen may be supplied from a hydrogen tank. The hydrogen may be supplied from release from hydride wherein the release may be controlled be means known by those skilled in the art such as by controlling at least one of pressure and temperature of the hydride. Hydrogen may be supplied by electrolysis of water. The water electrolyzer may comprise a high-pressure electrolyzer. At least one of the electrolyzer and the hydrogen mass flow controller may be controlled by a controller such as one comprising a computer and corresponding sensors. The hydrogen flow may be controlled based on the power output of the SunCell® that may be recorded by a converter such as a thermal measuring device, the PV converter, or the MHD converter.

[0508] In an embodiment, H2O may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The supply may comprise a line such as one through the EM pump tube 5k6 or EM pump assembly 5kk. The H2O may provide at least one of H and HOH catalyst. The hydrino reaction may produce O2and H2(1 / p) and products. The H2(1 / p) such as H2(1 / 4) may diffuse from at least one of the reaction cell chamber and MHD converter to an outside region such as ambient atmosphere or a H2(1 / p) collection system. H2(1 / p) may diffuse through the wall of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and MHD converter due to its small volume. The O2product may diffuse from at least one of the reaction cell chamber and MHD converter to an outside region such as ambient atmosphere or an O2collection system. The O2may diffuse through a selective membrane, material, or value. The selective material or membrane may comprise one capable of conducting oxide such as a yttria, nickel / yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) / silicate layered, or other oxygen or oxide selective membrane known by those skilled in the art. The O2may diffuse through a permeable wall such as one capable of conducting oxide such as a yttria wall. The oxygen permeable membrane may comprise a porous ceramic of a low-pressure component of the reaction cell and MHD converter such as a ceramic wall of the MHD channel 308. The oxygen selective membrane may comprise BaCo0.7Fe0.2Nb0.1O3-δ(BCFN) oxygen permeable membrane that may be coated with Bi26Mo10O69to increase the oxygen permeation rate. The oxygen selective membrane may comprise at least one of Gd1-xCaxCoO3-dand Ce1-xGdxO2-d. The oxygen selective membrane may comprise a ceramic oxide membrane such as at least one of

[0509] The EM pump or components such as at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, the EM pump 5ka, the EM pump tube 5k6, the inlet riser 5qa, and the injection EM pump tube 5k61 may comprise a material or coating that is stable to the oxygen such as a ceramic such as at least one of Al2O3, ZrC, ZrC-ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2-SiC, and ZrB2with 20% SiC composite or at least one noble metal such as at least one of platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), and iridium (Ir).

[0510] In an embodiment shown in FIGURES 2I174-2I181, at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, the EM pump 5ka, the EM pump tube 5k6, the inlet riser 5qa, and the injection EM pump tube 5k61 may comprise a ceramic that is resistant to oxidation. The ceramic may be non-reactive with O2. The ceramic may comprise an electrical conductor that is stable to reaction with oxygen to elevated temperature. Exemplary ceramics are ZrC, ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2-SiC, and ZrB2with 20% SiC composite. The conductive ceramic may be doped with SiC to provide protection from oxidation.

[0511] Iridium (M.P. = 2446 °C) does not form an alloy or solid solution with silver; thus, iridium may serve as a suitable anti-oxidation coating of at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk and EM pump tube 5k6 to avoid oxidation. The iridium coating may be applied to a metal of about matching coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). In an exemplary embodiment, the inside of the EM pump assembly 5kk and EM pump tube 5k6 are electroplated with iridium wherein the electroplated components comprise stainless steel (SS) such as Haynes 230, 310 SS, or 625 SS that has a similar CTE as iridium. Alternatively, a molybdenum EM pump assembly 5kk may be coated with iridium wherein there is a CTE match (e.g. ~ 7 ppm / K). In an embodiment, the interior of the EM pump tube is electroplated using the tube as the cathode, and the counter electrode may comprise a wire with insulating spacers that is periodically moved on the counter electrode to electroplate areas covered by the spacers. In an embodiment, the iridium coating may be applied by vapor deposition such a method comprising the chemical deposition of an organic molecule comprising iridium such as thermal decomposition of tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl to cause the iridium to deposit on the desired surface maintained at an elevated temperature. Iridium may be deposited by one or more methods known in the art such as at least one of magnetron sputtering (both direct current magnetron sputtering (DCMS) and radio frequency magnetron sputtering (RFMS)), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), metal-organic CVD (MOCVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), laser-induced chemical vapor deposition (LCVD), electrodeposition, pulsed laser deposition (PLD), and double glow plasma (DGP). In an embodiment, the inside of the EM pump 5k6 tube may be clad with iridium. The ends of the cladding may be coated with iridium by a means of the disclosure such as CVD or electroplating.

[0512] In another embodiment, the EM pump assembly such as a stainless steel EM pump assembly may be coated with a refractory, oxidation resistant coating such as at least one of an oxide and a carbide. The coating may comprise at least one of a carbide such as hafnium carbide / silicon carbide (HfC / SiC) and an oxide such as at least one of HfO2, ZrO2, Y2O3, Al2O3, SiO2, Ta2O5, and TiO2.

[0513] In another embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 comprises an oxidation-resistant stainless steel (SS) such as that used in the water wall of coal fireboxes and boiler tubes such as austenitic stainless steels. Exemplary materials are Haynes 230, SS 310, and SS 625, an austenitic nickel- chromium-molybdenum-niobium alloy possessing a rare combination of outstanding corrosion resistance coupled with high strength from cryogenic temperatures to 1800°F (982°C). In an embodiment, the material such as Haynes 230, SS 310, or SS 625 may be pre-oxidized to form a protective oxide coat. The protective oxide coat may be formed by heating in an atmosphere comprising oxygen. The SS such as Haynes 230 may be pre-oxidized in air or a controlled atmosphere such as one comprising oxygen and a noble gas such as argon. In exemplary embodiments, the Haynes 230 such as Ni-Cr alloy with W and Mo alloy is pre-oxidized in air at 1000 °C or in argon 80% / oxygen 20% for 24 hours. The oxide coat may be formed under the desired operating temperature and oxygen concentration. In an embodiment, metal parts such as those comprising SS 625 such as the EM pump assembly 5kk may be 3D printed. In an embodiment, the outside of the EM pump assembly may be protected from oxidation. The protection may comprise a coating with an oxidation resistant coating such as one of the disclosure. Alternatively, at least a portion of the EM pump assembly 5kk may be embedded in an oxidation resistant material such as ceramic, quartz, glass, and ceme...

Claims

What Is Claimed Is:

1. A power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprising:at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure of below, at, or above atmospheric;reactants, the reactants comprising:a. at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H2O;b. at least one source of H2O or H2O;c. at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and d. a molten metal;a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir that contains some of the molten metal and a molten metal pump with an injector tube that provides a molten metal stream and at least one non-injector reservoir that receives the molten metal stream;at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power to supply electrical power to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma; at least one reactant supply system to replenish reactants that are consumed in a reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of the electrical energy and thermal energy;at least one power converter or output system of at least one of the light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power.

2. The power system of Claim 1 further comprising a heater to melt a metal tocomprise the molten metal.

3. The power system of Claim 1 further comprising a molten metal recovery system.

4. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the molten metal recovery systemcomprises at least one molten metal overflow channel from the non-injection reservoir to the injector system reservoir that further creates breaks in the molten metal overflow stream to interrupt any current path through the overflowing molten metal.

5. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the molten metal recovery systemcomprises the non-injector reservoir having its inlet to receive molten metal from the injector tube of the injector system at an elevation above the injector tube and further comprising a drip edge to break-up the overflow stream.

6. The power system of Claim 5 wherein non-injector reservoir inlet lies in a plane and the plane is aligned perpendicular to the initial direction of the molten metalstream from the injection tube.

7. The power system of Claim 6 wherein the non-injector reservoir and the injector tube of the injector system are both aligned along an axis at an angle greater than zero from a horizontal axis that is transverse to the Earth’s gravitational axis.

8. The power system of Claim 7 wherein the angle is in the range of 25° to 90°.

9. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the injector reservoir comprises anelectrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir comprises an electrode that makes contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

10. The power system of Claim 9 wherein the ignition system comprises a source of electrical power to supply opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes that supplies current and power flow through the stream of molten metal to cause the reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside of the vessel.

11. The power system of Claim 10 wherein the source of electrical power delivers a high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma.

12. The power system of Claim 11 wherein the source of electrical power comprises at least one supercapacitor.

13. The power system of Claim 1 wherein each electromagnetic pump comprises one of aa. DC or AC conduction type comprising a DC or AC current sourcesupplied to the molten metal through electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field, orb. induction type comprising a source of alternating magnetic field through a shorted loop of molten metal that induces an alternating current in the metal and a source of in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field.

14. The power system of Claim 1 wherein a current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A.

15. The power system of Claim 14 wherein the circuit of the molten metal ignition system is closed by the molten metal stream to cause ignition to further cause an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz.

16. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the molten metal comprises at least one of silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper.

17. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the molten metal has a melting point below 700 °C.

18. The power system of Claim 17 wherein the molten metal comprises at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Rose’s metal, Cerrosafe, Wood’s metal, Field’s metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Galinstan.

19. The power system of Claim 1 further comprising a vacuum pump and at least one heat exchanger.

20. The power system of Claim 1 wherein at least one reservoir comprises boron nitride.

21. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a vessel gascomprising at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

22. The power system of Claim 21 wherein the vessel gas further comprises an inert gas.

23. The power system of Claim 22 further comprising a reactants supply and an inert gas supply wherein the supplies maintain the vessel gas at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 200 atm.

24. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the at least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output comprises at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external-combustor type Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal-combustion type engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler.

25. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the vessel comprises a light transparent photovoltaic (PV) window to transmit light from the inside of the vessel to a photovoltaic converter and at least one of a vessel geometry and at least one baffle to cause a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent the molten metal from coating the PV window.

26. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the vessel geometry comprises adecreasing cross sectional area towards the PV window.

27. The power system of Claim 24 comprising concentrator photovoltaic cells that comprise at least one compound chosen from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge;InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si;GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs;GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; a Group III nitride; GaN; AlN; GaAlN, and InGaN.

28. The power system of Claim 24 wherein the magnetohydrodynamic powerconverter comprises a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, amagnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system.

29. The power system of Claims 1 or 28 wherein at least one component of the power system comprises at least one of a ceramic and a metal.

30. The power system of Claim 29 wherein the ceramic comprises at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and a glass ceramic.

31. The power system of Claim 29 wherein the metal comprises at least one of a stainless steel and a refractory metal.

32. The power system of Claim 28 wherein the molten metal comprises silver and the magnetohydrodynamic converter further comprises a source of oxygen to form silver particles nanoparticles and accelerate the nanoparticles throughmagnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power produced in the vessel.

33. The power system of Claim 32 wherein the reactants supply system additionally supplies and controls the source of oxygen to form the silver nanoparticles.

34. The power system of Claim 32 wherein at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the nanoparticles coalesce as molten metal in the metal collection system, the molten metal at least partially absorbs the oxygen, the metal comprising absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by the metal recirculation system, and the oxygen is released by the plasma in the vessel.

35. The power system of Claim 34 wherein plasma is maintained in themagnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of the oxygen by the molten metal.

36. The power system of Claims 13 and 28 wherein the electromagnetic pumpcomprises a two-stage pump comprising a first stage that comprises a pump of the metal recirculation system, and a second stage that comprises the pump of themetal injector system.

37. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one of the following products:a. a hydrogen product with a Raman peak at 1900 to 2000 cm-1; b. a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.25 eV;c. a hydrogen product with an infrared peak at 1900 to 2000 cm-1; d. a hydrogen product with a plurality of infrared peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.25 eV;e. a hydrogen product with at a plurality of UV fluorescence emissionspectral peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.3 eV;f. a hydrogen product with a plurality of electron-beam emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of 0.2 to 0.3 eV;g. a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman spectral peaks in the range of 5000 to 20,000 cm-1having a spacing at an integer multiple of 1000 ±200 cm-1;h. a hydrogen product with a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV;i. a hydrogen product that causes an upfield MAS NMR matrix shift;j. a hydrogen product that has an upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift of greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS;k. a hydrogen product comprising macro-aggregates or polymers Hn(n is an integer greater than 3);l. a hydrogen product comprising macro-aggregates or polymers Hn(n is an integer greater than 3) having a time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peak of 16.12 to 16.13;m. a hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metalcomprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W;n. a hydrogen product comprising at least one of H16and H24;o. a hydrogen product comprising an inorganic compound MxXyand H2wherein M is a cation and X in an anion having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peaks ofM(MxXyH2)n wherein n is an integer;p. a hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2and KOHH2having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass++spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peaks of K(K2H2CO3 )nand K(KOHH2 )n,respectively;q. a magnetic hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal;r. a hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metalcomprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry;s. a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is not active in electronparamagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least one of very high g factors, very low g factors, extraordinary line width, and proton splitting;t. a hydrogen product comprising a hydrogen molecular dimer wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800-3100 G and ΔH of 10 G to 500 G;u. a hydrogen product comprising a gas having a negative gaschromatography peak with hydrogen carrier;1.70127a2v. a hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e of0p2±10%wherein p is an integer;w. a protonic hydrogen product comprising a molecular dimer having an end over end rotational energy for the integer J to J + 1 transition in the range of (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20cm-1wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer comprising deuterium is ½ that of the dimer comprising protons;x. a hydrogen product comprising molecular dimers having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of 1.028 Å ±10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogenmolecules of 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy betweenhydrogen molecules of 0.0011 eV ±10% ;y. a hydrogen product comprising a solid having at least one parameter fromthe group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of 1.028 Å ±10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 23 cm-1±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of0.019 eV ±10% ;z. a hydrogen product having at least one of1. FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (iii) 23 cm-1 ±10% ;2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% , and3. a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of 0.0011 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen;aa. a solid hydrogen product having at least one of1. FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (iii) 23 cm-1 ±10% ;2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% , and3. a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of 0.019 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen.

38. The power system of Claim 1 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one of H(1 / 4) and H2(1 / 4) wherein the hydrogen product has at least one of the following:a. the hydrogen product has a Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) comprising at least one of the H2(1 / 4) rotational energy at 1940 cm-1±10% and libation bands in the finger print region wherein other highenergy features are absent;b. the hydrogen product has a proton magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum (1H MAS NMR) comprising an upfield matrix peak; c. the hydrogen product has a thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) result showing the decomposition of at least one of a metal hydride and a hydrogen polymer in the temperature region of 100 °C to 1000 °C;d. the hydrogen product has an e-beam excitation emission spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band in the 260 nm region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced at 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other;e. the hydrogen product has an e-beam excitation emission spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band in the 260 nm regioncomprising a plurality of peaks spaced at 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other wherein the peaks decrease in intensity at cryo-temperatures in the range of 0 K to 150 K;f. the hydrogen product has a photoluminescence Raman spectrumcomprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band in the 260 nm region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced at 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other;g. the hydrogen product has a photoluminescence Raman spectrumcomprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) ro-vibrational band comprising a plurality of peaks in the range of 5000 to 20,000 cm-1having a spacing at an integer multiple of 1000 ±200 cm-1;h. the hydrogen product has a Raman spectrum comprising the H2(1 / 4)rotational peak at 1940 cm-1 ±10%;i. the hydrogen product has an X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS)comprising the total energy of H2(1 / 4) at 490-500 eV;j. the hydrogen product comprises macro-aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n(n is an integer greater than 3);k. the hydrogen product comprises macro-aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n(n is an integer greater than 3) having a time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peak of 16.12 to 16.13;l. the hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride wherein the metalcomprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W and the hydrogen comprises H(1 / 4);m. the hydrogen product comprises at least one of H(1 / 4)16and H(1 / 4)24; n. the hydrogen product comprises an inorganic compound MxXyandH(1 / 4)2wherein M is a cation and X is an anion and at least one of the electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI- ToF) and the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) comprises peaks of M(MxXyH(1 / 4)2)n wherein n is an integer;o. the hydrogen product comprises at least one of K2CO3H(1 / 4)2andKOHH(1 / 4)2and at least one of the electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI-ToF) and the time of flight secondary+ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) comprises peaks of K(K2H2CO3 )nand+K(KOHH2 )n, respectively;p. the hydrogen product is magnetic and comprises a metal hydride whereinthe metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4);q. the hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride wherein the metalcomprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal and H is H(1 / 4) wherein the product demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry;r. the hydrogen product comprises a metal that is not active in electronparamagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800-3100 G and ΔH of 10 to 500 G;s. the hydrogen product comprises a [H2(1 / 4)]2wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800-3100 G and ΔH of 10 G to 500 G;t. the hydrogen product comprises or releases H2(1 / 4) gas having a negative gas chromatography peak with hydrogen carrier;u. the hydrogen product comprises H2(1 / 4) having a quadrupole moment / e of 1.70127a2042±10 ;v. the hydrogen product comprises [H2(1 / 4)]2or [D2(1 / 4)]2having an end over end rotational energy for the integer J to J + 1 transition in the range of (J+1)44.30 cm-1 ±20 cm-1 and (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1, respectively;w. the hydrogen product comprising [H2(1 / 4)]2having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of H2(1 / 4) molecules of 1.028 ű10% , (ii) a vibrational energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of 23 cm-1±10%, and (iii) a van der Waals energy between H2(1 / 4) molecules of0.0011 eV ±10% , andx. the hydrogen product comprising a solid of H2(1 / 4) molecules having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of H2(1 / 4) molecules of 1.028 ű10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between H2(1 / 4)molecules of 23 cm-1 ±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy betweenH2(1 / 4) molecules of 0.019 eV±10%;y. the [H2(1 / 4)]2product having at least one of1. FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (iii) 23 cm-1 ±10% ;2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a H2(1 / 4) molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% , and3. a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of 0.0011 eV ±10% per H2(1 / 4), andz. the solid H2(1 / 4) product having at least one of1. FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1 ±10 cm-1 and (iii) 23 cm-1 ±10% ;2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% , and3. a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of 0.019 eV ±10% per H2(1 / 4).

39. The power system of Claim 37 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one of a hydrino species selected from the group of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p) alone or complexed with at least one of (i) an element other than hydrogen, (ii) an ordinary hydrogen species comprising at least one of H+, ordinary H2, ordinary H-, and ordinary H +3 , an organic molecular species, and (iv) an inorganic species.

40. The power system of Claim 37 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises an oxyanion compound.

41. The power system of Claim 37 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one compound having the formula selected from the group of:a. MH, MH2, or M2H2, wherein M is an alkali cation and H is a hydrinospecies;b. MHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation and H is hydrinospecies;c. MHX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as halogen atom, a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion such as halogen anion, and H is a hydrino species;d. MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negativelycharged anion, and H is H is a hydrino species;e. MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrino species;f. M2HX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrino species;g. MHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;h. M2Hnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation and thehydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrinospecies;i. M2XHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is asingly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;j. M2X2Hnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singlynegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;k. M2X3H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negativelycharged anion, and H is a hydrino species;l. M2XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doublenegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;m. M2XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X’ is a double negatively charged anion, and H is hydrino species;n. MM’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;o. MM’XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;p. MM’XH wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metalcation, X is a double negatively charged anion and H is a hydrino species; q. MM’XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X and X’ are singly negatively charged anion and H is a hydrino species;r. MXX’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, X’ is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;s. MHnwherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;t. MXHnwherein n is an integer, M is an cation such as an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element,inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species; u.(MHmMCO3 )nwherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and nare each an integer, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;+v.(MHmMNO3 )nnX− wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, mand n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;w. (MHMNO3)nwherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;x.(MHMOH)nwherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is aninteger, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrino species;y.(MHmM ' X)nwherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each analkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species, and+z.(MHmM ' X ')nnX− wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' areeach an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one hydrino species.

42. The power system of Claim 41 wherein the anion of hydrogen compound product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one or more singly negatively charged anions, halide ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, nitrate ion, double negatively charged anions, are carbonate ion, oxide, and sulfate ion.

43. The power system of Claim 42 wherein the hydrogen product formed by reaction of the atomic hydrogen and catalyst comprises at least one hydrino species embedded in a crystalline lattice.

44. The power system of Claim 43 wherein the compound comprises least one of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p) embedded in a salt lattice.

45. The power system of Claim 44 wherein the salt lattice comprises at least one of analkali salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, alkaline earth salt, an alkaline earth halide, and an alkaline earth hydroxide.

46. An electrode system comprising:a. a first electrode and a second electrode;b. a stream of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with said first and second electrodes;c. a circulation system comprising a pump to draw said molten metal from a reservoir and convey it through a conduit (e.g., a tube) to produce said stream of molten metal exiting said conduit;d. a source of electrical power configured to provide an electrical potential difference between said first and second electrodes;wherein said stream of molten metal is in simultaneous contact with said first and second electrodes to create an electrical current between said electrodes.

47. The electrode system according to claim 1, wherein said electrical power issufficient to create an arc current.

48. An electrical circuit comprising:a. a heating means for producing molten metal;b. a pumping means for conveying said molten metal from a reservoirthrough a conduit to produce a stream of said molten metal exiting said conduit;c. a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply means for creating an electrical potential difference across said first and second electrode;wherein said stream of molten metal is in simultaneous contact with said first and second electrodes to create an electrical circuit between said first and second electrodes.

49. In an electrical circuit comprising a first and second electrode, the improvement comprising passing a stream of molten metal across said electrodes to permit a current to flow there between.