Spacer LED Architecture for Highly Efficient MicroLED Displays

Abstract

1. A method for forming an optical device, the method comprising: forming a mesa, the mesa comprising an active layer configured to emit light from a first light-emitting surface of the mesa when exposed to an electric current, the mesa further comprising a second surface opposite the light-emitting surface and substantially vertical sidewalls; forming spacers on mesa sidewalls, the spacers being formed from a first electrically insulating, optically transparent material and having an inner surface facing the mesa sidewalls and an opposite outer surface; depositing a first layer of transparent conductive oxide on the light-emitting surface of the mesa, the transparent conductive oxide having an inner surface facing the second surface of the mesa and an opposite outer surface; and depositing a layer of reflective conductive material over the transparent conductive oxide and the outer surfaces of the spacers.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Arrays of light emitting devices and methods of forming arrays of light emitting devices FIELD OF THE INVENTION In particular, but not exclusively, the present invention relates to light emitting devices with optimized light extraction. [Background technology]

[0002] Light-emitting diode (LED) devices are known to provide efficient light sources for a wide range of applications. Improvements in LED light generation efficiency and extraction, along with the fabrication of smaller LEDs (with smaller light-emitting surface areas) and the integration of LED emitters of different wavelengths into arrays, have led to the provision of high-quality color arrays for many applications, particularly in display technology.

[0003] Several display technologies have been considered and used for microLED displays for use in a variety of applications, including augmented reality, mixed reality, virtual reality, and direct-view displays, such as smartwatches and mobile devices. Technologies such as digital micromirror devices (DMDs) and liquid crystal displays (LCoS) are based on reflective technology, using an external light source to generate red, green, and blue photons in a time-sequential manner, with pixels either deflecting the light away from the optical elements (DMDs) or absorbing it (LCoS) to adjust the brightness of the pixels and form an image. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) typically use a backlight, an LCD panel on an addressable backplane, and color filters to generate images. The backplane is required to turn individual pixels on and off and adjust their brightness for each frame of video. Emissive display technologies such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLEDs), and more recently, microLEDs, are increasingly being used because they offer lower power consumption and higher image contrast relative to untethered microdisplay applications. Micro LEDs in particular offer higher efficiency and reliability than Micro OLED and AMOLED displays.

[0004] The invention described herein relates to a method for creating highly efficient micro-LED arrays that combines techniques to improve the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) and light extraction efficiency (LEE) to improve the figures of merit for efficiency and brightness.

[0005] Structures designed to increase light extraction efficiency are well known in the LED industry and involve the use of pseudo-parabolic shaped mesas to direct photons generated in multiple quantum wells (MQWs) to the light-emitting surface.

[0006] Techniques used to create mesas with such shapes include reactive ion etching (RIE) and inductively coupled etching (ICP). Such etching techniques use high-energy plasmas comprising RF, high voltage (DC bias), and reactive gases, often containing free radicals, to selectively etch semiconductor materials. Features are defined using a photolithography process that uses a photosensitive material to define areas that undergo the etching process and areas that remain unetched. The exact shape of the mesa can be controlled by the profile of the photosensitive material used to define the pattern, as well as by the etching pressure, power, gas flow, and gas species.

[0007] This not only complicates the manufacturing process, but the etching process can also damage the edges of the mesa, which affects the IQE of the micro LED.

[0008] As shown in Figure 1, as the DC bias and plasma density increase, damage to the edge of the feature increases, resulting in surface leakage paths formed by crystal damage, nitrogen vacancies, and dangling bonds. Dry etching generates many crystal defects due to high-energy ion bombardment at the surface. The dangling bonds are easily oxidized, and the crystal damage generates many defect levels in the energy band, which act as carrier recombination centers at the surface, resulting in non-radiative recombination.

[0009] The surface recombination velocity (non-radiative recombination velocity) is faster than the radiative recombination velocity in bulk MQWs, and therefore small micro-LEDs are susceptible to surface recombination and the resulting degradation of IQE.

[0010] A decrease in efficiency at smaller micro-LED dimensions has been widely reported due to damage induced during mesa etching, as shown in Figure 2. External quantum efficiency (EQE) is the product of IQE (the ratio of the number of photons generated to the number of electrons). The mechanism driving this trend is the ratio of the perimeter to the area of ​​the micro-LED. As the size of the micro-LED decreases, the sidewall area increases relative to the area of ​​the MQW, and therefore, surface leakage paths at the edge of the micro-LED cause an increase in non-radiative recombination.

[0011] MicroLED displays used in augmented reality and head-mounted displays operate at current densities of 1 A / cm² to 10 A / cm², which can imply a 20x reduction in efficiency for small LEDs compared to larger LEDs.

[0012] The efficiency of microLEDs can be significantly increased by repairing the damage caused by mesa etching, as shown in Figure 3. Typically, a tenfold increase in EQE can be achieved by implementing an optimized damage repair regime. The peak EQE increases after damage repair, and the peak EQE occurs at a lower current density, thus achieving a tenfold efficiency improvement under typical operating conditions. However, as shown in Figure 4, such a regime is incompatible with maintaining a mesa shape optimized for high LEE because the repair process removes semiconductor material damaged by mesa etching. Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0013] In order to alleviate at least some of the above-mentioned problems, according to the appended claims there is provided a method of forming one or more optical devices. Further, according to the appended claims there is provided an optical device. [Means for solving the problem]

[0014] In a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of forming an optical device, the method comprising: forming a mesa, the mesa comprising an active layer configured to emit light from a first light-emitting surface of the mesa when exposed to an electric current, the mesa further comprising a second surface opposite the light-emitting surface and substantially vertical sidewalls; forming spacers on mesa sidewalls, the spacers being formed from a first electrically insulating, optically transparent material and having an inner surface facing the mesa sidewalls and an opposite outer surface; depositing a first layer of transparent conductive material on the light-emitting surface of the mesa, the transparent conductive material having an inner surface facing the second surface of the mesa and an opposite outer surface; and depositing a layer of reflective conductive material over the transparent conductive material and the outer surfaces of the spacers.

[0015] Advantageously, the spacer and transparent conductive material act as optical components to enhance light extraction from the active layer of the mesa, and the reflective conductive material acts as an outermost mirror layer to further enhance light extraction.

[0016] Preferably, the outer surface of the first layer of transparent conductive material is substantially convex.

[0017] Preferably, a second layer of transparent conductive material is formed on the light emitting surface of the mesa.

[0018] Preferably, the transparent conductive material is a transparent conductive oxide, and more preferably, the transparent conductive material is indium tin oxide.

[0019] Preferably, the outer surface of the spacer is angled relative to the inner surface.

[0020] Preferably, the outer surface of the spacer has a quasi-parabolic profile, which acts to direct emitted photons towards the light emitting surface of the device, so that they are incident on the surface at an angle of incidence less than the critical angle, thereby allowing for highly efficient extraction of the photons into air.

[0021] Preferably, the outer surface of the spacer has a profile that approximates a Bezier curve with two control points having a Bezier coefficient of 0.5, which has been found to provide maximum light extraction.

[0022] Preferably, the spacers are formed from silicon nitride, silicon oxide, or tin oxide.

[0023] Preferably, the light emitting structure has roughened sidewalls, which has been found to improve brightness uniformity and further enhance light extraction.

[0024] Preferably, the method according to the present invention further comprises the step of depositing a second electrically insulating, optically transparent material on an outer surface of each spacer, the second electrically insulating, optically transparent material having a refractive index different from that of the first electrically insulating, optically transparent material, which allows the use of materials with a graded refractive index, and therefore better directing emitted photons towards the light-emitting surface.

[0025] Preferably, the refractive index of the first material is greater than the refractive index of the second material.

[0026] Preferably, the active layer of the mesa is between an n-doped n-cladding layer and a p-doped p-cladding layer.

[0027] Preferably, a first electrical contact is made to the p-cladding layer through the first layer of transparent conductive oxide and the reflective conductive material, and a second electrical contact is made to the n-cladding layer through the second layer of transparent conductive oxide.

[0028] In a second aspect of the invention, there is provided an optical device manufactured according to the method steps described above.

[0029] Further aspects of the present invention will become apparent from the specification and appended claims.

[0030] A detailed description of embodiments of the present invention will now be given, by way of example only, with reference to the drawings in which: [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0031] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 shows the crystalline damage to InGaN material with increasing plasma power and DC bias. [Figure 2] FIG. 2 shows the relationship between external quantum efficiency (EQE) and current density for micro-LED sizes scaling from A1 (256 μm) to A9 (1 μm). [Figure 3] FIG. 3 shows the EQE of micro-LEDs with and without mesa damage reduction and repair. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 shows a cross section of an etched mesa before (a) and after (b) the damage repair process. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 9] FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 10] FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating the stages of a monolithic manufacturing process for an optical device. [Figure 11]11-13 are diagrams illustrating an optical device according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 12] FIG. 12 shows an embodiment using two different spacer materials. [Figure 13] FIG. 13 shows an embodiment with roughened mesa sidewalls. [Figure 14] FIG. 14 is a diagram showing changes in light extraction efficiency (LEE) with respect to the radius of curvature R and the Bezier coefficient B. In FIG. [Figure 15] FIG. 15 is a diagram showing the change in the coupling efficiency of the F / 2 projection lens with respect to the radius of curvature R and the Bezier coefficient B. In FIG. [Figure 16] FIG. 16 shows embodiments in which the optical device has a square (a), a circular (b), a triangular (c), and a pentagonal (d) cross section. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0032] 5(a) illustrates a preliminary stage in the fabrication process in which an epitaxial silicon wafer is prepared having a substrate 100, an n-cladding layer 110, an active layer 120, and a p-cladding layer 130. In one embodiment, the active layer includes one or more quantum wells that emit light when a current is applied across the active layer 120. In one embodiment, the n-cladding layer 110 and the p-cladding layer 130 are formed from n-doped and p-doped gallium nitride, respectively. In certain embodiments, an electron blocking layer is located between the p-cladding layer 130 and the active layer 120. In further embodiments, one or more buffer layers are included.

[0033] Although described as grown on a silicon wafer, one skilled in the art will appreciate that any suitable substrate may be used. In one embodiment, a sapphire substrate is employed. In further embodiments, additional or alternative intervening layers are used to account for lattice mismatch between the substrate and subsequently grown layers, such as an aluminum nitride buffer layer. Similarly, alternative or additional etching techniques may be utilized, provided that they result in an array of mesas as described herein.

[0034] 5(b), multiple openings, one for each subpixel, are formed in the p-cladding 130, n-cladding 110, and active layer 120 by photolithography followed by a reactive ion etching (RIE) or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching process. This produces an array of mesas with generally sloped sidewalls, each mesa becoming an individual light emitting structure 150. In one embodiment, the etching is tailored to provide quasi-parabolic shaped sidewalls.

[0035] Due to the etching process, the sidewalls of the mesa contain damaged crystalline structure, which results in surface leakage paths. A repair process is applied to repair the damaged crystalline structure, which removes the damaged material and results in a high-quality crystalline structure with reduced dangling bonds and nitrogen vacancies. In one embodiment, this is achieved by potassium hydroxide wet etching. In an alternative embodiment, the repair process includes wet etching using tetramethylammonium hydroxide. Thus, the sidewall profile of the opening is changed from sloped or shaped to vertical (see FIG. 4).

[0036] Optionally, the surface roughness of the sidewalls can be adjusted by performing additional dry etching or by using a photolithographic resist with an appropriate resist profile. Advantageously, substantially vertical but roughened sidewalls have been found to improve brightness uniformity and enhance light extraction from the optical device.

[0037] At the stage shown in FIG. 6( a), a conformal coating of silicon dioxide is deposited and the resulting film is etched back using RIE etching to form a uniform pseudo-parabolic spacer 200. In alternative embodiments, the spacer material is silicon nitride, titanium oxide, or any other dielectric material. Those skilled in the art will recognize that any suitably high refractive index, non-conductive material may be used. The purpose of the spacer is to function as an optical component to improve light extraction from the active layer 120. As can be seen in FIG. 6( a), the portion of the n-cladding layer 110 exposed by the etch is also covered with the spacer material.

[0038] 6(b), a first transparent conductive material 250 is deposited by known processes on the exposed p-cladding layer of each mesa, thereby forming individual p-contacts to each light emitting structure 150. In one embodiment, the first transparent conductive material is a transparent conductive oxide 250 such as indium tin oxide (ITO), although those skilled in the art will appreciate that any suitable transparent and conductive material may be used.

[0039] 7(a), the first transparent conductive oxide 250 is shaped to create convex lenses in each light-emitting structure 150. In one embodiment, this is achieved by patterning a photoresist material on the surface of the first transparent conductive oxide 250, reflowing the photoresist with heat or a suitable solvent to form the photoresist into hemispherical droplets, and etching (e.g., reactive ion etching) the first transparent conductive oxide 250 to provide a convex profile due to the difference in etch selectivity (i.e., etch rate) between the oxide 250 and the photoresist.

[0040] At the stage shown in FIG. 7( b), a reflective conductive material 300 is deposited over the entire structure and subjected to a chemical-mechanical polishing process to ensure a flat outermost surface. In one embodiment, the reflective conductive material 300 is aluminum, although one skilled in the art will recognize that any suitable material may be used. In one embodiment, the interface between the spacer 200 and the reflective conductive material 300 has a surface roughness of Ra<50 nm, most preferably Ra<10 nm, to prevent light diffusion, which would otherwise reduce light extraction efficiency.

[0041] 8(a), a series of channels are etched by known means in the reflective conductive material 300 between each mesa to electrically isolate each light emitting structure 150 from its neighboring light emitting structures. A layer of silicon dioxide 350 is applied over the surface of the reflective conductive material 300, filling the channels. While silicon dioxide is preferred, those skilled in the art will recognize that any electrically insulating material may be used.

[0042] At the stage shown in FIG. 8(b), the silicon dioxide layer 350 is penetrated to the underlying reflective conductive material. A window is formed through 300. The window is then filled with bonding metal 360, allowing electrical connection through reflective conductive material 300 to the p-contact of first transparent conductive oxide 250.

[0043] At the stage shown in Figure 9(a), a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) backplane wafer 400 is prepared having a top layer of alternating metal regions 410 and oxide regions 420. This structure is formed by known means. The metal regions 410 are aligned with portions of bonding metal 360, and the wafer is secured together by processes known to those skilled in the art. The top layer of substrate 100 is then removed by known means (such as wet or dry etching), as shown in Figure 9(b).

[0044] 10, a second layer of transparent conductive oxide 500 is applied to the newly exposed n-cladding layer 110. In one embodiment, indium tin oxide is used as this transparent conductive oxide.

[0045] To further enhance light extraction efficiency, the refractive index of the transparent conductive oxide 500 can be varied by modifying the porosity of the transparent conductive oxide. One known method for varying the porosity of transparent conductive oxides, such as ITO, is oblique angle deposition using electron beam evaporation. By varying the angle of the deposition surface relative to the vapor flow deposition, one can control the amount of shadow cast by the deposited material, thereby controlling the porosity of the resulting layer. Further discussion of oblique angle deposition with respect to ITO can be found at least in “Light-Extraction Enhancement of GaInN Light Emitting Diodes by Graded-Refractive-Index Indium Tin Oxide Anti-Reflection Contact,” Jong Kyu Kim et.al., Advanced Materials, 2000, pp. 1-5.

[0046] FIG. 11 illustrates an optical device formed by a single light-emitting structure 150 and surrounding materials. As illustrated, the light-emitting structure 150 includes an active layer 120 configured to emit light when exposed to an electric current. The active layer 120 is sandwiched between an n-cladding layer 110, such as n-doped gallium nitride, and a p-cladding layer 130, such as p-doped gallium nitride. In one embodiment, the active layer 120 includes multiple quantum wells. In further embodiments, alternative layer structures with alternative and / or additional layers are used. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that any number of possible light-emitting structures can be used, provided they operate as described above. In certain embodiments, the light-emitting structure includes an electron-blocking layer located between the p-cladding layer 130 and the active layer 120. In further embodiments, the light-emitting structure 150 includes one or more buffer layers. The light-emitting structure 150 has an upper light-emitting surface 155 and substantially vertical sidewalls. 13 illustrates an embodiment having roughened sidewalls, which have been found to improve brightness uniformity and enhance light extraction, particularly when there is a significant difference in the refractive index between the spacer material and the material of the light emitting structures 150. As shown, a p-contact is provided in the form of a first transparent conductive oxide 250 in the form of a convex lens in contact with the p-cladding layer 130. The first transparent conductive oxide 250 thus forms a first electrical contact to the light emitting structures 150, and a second, common electrical contact is formed to the n-contact layer of each light emitting structure 150 through the second transparent conductive oxide layer 500.

[0047] Contacting the sidewalls of the light-emitting structures are respective quasi-parabolic spacers 200 formed from silicon dioxide and having a refractive index n1. In alternative embodiments, the spacers are formed from silicon nitride or titanium oxide. In the illustrated embodiment, the spacers have a quasi-parabolic profile, but the side surfaces can have any suitable profile described by a range of Bezier curves with two control points and a coefficient B, where B can be 0.1, 0.5, The Bezier factor is one of 0.2 and 0.05. In a preferred embodiment, the Bezier factor is 0.5, resulting in spacers with nearly straight sides that are angled outward from the mesa sidewalls.

[0048] 12 shows an embodiment in which the spacer 200 is formed from an inner portion 200a and an outer portion 200b having refractive indices n1 and n2, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, n1>n2, which can be achieved by using silicon nitride as the inner spacer material and aluminum oxide as the second spacer material. In further embodiments, additional spacer layers can be used with refractive indices that decrease away from the sidewalls of the light emitting structure 150 (i.e., n1>n2>n N 12 as two separate spacers, the spacers may actually be formed as a continuous layer as shown in the cross-sectional view shown in FIG. 16, with light emitting structures 150 having any preferred cross-section depending on their application.

[0049] Although not shown, a reflective conductive material 300 coats the outer surfaces of the spacer 200 and the transparent conductive oxide 250 , thereby forming an electrical contact to the n-cladding layer 110 .

[0050] Although also not shown, the light emitting surface 155 of the light emitting structures 150 is covered by a second layer of transparent conductive oxide 500. In one embodiment, light extraction features are provided in the form of convex lenses above each underlying light emitting structure 150. In certain embodiments, the light extraction features are patterned in the transparent conductive oxide itself. In alternative embodiments, the light extraction features are provided by a separate layer formed from a suitable transparent material, such as a resin.

[0051] In use, current is applied to the light-emitting structure via the common electrode formed by the second transparent conductive oxide 500 and the p-contact provided by the first transparent conductive oxide 250, with the reflective conductive material 300 further acting as a current spreading layer. Light emitted by the active layer 120 is directed toward the light-emitting surface 155 either directly or by i) reflection and / or refraction at the spacer 200, ii) reflection at the interface between the reflective conductive material 300 covering the spacer 200 and the first transparent conductive oxide 250 (which itself acts as a convex lens), or iv) multiple reflections within a structure comprising a combination of the above. The spacer 200, first transparent conductive oxide 250, and reflective conductive material 300 are therefore positioned to increase the proportion of light incident on the light-emitting surface 155 within a critical angle range for light transmission.

[0052] A study is conducted based on optical simulations of the light extraction and coupling efficiency as a function of the radius of curvature of the convex lens provided by the first transparent conductive oxide 250 and the depth of the mesa.

[0053] The light extraction efficiency as a function of both the radius of curvature of the convex lens provided by the first transparent conductive oxide 250 and the mesa depth is shown in Figure 14, assuming a 3 μm pitch LED for a light emitting structure 150 with silicon nitride spacers and indium tin oxide as the first transparent conductive material 250. Silicon nitride is used because it has a particularly high refractive index (2.05 at a wavelength of 450 nm) and is a common material in the semiconductor industry.

[0054] FIG. 14 shows that optimal light extraction is achieved when the mesa depth is between 1 μm and 1.3 μm and the radius of curvature of the convex lens provided by the first transparent conductive oxide 250 is greater than 1.5 μm.

[0055] Therefore, the micro LED array device according to the present invention can be used in virtual and augmented reality systems. This device is particularly suited to systems where the device is coupled to a projection lens system to generate a virtual image perceived by the eye. Typically, the projection has an F-number between 1.5 and 4. In this disclosure, a projection lens with an F-number of 2 (F / 2) was used to perform ray tracing simulations. An F / 2 projection lens has an acceptance angle of approximately ±14 degrees; therefore, light emitted outside this angular range is not coupled into the imaging optical path and therefore becomes undesired stray light within the system.

[0056] Figure 15 shows the coupling efficiency of such a system (F / 2), where the maximum coupling efficiency is achieved when the mesa depth is approximately 1.2 μm, the radius of curvature of the convex lens provided by the first transparent conductive oxide 250 is 1.1 μm, and the LED pitch (i.e., the spacing between adjacent light-emitting structures 150) is 3 μm.

Claims

1. 1. A method of forming an optical device, comprising: forming a mesa comprising an active layer configured to emit light from a first light emitting surface of the mesa when exposed to an electric current, the mesa further comprising a second light emitting surface opposite the first light emitting surface and substantially vertical sidewalls, the sidewalls being roughened; forming spacers on the sidewalls of the mesa, the spacers being formed from a first electrically insulating, optically transparent material and having an inner surface facing the sidewalls of the mesa and an opposite outer surface, the outer surface of the spacer being straight-sided and angled outward from the sidewalls of the mesa; depositing a first layer of transparent conductive material on the second light-emitting surface of the mesa, the transparent conductive material having an inner surface facing the second light-emitting surface of the mesa and an opposite outer surface, the outer surface of the first layer of transparent conductive material being substantially convex; forming a second layer of the transparent conductive material on the first light emitting surface of the mesa; depositing a layer of reflective conductive material over the first layer of transparent conductive material and an outer surface of the spacer; A method comprising:

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the transparent conductive material is a transparent conductive oxide.

3. The method of claim 2 , wherein the transparent conductive oxide is indium tin oxide.

4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the spacers are formed from at least one of silicon nitride, silicon oxide, or tin oxide.

5. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising depositing a second electrically insulating, optically transmissive material on the outer surface of each of the spacers, the second electrically insulating, optically transmissive material having a refractive index different from the refractive index of the first electrically insulating, optically transmissive material.

6. The method of claim 5 , wherein the refractive index of the first electrically insulating, optically transparent material is greater than the refractive index of the second electrically insulating, optically transparent material.

7. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein the active layer of the mesa is between an n-doped n-cladding layer and a p-doped p-cladding layer.

8. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein a first electrical contact is made to the p-cladding layer through the first layer of transparent conductive oxide and the reflective conductive material, and a second electrical contact is made to the n-cladding layer through the second layer of transparent conductive oxide.

9. A method for producing an array of optical devices formed by the method of any one of claims 1 to 8.

10. a light emitting structure having a first light emitting surface, a second light emitting surface opposite the first light emitting surface, and substantially vertical sidewalls, the light emitting structure further comprising an active layer, the active layer configured to emit light when a current is applied to the device; an electrically insulating, optically transmissive spacer material having an inner surface facing the sidewall of the light emitting structure and an opposite outer surface, the outer surface of the electrically insulating, optically transmissive spacer material being straight sided and angled outward from the sidewall; a first layer of transparent conductive material disposed on the second light-emitting surface of the light-emitting structure, the first layer of transparent conductive material having an inner surface facing the second light-emitting surface of the light-emitting structure and an opposite outer surface, the outer surface of the first layer of transparent conductive material being convex; a reflective conductive material disposed on the outer surface of the electrically insulating, light transmissive spacer material and the first layer of transparent conductive material; a second layer of the transparent conductive material on the first light-emitting surface of the light-emitting structure; An optical device comprising: the electrically insulating, light transmissive spacer material, the transparent conductive material, and the reflective conductive material are configured to enhance light extraction from the active layer. Optical devices.

11. An array of optical devices as described in claim 10.

Images