Electrical power generation systems and methods regarding same

Abstract

As a power supply device that provides solid or liquid fuel as a plasma-to-power supply device, or at least one of electric-to-thermal power, (i) at least one reaction cell for catalytic action of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos; (ii) an H2O catalyst or source of H2O catalyst; a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; a reactant forming the H2O catalyst or source of H2O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants initiating catalytic action of atomic hydrogen; (iii) a fuel injection system such as a railgun shot injector; (iv) at least one electrode set for trapping fuel and a power supply providing repetitive short bursts of said fuel trapping, comprising low voltage, high current electrical energy to initiate rapid kinetics of the hydrino reaction and energy gain due to the tearing of hydrinos; (v) a product recovery system such as at least one of an augmented plasma railgun recovery system and a gravity recovery system; (vi) a fuel pelletizer or shot maker comprising a s me her. (vii) a power converter comprising a source or supply source of hydrogen and H2O, a dripper and a water tank for forming fuel pellets or shots, and a stirrer for delivering the shots into an injector, and a cell such as a concentrated solar power device comprising a plurality of ultraviolet (UV) photocells or a plurality of photocells for high-power light output, and a UV window.

Description

Technology Field

[0001] Cross-references of related applications

[0002] This application is based on the following U.S. provisional applications, 62 / 004,883 filed May 29, 2014; 62 / 012,193 filed June 13, 2014; 62 / 016,540 filed June 24, 2014; 62 / 021,699 filed July 7, 2014; 62 / 023,586 filed July 11, 2014; 62 / 026,698 filed July 20, 2014; 62 / 037,152 filed August 14, 2014; 62 / 041,026 filed August 22, 2014; and 62 / 041,026 filed October 2, 2014 62 / 058,844, October 24, 2014 62 / 068,592, November 24, 2014 62 / 083,029, December 4, 2014 62 / 087,234, December 15, 2014 62 / 092,230, February 6, 2015 62 / 113,211, March 31, 2015 62 / 141,079, April 17, 2015 62 / 149,501, May 9, 2015 62 / 159,230, and May 22, 2015 Claiming 62 / 165,340 of the benefits, all of these applications are incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] The present invention relates to the field of power generation, and in particular to systems, devices, and methods for power generation. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention relate to devices and systems, as well as power generation methods, for producing light output, plasma, and thermal power, and for producing power through light-to-power converters, plasma-to-power converters, photon-to-power converters, or thermal-to-power converters. In addition, embodiments of the present invention describe systems, devices, and methods that utilize the ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate light output, mechanical power, electric power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present invention. Background Technology

[0004] Power generation involves many ways of utilizing energy from plasma. The successful commercialization of plasma can be said to depend on power generation systems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then efficiently capturing the energy from the generated plasma. The problem to be solved

[0005] Plasma can be formed during the ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high optical power can be emitted. The high optical power of the plasma can be utilized by the electric converter of the present invention. Ions and atoms in an excited state can recombine to perform electronic relaxation, which emits optical power. The optical power can be converted into electricity by photovoltaics. means of solving the problem

[0006] Some embodiments of the present invention relate to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes configured to transmit power to fuel to ignite the fuel and generate plasma; a power source configured to transmit electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one photovoltaic power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0007] In one embodiment, the present invention is a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy:

[0008] At least one container capable of having a pressure below atmospheric pressure;

[0009] As a shot comprising reactants, said reactants:

[0010] a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0011] b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0012] c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0013] d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0014] A shot including;

[0015] At least one shot injection system comprising at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun comprises separated electrified rails and magnets that generate a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of said rails, and at least one shot injection system in which a circuit between said rails is open until closed by contact between said short and said rails;

[0016] As at least one ignition system that causes the above shot to form at least one of a photo-emitting plasma and a thermal-emitting plasma, the at least one ignition system:

[0017] a) at least one set of electrodes defining the above short; and

[0018] b) A source of power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy;

[0019] Includes,

[0020] At least one set of the above electrodes forms an open circuit, the open circuit is closed by the injection of the short circuit to cause ignition by flowing a large current, and a power source that transmits a short burst of the large current electrical energy:

[0021] A voltage selected to induce a high current of AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed in at least one range from 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, and 10kA to 50kA;

[0022] 100A / cm 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1,000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2 DC or peak AC current density in at least one of the ranges; comprising at least one of the following:

[0023] The above voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energy material, and the above voltage is given by a predetermined current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energy material sample;

[0024] The above DC or peak AC voltage is in at least one range among 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and

[0025] At least one ignition system wherein the AC frequency is in at least one range among 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;

[0026] A system for recovering reaction products of said reactants comprising at least one of a gravity and an augmented plasma railgun recovery system, wherein the augmented plasma railgun recovery system comprises at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector-cross current component of ignition electrodes;

[0027] At least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the above reaction products and forming additional shots, comprising a furnace for forming molten reactants, a system for adding H2 and H2O to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, and a pelletizer comprising a water reservoir for forming shots.

[0028] The above additional reactants are:

[0029] a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0030] b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0031] c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0032] d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0033] At least one playback system including; and

[0034] As at least one power converter or output system of at least one of light output and thermal power versus power and / or thermal power, comprising at least one or more of a group of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermoionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, and a heater;

[0035] It relates to a power system including

[0036] In another embodiment, the present invention is a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy:

[0037] At least one container capable of having a pressure below atmospheric pressure;

[0038] A shot comprising reactants, wherein the reactants comprise at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;

[0039] At least one shot injection system comprising at least one amplification rail gun, wherein the amplification rail gun comprises separated charged rails and magnets that generate a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of said rails, and the circuit between said rails is open until closed by contact between said short and said rails;

[0040] As at least one ignition system that causes the above shot to form at least one of a photo-emitting plasma and a thermal-emitting plasma, the at least one ignition system:

[0041] a) at least one set of electrodes defining the above short; and

[0042] b) A source of power that transmits a short burst of high-current electrical energy;

[0043] Includes,

[0044] At least one set of the above electrodes forms an open circuit, the open circuit is closed by the injection of the short circuit to cause ignition by flowing a large current, and a power source that transmits a short burst of the large current electrical energy:

[0045] A voltage selected to induce a high current of AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed in at least one range from 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, and 10kA to 50kA;

[0046] 100A / cm 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1,000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2 DC or peak AC current density in at least one of the ranges; comprising at least one of the following:

[0047] The above voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energy material, and the above voltage is given by a predetermined current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energy material sample;

[0048] The above DC or peak AC voltage is in at least one range among 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and

[0049] At least one ignition system wherein the AC frequency is in at least one range among 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;

[0050] A system for recovering reaction products of said reactants comprising at least one of a gravity and an augmented plasma railgun recovery system, wherein the augmented plasma railgun recovery system comprises at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector-cross current component of ignition electrodes;

[0051] At least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the above reaction products and forming additional shots, comprising a furnace for forming molten reactants, a system for adding H2 and H2O to the molten reactants, a molten dripper, and a pelletizer for forming shots, wherein the additional reactants comprise at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;

[0052] At least one power converter or output system comprising a concentrator ultraviolet photovoltaic converter, wherein the photovoltaic cells comprise at least one compound selected from the group of Group 3 nitrides, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN;

[0053] It relates to a power system including

[0054] In another embodiment, the present invention is a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy:

[0055] At least one container and;

[0056] As a shot comprising reactants, said reactants:

[0057] e) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0058] f) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0059] g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0060] h) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0061] A shot including;

[0062] At least one shot injection system;

[0063] At least one short ignition system that causes the above short to form at least one of a photo-emitting plasma and a thermal-emitting plasma;

[0064] A system for recovering the reaction products of the above reactants;

[0065] As at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the above reaction products and forming additional shots,

[0066] The above additional reactants are:

[0067] e) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0068] f) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0069] g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0070] h) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0071] At least one playback system including; and

[0072] At least one power converter or output system of at least one of optical output and thermal power versus power and / or thermal power;

[0073] It relates to a power system including

[0074] In another embodiment of the present invention, the present invention is a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy:

[0075] At least one container and;

[0076] A slurry comprising reactants, wherein the reactants are:

[0077] a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0078] b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0079] c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0080] d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0081] A slurry containing;

[0082] At least one slurry injection system comprising rotary roller electrodes including a rotary slurry pump;

[0083] At least one slurry ignition system that causes a short circuit to form a photoluminescent plasma;

[0084] A system for recovering the reaction products of the above reactants;

[0085] As at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the above reaction products and forming additional slurry,

[0086] The above additional reactants are:

[0087] a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0088] b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O;

[0089] c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and

[0090] d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0091] At least one playback system including; and

[0092] At least one power converter or output system of at least one of optical output and thermal power versus power and / or thermal power;

[0093] It relates to a power system including

[0094] Some embodiments of the present invention relate to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes configured to transmit power to fuel to ignite the fuel and generate plasma; a power source configured to transmit electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one photovoltaic power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0095] In one embodiment, the present invention is a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy:

[0096] At least one container and;

[0097] As reactants,

[0098] a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst containing generator H2O;

[0099] b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen;

[0100] d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;

[0101] Reactants including;

[0102] A set of at least one electrode that limits hydrino reactants, and

[0103] A power source that transmits a short burst of high-current electric energy;

[0104] Reloading system and;

[0105] At least one regeneration system for regenerating initial reactants from reaction products; and

[0106] At least one plasma kinetic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter;

[0107] It relates to a power system including

[0108] In one embodiment of the present invention, a method for generating power comprises the step of delivering a significant amount of fuel to a fuel loading area located between a plurality of electrodes;

[0109] Applying current to a plurality of electrodes to produce at least one of plasma, light, and heat at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 The method may include the steps of: igniting the fuel by flowing an electric current through the fuel; receiving at least a portion of the light within a photovoltaic power converter; converting the light into another form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and outputting the other form of power.

[0110] In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to a water arc plasma system comprising at least one closed reaction vessel; reactants comprising at least one of a source of H2O and H2O; a set of at least one electrode; a source of power that delivers an initial high breakdown voltage of H2O and provides a subsequent high current; a heat exchanger and at least one photovoltaic power converter, wherein the power system generates at least one of arc plasma, light, and thermal energy.

[0111] Some embodiments of the present invention are power generation systems, with at least about 2,000 A / cm 2The invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading area configured to receive solid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the solid fuel to produce plasma; and at least one of a plasma power converter, a photovoltaic power converter, and a heat-to-power converter positioned to receive at least a portion of the plasma, photons, and / or heat generated by the reaction. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading area installed between the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive conductive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply a current sufficient to the conductive fuel to ignite the conductive fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power; a delivery mechanism for moving the conductive fuel into the fuel loading area; and at least one of a photovoltaic power converter that converts plasma photoelectrons into a form of power and a heat-to-electric converter that converts thermal power into a non-thermal form of power including electrical or mechanical power. Other embodiments include, as a method for generating power, the step of delivering fuel to a fuel loading region located between a plurality of electrodes; and applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to produce at least one of plasma, light, and heat, such that at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2 The present invention relates to a method for generating power comprising the steps of: igniting fuel by flowing an electric current through the fuel; receiving at least a portion of light within a photovoltaic power converter; converting the light into another form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and outputting the other form of power.

[0112] Further embodiments relate to a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, at least partially surrounding fuel, electrically connected to the power source, configured to receive current to ignite the fuel, at least a portion of which is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power. The power generation system further provided in the present invention has at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2 It includes a power source; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, at least partially surrounding the fuel, electrically connected to the power source, configured to receive current to ignite the fuel, at least a portion of which is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power.

[0113] Other embodiments are power generation systems having at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of at least one electrode faces the fuel charging region, the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to a power source, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel received within the fuel charging region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photoelectrons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-thermal power form. Other embodiments of the present invention are power generation systems having at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2 The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of at least one electrode faces the fuel charging region, the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to a power source, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel received within the fuel charging region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power.

[0114] Embodiments of the present invention also relate to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel charging region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite fuel located within the fuel charging region; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel charging region; a photoelectric power converter configured to convert photoelectrons generated from the ignition of fuel into non-fired power form; a removal system for removing byproducts of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operably connected to the removal system to recirculate the removed byproducts of the ignited fuel into recirculated fuel. Some embodiments of the present invention also relate to a power generation system having at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2 The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source configured to output a current of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging area configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging area is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes, the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel so as to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received within the fuel charging area; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging area; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photoelectrons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power form. Some embodiments may further comprise one or more output terminals operably connected to the photovoltaic power converter; a power storage device; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter related to the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process related to the power generation system. Some embodiments of the present invention are also power generation systems, wherein at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source configured to output a current of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, wherein the plurality of electrodes are at least partially surrounded by fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive a current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photoelectrons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power form.

[0115] Further embodiments of the present invention are power generation systems having at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel so that the plurality of electrodes ignite the fuel when the fuel is received within the fuel charging region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; a photoelectric power converter configured to convert a plurality of photoelectrons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power form of kinetic energy; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter related to the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process related to the power generation system. Other embodiments are power generation systems having at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel so that the plurality of electrodes ignite the fuel when the fuel is received within the fuel charging region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power form; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter related to the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process related to the power generation system.

[0116] Some embodiments of the present invention are power generation systems having at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel so that the plurality of electrodes ignite the fuel when the fuel is received within the fuel charging region, and wherein the pressure within the fuel charging region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power.Some embodiments may include one or more of the following additional features: the photovoltaic power converter may be located within a vacuum cell; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of an antireflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, or a protective coating; the photovoltaic power converter may be operably connected to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; and the regeneration system may include an optical filter; The photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of a single-crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string / ribbon silicon cell, a multi-junction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a pin device, a thin-film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell; and the photovoltaic power converter may include a multi-junction cell, wherein the multi-junction cell may include at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell comprising Group III-V semiconductor materials.

[0117] Further preferred embodiments relate to a system configured to produce power, comprising: a fuel supply unit configured to supply fuel; a power source configured to supply power; and at least one gear configured to receive fuel and power, wherein at least one gear selectively sends power to a local region to ignite fuel within the local region. In some embodiments, the system may additionally have one or more of the following features: the fuel may comprise powder; at least one gear may comprise two gears; at least one gear may comprise a first material and a second material having lower conductivity than the first material, wherein the first material is electrically connected to the local region; and the local region may be adjacent to at least one of the tooth and gap of at least one gear. Other embodiments may use a support member instead of a gear, whereas other embodiments may use a gear and a support member. Some embodiments are a method for producing power, comprising the step of supplying fuel to rollers or a gear; The present invention relates to a method comprising the steps of: rotating a gear to localize at least a portion of fuel in a region of the rollers or gear; supplying current to the rollers or gear to ignite the localized fuel to produce energy; and converting at least a portion of the energy produced by the ignition into electrical power. In some embodiments, the step of rotating the rollers or gear may include the step of rotating a first roller or gear and a second roller or gear, and the step of supplying current may include the step of supplying current to the first roller or gear and the second roller or gear.

[0118] Other embodiments are power generation systems, with at least about 2,000 A / cm2 The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel so that the plurality of electrodes ignite the fuel when the fuel is received within the fuel charging region, and wherein the pressure within the fuel charging region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel charging region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-fired power.

[0119] Further embodiments relate to a power generation cell comprising: an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a fuel charging region configured to receive a plurality of water-based fuels containing a plurality of H2O (majority H2O), wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transmit power to the water-based fuels to produce at least one of arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power into electricity. Additionally, at least 5,000 A / cm² 2A power generation system is disclosed comprising: a power source; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel charging region configured to accommodate a plurality of water-based fuels including H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transmit power to the water-based fuels to produce at least one of arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of arc plasma and thermal power into electricity. In one embodiment, the power converter includes a photovoltaic converter that converts light output into electricity.

[0120] Further embodiments relate to a power generation method comprising the steps of: loading fuel into a fuel loading region comprising a plurality of electrodes; and igniting the fuel to produce at least one of arc plasma and thermal power at least about 2,000 A / cm² 2The present invention relates to a power generation method comprising the steps of: applying a current to a plurality of electrodes; passing an arc plasma through a photovoltaic converter to generate power; and passing thermal energy through a thermal-to-power converter to generate power, performing at least one of these steps; and outputting at least a portion of the generated power. Additionally, a power generation system is disclosed comprising a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to a water-based fuel containing a plurality of H2O to produce thermal energy; a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal energy into power; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert at least a portion of light into power. Furthermore, another embodiment is disclosed as a power generation system comprising a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; The present invention relates to a power generation system comprising: a fuel charging region configured to accommodate a plurality of aqueous fuels containing H2O, wherein the fuel charging region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes such that a compression mechanism of at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel charging region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to a power source and configured to supply power to the aqueous fuels accommodated in the fuel charging region for ignition of the fuels; a delivery mechanism for moving the aqueous fuels into the fuel charging region; and a photovoltaic converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuels into non-plasma form of power. Effects of the invention

[0121] The development methods, as well as the devices and systems of the present invention, are highly effective. Brief explanation of the drawing

[0122] The attached drawings included in this specification and constituting part of the specification illustrate various embodiments of the present invention and serve to explain the principles of the present invention together with the detailed description. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a plasma dynamic converter according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing a photovoltaic converter according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2B is a schematic diagram of an arc H2O plasma cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2C is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing an optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2C 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing an optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system and auxiliary system components according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2C 2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing ignition system and auxiliary system components according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2C 3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing a louver fan according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2D is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing an ignition system having an applicator wheel according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2E is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing an internal perspective view of an optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system including translucent mirrors and photovoltaic cells according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2F is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing an ignition system having mirrors according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing the installation of motors, pumps, and other components outside the region accommodating roller electrodes according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing a louver circulation system having motors, pumps, and other components and a louver fan outside a region accommodating roller electrodes according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1a is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing details of a rinsing line having jets and gas distribution ducts of a fuel circulation system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1b is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing ducts of a fuel circulation system having a porous window gas diffuser according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1c is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing details of gas distribution ducts and duct blowers of a fuel circulation system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1d is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing details of a V-shaped screen on the walls of a slurry trough according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1d 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing details of a pivoting bus bar ignition system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e is a schematic diagram of a piezoelectric actuator system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system having a blower and a cyclone separator fuel circulation-regeneration system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system having a blower and a cyclone separator fuel circulation-regeneration system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 4 is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic cell of the electromagnetic or translucent type according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 5 is a schematic diagram of a reflective or opaque type photovoltaic cell according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2G 1e 6 is a schematic diagram of a reflective or opaque type photovoltaic cell comprising a grid anode or collector according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. H1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a lane gun shot injection system supplied by two transporters, an augmented plasma system and a gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. H2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied by two carriers, an augmented plasma system and a gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, and is a schematic diagram showing details of the ignition system and the power source. FIG. H3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied by two carriers, an augmented plasma system and a gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, and is a schematic diagram showing details of the ignition system and the photovoltaic converter system. FIG. H4 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied by two carriers, an enhancement plasma system and a gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, showing details of the ignition and injection systems, ignition product recovery systems, and a pelletizer forming a shot. FIG. I1 is a schematic diagram showing two drawings of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma rail gun and gravity recovery systems, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. I2 is a schematic diagram showing an SF-CIHT cell generator having a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma rail gun and gravity recovery systems, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. I3 is a schematic diagram showing an SF-CIHT cell generator having a vacuum-maintaining cell according to one embodiment of the present invention, a rail gun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma rail gun and gravity recovery systems, an ignition system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, and is a schematic diagram showing details of the rail gun injection and ignition system and the photovoltaic converter system. FIG. I4 is a schematic diagram showing an SF-CIHT cell generator according to one embodiment of the present invention, including a vacuum-maintaining cell, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma rail gun and gravity recovery systems, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, showing details of an injection system having a mechanical agitator, an ignition system, an ignition product recovery system, and a pelletizer forming a shot. FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram showing an SF-CIHT cell generator according to one embodiment of the present invention, including a vacuum-maintaining cell, an ignition system having a rail gun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma rail gun and gravity recovery systems, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system, showing details of an injection system having a water jet agitator, an ignition system, an ignition product recovery system, and a pelletizer forming a shot. FIG. 2J is a schematic diagram of a thermal power system according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a spectrum in the 120 nm to 450 nm region of the ignition of 80 mg of silver containing absorbed H2 and H2O from the gas treatment of the silver melt before falling into the water reservoir, basically showing an average light output of 172 kW in all ultraviolet spectral regions according to the fuel embodiment. Figure 4 shows the structure of a Parr 1341 calorimeter used for determining energy balance. Figure 5 is a diagram showing an expanding plasma emitting a brilliant light formed from a high-current detonation of solid fuel Cu + CuO + H2O formed at 6,500 frames / sec. Figure 6 is a diagram showing the transient full width half maximum light intensity of an ignition event of solid fuel Cu + H2O measured by a fast photodiode. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing the Raman spectrum obtained on an In metal foil exposed to the gases produced from a series of solid fuel explosions under argon, each containing 100 mg of Cu mixed with 30 mg of deionized water. Using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser, the spectrum is 1982 cm⁻¹, which matches the free rotor energy of H₂(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV) to four significant figures. -1It demonstrated the inverse Raman effect in. Figure 8 shows the Raman spectrum obtained on an In metal foil exposed to the gas generated from the ignition of 50 mg of NH4NO3 in an argon atmosphere, sealed inside a DSC pan. Using a Thermo Scientific DXR SMATURN spectrometer and a 780 nm laser, the spectrum is obtained at 1982 cm⁻¹ -1 The inverse Raman effect of H2(1 / 4) was shown. Fig. 9 is 8,000 to 19,000 cm -1 This shows the Raman-mode second-order photoluminescence spectrum of a KOH-KCl (1:1 wt%) getter exposed to the ignition product gases of 100 mg Cu solid fuel samples containing 30 mg deionized water sealed in a DSC pan, using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS 325 nm laser with 1200 gratings over the range of Raman shift. Figure 10 shows a plot comparison between the theoretical energies and the assignments given in Table 16 based on the observed Raman spectra. Figures 11A-B show XPS spectra recorded on indium (In) exposed to gases from the continuous argon atmosphere ignition of 100 mg Cu + 30 mg deionized water solid fuel sealed in a DSC pan. (A) A survey spectrum was present showing only the component peaks of In, C, O, and trace K. (B) A high-resolution spectrum showed a peak at 498.5 eV assigned to H2 (1 / 4), and other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding principal component peaks. Figures 12A-B show XPS spectra recorded on a KOH-KCl (1:1 wt%) getter exposed to gases from the continuous argon atmosphere ignition of 85 mg of solid fuel Ti mixed with 30 mg of deionized water sealed in a DSC pan. (A) A survey spectrum was found showing only the component peaks of K, C, O, N, and trace I. (B) A high-resolution spectrum showed a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2 (1 / 4), and other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding principal component peaks. Figure AB 13 shows XPS spectra recorded on an internal KOH-KCl (1:1 wt%) getter exposed to argon atmosphere ignition gases of 50 mg NH4NO3 + KOH + KCl (2:1:1 wt.) + 15 mg H2O solid fuel sealed inside an aluminum DSC pan. (A) A surveyed spectrum was found showing only the component peaks of K, Cu, Cl, Si, Al, C, O, and trace F. (B) A high-resolution spectrum showed a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4), and other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding principal component peaks. Figure 14 shows an experimental configuration for a high-voltage pulse emission cell. The source emits light spectra through an entrance aperture that penetrates a slit, and the spectra escape a grazing-incidence grating and scatter onto a CCD detection system. Figure 15 is a photograph of a high-voltage pulse emission light source. Figure 16 shows the experimental setup for recording conductive solid fuel samples and powerful plasma emissions. The plasma expands into a vacuum chamber to be optically thinned. The source emits its optical spectra through an entrance aperture penetrating a slit, and the spectra escape an angled incident grating and scatter onto a CCD detection system. Figures 17A-B are the transmission curves of filters for EUV light that block visible light. (A) The Al filter (150 nm thick) has a cutoff for short wavelengths at ~17 nm. (B) The Zr filter (150 nm thick) has high transmission at a predicted H (1 / 4) transmission cutoff of 10.1 nm. Figures 18A-B show emission spectra (2.5–45 nm) containing 1,000 superpositions of electron-beam-initiated high-pressure pulsed gas emissions in helium or hydrogen. In helium without a continuum, only known ion lines of helium and oxygen were observed. Continuum emission was observed only in hydrogen, regardless of the number of electrodes, gratings, spectrometers, or CCD image superpositions. (A) Helium and hydrogen plasmas were maintained with Mo electrodes, and emissions were recorded using a CfA EUV square incident spectrometer equipped with a BLP 600 lines / mm grating. (B) Helium and hydrogen plasmas were maintained with Ta electrodes, and emissions were recorded using a CfA EUV square incident spectrometer equipped with a BLP 600 lines / mm grating. (C) Helium and hydrogen plasmas were maintained with W electrodes, and emissions were recorded using a CfA EUV square incident spectrometer equipped with a CfA 1,200 lines / mm grating. (D) Helium and hydrogen plasmas were maintained with W electrodes, and emissions were recorded using a CfA EUV square incident spectrometer equipped with a BLP 600 lines / mm grating. Figure 19 shows the emission spectra (5-50 nm) of electron beam-driven high-voltage pulse emissions in helium-hydrogen mixtures by W electrodes recorded by an EUV square incident spectrometer using a 600 lines / mm grating, and 1,000 superpositions show that the intensity of the continuous radiation increases with increasing hydrogen pressure. FIGS. 20A-D are emission spectra (5-40 nm) containing 1,000 superpositions of electron beam-driven high-voltage pulsed gas emissions in hydrogen with and without an Al filter. No continuous radiation was observed from the Al and Mg anodes. (A) Hydrogen plasmas were maintained with an Al anode. (B) Hydrogen plasmas were maintained with an Al anode, and the spectrum was recorded with an Al filter. (C) Hydrogen plasmas were maintained with a Mg anode. (D) Hydrogen plasmas were maintained with a Mg anode, and the spectrum was recorded with an Al filter. Figures 21A-B show high-speed photographs of an expanding plasma emitting brilliant light formed from the low-voltage, high-current explosion of solid fuels. (A) Cu + CuO + H2O was captured at 6,500 frames per second. The white-blue color indicates a large amount of UV emission from a black body at a temperature of 5,500–6,000 K, equivalent to the sun. (B) 55.9 mg Ag (10 at%) coated on Cu (87 wt%) + BaI2₂H2O (13 wt%) was captured with a VI waveform showing the plasma at 17,791 frames per second during a period with no electrical input, and no chemical reaction was possible. The plasma persisted for 21.9 ms while the input was zero at 1.275 ms. The peak reaction voltage measured at the welded connection to the bus bar was about 20V, and the corresponding voltage at the other end adjacent to the fuel was < 15V. Figure 22 shows plasma conductivity as a function of time following the explosion of 100 mg + 30 mg solid fuel sealed inside a DSC pan at a pair of conductivity probes spaced 1.5875 cm apart. The time delay between the pair of conductivity probes was measured to be 42 μs, corresponding to a plasma expansion velocity of 378 m / s averaged over the speed of sound of 343 m / s among various measurements. Figure 23 shows intensity-normalized superpositions of the visible spectra of plasmas formed by low-voltage, high-current explosions of solid fuels, 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H2O and 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H2O, all sealed inside a DSC fan, compared to the spectrum of solar radiation at the surface. The overlay shows that all sources emit blackbody radiation of about 5000–6000 K, but the solid fuel blackbody emission (before normalization) is more than 50,000 times greater than solar radiation at the surface. Figure 24 shows a fast photodiode signal as a function of time capturing the progression of photoemission following the ignition event of 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H2O sealed solid fuel inside a DSC pan. The transient full width half maximum light intensity measured by the fast photodiode was 0.5 ms. Figure 25 shows the visible spectrum of a plasma formed by the low-voltage, high-current ignition of a sealed solid fuel paraffin wax inside a DSC fan 427 cm away from the explosion. This source also emits blackbody radiation of about 5000–6000 K, similar to the spectra of solar and aqueous solid fuels shown in Figure 23. Figures 26A-B show high-resolution visible spectra in the spectral region of the H Balmer α line measured using the Jobin Yvon Horiba 1250 M spectrum with a 20 μm slit. (A) The full width half maximum (FWHM) of the 632.8 nm HeNe laser line was 0.07 Å, confirming high resolution. (B) The full width half maximum (FWHM) of the Balmer α line from the emission of 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H2O ignited in a sealed DSC pan was 3.96 x 10⁻⁶ electron density. 23 / m 3 It was 22.6 Å, corresponding to. These lines were shifted by +1.2 Å. The plasma was almost completely ionized at a blackbody temperature of 6000 K. The Balmer α line width from the emission of 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H2O ignited solid fuel sealed inside a DSC pan could not be measured due to a significantly large excess width of more than 24 Å, corresponding to a 100% ionized plasma at a blackbody temperature of at least 5000 K. FIG. 27 shows the light energy density spectrum (350 nm to 1000 nm) measured by an Ocean Optics spectrometer by the temporal integration of power density spectra taken over a 5 s time span to collect all light energy from a 0.5 ms light emission pulse of 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H2O ignition solid fuel sealed inside a DSC fan. The energy density obtained by integrating the energy density spectra is 5.86 J / m² recorded at a distance of 353.6 cm. 2 It was. FIG. 28 shows the calibration emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of high-voltage pulse emission in air (100 mTorr) by W electrodes using an EUV square incident spectrometer with a 600 lines / mm grid and Al filters showing only known oxygen and nitrogen lines, and a zero-order peak was observed in the absence of a continuum. FIG. 29 shows the emission spectra (0–45 nm) of plasma emission from a conductive NiOOH pellet ignited by a high-current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two Al filters alone and additionally by a quartz filter. EUV passes only through the Al filters, and the EUV light is blocked by the quartz filter. A strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission was observed in the 17–45 nm region, and a characteristic Al filter notch was observed at 10–17 nm, as shown in FIG. 17A. The EUV spectrum (0–45 nm) and the zero-order intensity peak were completely cut off by the quartz filter, confirming that the solid-fuel plasma emission is EUV. Figure 30 shows the emission spectrum (0–45 nm) of plasma emission from a 3 mm pellet of conductive Ag (10%)-Cu / BaI2₂H2O fuel ignited by a high-current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two overlapping expanding Al filters to show details. A strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission was observed in the 17 to 45 nm region, and a characteristic Al filter notch was observed in the 10 to 17 nm region, as shown in Figure 17A. FIG. 31 shows the emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of plasma emission from a 3 mm pellet of conductive Ag (10%)-Cu / BaI22H2O fuel ignited by a high current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two overlapping expanding Al filters to show details. A powerful EUV continuum with secondary ion emission was observed to have a 10.1 nm cutoff, as predicted by equations (230) and (233) propagated by a zirconium filter as shown in FIG. 17A. FIG. 32 shows the emission spectra (0-45 nm) of plasma emission of sealed paraffin inside a conductive DSC fan ignited with a high-current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two Al filters alone and additionally by a quartz filter. A zero-order EUV peak was observed. The zero-order peak was completely cut off by the quartz filter, confirming that the solid fuel plasma emission is EUV. Fig. 33 shows the emission spectra (0–45 nm) of plasma emission from a conductive NiOOH pellet ignited by a high-current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two Al filters alone and additionally by a quartz filter. An unusual zero-order intensity peak and EUV continuum were observed due to EUV photon scattering of the massive emission and a wide slit width of 100 μm. The emission is 2.32 x 10⁻⁶, corresponding to a total distance-and-solid-angle-corrected energy of 148 J of EUV radiation. 7 The total number of photons was constructed. The EUV spectrum (0-45 nm) and zero-order peak were completely cut off by a quartz filter, confirming that the solid fuel plasma emission is EUV. Figure 34 shows the emission spectra (0–45 nm) of plasma emission of 5 mg of the active material NH4NO3 packed in a conductive Al DSC pan ignited with a high-current source having an AC peak voltage of less than 15 V, recorded by two Al filters alone and additionally by a quartz filter. An unusual zero-order peak of intensity was observed, as illustrated by comparison with H2 pinch emission (lower trace). The emission corresponded to a total distance-and-solid-angle-corrected energy of 148 J of EUV radiation. The EUV spectrum (0–45 nm) and zero-order peak were completely cut off by the quartz filter, confirming that the solid-fuel plasma emission is EUV. Fig. 35 is from "Ultraviolet Astronomy" by authors MA Barstow and JB Holberg in Cambridge Astrophysics Series 37, published by Cambridge University Press in 2003. Ultraviolet Astronomy From ,” showing the lines of the He II and HI Lyman absorption series at 22.8 nm (228 Å) and 91.2 nm (912 Å) at a temperature of 50,000 K and He / H = 10 -5 It shows a preferred model of the EUV continuum spectrum of the photosphere of a white dwarf using the number abundance. Fig. 36 is "The Sun" by author M. Stix, published by Springer Publishers in Berlin in 1991. The SunFrom Fig. 9.5 on page 321 of ”, the average extreme ultraviolet spectra of Skylab {Harvard College Observatory spectrometer} recorded at the upper prominence, the middle quiet sun-center, and the lower corona above the solar limb are shown. In the quiet sun spectrum, a 91.2 nm continuum is predicted to be prominent for longer wavelengths and is observed despite attenuation by coronal gas. In the prominence and corona, the continuum is significantly reduced, and H concentrations have decreased significantly and disappeared, respectively. Emissions and continuums from chromospheric lines are also severely reduced in the corona. Applied Optics, Vol. 16, (1977), pp. 837–848 From "Extreme UV spectroheliometer on the Apollo telescope mount" by authors EM Reeves, ECM Huber, and GJ Timothy in {837-848}, the most powerful lines and less prominence in the coronal spectrum are multiplied by ionized ions, such as doublets of Ne VIII, Mg X, or Si XII, which are possible due to the absorption of high-energy continuum radiation rather than thermal excitation, for example. Fig. 37 shows a dark matter ring within a galaxy cluster. This Hubble Space Telescope composite image reveals a ghostly "ring" of dark matter within the galaxy cluster Cl 0024+17. These rings are the strongest pieces of evidence to date for the existence of dark matter, previously unknown matter permeating the universe. Courtesy of NASA / ESA, MJ Jee and H. Ford (Johns Hopkins University), Nov. 2004. Specific details for implementing the invention

[0123] This specification discloses catalytic systems that release energy from atomic hydrogen to form low-energy states, wherein the electron shell is located closer to the nucleus. The released energy is utilized for power generation, and furthermore, new hydrogen species and compounds are the products. These energy states are predicted by the laws of classical physics and require a catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen to perform the corresponding energy release transitions.

[0124] Classical physics provides hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantum numbers. Using Maxwell's equations, the structure of the electron is derived as a boundary-value problem, where the electron involves source currents of time-varying electromagnetic fields during transitions, along with the constraint that the electron in the bound n = 1 state cannot emit energy. The reaction predicted by the solution of the H atom involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer as a catalyst capable of accepting energy from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to form hydrogens in lower-energy states than previously thought possible. Specifically, classical physics states that atomic hydrogen has a net enthalpy E of integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. h It is predicted that it can perform catalytic reactions with any atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides providing a reaction of = 27.2 eV, where E his 1 Hartree. To catalyze the process, specific recognizable species based on their respective known electron energy levels {e.g., He+, Ar+, Sr+, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, generator H2O, nH (n=integer)} must be present with atomic hydrogen. This reaction involves nonradiative energy transfer involving q·13.6 eV continuum emission or q·13.6 eV transfer to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and hydrogen atoms with lower energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to fractional principal quantum numbers. That is, in the formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom:

[0125] Here ε is the Bohr radius for a hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron load, and is the vacuum permittivity, and the fractional quantum numbers are

[0126] (where p ≤ 137 is an integer) (3) In the Rydberg equation for hydrogen in the excited state, the well-known parameter n = integer is replaced to represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atoms called “hydrinos”. Then, similar to the excited state which has an analytical solution to Maxwell’s equations, the hydrino atoms also contain electrons, protons, and photons. However, the electric field of the latter increases binding corresponding to desorption of energy rather than decreasing the central field by absorption of energy as in the excited state, and the resulting photon-electron interaction of the hydrinos is more stable than radiative.

[0127] The n=1 state and the n=1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radioactive, but the transition between the two non-radioactive states, namely from n=1 to n=1 / 2, is possible through non-radioactive energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by equations (1) and (3), where the corresponding radius of the corresponding hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by the following equation,

[0128] (4)

[0129] Here, p=1, 2, 3,…. To conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to a catalyst of the following equation unit, and

[0130] m·27.2 eV, m = 1,2,3,4,.... (5)

[0131] The radius is It transitions up to. Catalytic reactions involve two stages of energy release: as the radius decreases to a corresponding stable final state, non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst entails additional energy release. The rate of catalysis appears to increase as the net enthalpy of the reaction approaches m·27.2 eV. Catalysts with a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalysis of hydrino atoms into low-energy states, the enthalpy of the reaction at m·27.2 eV (Equation (5)) is relativistically corrected by a factor such as the potential energy of the hydrino atoms.

[0132] Therefore, the general reaction is given by the following equation, and

[0133]

[0134] The overall reaction is

[0135]

[0136] and q, r, m, and p are integers. It has a radius of a hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to (m + p) times the central field of a proton, and is the radius of H It is a corresponding stable state having a radius of 1 / 2. The electron is at this distance from the radius of the hydrogen atom. As radial acceleration is performed up to the radius of , energy is emitted as characteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy. This emission is [(p + m) 2 - p2 - 2m]·13.6 eV or It can take the form of extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation that has edges and extends to longer wavelengths. In addition to radiation, kinetic energy transfer of resonance may occur to form fast H. The subsequent excitation of these fast H (n=1) by collision with background H2, accompanied by the emission of corresponding H (n=3) fast atoms, causes broadened Balmer α emission. Otherwise, fast H is a direct byproduct of H or hydrino acting as a catalyst, where the acceptance of resonance energy transfer is considered as potential energy rather than ionic energy. Energy conservation provides a portion of the kinetic energy corresponding to half of the potential energy in the former case, and essentially provides the remaining catalytic ion in the latter case. H recombination radiation from fast protons causes broadened Balmer α emission, which is disproportionate to the inventory of high-temperature hydrogen that matches the equilibrium of excess power.

[0137] In the present invention, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all apply to reactions such as the reactions of the catalytic equations (6-9) defined by the equation (5) containing atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given in equations (1) and (3). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants for hydrino formation, and reactants that produce or form lower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to a reaction mixture in which the catalytic action of H is carried out for H or hydrino states having energy levels given by equations (1) and (3).

[0138] The catalytic low-energy hydrogen transitions of the present invention require a catalyst capable of taking the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer (m) of the potential energy (27.2 eV) of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, and such a catalyst accepts energy from atomic H to cause the transition. An endothermic catalytic reaction can be the ionization of one or more electrons from species such as atoms or ions (e.g., Li → Li). 2+ For m = 3), it may further include a concerted reaction of bond cleavage involving the ionization of one or more electrons from one or more partners of the initial bond (e.g., NaH → Na 2+ For + H, m = 2). He +Since it is ionized at 54.417 eV, which becomes 2·27.2 eV, it performs the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process—which has an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms can also act as a catalyst for an enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p) p=1, 2, 3,...137 can further perform transitions to low-energy states given by equations (1) and (3), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more additional H atoms that resonantly and nonradiatively accommodate m·27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (m + p)) induced by resonance transfer to H(1 / p') at m·27.2 eV is expressed as follows.

[0139] (10)

[0140] Hydrogen atoms act as catalysts, where m=1, m=2, and m=3 for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, act as catalysts for the others. The rate for two-atom-catalyst 2H can be increased when extraordinarily fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H, where the two atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom of their collision partners. In the same way, the collision of two hot H2 provides 3H to act as a catalyst of 3·27.2 eV for the fourth hydrogen atom. Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) continua at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm, extraordinary (>100 eV) Balmer α line broadening, highly excited H states, product gas H2(1 / 4), and large energy emission are observed in accordance with predictions.

[0141] H(1 / 4) is preferably a hydrino state based on the selection rules for its formation, which is multipolarity itself. Thus, when H(1 / 3) is formed, the transition to H(1 / 4) can occur in a state rapidly catalyzed by H according to equation (10). Likewise, H(1 / 4) is a preferred state for catalytic energy greater than or equal to 81.6 eV, corresponding to m=3 in equation (5). In this case, the energy transfer to the catalyst includes the integer 27.2 eV from the decay of the intermediate, as well as 81.6 eV forming the H*(1 / 4) intermediate of equation (7). For example, a catalyst having an enthalpy of 108.8 eV can form H*(1 / 4) by accepting 81.6 eV as well as 27.2 eV from the H*(1 / 4) decay energy of 122.4 eV. The remaining decay energy of 95.2 eV is released into the environment to form H(1 / 4) in a desired state, and then H(1 / 4) reacts to form H2(1 / 4).

[0142] Therefore, a suitable catalyst can provide a net positive enthalpy of m·27.2 eV for the reaction. That is, the catalyst resonantly accepts non-radiative energy transfer from hydrogen atoms and releases this energy into the surroundings, thereby influencing electronic transitions at fractional quantum energy levels. As a result of non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and releases additional energy until it reaches a low-energy non-radiative state with the principal energy level given by equations (1) and (3). Thus, catalysis occurs with a commensurate decrease in the size of the hydrogen atom, r n = na H (Here, n is the value given by equation (3)), releases energy from hydrogen atoms. For example, the catalytic conversion from H (n=1) to H (n=1 / 4) releases 204 eV, and the hydrogen radius is 1 / 4 a from aH. H It decreases to.

[0143] The catalytic product H(1 / p) is a hydrino-hydrogen ion H - It can react with electrons to form (1 / p), or two H(1 / p) can react to form the corresponding molecule hydrino H2(1 / p). Specifically, the catalytic product H(1 / p) has a binding energy E B A new hydrogen ion H having - It may also react with electrons to form (1 / p):

[0144]

[0145] Here, p = integer > 1, s = 1 / 2, ε is Planck's constant bar, μ0 is the permeability of vacuum, m e is the mass of the electron, μ e Is It is the reduced electron mass given by, where m p ε is the mass of the quantum, α0 is the Bohr radius, and the ionic radius is From equation (11), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is 0.75418 eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99±0.15 cm. -1 (0.75418 eV). The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

[0146] Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence for the existence of hydrogen in a low-energy state, having a reduced diameter and increased proton diamagnetic shielding compared to normal hydride ions. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p {Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)}:

[0147]

[0148] Here, the first term is H - It applies to, H -For (1 / p), p = 1 and p = integer > 1, and α is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino-hydride peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted compared to the normal hydride ion. In one embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift associated with TMS is the same as the normal H - , H, H2, or H + H containing alone or in a mixture + It is greater than that announced for at least one of the following. This shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. With respect to a bare proton, the range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, where the TMS shift is approximately -31.5, is within at least one of the ranges of approximately ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm -(p29.9 + p 22.74) ppm can be (Equation (12)). The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton is within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10% -(p29.9 + p 2 1.59 X 10 -3 ) can be in ppm (Equation (12)). In another embodiment, the presence of hydrino species, such as hydrino atoms, hydride ions, or molecules within a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide like NaOH or KOH, causes matrix protons to shift to a higher field. Matrix protons, such as those of NaOH or KOH, can be exchanged. In one embodiment, the shift can cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm with respect to TMS. NMR determination is performed by magic angle rotation 1 H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (magic angle spinning; MAS) l It may include H NMR spectroscopy.

[0149] H(1 / p) can react with protons, and the two H(1 / p) are each H2(1 / p) +and can react to form H2(1 / p). Hydrogen molecule ions and molecular charges, current density functions, bond distances, and energies are resolved from the Laplacian operation in ellipsoidal coordinates by the constraint of nonradiation.

[0150] (13)

[0151] The total energy E of a hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of +pe at each focus of a prolate spheroid molecular orbital τ Is

[0152]

[0153] , where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass. The total energy of a hydrogen molecule having a central field of +pe at each focus of a prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0154]

[0155] am.

[0156] Bond dissociation energy E of the hydrogen molecule H2(l / p) D is the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms and E τ It is the difference between,

[0157]

[0158] Here,

[0159]

[0160] H2(1 / p) can be demonstrated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where, in addition to the ionized electron, the ionization product is, for example, two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion, a hydrogen molecular ion, and H2(1 / p) + There can be at least one possibility, such as those including, and energies can be moved by the matrix.

[0161] H2(1 / p) can be demonstrated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where, in addition to the ionized electron, the ionization product is, for example, two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion, a hydrogen molecular ion, and H2(1 / p) + There can be at least one possibility, such as those including, and energies can be moved by the matrix.

[0162] The NMR of the catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2(1 / p). In general, H2(1 / p) l H NMR resonance is predicted to be in the upfield from the H2 resonance due to fractional radii in elliptic coordinates, where electrons are in considerable proximity to the nuclei. Predicted shift for H2(1 / p) ) is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p {Mills GUTCP Eqs. (11.415 - 11.416)}:

[0163]

[0164] Here, the first term applies to H2, where p = 1 and p = integer > 1 for H2(1 / p). The experimental absolute H2 gas-phase resonance shift at -28.0 ppm is in very good agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift at -28.01 ppm (Equation (20)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted for ordinary H2. In one embodiment, the peaks are at the high field of TMS. The NMR shift for TMS is for ordinary H - , H, H2, or H + H, either alone or in a mixture +For at least one of them, it is greater than the announced shift. This shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -1, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. If the shift of TMS relative to a bare proton is about -31.5 ppm, the range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton can be -(p28.01 + p22.56) ppm within at least one of the ranges of about ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm (Equation (20)). The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton can be -(p28.01 + p22.56) ppm within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. 2 1.49 X 10 -3 It can be in ppm (Equation (20)).

[0165] Vibrational energy (E) for the transition of hydrogen-type molecules H2(1 / p) from υ=0 to υ=1 vib ) are

[0166]

[0167] and, where p is an integer.

[0168] Rotational energy (E) for the J to J + 1 transition of hydrogen-based molecules H2(1 / p)rot ) are

[0169]

[0170] , where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. The ro-vibrational emission of H2(1 / 4) is observed on electron-beam excited molecules in gases and is trapped in a solid matrix.

[0171] p of rotational energies 2 Dependency (p 2 The dependence of the rotational energies) is due to the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia (I). The predicted internuclear distance (2c') for H2 (1 / p) is

[0172]

[0173] am.

[0174] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(l / p) can be measured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(l / p) can be trapped within a measurement matrix such as at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali; X = halide) matrices.

[0175] I. Catalysts

[0176] He + , Ar + , Sr+ Li, K, NaH, nH (n=integer), and H2O are predicted to act as catalysts because they satisfy the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process having an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. Specifically, the catalytic system is provided by the ionization of t electrons up to a continuum energy level where the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons from each atom is approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Furthermore, additional catalytic transitions may occur, for example, as in the case where H(l / 2) is initially formed: ...etc. Once catalysis begins, the hydrinos perform additional autocatalyze in a process called disproportionation, where H or H(l / p) acts as a catalyst for other H or H(l / p') (where p can be the same as p').

[0177] Hydrogen and hydrinos act as catalysts. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p) p = 1, 2, 3,...137 can perform transitions to low-energy states given by equations (1) and (3), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second (a second) that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m·27.2 eV, which has an opposite change accompanying its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition from H(1 / p) to H{1 / (m+p)} induced by the resonance transfer to H(1 / p') at m·27.2 eV is expressed by equation (10). Therefore, hydrogen atoms can act as catalysts, with m=1, m=2, and m=3 for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, acting as catalysts for the other. The rate for the two- or three-atom-catalyst case is notable only when the H density is high. However, high H densities are not uncommon. The high concentration permissiveness of 2H or 3H acting as an energy acceptor for a third or fourth can be achieved in various environments, such as on the surfaces of the Sun and stars, due to the temperature and gravity-driven density on metal surfaces supporting multiple monolayers and within highly dissociated plasmas, particularly pinched hydrogen plasmas.Furthermore, a three-body H interaction is readily obtained when two H atoms are generated by the collision of high-temperature H and H2. Such events can commonly occur within plasmas containing a large population of extraordinarily fast H. This is evidenced by the unusual intensity of atomic H emission. In such cases, energy transfer can occur from one hydrogen atom to two other hydrogen atoms via multipole coupling within sufficient proximity, typically a few angstroms. Then, the reaction between the three hydrogen atoms, in which two atoms receive 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom resonantly and non-radiatively with 2H acting as a catalyst, is given by the following equation.

[0178]

[0179] And the overall reaction is

[0180]

[0181] and, here It has a radius of a hydrogen atom and a central field equivalent to three times the central field of a proton, and is a corresponding stable state having a radius of 1 / 3 of the radius of H. As the electron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1 / 3 of this distance, energy is emitted as characteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy.

[0182] In another H-atom catalytic reaction involving a direct transition to the state, two high-temperature H2 molecules collide and dissociate in such a way that three H atoms act as catalysts for the fourth at 3·27.2 eV. Then, the reaction between four hydrogen atoms in which three atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept 81.6 eV from the fourth hydrogen atom in such a way that 3H acts as a catalyst is given by the following equation.

[0183]

[0184] And the overall response is as follows.

[0185]

[0186] of equation (28) The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) and extends to longer wavelengths. This continuum band has been experimentally confirmed. Generally, at H corresponding to the acceptance of m·27.2 eV The transition to is given by the short wavelength cutoff and energy from the following equations It provides a continuous band having,

[0187]

[0188] The continuum band extends to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff. Hydrogen emission from a series of 10.1 nm, 22.8 nm, and 91.2 nm continuums has been experimentally observed in the interstellar medium, the Sun, and white dwarf stars.

[0189] The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV (Equation (43)) [Mills GUT]. Then, by the same method, nascent H2O molecules (solid, liquid, or gaseous states without hydrogen bonding) can act as catalysts (Equations (44-47). A continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm transitioning to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted low-energy transitions from H to the so-called "hydrino" states was first observed at BlackLight Power, Inc. (BLP) as arising solely from pulsed pinched hydrogen discharges and was reproduced at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA). Continuum radiation in the 10 to 30 nm region, corresponding to the predicted transitions from H to the hydrino states, occurs with pulsed pinched hydrogen along with metal oxides that are thermodynamically desirable for carrying out H reduction to form HOH catalysts. It was observed that they occur only from discharges; on the other hand, while the low-melting point metals tested were highly desirable for forming metal ion plasmas with a strong short-wavelength continuum in more powerful plasma sources, the undesirable metal oxides did not show any continuum.

[0190] Alternatively, resonant kinetic energy transfer to form rapid H can occur in accordance with the observation of extraordinary Balmer α line broadening corresponding to high-kinetic energy H. Energy transfer to the two H can also cause pumping of catalytic excited states, and rapid H is generated directly as given by the preferred equations (24), (28), and (47) and by resonant kinetic energy transfer.

[0192] II. Hydrinos

[0193] A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by the following equation is a product of the H catalytic reaction of the present invention, and

[0194]

[0195] Here, p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137. The bond energy of an atom, ion, or molecule is also known as ionization energy, and is the energy required to remove one electron from an atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the given bond energy in Equation (34) is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino". θ is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom, and when p is an integer, the radius The place name for Hydrino is is. Radius A hydrogen atom having [this] will be referred to hereinafter as an "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "normal hydrogen atom." Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a self-binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0196] Hydrinos are formed by the reaction of ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst having the net enthalpy of the reaction of the following equation,

[0197]

[0198] Here, m is an integer. The catalyst rate increases as the net enthalpy of the reaction approaches m·27.2 eV. It has been confirmed that catalysts having a net enthalpy of the reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.

[0199] This catalytic action is the size of the hydrogen atom It releases energy from hydrogen atoms along with a corresponding decrease in. For example, the catalytic conversion from H (n=1) to H (n=1 / 2) releases 40.8 eV, and the hydrogen radius is at It decreases to. Catalytic action is provided by the ionization of t electrons from individual atoms to continuum energy levels, where the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). As a power source, the energy given off during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost to the catalyst. The released energy is large compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen gases undergo combustion to form water, as in the following equation

[0200] (36)

[0201] The known enthalpy of water formation is △H f= -286 kJ / mol or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, each (n=1) ordinary hydrogen atom performing catalysis emits a net of 40.8 eV. Furthermore, additional catalytic transitions may occur: Etc. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos perform additional autocatalysis in a process known as disproportionation. This structure is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. However, hydrino catalysis must have a higher reaction rate than that of inorganic ion catalysts due to the better match of the enthalpy to m·27.2 eV.

[0202] III. Hydrino Catalysts and Hydrino Products

[0203] Hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer) to produce hydrino (whereby t electrons are ionized from atoms or ions) are given in Table 1. The atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized (ionized) to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of m·27.2 eV given in the tenth column (where m is given in the eleventh column). The electrons participating in ionization are provided by the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). The ionization potential (ionization voltage) of the nth electron of an atom or ion is IP n It is designated as such and is provided by the CRC. This is, for example, Li + 5.39172 eV → Li + + e - And Li + + 75.6402 eV → Li2+ + e - The first ionization potential IP1 = 5.39172 eV and the second ionization potential IP2 = 75.6402 eV are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of the reaction for the double ionization of Li is 81.0319 eV, as given in the tenth column, and m=3 in equation (5), as given in the eleventh column.

[0204]

[0205] The hydrino hydride ion of the present invention is the reaction of an electron source and hydrino, i.e., about 13.6 eV / n 2 It can be formed by a reaction with a hydrogen atom having a binding energy (where n = 1 / p, and p is an integer greater than 1). Hydrogen hydride ions are formed as shown in the following equations H - (n=1 / p) or H - It can be expressed as (1 / p):

[0206]

[0207] Hydrino hydride ions are distinguished from ordinary hydride ions containing an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having a binding energy of 0.8 eV. The latter is referred to hereinafter as "ordinary hydride ions" or "normal hydride ions". Hydrino hydride ions contain, at binding energies according to equations (39) and (40), a hydrogen nucleus containing proteum, deuterium, or tritium, and two indistinguishable electrons.

[0208] The binding energy of a hydrino hydride ion can be expressed by the following equation:

[0209] (39)

[0210] Here, p is an integer greater than 1, s=1 / 2, π is pi, and is Planck's constant bar, and μ ο ε is the permeability of vacuum, and m e ε is the mass of the electron, and μ e is an equation (here m p is the reduced electron mass given by the quantum mass), and a H r is the radius of a hydrogen atom, a0 is the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge. The radii are given by the following equation.

[0211]

[0212] Hydrino hydride ion, H as a function of p (where p is an integer). - The binding energies of (n=1 / p) are shown in Table 2.

[0213]

[0214] According to the present invention, a hydrino-hydrogen ion (H) having a binding energy according to equations (39) and (40) - ) is provided, and these binding energies are greater than the bonding of ordinary hydride ions (about 0.75 eV) for p=2 to 23, and for p=24 (H -It is small for ). For p=2 to p=24 of equations (39) and (40), the binding energies of the hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Preferred compositions containing the new hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0215] Preferred compounds comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided. These compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds".

[0216] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following bond energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecule ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule ion"); and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion"). Here, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonyms in relation to the forms of hydrogen.

[0217] According to a further embodiment of the present invention, a compound comprising at least one of increased binding energy hydrogen species, for example, (a) to (f) below, is provided, wherein (a) in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times (where p is an integer from 2 to 137) as in (approx. (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of , and a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times, such as about Hydrogen ions (H) having a binding energy (where p is an integer from 2 to 24) - ) and; (c) H4 + (1 / p) and; (d) in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times (where p is an integer from 2 to 137) approximately trihydrino molecular ion H3 having binding energy + (1 / p) and; (e) in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times (where p is an integer from 2 to 137) approximately A dihydrino having a binding energy of; and (f) a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times (where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137) as approximately It is a dihydrino molecular ion having binding energy.

[0218] According to a further embodiment of the present invention, a compound comprising at least one of increased binding energy hydrogen species, for example, as shown in (a) and (b) below, is provided, wherein (a) total energy E in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times T Like, approximately

[0219]

[0220] The total energy of {where, p is an integer, and is Planck's constant bar, and m e A dihydrino molecular ion having {where is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass}, and (b) a total energy E in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times T Like, approximately

[0221] (42)

[0222] It is a dihydrino molecule having total energy {where p is an integer and α0 is the Bohr radius}.

[0223] According to one embodiment of the present invention, the compound contains negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, such compound is a combination of, ordinary H2 + , or ordinary H3 + It contains one or more additional cations such as.

[0224] A method for preparing compounds containing at least one hydrino hydride ion is provided herein. These compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds." This method comprises, approximately To produce a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy having a bond energy of (where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137), approximately The method includes the step of reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction (where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400). An additional product of the catalytic action is energy. An increased binding energy hydrogen atom may be reacted with an electron source to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion may be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound containing at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0225] New hydrogen compositions of the material are:

[0226] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”),

[0227] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0228] (ii) Since the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are smaller than the thermal energies at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), the binding energies of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are greater than the binding energies of any hydrogen species that are unstable, unobserved, or negative.

[0229] At least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having binding energy; and

[0230] (b) It may include at least one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "increasing bond energy hydrogen compounds."

[0231] In this regard, "other element" refers to an element other than the increasing bond energy hydrogen species. Therefore, the other element can be ordinary hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increasing bond energy hydrogen species are neutral. In the other group of compounds, the other element and the increasing bond energy hydrogen species are charged, with the other element providing a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. Compounds of the former group are characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding, while compounds of the latter group are characterized by ionic bonding.

[0232] New compounds and molecular ions are also provided, and these new compounds and molecular ions

[0233] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”),

[0234] (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0235] (ii) Since the total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is smaller than the thermal energies under ambient conditions, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species that are unstable, unobserved, or negative.

[0236] At least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having total energy; and

[0237] (b) includes at least one other element.

[0238] The total energy of hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present invention have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding conventional hydrogen species. Hydrogen species having increased total energy according to the present invention are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," even though most embodiments of hydrogen species having increased total energy have a first electron binding energy smaller than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding conventional hydrogen species. For example, the hydrogen ion of equations (39) and (40) for p=24 has a first binding energy smaller than the first binding energy of a conventional hydrogen ion, whereas the total energy of the hydrogen ion of equations (39) and (40) for p=24 is much larger than the total energy of a conventional hydrogen ion.

[0239] New compounds and molecular ions are also provided here, and these new compounds and molecular ions

[0240] (a) as a number of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”),

[0241] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0242] (ii) Since the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are smaller than the thermal energies under ambient conditions, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are greater than the binding energies of any hydrogen species that are unstable, unobserved, or negative.

[0243] A number of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having binding energy; and

[0244] (b) Optionally includes one other element. These compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

[0245] Increased bond energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound containing at least one of the said increased bond energy hydrogen species, and at least one atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased bond energy hydrogen species.

[0246] New compounds and molecular ions are also provided, and these new compounds and molecular ions

[0247] (a) as a number of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”),

[0248] (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

[0249] (ii) Since the total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is smaller than the thermal energies under ambient conditions, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species that are unstable, unobserved, or negative.

[0250] A number of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species possessing total energy; and

[0251] (b) Optionally includes one other element. These compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "increased bond energy hydrogen compounds".

[0252] In one embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one of the increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from (a) to (d) below, wherein (a) a hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 to 23 and smaller than that for p = 24 ("increased binding energy hydrogen ion" or "hydrino hydrogen ion"); (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) ("increased binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino"); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a binding energy greater than that of about 15.3 eV ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino"); and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than that of 16.3 eV ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion"). In the present invention, increasing bond energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as low-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include increasing bond energy hydrogen species or equivalently low-energy hydrogen species.

[0253] IV. Additional MH-Type Catalysts and Reactions

[0254] In general, catalysts for producing hydrinos provided by the breaking of MH bonds and the ionization of t electrons from each atom (M) up to the continuum energy level are given in Table 3A, such that the sum of the MH bond energies and the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Each MH catalyst is given in the first column, and the corresponding MH bond energy is given in the second column. The atoms (M) of the MH species given in the first column are ionized by the addition of the bond energies given in the second column, providing a net enthalpy of reaction of m·21.2 eV. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in the eighth column, where m is given in the ninth column. The electrons participating in ionization are given as having an ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bond energy). For example, the bond energy of NaH, 1.9245 eV, is given in the second column. The ionization potential of an atom or ion with the nth electron is designated as IPn and is given by CRC. For example, Na + 5.13908 eV → Na + + e - And Na + + 47.2864 eV → Na 2+ + e -The first ionization potential IP1 = 5.13908 eV and the second ionization potential IP2 = 47.2864 eV are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of the reaction for the breaking of the NaH bond and the double ionization of Na is 54.35 eV, as given in the eighth column, and m=2 in equation (35), as given in the ninth column. The bond energy of BaH is 1.98991 eV, and IP1, IP2, and IP3 are 5.2117 eV, 10.00390 eV, and 37.3 eV, respectively. The net enthalpy of the reaction for the breaking of the BaH bond and the triple ionization of Ba is 54.5 eV, as given in the eighth column, and m = 2 in Equation (36), as given in the ninth column. The bond energy of SrH is 1.70 eV, and IP1, IP2, TP3, IP4, and IP5 are 5.69484 eV, 11.03013 eV, 42.89 eV, 57 eV, and 71.6 eV, respectively. Breaking of the SrH bond and Sr from Sr 5+ The net enthalpy of the reaction for ionization up to is 190 eV as given in the eighth column, and m=7 in equation (35) as given in the ninth column.

[0255]

[0256] In other embodiments, MH for generating hydrinos provided by the transfer of electrons to acceptor A, the breaking of the MH bond, and the ionization of t electrons from each atom M to a continuum energy level, such that the sum of the difference in electron affinity (EA) between MH and acceptor A, the MH binding energy, and the ionization energies of t electrons from atom M is approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer).- The type hydrogen catalysts are given in Table 3B. Each MH - The catalyst, acceptor A, the electron affinity of MH, the electron affinity of A, and the binding energy of MH are given in the first, second, third, and fourth columns, respectively. The electrons of the corresponding atom M of MH participating in ionization are given as having ionization potentials (also called ionization energy or binding energy) in the subsequent columns, and the enthalpy of the catalyst and the corresponding integer m are given in the last column. For example, the electron affinities of OH and H are 1.82765 eV and 0.7542 eV, respectively, and the electron transfer energy is 1.07345 eV, as given in the fifth column. The binding energy of OH is 4.4556 eV, given in the sixth column. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is IP n It is designated as. For example, 0 + 13.618O6 eV → 0 + + e - and O + + 35.11730 eV → 0 2+ + e -The first ionization potential IP1 = 13.61806 eV and the second ionization potential IP2 = 35.11730 eV are given in the seventh and eighth columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of the electron transfer reaction, the breaking of the OH bond, and the double ionization of O is 54.27 eV as given in the eleventh column, and m=2 in equation (35) as given in the twelfth column. In other embodiments, the catalyst for H to form hydrinos is provided by the ionization of negative ions such that the sum of the ionization energies of the EA and one or more electrons is about m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Alternatively, the first electron of a negative ion may be transferred to an acceptor that entails the ionization of at least one electron, such that the sum of the electron transfer energy and the ionization energies of one or more electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). The electron acceptor may be H.

[0257]

[0258] In other embodiments, MH-type hydrogen catalysts for generating hydrinos are provided by the transfer of electrons from a negatively charged donor A, the breaking of the MH bond, and the ionization of t electrons from each atom M to a continuum energy level, such that the difference between the ionization energies of MH and donor A, the bonding MH energy, and the sum of the ionization energies of t electrons from M is about m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer).

[0259] In one embodiment, the catalysts comprise any species, such as atoms, positive or negative charged ions, positive or negative molecular ions, molecules, excimers, compounds, or any of these, in the ground or excited state capable of accepting energy of m·27.2 eV (m = 1, 2, 3, 4,.... Equation (5)). The rate of the catalytic reaction appears to increase as the net enthalpy of the reaction approaches m·27.2 eV more closely. Catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalytic reactions to low-energy states of hydrino atoms, the enthalpy of the reaction at m·27.2 eV (Equation (5)) is relativistically corrected by a factor such as the potential energy of the hydrino atoms. In one embodiment, the catalyst accepts energy from atomic hydrogen resonantly and non-radiatively. In one embodiment, the accepted energy reduces the magnitude of the catalyst's potential energy by approximately the amount transferred from the atomic hydrogen. Energetic ions or electrons are generated due to the conservation of the kinetic energy of the initial bonding electrons. At least one atomic H acts as a catalyst for at least one other H, where the 27.2 eV potential energy of the acceptor is offset by transfer from the donor H atom being catalyzed or by 27.2 eV. The kinetic energy of the acceptor catalyst H can be conserved as rapid protons or electrons. Furthermore, the intermediate state formed in the catalyzed H (Equation (7)) decays by the release of continuum energy in the form of radiated or induced kinetic energy within the third body.These energy releases cause current flow in the CIHT cell of the present invention.

[0260] In one embodiment, at least one molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion acts as a catalyst accommodating about m·27.2 eV by reducing the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion by about m·27.2 eV. For example, the potential energy of H2O given in Mills GUTCP is given by the following equation.

[0261]

[0262] A molecule that accepts m·27.2 eV from an atom H can act as a catalyst by reducing the magnitude of the molecule's potential energy by an equal amount of energy. For example, the catalytic reaction for the potential energy of H2O (m = 3) is as follows.

[0263]

[0264] In addition, the overall reaction is as follows:

[0265]

[0266] Here It has a central region equivalent to four times the radius of a hydrogen atom and the central region of a proton, and is a corresponding stable state having a radius that is one-quarter the radius of H. As the electron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius that is one-quarter of this distance, energy is released as characteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy. Based on a 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization during progression from 0°C ice to 100°C water, the average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6. Therefore, in one embodiment, H2O must be chemically formed as isolated molecules having appropriate activation energy to act as a catalyst for forming hydrinos. In one embodiment, the H2O catalyst is generator H2O.

[0267] In one embodiment, at least one of nH, O, nO, O2, OH, and H2O (n = integer) may act as a catalyst. As a catalyst, the product of H and OH may be H(l / 5) with a catalytic enthalpy of about 108.8 eV. As a catalyst, the product of the reaction of H and H2O may be H(l / 4). The hydrino product may further react into lower sates. As a catalyst, the product of H(l / 4) and H may be H(l / 5) with a catalytic enthalpy of about 27.2 eV. As a catalyst, the product of H(l / 4) and OH may be H(l / 6) with a catalytic enthalpy of about 54.4 eV. As a catalyst, the product of H(l / 5) and H may be H(l / 6) with a catalytic enthalpy of about 27.2 eV.

[0268] Furthermore, since the potential energy of OH is given by the following equation, OH can act as a catalyst.

[0269]

[0270] The energy difference between the H states p = 1 and p = 2 is 40.8 eV. Therefore, OH can accept about 40.8 eV from H to act as a catalyst for forming H(1 / 2).

[0271] As with H2O, the potential energy of the amide functional group NH2 given to Mills GUTCP is -78.77719 eV. From CRC, each corresponding △H f The ΔH for the reaction of NH2 to form KNH2 calculated from is (-128.9-184.9) kJ / mole = -313.8 kJ / mole (3.25 eV). From CRC, each corresponding ΔH f The ΔH for the reaction of NH2 to form NaNH2 calculated from is (-123.8-184.9) kJ / mole = -308.7 kJ / mole (3.20 eV). From CRC, each corresponding ΔH f The ΔH for the reaction of NH2 to form LiNH2 calculated from is (-179.5-184.9) kJ / mole = -364.4 kJ / mole. Therefore, the net enthalpy that can be accommodated by the alkali amide MNH2 (M = K, Na, Li) acting as H catalysts for forming hydrinos is approximately 82.03 eV, 81.98 eV, and 82.56 eV, respectively (m = 3 in equation (5)), corresponding to the sum of the potential energy of the amide group and the energy required to form an amide from the amide group. Hydroproducts, such as molecular hydrinos, can cause a high upfield matrix shift observed by means such as MAS NMR.

[0272] As with H2O, the potential energy of the H2S functional group given to Mills GUTCP is -72.81 eV. This cancellation of potential energy removes the energy associated with the hybridization of the 3p shell. This hybridization energy of 7.49 eV is given by the ratio of the hydrogen orbital radius to the initial atomic orbital radius times of the total energy of the shell. Furthermore, the energy change of the S3p shell due to the formation of two SH bonds of 1.10 eV is included within the catalytic energy. Thus, the net enthalpy of the H2S catalyst is 81.40 eV (m=3 in equation (5)). The H2S catalyst is formed from MHS (M = alkali) by the following reaction.

[0273] 2MHS as M2S + H2S (49)

[0274] This reversible reaction can form H2S in an active catalytic state in a transition state to produce H2S capable of catalyzing H to hydrino. The reaction mixture may include reactants that form a source of H2S and atomic H. For example, hydrino products, such as molecular hydrino, can cause a high-field matrix shift observed by means such as MAS NMR.

[0275] Furthermore, atomic oxygen is a special atom that possesses two unpaired electrons within the same radius as the Bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. When atomic H acts as a catalyst, 27.2 eV of energy is accepted such that the kinetic energy of each ionized H acting as a catalyst for the other H is 13.6 eV. Similarly, the two electrons of O can be ionized by the 13.6 eV of kinetic energy transferred to the O ion such that the net enthalpy for the breaking of the OH bond in OH by the subsequent ionization of the two outer unpaired electrons is 80.4 eV, as given in Table 3. - During ionization from to OH, H(l / 4) and 0 2+ + 2e - An energy match for an additional reaction may occur, where 204 eV of released energy contributes to the power of the CIHT cell. The reaction is given as follows.

[0276]

[0278] In addition, the overall reaction is

[0279]

[0280] ..., where m = 3 in equation (5). Kinetic energy can also be conserved in high-temperature electrons. The observation of H population inversion in water vapor plasma is evidence of this mechanism. For example, hydrino products, such as molecular hydrino, can cause an upfield matrix shift observed by means such as MAS NMR. Other methods for identifying molecular hydrino products, such as FTIR, Raman, and XPS, are given in the present invention.

[0281] In one embodiment where oxygen or an oxygen-containing mixture participates in an oxidation or reduction reaction, O2 may act as a catalyst or a catalyst source. The binding energy of an oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. O2 → O + O 2+ , 02→ 0 + 0 3- , and 20 → 20 + The reactions have net enthalpy E of approximately 2, 4, and 1, respectively. h It provides and includes catalytic reactions to form hydrinos by accepting these energies from H that cause the formation of hydrinos.

[0282] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is about 1950 cm⁻¹ -1 It is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak. This peak is enhanced by using a conductive material that includes roughness features or particle sizes comparable to the Raman wavelength supporting Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak.

[0283] VI. Chemical Reactor

[0284] The present invention also relates to other reactors for producing the increased bond energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present invention, such as, for example, dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydrogen compounds. Additional products of the catalytic reaction are power and optionally plasma and light, depending on the cell type. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" and also as "hydrogen cells." A hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for producing hydrinos. Such cells for producing hydrinos may take the form of, for example, gas-emitting cells, plasma torch cells, or microwave power cells, and chemical reactors or gas fuel cells, such as electrochemical cells. Preferred embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos may take the form of liquid-fuel cells, solid-fuel cells, heterogeneous-fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT cells. Each of these cells comprises (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from solid catalysts, molten catalysts, liquid catalysts, gaseous catalysts, or mixtures thereof for producing hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting the catalyst with hydrogen for producing hydrinos. As used and considered herein by the present invention, the term "hydrogen" refers to light hydrogen (proteum; 1 Not only H) but also deuterium; 2 H) and tritium (tritium; 3H) is also included. Preferred chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments. Further preferred embodiments are provided right here in the chemical reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are provided in the present invention. Other catalysts, such as those given in Tables 1 and 3, may also act to form hydrogen species and compounds with increased bond energy. In Table 3A, the preferred MH-type catalyst is NaH. Reactions and conditions may be controlled from these preferred examples in parameters, such as reactants, reactant wt%s, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are all of the present invention. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are presented as the products of the reactors of the present invention by predicted continuum radiation bands of 13.6 eV, which are otherwise inexplicable superfast H kinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines, inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields, and anomalously plasma afterglow duration, as reported in Mills Prior Publications. Data such as those for CIHT cells and solid fuels, for example, have been independently verified and have been neglected by other researchers.The formation of hydrinos by the batteries of the present invention was also confirmed by electrical energy of continuous output over a long period, which is a multiple of multiple electrical inputs that exceed the input in most cases by a factor of 10 or more without an alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H2(l / 4) is approximately -4, as reported in the Mills Prior Publications included herein as references, R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski's "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell", International Journal of Energy Research, (2013), and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey's "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell" (2014).MAS H NMR presenting a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of 4 ppm, ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS presenting H2(l / 4) complexed in a getter matrix with m / e = M + n² peaks (where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer), electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy presenting predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(l / 4) with H2 energies of 16 or multiples of the quantum number p = 4 powers, XPS presenting a predicted total binding energy of H2(l / 4) of 500 eV, and approximately 204 consistent with the predicted energy emission from H to H(l / 4) by energy transferred to the third body H It was identified as a product of CHIT cells and solid fuels by the ToF-SIMS peak having a time of arrival prior to the m / e=l peak corresponding to H having kinetic energy of eV.

[0285] The formation of hydrinos by the cells of the present invention, such as solid fuel cells for generating thermal power, was confirmed by observing thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels exceeding the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 using a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(l / 4) high upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm at 1950 cm⁻¹. -1 The Raman peak starting at [value] was consistent with the free space rotational energy (0.2414 eV) of H2(l / 4). These results are reported in Mills' prior publications, which are included herein by reference in their entirety, and in "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst" by R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, and J. He (2014).

[0286] In one embodiment, the solid fuel reaction forms H2O and H as products or intermediate reaction products. H2O may act as a catalyst for forming hydrinos. The reactants include at least one oxidant and one reductant, and the reaction includes at least one redox reaction. The reductant may include a metal, for example, an alkali metal. The reaction mixture may further include a source of hydrogen and a source of H2O, and may optionally include a support, for example, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The support may include a metal powder. In one embodiment, the hydrogen support comprises Mo or a Mo alloy such as those of the present invention, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCu, and MoCo. In one embodiment, oxidation of the support is prevented by methods such as selecting other components of the reaction mixture that do not oxidize the support, selecting non-oxidizing reaction temperatures and conditions, and maintaining a reducing atmosphere, such as an H2 atmosphere, as is known to those skilled in the art of the present invention. The source of H may be selected from the group of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, rare earth hydrides, and the hydrides of the present invention. The source of hydrogen may also further comprise a dissociator such as that of the present invention, such as precious metals, on a support such as carbon or alumina and other supports of the present invention.The water source may include a compound that dries a hydroxide or a hydroxide complex, such as, for example, a hydroxide or a hydroxide complex of Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb. The water source may include a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. The oxygen source may include an oxygen-containing compound. Preferred compounds or molecules are O2, alkali or alkaline earth oxide, peroxide, or superoxide, TeO2, SeO2, PO2, P2O5, SO2, SO3, M2SO4, MHSO4, CO2, M2S2O8, MMnO4, M2Mn2O4, M. x H yP04(x, y = integer), POBr2, MCIO4, MNO3, NO, N2O, N02, N2O3, C12O7, and O2{M = alkali; and alkaline earth or other cations can replace M}. Other preferred reactants include Li, LiH, L1NO3, LiNO, LiN02, Li3N, Li2NH, LiNH2, LiX, NH3, LiBH4, LiAlH4, Li3AlH6, LiOH, Li2S, LiHS, LiFeSi, Li2C03, LiHCO3, Li2S04, LiHS04, Li3P04, Li2HP04, LiH2P04, Li2Mo04, LiNb03, Li2B407 (lithium tetraborate), LiB02, Li2W04, LiAlCl4, LiGaCl4, Li2Cr04, Li2Cr207, Li2Ti03, LiZr03, LiA102, LiCo02, LiGa02, Li2Ge03, LiMn204, LL,Si04, Li2Si03, LiTa03, LiCuCl4, LiPdCl4, LiVO3, L1IO3, LiBr03, L1XO3 (X = F, Br, CI, I), LiFe02, L1IO4, LiBr04, LiI04, LiX04 (X = F, Br, CI, I), LiScO n , LiTiO n , LiVO n , LiCrO n , LiCr2O n , LiMn2O n , LiFeOn, LiCoO nIt includes reagents selected from the group of molecular oxidants such as LiNiOn, LiNi2On, LiCuOn, and LiZnOn (where n = l, 2, 3, or 4), oxyanions, oxyanions of a strong acid, oxidants, e.g., V2O3, I2O5, MnO2, Re2O7, Cr03, Ru02, AgO, PdO, PdO2, PtO, PtO2, and NH4X {where X is nitrate or other suitable anion given in CRC}, and reductants. Another alkali metal or other cation may replace Li. Additional sources of oxygen are MCoO2, MGaO2, M2GeO3, MMn2O4, M4SiO4, M2SiO3, MTaO3, MVO3, MIO3, MFeO2, MIO4, MC104, MScO n , MTiO n , MVO n , MCrO n , MCr2O n , MMn2O n , MFeO n , MCoO n , MNiO n , MNi2O n , MCuO n , and MZnO n, where M is an alkali and n = l, 2, 3, or 4, oxyanion, oxyanion of a strong acid, oxidant, for example, can be selected from the group of molecular oxidants such as V2O3, I2O5, MnO2, Re2O7, Cr03, Ru02, AgO, PdO, PdO2, PtO, PtO2, I2O4, I2O5, I2O9, S02, S03, C02, N2O, NO, N02, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5, C12O, C102, C12O3, C12O6, C12O7, P02, P2O3, and P2O5. The reactants can be in any predetermined ratio to form hydrinos. A preferred reaction mixture is a mixture of 0.33 g of LiH, 1.7 g of LiNO3, 1 g of MgH2, and 4 g of active C powder. Another preferred reaction mixture is a mixture of gunpowder such as, for example, KNO3 (75 wt%), softwood charcoal (15 wt%) which may contain about formulation C7H4O, and S (10 wt%); KNO3 (70.5 wt%) and softwood charcoal (29.5 wt%), or ratios thereof within the range of about ± 1-30 wt%. The source of hydrogen may be charcoal containing about formulation C7H4O.

[0287] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and reactants that form H2O, the latter also acting as a hydrino catalyst for the H formed in the reaction. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of H2O, comprising a nitrate, a sulfate, a perchlorate, a peroxide such as hydrogen peroxide, for example, a peroxide, particularly O2, or a nitro compound such as nitrocellulose, a peroxy compound such as triacetone-triperoxide (TATP) or diacetone-diperoxide (DADP) which can also act as a source of H by the addition of other oxygen sources, such as O2 or nitro compounds such as nitrocellulose, oxygen, or other compounds containing oxygen or oxyanion compounds. The reaction mixture may include a source of a compound or a compound, or a source of a functional group or a functional group comprising at least two of hydrogen, carbon, hydrocarbon, and oxygen bound to nitrogen. The reactants may include nitrate, nitrite, a nitro group, and nitramine.Nitrates may include metals such as alkaline nitrates, ammonium nitrate, or, for example, alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, or rare earth metals, or other nitrates known to those skilled in the art, such as Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb nitrates. Nitro groups may include functional groups of organic compounds such as, for example, nitromethane, nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, or similar compounds known to those skilled in the art. A preferred reaction mixture is a long-chain hydrocarbon (C), such as heating oil, diesel fuel, kerosene, etc., which may contain oxygen, such as NH4NO3 and a nitro group such as molasses or sugar, for example nitromethane or coal dust. n H 2n+2It is a carbon source such as ). The H source may also include hydrocarbons such as NH4, fuel oil, or sugar, where the H bond to the carbon provides a controlled release of H. The release of H can be a free radical reaction. C can react with O to release H and form carbon-oxygen compounds such as CO, CO2, and formate, for example. In one embodiment, a single compound may contain functionalities to form nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and H2O. A nitramine containing additional hydrocarbon functionality is cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine, commonly referred to as cyclonite or code name RDX. Another compound capable of acting as at least one source among the sources of H2O catalyst, such as a source of H and, for example, a source of O and at least one source of H, is at least one selected from the following groups, wherein these groups are ammonium nitrate (AN), black powder (75% KNO3 + 15% charcoal + 10% S), ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO) (94.3% AN + 5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate, trinitrotoluene;TNT), amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN), tetrytol (70% tetryl + 30% TNT), tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (C7H5N508)), C-4 (91% RDX), C-3 (RDX base), composition B (63% RDX + 36% TNT), nitroglycerin, RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN + 5.7% RDX), PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen (octahydro-l,3,5,7-tetranitro-l,3,5,7-tetrazocine), HNIW (CL-20) (2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane), DDF, (4,4'-dinitro-3,3'-diazenofuroxan), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane, 2,4,6-{tris(trinitromethyl)}-l,3,5-triazine, TATNB (1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, ,3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene, trinitroanaline, TNP (2,4,6-trinitrophenol or picric acid)), dunnite;ammonium picrate}, methyl picrate, ethyl picrate, picrate chloride (2-chloro-l,3,5-trinitrobenzene), trinitocresol, lead styphnate (lead 2,4,6-trinitroresorcinate, C6HN3O8Pb), TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene), methyl nitrate, nitroglycol, mannitol hexanitrate, ethylenedinitroamine, nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycoluril, nitrocellulose, The components are urea nitrate and hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen can be any desired ratio. In one embodiment of a reaction mixture of ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (FO), known as ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO), the stoichiometry suitable for providing a balanced reaction is about 94.3 wt% AN and 5.7 wt% FO, however, FO may be higher. The preferred balanced reaction of AN and nitromethane is:

[0288] 3NH4N03+ 2CH3NO2→ 4N2+ 2C02+ 9H20 (80)

[0289] And, where a part of H is also, for example, H2(l / p) and H at p = 4 - It is converted into lower energy hydrogen species such as (l / p). In one embodiment, the molar ratios of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are similar, for example, as in RDX having the chemical formula C3H6N6O6.

[0290] In one embodiment, the energetics are increased by using an additional source of atomic hydrogen, such as H2 gas or hydrides, such as a dissociator, such as Ni, Nb, or noble metal, on a support, such as, for example, carbon, carbide, boride, or nitride, or silica or alumina, such as, for example, alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metal hydrides. The reaction mixture may undergo compression or impact to form hydrino by increasing the kinetics during the reaction to form the H2O catalyst and atomic H. The reaction mixture may form the H and H2O catalysts by compressing at least one reactant to increase the heat during the reaction. The reaction mixture can compress an oxygen source, such as air, which can diffuse between the granules or frills of the solid fuel. For example, AN frills can compress air by about 20%. In a preferred embodiment, a powdered metal, such as Al, may be added to increase the heat and kinetics of the reaction. For example, Al metal powder may be added to ANFO. Other reaction mixtures include pyrotechnic materials that also have a source of H and a source of catalyst, such as H2O. In one embodiment, the formation of hydrinos has high activation energy, which can be provided by, for example, an active reaction of the pyrotechnic materials, and the formation of hydrinos contributes to the self-heating of the reaction mixture.Instead, active energy may be provided by an electrochemical reaction of, for example, a CIHT cell having a high equivalent temperature corresponding to 1,600 K / eV.

[0291] Another preferred reaction mixture is H2 gas, which may be present in a pressure range of about 0.01 atm to 100 atm; a nitrate, such as alkaline nitrate, for example, KN03; and a dissociator, for example, Pt / C, Pd / C, Pt / Al2O3, or Pd / Al2O3. The mixture may further comprise carbon, for example, graphite or Grade GTA Grafoil (Union Carbide). Reaction ratios may be any predetermined, for example, about 1 to 10% Pt or Pd on carbon, and balanced carbon, at about 0.1 to 10 wt% of the mixture mixed with about 50 wt% nitrate; These ratios may be changed by a factor of about 5 to 10 in preferred embodiments. When carbon is used as a support, the temperature is maintained below the temperature generated in the C reaction to form a carbonate compound, for example, an alkali carbonate. In one embodiment, this temperature is maintained in a range such as, for example, about 50°C to 300°C or about 100°C to 250°C so that NH3 is formed in the N2 phase.

[0292] The reactants, regeneration reactions, and systems include all of the contents of the present invention and the contents disclosed in the applicant’s prior U.S. patent applications (Mills prior applications), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, namely: Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT filed April 24, 2008, PCT / US08 / 61455; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT filed July 29, 2009, PCT / US09 / 052072; and Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT filed March 18, 2010, PCT / US10 / 27828. These include the Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US / 28889, filed on March 17, 2011; the H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT / US 12 / 31369, filed on March 30, 2012; the CIHT Power System, PCT / US13 / 041938, filed on May 21, 2013; and Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT IB2014 / 058177, filed on January 11, 2004.

[0293] In one embodiment, the reaction may include nitrogen oxides, such as N2O, N2O, or NO, instead of nitrates. Alternatively, a gas may be added to the reaction mixture. NO, N2O, and N2O and alkaline nitrates may be produced by known industrial methods, such as the Haber process involving the Ostwald process, for example. In one embodiment, the preferred order of the steps is as follows.

[0294]

[0295] Specifically, the Haber process can be used to produce NH3 from N2 and H2 at elevated temperatures and pressures using a catalyst, for example, some α-iron-containing oxide. The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO2, and N2O using a catalyst, for example, a high-temperature platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst. In one embodiment, the products are at least one of ammonia and an alkali compound, and NO2 can be formed from NH3 by oxidation. NO2 can be dissolved in water to form nitric acid, which reacts with an alkali compound, for example, M2O, MOH, M2CO3, or MHC03, to form M nitrate (where M is an alkali).

[0296] In one embodiment, at least one reaction of an oxygen source, such as MN03 (M = alkali), to form an H2O catalyst, (ii) the formation of atomic H from a source, such as H2, and (iii) a reaction to form hydrinos, are carried out by or on a conventional catalyst, such as a precious metal that can be heated, such as Pt. The heated catalyst may include a hot filament. This filament may include a hot Pt filament. An oxygen source, such as MN03, may be at least partially gaseous. This gaseous state and its vapor pressure can be controlled by heating MN03, such as KN03. An oxygen source, such as MN03, may be present in an open boat that is heated to release gaseous MN03. Heating may be carried out by a heater, such as a hot filament. In a preferred embodiment, MN03 is positioned inside a quartz boat, and a Pt filament is wound around the perimeter of the boat to act as a heater. The vapor pressure of MN03 can be maintained in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 1000 Torr or about 1 Torr to 100 Torr. The hydrogen source can be gaseous hydrogen maintained in the pressure range of about 1 Torr to 100 atm, about 10 Torr to 10 atm, or about 100 Torr to 1 atm. The filament also functions to separate hydrogen gas, which can be supplied to the cell through a gas line. The cell may also include a vacuum line. The cell reactions generate an H2O catalyst and atomic H that react to form hydrinos. The reaction can be maintained in a vessel that can be maintained at least one of a vacuum, ambient pressure, or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.For example, products such as NH3 and MOH can be removed from the cell and regenerated. In a preferred embodiment, MN03 reacts with a hydrogen source to form NH3 and an H2O catalyst, which is regenerated in a separate reaction vessel or in a separate step by oxidation. In one embodiment, a hydrogen source, such as H2 gas, is generated from water by at least one of electrolysis or heat. Preferred thermal methods are the iron oxide cycle, the cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, the zinc zinc-oxide cycle, the sulfur-iodine cycle, the copper-chlorine cycle, and the hybrid sulfur cycle, as well as other cycles known to those skilled in the art. Preferred cell reactions for forming an H2O catalyst that further reacts with H to form hydrinos are as follows.

[0297]

[0298] A preferred regeneration reaction for forming nitrogen oxides is given in equation (81). Products such as K, KH, KOH, and K2CO3 can be reacted with nitric acid formed by adding nitrogen oxides to water to form KNO2 or KNO3. Additional suitable preferred reactions for forming at least one of the reactants H2O catalyst and H2 are given in Tables 4, 5, and 6.

[0299]

[0300] *T = thermochemical, E = electrochemical.

[0301]

[0303] *

[0304] Cadmium carbonate

[0305]

[0306]

[0307] Hybrid cadmium

[0308]

[0310] Sodium manganese

[0311]

[0312] M-Ferrite (M = Co, Ni, Zn)

[0313]

[0314] Low Temperature Cycles

[0315] Sulfur-Iodine

[0316]

[0317] Hybrid sulfur

[0318] Hybrid copper chloride

[0319]

[0320]

[0321]

[0322] The reactants for forming the H2O catalyst may include a source of O, such as O species, and a source of H. The source of the O species may include at least one of O2, air, and a compound or admixture of O-containing compounds. The oxygen-containing compound may include an oxidant. The oxygen-containing compound may include at least one of oxygen, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, peroxide, and superoxide. Suitable and desirable metal oxides are alkali oxides such as Li2O, Na2O, and K2O, alkaline earth oxides such as MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO, transition oxides such as NiO, Ni2O3, FeO, Fe2O3, and CoO, inner transition and rare earth metal oxides, and other metals and metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and mixtures of these and other oxygen-containing elements. The oxides may include oxide anions and cations such as those of the present invention, for example, metal oxide anions, and the cations are alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal cations, and for example, MM' 2x 03 x+i or MM' 2x 04(M = alkaline earth elements, M' = transition metals such as Fe, Ni, or Mn, x = integer r) and M2M' 2x 03x+i or M2M' 2x These are things such as cations of other metals and metalloids like Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, as in O4 (M = alkali, M' = transition metal such as Fe or Ni or Mn, x = integer). Suitable and desirable metal oxyhydroxides are AlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH){α-MnO(OH)}, groutite and -MnO(OH) manganite}, FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH), Ni 1 / 2 Co 1 / 2 O(OH), and Ni 1 / 3 Co 1 / 3 Mn 1 / 3O(OH) is. Suitable and desirable hydroxides are metals such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and other metals and metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te and mixtures. Suitable complex ion hydroxides are Li2Zn(OH)4, Na2Zn(OH)4, Li2Sn(OH)4, Na2Sn(OH)4, Li2Pb(OH)4, Na2Pb(OH)4, LiSb(OH)4, NaSb(OH)4, LiAl(OH)4, NaAl(OH)4, LiCr(OH)4, NaCr(OH)4, Li2Sn(OH)6, and Na2Sn(OH)6. Additional suitable preferred hydroxides are Co(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, Ni(OH)2, other transition metal hydroxides, Cd(OH)2, Sn(OH)2, and Pb(OH). Suitable preferred peroxides are H2O2, peroxides of organic compounds, and peroxides of metals such as M2O2 (where M is an alkali metal such as Li2O2, Na2O2, K2O2), peroxides of alkaline earth peroxides such as Ca, Sr, or Ba peroxides, peroxides of other basic metals (electropositive metals) such as lanthanide peroxides, and other ionic peroxides such as covalent metal peroxides such as Zn, Cd, and Hg peroxides. Suitable and desirable superoxides are superoxides of M2 metals (where M is an alkali metal such as NaO2, KO2, RbO2, and CsO2), and alkaline earth metal superoxides.In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises an alkaline peroxide and a hydrogen source such as a hydride, a hydrocarbon, or a hydrogen storage material such as, for example, BH3NH3. The reaction mixture comprises a source of oxygen such as a compound containing at least one oxyanion, such as a carbonate comprising alkaline, alkaline, earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and hydroxides of other elements such as Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and hydroxides, and alkaline, earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and other metals of the present invention. Other suitable compounds containing oxygen are aluminate, tungstate, zirconate, titanate, sulfate, phosphate, carbonate, nitrate, chromate, dichromate, and manganate, oxide, oxyhydroxide, peroxide, superoxide, silicate, titanate, tungstate, and at least one oxyanion compound from the group of other compounds of the present invention. A preferred reaction between a hydroxide and a carbonate is given by the following formula.

[0323] Ca(OH)2+ Li2C03→ CaO + H20 + Li20 + C02(87)

[0324] In other embodiments, the oxygen source is a gas or smoothly forms a gas such as, for example, NO2, NO, N2O, CO2, P2O3, P2O5, and S2. Oxygen products reduced from the formation of an H2O catalyst, such as, for example, C, N, NH3, P, or S, can be converted back to oxygen by combustion with oxygen or an oxygen source, as given in Mills Prior Applications. The cell can produce excess heat that can be used for heating applications, or this heat can be converted into electricity by means such as a Rankine or Brayton system. Alternatively, the cell may be used to synthesize lower-energy hydrogen species, for example, molecular hydrino and hydrino hydride ions and corresponding compounds.

[0325] In one embodiment, a reaction mixture for forming hydrinos for at least one of the production of low-energy hydrogen species and compounds and the production of energy comprises a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of a catalyst comprising at least one of H and O, such as the catalysts of the present invention, for example, an H2O catalyst. The reaction mixture may further comprise an acid such as, for example, H2S03, H2S04, H2C03, HN02, HN03, HClO4, H3P03, and H3P04, or a source of an acid such as, for example, an acid anhydride or an anhydrous acid. The latter may comprise at least one from the group of S02, S03, C02, N02, N203, N205, C1207, P02, P203, and P2O5. The reaction mixture may comprise a base and at least one of basic anhydrides such as, for example, M2O (M=alkali), M'O (M'=alkaline earth), ZnO or other transition metal oxides, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO, or A12O3. Additional preferred anhydrides may include metals stable to H2O, such as, for example, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The anhydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal oxide, and the hydrated compound may include a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may include oxyhydroxides such as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH, for example. The reaction mixture may include at least one of a source of H2O and H2O.H2O can be reversibly formed by hydration and dehydration reactions in the presence of atomic hydrogen. Preferred reactions for forming an H2O catalyst are as follows.

[0326]

[0327]

[0328] In one embodiment, the H2O catalyst is formed by the dehydration of at least one compound comprising phosphates such as phosphate salts, hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogen phosphate, wherein the cations are alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal cations, and Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and, for example With the same polyphosphates, for example (n≥3) long chain metaphosphates such as, for example Same cyclic metaphosphates, and for example, P4O 10 It includes other metals and metalloids in a mixture for forming a condensed phosphate, such as at least one of the same ultraphosphates. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0329]

[0330] The reactants of the dehydration reaction may include R-Ni comprising at least one of Al(OH)3 and Al2O3. The reactants may further include an alkali metal, a metal hydride MH, and a metal M such as an alkali hydroxide and intrinsic hydrogen, as well as a source of hydrogen such as, for example, H2, and a metal hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide and intrinsic hydrogen, and a metal hydroxide such as a source of hydrogen such as H2. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0331]

[0332] The reaction product may include an alloy. R-Ni may be regenerated by rehydration. The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction for forming the H2O catalyst may include and be associated with oxyhydroxides, such as the oxyhydroxide of the present invention, for example, as given in the following preferred reaction.

[0333]

[0334] Atomic hydrogen can be formed by dissociation from H2 gas. The hydrogen dissociator may be at least one of the metals of the present invention, such as, for example, R-Ni or noble metals or transition metals on a support such as, for example, Ni or Pt or Pd on carbon or A12O3. Alternatively, atomic H may be formed from H permeation through a membrane such as those of the present invention. In one embodiment, the battery includes a membrane, for example, a ceramic membrane, to prevent H2O diffusion while selectively diffusing H2. In one embodiment, at least one of H2 and atomic H is supplied to the battery by electrolysis of an electrolyte containing a source of hydrogen, such as an aqueous or molten electrolyte containing H2O. In one embodiment, the H2O catalyst is reversibly formed in an anhydride form by dehydration of an acid or base. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the catalyst H2O and hydrinos is propagated by changing at least one of the cell pH or activity, temperature, and pressure, wherein the pressure may be changed by changing the temperature. The activity of species such as acids, bases, or anhydrides may be changed by adding salt, as is known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include a material such as carbon, for example, which can absorb a source of gas such as H2 or acid anhydride gas or become a source of gas for the reaction to form hydrinos. The reactants may be of any predetermined concentrations and ratios.The reaction mixture may be meltable or may contain a water-containing slurry.

[0335] In another embodiment, the source of the H2O catalyst is a reaction between an acid and a base, such as a reaction between a hydrohalic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and nitrous acid, and a base. Other suitable acid reactants are water-containing solutions of H2S04, HCl, HX (X-halide), H3P04, HC104, HN03, HNO, HN02, H2S, H2C03, H2Mo04, HNb03, H2B407 (M tetraborate), HB02, H2W04, H2Cr04, H2Cr207, H2Ti03, HZr03, MA102, HMn204, HI03, HIO4, HClO4, or organic acidic compounds such as formic or acetic acid. Suitable and desirable bases are hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, or alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, or rare earth metal, or oxides containing Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb.

[0336] In one embodiment, the reactants comprise an acid or a base that reacts with the base or acid anhydride, respectively, to form an H2O catalyst and a compound of the cation of the base and the anion of the acid anhydride or a compound of the cation of the basic anhydride and the anion of the acid. A preferred reaction of the acid anhydride SiO2 and the base NaOH is as follows, and

[0337]

[0338] The corresponding acid dehydration reaction here is as follows.

[0339]

[0340] Other suitable and desirable anhydrides may include elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. The corresponding oxide may include at least one of MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, A12O3, NiO, Ni2O3, FeO, Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MnO, Mn3O4, Mn2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, Co2O3, CoO, Co3O4, Co2O3, and MgO. In a preferred embodiment, the base may include a hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide of MOH (M = alkali), such as LiOH, which can form a corresponding basic oxide such as M2O, such as Li2O3, and H2O. The basic oxide may react with an anhydride oxide to form a product oxide. In a preferred reaction of LiOH with an anhydride oxide by the release of H2O, the product oxide may include Li2MoO3 or Li2MoO4, Li2TiO3, Li2ZrO3, Li2SiO3, LiA1O2, LiNiO2, LiFeO2, LiTaO, LiVO3, Li2B4O7, Li2NbO3, Li2SeO3, Li3PO4, Li2SeO4, Li2TeO3, Li2TeO4, Li2WO4, Li2CrO4, Li2Cr2O7, Li2MnO4, Li2HfO3, LiCoO2, and MgO.Other suitable and desirable oxides are As2O3, As2O5, Sb2O3, Sb2O4, Sb2O5, Bi2O3, S02, S03, C02, N02, N2O3, N2O5, C12O7, P02, P2O3, and P2O5, and at least one of the group of other similar oxides known to those skilled in the art. Another example is given by Equation (91). Suitable reactions of metal oxides are as follows.

[0341]

[0342] For example, other transition metals such as Fe, Cr, and Ti, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, may be replaced with Ni, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, Rb, and Cs may be replaced with K. In one embodiment, the oxide may comprise Mo, wherein a generator H2O catalyst and H may further react to form hydrinos during the reaction to form H2O. Preferred solid fuel reactions and possible redox pathways are as follows.

[0343]

[0344] The reaction may further include a source of hydrogen, such as hydrogen gas, for example, and a dissociator, such as Pd / Al2O3. The hydrogen may be any of protein, deuterium, or tritium, or combinations thereof. The reaction to form the H2O catalyst involves the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. The cations of the hydroxides may have different oxidation states, for example, the oxidation states of the reaction between an alkali metal hydroxide and a transition metal or alkaline earth hydroxide. The reaction mixture and the reaction may further include and associate H2 from a source as given in the following preferred reaction:

[0345]

[0346] The reaction mixture and the reaction may further include and be associated with a metal M, such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal, for example, as given in the following preferred reaction.

[0347]

[0348] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a metal oxide and a hydroxide that can act as a source of H and optionally another source of H, wherein the metal oxide, for example, a metal such as Fe, can have multiple oxidation states and performs a redox reaction acting as a catalyst to react with H to form hydrinos during the reaction to form H2O. An example is FeO, wherein Fe during the reaction to form the catalyst 2+ is Fe 3+ It can perform oxidation of the furnace. The preferred reaction is as follows.

[0349]

[0351] * In one embodiment, at least one reactant, such as a metal oxide, a hydroxide, or an oxyhydroxide, acts as an oxidant, wherein a metal atom, such as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn, may be in an oxidation state higher than other possible oxidation states. The reaction forming the catalyst and hydrinos may cause the atom to undergo reduction to at least one lower oxidation state. Preferred reactions of the metal oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides forming the catalyst are as follows.

[0352]

[0353] For example, other transition metals, internal transitions, and rare earth metals such as Ni, Fe, Cr, and Ti, and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, may be replaced with Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs may be replaced with K or Na. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxide and at least one of the hydroxides of metals stable in H2O, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Additionally, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen, such as H2 gas, for example, and optionally a decomposer, such as a noble metal on a support, for example. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises at least one metal halide, such as at least one transition metal halide, such as a bromide like FeBr2, for example, and a mixture of metals that form oxyoxides, hydroxides, or oxides and H2O. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises at least one metal oxide, a hydroxide, and a mixture of at least one oxyhydroxide, such as a transition metal oxide, for example, Ni2O3 and H2O.

[0354] The preferred reaction between basic anhydride NiO and acid HC1 is as follows, and

[0355]

[0356] The dehydration action of the corresponding base here is as follows.

[0357]

[0358] The reactants may include at least one of a Lewis acid or base and a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base. The reaction mixture and the reaction may further include and be associated with an oxygen-containing compound, wherein the acid reacts with the oxygen-containing compound to form water as given in the following preferred reaction:

[0359]

[0360] (X = halide). Compounds similar to POX3 are suitable, for example, compounds in which P is replaced by S. Other suitable preferred anhydrides may include oxides of elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures that are soluble in acid, such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg, alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, or rare earth metals, or hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides containing Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb. The corresponding oxides may include MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, FeO, or Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MnO, Mn3O4, Mn2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, Co2O3, CoO, Co3O4, Co2O3, and MgO. Other suitable preferred oxides are oxides of the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In a preferred embodiment, the acid comprises a hydrohalic acid, and the product is a metal halide of H2O and an oxide. The reaction mixture further comprises a source of hydrogen, such as, for example, H2 gas, and a decomposer, such as, for example, Pt / C, wherein the H and H2O catalysts react to form hydrinos.In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises an H2 source, such as a permeation membrane or H2 gas, for example, a dissociator, such as Pt / C, and a source of an H2O catalyst comprising an oxide or hydroxide that is reduced to H2O. The metal of the oxide or hydroxide may form a metal halide that acts as a source of H. Preferred reactions of alkali hydroxides with oxides, such as LiOH and Li2O, for example are as follows.

[0361]

[0362] The reaction mixture may include oxides or hydroxides of metals that perform hydrogen reduction with respect to H2O, such as metals of Cu, i, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In, a source of hydrogen such as H2 gas, and a dissociator such as Pt / C.

[0363] In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an H2 source, such as H2 gas, for example, a dissociator, such as Pt / C, and a peroxide compound, such as H2O2, which decomposes into other products containing oxygen, such as O2, for example, an H2O catalyst. A portion of the H2 and a decomposition product, such as O2, for example, may also react to form an H2O catalyst.

[0364] In one embodiment, the reaction forming H2O as a catalyst comprises an organic dehydration reaction for an aldehyde and H2O, such as an organic dehydration reaction of an alcohol, such as a polyalcohol, such as sugar. In one embodiment, the dehydration reaction involves the release of H2O from a terminal alcohol to form an aldehyde. The terminal alcohol may comprise a sugar or its derivative that releases H2O and can act as a catalyst. Suitable preferred alcohols are meso-erythritol, galactitol or dulcitol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). A preferred reaction mixture comprises a sugar + hydrogen dissociator, such as Pd / Al2O3 + H2O. Alternatively, the reaction mixture comprises the dehydration of a metal salt, such as a metal salt having at least one water of hydration. In one embodiment, the dehydration comprises a loss of H2O acting as a catalyst from hydrates, such as aqua ions, and salt hydrates, such as BaI22H2O and EuBr2nH2O.

[0365] In one embodiment, the reaction forming the H2O catalyst comprises the hydrogen reduction of compounds containing oxygen, such as CO, for example; oxyanions, such as MNO3 (M = alkali), for example; metal oxides, such as NiO, Ni2O3, Fe2O3, or SnO, for example; hydroxides, such as Co(OH)2, for example; oxyhydroxides, for example; FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH, for example; and compounds of substances hydrogen reducible to H2O, such as those of the present invention, oxyanions, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, and other compositions. Preferred compounds containing oxygen or oxyanions are SOCl2, Na2S2O3, NaMnO4, POBr3, K2S2O8, CO, CO2, NO, NO2, P2O5, N2O5, N2O, SO2, I2O5, NaC102, NaClO, K2S04, and KHS04. The hydrogen source for hydrogen reduction may be H2 gas and a hydroxide such as a metal hydroxide, for example, as in the metal hydroxide of the present invention. The reaction mixture further comprises a reductant capable of forming a compound or ion containing oxygen. The cation of the oxyanion may form a product compound comprising, for example, other anions such as halides, other chalcogenides, phosphides, other oxyanions, nitrides, silicides, arsenides, or other anions of the present invention. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0366]

[0368]

[0369] The reaction mixture may comprise a source of anions or anions and a source of oxygen or oxygen, such as an oxygen-containing compound, for example, wherein the reaction to form an H2O catalyst comprises an anion-oxygen exchange reaction with H2 from a source reacting with oxygen to form H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0370]

[0371] In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an exchange reaction between chalcogenides, such as an exchange reaction between reactants containing, for example, O and S. For example, a preferred chalcogenide reactant, such as tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, It contains anions. A preferred reaction involving a nascent H2O catalyst and selectively forming nascent H is molybdate in the presence of ammonia. It includes the following reactions of hydrogen sulfide:

[0372]

[0373] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen, a compound containing oxygen, and at least one element capable of forming an alloy having at least one other element of the reaction mixture. The reaction forming the H2O catalyst may include an exchange reaction between the oxygen of the oxygen compound and the cation of the oxygen compound of the element capable of forming the alloy, wherein the oxygen reacts with hydrogen from the source forming H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0374]

[0375] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxygen-containing compound, for example, an oxyhydroxide, and a reducing agent, for example, a metal that forms an oxide. The reaction for forming the H2O catalyst may include the reaction of the oxyhydroxide with the metal hydroxide and the metal that forms H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0376]

[0377] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a compound containing oxygen, such as a hydroxide, for example, a source of hydrogen, and at least one other compound or other element, such as a halide, for example, containing another anion. The reaction forming the H2O catalyst may involve a reaction between the halide and another compound or element, wherein the anion or element is exchanged with the halide to form another compound of the anion or element, and H2O is formed by the reaction of the halide with H2. The anion may include a halide. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0378]

[0379] Hydroxide and halide compounds can be selected such that the reaction forming H2O and other halides is thermally reversible. In one embodiment, a typical exchange reaction is as follows, and

[0380]

[0381] The preferred compounds MxCly here are AlCl13, BeCl2, HfCl4, KAgCl2, MnCl2, NaAlCl4, ScCl3, TiCl2, TiCl3, UC13, UC14, ZrCl4, EuCl3, GdCl3, MgCl2, NdCl3, and YC13. At elevated temperatures, for example in the range of about 100°C to 2000°C, the reaction of Equation (171) is reversible and has at least one of an enthalpy of about 0 kJ and a free energy. The reversible temperature is calculated from the corresponding thermodynamic parameters of each reaction. Typical temperature ranges are NaCl-ScCl3 about 800K-900K, NaCl-TiCl2 about 300K-400K, NaCl-UCl3 about 600K-800K, NaCl-UCl4 about 250K-300K, NaCl-ZrC about 250K-300K, NaCl-MgCl2 about 900K-1300K, NaCl-EuCl3 about 900K-1000K, NaCl-NdCl3 about >1000K, and NaCl-YCl3 about >1000K.

[0382] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises oxides such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal oxides, and oxides such as metals such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and metal oxides of other metals and metalloids, and peroxides such as M2O2 (where M is an alkali metal such as L12O2, Na2O2, and K2O2), and superoxides such as MO2 (where M is an alkali metal and alkaline earth metal superoxides such as NaO2, KO2, RbO2, and CsO2), and a source of hydrogen. The ionic peroxides may further comprise Ca, Sr, or Ba. Reactions forming an H2O catalyst may involve the hydrogen reduction of oxides, peroxides, or superoxides to form H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0383]

[0384] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises, for example, at least one source of hydrogen such as H2, a hydride such as at least one of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal hydrides and the hydrides of the present invention, a source of another compound including hydrogen or combustible hydrogen such as, for example, a metal amide, and a source of oxygen such as O2. The reaction forming the H2O catalyst may involve the oxidation of H2, a hydride, or a hydrogen compound such as, for example, a metal amide, to form H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0385]

[0386] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. The reaction forming the H2O catalyst may include the decomposition of at least one of the source of hydrogen and the source of oxygen to form H2O. Preferred reactions are as follows.

[0387]

[0388] This chemical reaction section (Chemical Reactor section) The reaction mixtures disclosed herein further comprise a source of hydrogen for forming hydrinos. Such a source may be a hydrogen dissociator and H2 gas, or a source of atomic hydrogen such as metal hydrides, for example, the dissociators of the present invention and metal hydrides. The source of hydrogen for providing atomic hydrogen may be a hydrogen-containing compound, for example, a hydroxide or an oxyhydroxide. The H reacting to form hydrinos may be a generator H formed by the reaction of one or more reactants, at least one of which includes a source of hydrogen, for example, the reaction of a hydroxide and an oxide. The reaction may also form an H2O catalyst. The oxide and the hydroxide may include the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH may be dehydrated as follows to provide an H2O catalyst and also provide generator H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration:

[0389]

[0390] Here, the H formed during the reaction acts on the hydrino. Other preferred reactions involve hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe2O3, to form alkali metal oxides, such as NaFeO2 + H2O, where the generating H formed during the reaction can form the hydrino and H2O acts as a catalyst. Oxides and hydroxides may contain the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH can be dehydrated as follows to provide the H2O catalyst and also to provide the generating H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration:

[0391]

[0392] Here, the generating H formed during the reaction acts on hydrino. Other preferred reactions involve hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe2O3, to form alkali metal oxides, such as NaFeO2 + H2O, where the generating H formed during the reaction can form hydrino and H2O acts as a catalyst. Hydroxide ions are reduced and also oxidized to form H2O and oxygen ions. The oxygen ions are OH - It can react with H2O to form. For example, the same pathway having a hydroxide-halogenate exchange reaction can be provided as follows, and

[0393]

[0395] *The preferred M and M' metals here are, for example, alkaline earth and transition metals such as Cu(OH)2+FeBr2, Cu(OH)2+CuBr2, or Co(OH)2+CuBr2. In one embodiment, the solid fuel may comprise a metal hydroxide and a metal halide, wherein at least one metal is Fe. At least one of H2O and H2 may be added to regenerate the reactants. In one embodiment, M and M' may be selected from the group of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, elements of groups 13, 14, 15, and 16, and other cations of hydroxides or halides such as those of the present invention. A preferred reaction forming at least one of an HOH catalyst, a generator H, and a hydrino is as follows.

[0396]

[0397] In one embodiment, for example, the reaction mixture comprises at least one of a hydroxide and a halide compound such as the compounds of the present invention. In one embodiment, the halide may act to facilitate at least one of the formation and retention of at least one of the generator HOH catalyst and H₂O. In one embodiment, the mixture may act to lower the melting point of the reaction mixture.

[0398] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of Mg(OH)2 + CuBr2. The product CuBr can be sublimated to form a CuBr condensation product separated from nonvolatile MgO. Br2 can be trapped in a cold trap. CuBr can be reacted with Br2 to form CuBr2, and MgO can be reacted with H2O to form Mg(OH)2. Mg(OH)2 can be combined with CuBr2 to form a regenerated solid fuel.

[0399] Acid-base reactions are another approach for H2O catalysts. Thus, the thermal chemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction that forms hydrinos. Preferred halide and hydroxide mixtures are mixtures of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Cd, and mixtures of hydroxides and halides of metals having low water reactivity from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises H and H2O, which can act as at least one source among catalysts such as generator H2O. The water may decompose during the reaction or otherwise be in the form of a reacting hydrate.

[0400] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a reaction mixture of H2O and an inorganic compound that forms nascent H and nascent H2O. This inorganic compound comprises a halide, such as a metal halide, that reacts with H2O. The reaction product may be at least one of a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate. Other products are, for example, XO - , X0 - 2, X0 - 3, and X0 - It may include anions containing oxygen and halogens, such as 4(X = halogen). The product may also be at least one of a reduced cation and a halogen gas. The halide is a metal halide such as, for example, alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and one of other elements forming a halide. The metal or element may also be a metal or element forming at least one of a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydrooxyhalide, or hydrate, and, for example, XO - , X0 - 2, X0 - 3, and X0 -It may be a metal or element that forms a compound having an ion containing oxygen and a halogen, such as 4(X = halogen). Suitable preferred metals and elements are alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and at least one of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B. A preferred reaction is as follows, and

[0401]

[0402] Here, M is a metal, such as a transition metal like Cu, for example, and X is a halogen, such as Cl, for example.

[0403] In one embodiment, H2O acts as a catalyst maintained at a low concentration to provide nascent H2O. In one embodiment, the low concentration is achieved by the dispersion of H2O within another substance, such as a solid, liquid, or gas. H2O molecules may be diluted to the limit of isolation of nascent molecules. The substance also contains a source of H. The substance contains organic compounds such as alkali halides, such as potassium halides like KC1, for example, or transition metal halides like CuBr2, for example. The low concentration for forming nascent H is also dynamic, where H2O is formed by reaction. The product H2O may be transferred at a rate related to the rate of formation resulting from a steady-state low temperature to provide at least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. The reaction forming H2O may include other reactions such as dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions, and the reactions of the present invention. H2O can be transferred by means such as evaporation and condensation. Preferred reactants are iron oxide and FeOOH to form H2O, where H is also formed by an additional reaction to form generator hydrinos. Other preferred reaction mixtures are at least one of Fe2O3 + NaOH and H2, and at least one of FeOOH + NaOH and H2. The reaction mixture can be maintained at an elevated temperature, for example, from 100°C to 600°C. The H2O product can be transferred by vapor condensation at a cold spot of the reactor, such as a gas line maintained at 100°C or below.In another embodiment, a material containing a mixture or compound, such as H2O, or containing H2O as part thereof, which is diffused or absorbed within a lattice such as an organic compound such as an alkali halide, for example, a potassium halide such as KC1, will be incidented with bombardment of energetic particles. The particles may include at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles may include a beam such as an electron beam. The bombardment may provide at least one of an H2O catalyst, H, and activation for the reaction forming hydrinos. In embodiments of the SF-CIHT cell, the H2O content will be high. H2O will be ignited by a high current to form hydrinos at high speed.

[0404] The reaction mixture may further include a support, for example, an electrically conductive, high surface area support. Suitable preferred supports are, for example, metal powders such as Ni or R-Ni, metal screens such as Ni, Ni celmet, Ni mesh, carbon, carbides such as TiC and WC, and supports of the present invention such as borides. The support may include a dissociator such as, for example, Pd / C or Pd / C. The reactants may be in any predetermined molar ratio. In one embodiment, stoichiometry helps complete the reaction to form H2O catalysts and provide H to form hydrinos. The reaction temperature may be any predetermined range, for example, from ambient temperature to about 1500°C. The pressure range can be any predetermined range, for example, from about 0.01 Torr to 500 atm.The reactions are at least one of regenerative and reversible by the methods disclosed in the following documents (Mills prior applications) disclosed herein and incorporated herein by reference in their entirety: Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT filed April 24, 2008, PCT / US08 / 61455; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT filed July 29, 2009, PCT / US09 / 052072; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT filed March 18, 2010, PCT / US 10 / 27828; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT filed March 17, 2011, PCT / US 11 / 28889; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT filed March 30, 2012, PCT / US 12 / 31369, and CIHT Power System, PCT / US 13 / 041938, filed May 21, 2013. Reactions forming H2O can be made reversible by changing reaction conditions, such as temperature and pressure, for example, so that a reversible reaction consuming H2O occurs, as is known to those skilled in the art. For example, the H2O pressure can be increased in the reverse reaction to reform reactants from products by rehydration. In other cases, the hydrogen-reduced product can be regenerated by oxidation, for example, in a reaction with at least one of oxygen and H2O. In one embodiment, the reversible reaction product can be removed from the reaction to allow the reversible or regenerative reaction to proceed.Even if the reversible reaction is not advantageous based on equilibrium thermodynamics, it may be advantageous by removing at least one reversible reaction product. In a preferred embodiment, the regenerative reactant (reversible or regenerative reaction product) comprises a hydroxide, for example, an alkali hydroxide. The hydroxide may be removed by methods such as solvation or sublimation, for example. In the latter case, the sublimation of the alkali hydroxide did not change at a temperature in the range of about 350°C to 400°C. The reactions may be maintained in power plant systems of Mills Prior Applications. Thermal energy from the power-producing cell may provide heat to at least one other cell performing regeneration as disclosed above. Alternatively, the equilibrium between the reactions forming the H2O catalyst and the reversible regeneration reaction may be altered by controlling the temperature of the water wall of the system design, which has a temperature gradient due to the coolant in a selected region of the cell as disclosed above.

[0405] In one embodiment, the halide and the oxide may undergo an exchange reaction. The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other. The exchange reaction may be carried out by heating the product mixture. Separation may be achieved by sublimation, which can be produced by at least one of the application of heating and vacuum. In a preferred embodiment, CaBr2 and CuO may undergo an exchange reaction by heating to a high temperature, such as in the range of about 700°C to 900°C, to form CuBr2 and CaO. Any other suitable temperature range, such as in the range of 100°C to 2000°C, may also be used. CuBr2 may be separated and collected by sublimation, which can be achieved by applying heat and low pressure. CuBr2 may form a separate band. CaO may be reacted with H2O to form Ca(OH)2.

[0406] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material contains singlet oxygen. A preferred reaction for separating singlet oxygen is as follows.

[0407]

[0408] In another embodiment, the solid fuel or active material includes sources or reagents of the Fenton reaction, such as H2O2, for example.

[0409] In one embodiment, low-energy hydrogen species and compounds are synthesized using a catalyst comprising at least one of H and O, for example, H2O. A reaction mixture for synthesizing a preferred low-energy hydrogen compound MHX (where M is an alkali and may be another metal, for example, alkaline earths, and the compound has a corresponding stoichiometry, H is a hydrino, for example, a hydride, and X is an anion, for example, a halide) comprises a source of M and X, such as an alkali halide, for example, KCl, and a metal reducing agent, for example, an alkali metal; a hydrogen decomposer, such as Ni, for example, a Ni screen or R-Ni, and optionally a support, for example, carbon; a source of hydrogen, such as at least one metal hydride, such as MH, which can replace M and H2 gases; and a source of oxygen, for example, a metal oxide or an oxygen-containing compound. Suitable preferred metal oxides are Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and NiO. The reaction temperature may be maintained in the range of about 200°C to 1500°C or about 400°C to 800°C. The reactants may be in any predetermined ratios. The reaction mixture forming KHC1 is K, Ni screen, KHC1, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and NiO. Preferred weights and conditions are 1.6 g K, 20 g KHC1, 40 g Ni screen, moles of oxygen equal to K from metal oxides such as, for example, 1.5 g Fe2O3 and 1.5 g NiO, 1 atm H2, and a reduction temperature of about 550-600°C.The reaction forms an H2O catalyst by H reacting with O from a metal oxide, and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino hydride ions that form the product KHC1. The reaction mixture forming KHI may comprise K, R-Ni, KI, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and NiO. Preferred weights and conditions are 1 g K, 20 g KI, 15 g R-Ni 2800, moles of oxygen equal to K from a metal oxide such as, for example, 1 g Fe2O3 and 1 g NiO, 1 atm H2, and a reduction temperature of about 450-500°C. The reaction forms an H2O catalyst by H reacting with O from a metal oxide, and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino hydride ions that form the product KHI. In one embodiment, at least one product among a CIHT cell, an SF-CIHT cell, a solid fuel, or a chemical cell is H2(l / 4) which causes an upfield H NMR matrix shift. In one embodiment, the presence of hydrino species, such as hydrino atoms or molecules, within a solid matrix, such as a matrix of hydroxides like NaOH or KOH, shifts matrix protons to an upfield. Matrix protons, such as NaOH or KOH, can be exchanged. In one embodiment, the shift causes the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 to -5 ppm relative to TMS.

[0410] In one embodiment, the regeneration reaction of hydroxide and halide compounds, such as Cu(OH)2 + CuBr2, may involve the addition of at least one of H2 and H2O. For example, products such as halides and oxides may be separated by the sublimation of the halide. In one embodiment, H2O may be added to the reaction mixture under heating conditions that cause the formation of hydroxides and halides, such as CuBr2 and Cu(OH)2, from the reaction products. In one embodiment, regeneration may be carried out in the step of a thermal cycle. In one embodiment, the halide, such as CuBr2, is water-soluble (H2O soluble), whereas the hydroxide, such as Cu(OH)2, is insoluble. The regenerated compounds may be separated by filtering or precipitation. The chemicals are dried so that they can become thermal energy from the reaction. Heat may be recovered from the evaporated water vapor. Such recovery can be achieved by using steam directly or by means of a heat exchanger for heating or to generate electricity, for example, using a turbine and a generator. In one embodiment, the regeneration of Cu(OH)2 from CuO is achieved by using an H2O splitting catalyst. Suitable catalysts are, for example, noble metals on a support such as Pt / Al2O3, and CuA1O2 formed by the sintering of CuO and Al2O3, cobalt-phosphate, cobalt borate, cobalt methyl borate, nickel borate, RuO2, LaMnO3, SrTiO3, TiO2, and WO3. A preferred method for forming the H2O splitting catalyst is at pH 9.2, potential 0.92, and 1, respectively.15 V (compared to a normal hydrogen electrode), Co. in approximately 0.1 M potassium phosphate borate electrolyte. 2+ and Ni 2+ It is controlled electrolysis of. Desirable thermally reversible solid fuel cycles are as follows.

[0411]

[0412]

[0413] In one embodiment, a reaction mixture of solid fuels having at least one H2 as a reducing agent, H2O as a product, and at least one H2 or H2O as at least one of the reducing agent and product is selected such that the maximum theoretical free energy of any conventional reaction is about 0 within the range of -500 to +500 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent, or preferably within the range of -100 to +100 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent. The temperature may be about + / - 500°C or preferably within the optimal range of about + / - 100°C. Preferred mixtures and reaction temperatures are a stoichiometric mixture of Fe, Fe2O3, H2 and H2O at 800K, and a stoichiometric mixture of Sn, SnO, H2 and H2O at 800K.

[0414] In one embodiment, an alkali metal such as, for example, K or Li, and at least one of nH (n=integer), OH, O, 2O, O2, and H2O act as a catalyst, and the source of H is at least one of a metal hydride such as, for example, MH, and at least one of the metal M and the metal hydride MH react with the source of H to form H. One product may be an oxidized M such as, for example, an oxide or a hydroxide. The reaction producing at least one of atomic hydrogen and the catalyst may be an electron transfer reaction or an oxidation-reduction reaction. The reaction mixture further comprises H2, an H2 decomposer such as, for example, Ni screen or R-Ni, and at least one of the decomposers and other electrically conductive supports such as, for example, carbon, and supports of the present invention such as carbides, borides, and carbonitrides. A preferred oxidation reaction of M or MH is as follows, and

[0415]

[0416] Here, at least one of H2O and M acts as a catalyst to form H(l / p). For example, the reaction mixture may further contain a hydrino getter of a compound such as a salt of a halide salt, such as an alkali halide salt, such as KC1 or KI. The product may be MHX (M = a metal, e.g., an alkali; X = a counter ion, e.g., a halide; H = hydrino species). Other hydrino catalysts may replace M, such as the catalysts of the present invention, such as the catalysts in Table 1.

[0417] In one embodiment, the oxygen source is a compound having heat generation similar to a water source so that the exchange of oxygen between the reduced product of the oxygen source compound and the hydroxide occurs with minimal energy release. Suitable preferred oxygen source compounds are CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO2, SeO2, and TeO2. Others, such as metal oxides, can also be anhydrides of acids or bases capable of performing dehydration reactions as H2O sources, such as MnOx, AlOx, and SiOx. In one embodiment, the oxide layer oxygen source can substitute for the hydrogen source, such as a metal hydride, such as palladium hydride. The reaction to form an atomic H and H2O catalysts that further react to form hydrino can be initiated by heating an oxide-coated hydrogen source, such as metal oxide-coated palladium hydride. Palladium hydride can be coated on the opposite side of the oxygen source by a hydrogen impermeable layer, such as a layer of gold film, for example, to selectively transfer released hydrogen to an oxygen source in an oxide layer, such as a metal oxide. In one embodiment, the reaction forming the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction involves oxygen exchange between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen, and between water and the reduced oxygen source compound, respectively. Suitable reduced oxygen sources are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se, and Te. In one embodiment, the oxygen exchange reaction may involve oxygen exchange used to thermally form hydrogen gas.Preferred thermal methods are the iron oxide cycle, the cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, the zinc zinc-oxide cycle, the sulfur-iodine cycle, the copper-chlorine cycle, and the hybrid sulfur cycle, as well as other cycles known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, reactions to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction, such as the oxygen exchange reaction, occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions such as temperature and pressure can be controlled to achieve simultaneity of the reactions. Alternatively, as given in the present invention and Mills prior applications, the products may be removed and regenerated in at least one other separate vessel where the conditions of the kinetic formation reaction and other conditions may occur.

[0418] In one embodiment, the NH2 group of an amide, such as LiNH2, acts as a catalyst, where the potential energy is about 81.6 eV, corresponding to m=3 in equation (5). Similar to the reversible removal or addition of H2O from an acid or base to an anhydride and vice versa, the reversible reaction between an amide and an imide or nitride results in the formation of an NH2 catalyst that further reacts with atomic H to form hydrinos. The reversible reaction between an amide and at least one of an imide and a nitride may also act as a source of hydrogen, such as atomic H.

[0419] In one embodiment, hydrino species, such as molecular hydrino or hydrino hydride ions, are synthesized by a reaction with at least one of H, OH, and H2O. Hydino species may be produced by at least two from the group consisting of metals such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, for example, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Te, metal hydrides such as LaNi5H6, for example, and other metals of the present invention, water-containing hydroxides such as alkali hydroxides such as KOH at saturation concentrations from 0.1 M, for example, carbon, Pt / C, steam carbon, carbon black, carbide, boride, or nitrile, and oxygen. Suitable preferred reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species, such as molecular hydrino, for example are (1) Co PtC KOH (sat), with or without O2; (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi5H6 + KOH (sat), (3) Co, Sn, Sb, or Zn + O2 + CB + KOH (sat), (4) Al CB KOH (sat), (5) Sn Ni-coated graphite KOH (sat) O2 with or without, (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (sat) + O2, (7) Zn Pt / C KOH (sat) O2, (8) Zn R-Ni KOH (sat) O2, (9) Sn LaNi5H6KOH (sat) O2, (10) Sb LaNi5H6KOH (sat) O2, (11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb, or Sb + KOH (Sat aq) + K2CO3 + CB-SA, and (12) LiNH2LiBr and LiH or Li and H2 or their sources and Optionally, it is a hydrogen decomposer such as Ni or R-Ni, for example.Additional reaction mixtures are molten hydroxides, hydrogen sources, oxygen sources, and hydrogen decomposers. Suitable and desirable reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species, such as molecular hydrino, for example are (1) Ni(H2) LiOH-LiBr air or O2, (2) Ni(H2) NaOH-NaBr air or O2, and (3) Ni(H2) KOH-NaBr air or O2.

[0420] In one embodiment, the product of at least one of the chemistry for forming hydrinos, SF-CIHT, and CIHT cell is a compound comprising hydrino or low-energy hydrogen species, such as H2(l / p), complexed with an inorganic compound. Such a compound comprises an oxyanion compound, such as an alkali or alkaline earth carbonate or hydroxide, or other such compounds of the present invention. In one embodiment, the product comprises at least one of the complexes M2CO3·H2(1 / 4) and MOH·H2(1 / 4) (M = alkali or other cation of the present invention). The product is each M(M2CO3·H2(1 / 4)) + n ) and M(K0H·H2(1 / 4)) + nA series of ions in a positive spectrum containing [ ] can be identified as ToF-SIMS, where n is an integer and an integer p > 1 can substitute for 4. In one embodiment, a compound containing silicon and oxygen, such as SiO2 or quartz, may act as a getter for H2 (1 / 4). The getter for H2 (1 / 4) may include transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, compositions of metals, alloys such as Mo alloys such as MoCu, and hydrogen storage materials such as the hydrogen storage materials of the present invention.

[0421] Low-energy hydrogen compounds synthesized by the methods of the present invention may have the formula MH, MH2, or M2H2, where M is an alkali cation and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or an increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. Such compounds have the formula MH nIt can have the formula MHX, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound can have the formula MHX, where M is an alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom (e.g., a halogen atom), a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion (e.g., a halogen anion), and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound can have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. Compounds can have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. Compounds can have the formula M2HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. Compounds have the formula MH n It can have, where n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula M2H n It can have, where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula M2XH nIt can have, where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula M2X2H n It can have, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one increasing bond energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or an increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound has the formula M2XH n It can have, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one increasing bond energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula M2XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, X' is a double negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or an increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound has the formula MM'H n It can have, where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increasing bond energy. The compound is formula MM'XH n It can have, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. nIt contains at least one increasing bond energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or an increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are single negatively charged anions, and H is an increasing bond energy hydride ion or an increasing bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound has the formula MXX'H n It may have, where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, transition element, internal transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula MH n It can have, where n is an integer, M is a cation such as, for example, a transition element, an internal transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula MXH n It can have, where n is an integer, M is a cation such as, for example, an alkali cation or an alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, an internal transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula [KH m KCO3] n It can have, where m and n are integers, and the hydrogen content H of the compound mIt contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula [KH m KNO3] + n X - It can have, where m and n are integers, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula [KHKNO3] n It can have, where n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one increasing bond energy hydrogen species. The compound is formula [KHKOH] n It can have, where n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen species with increasing bond energy. The compound is formulated [MH m M'X] n It can have, where m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m It contains at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The compound is formula [MH m M'X'] + n nX - It can have, where m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X and X' are single or double negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen content H of the compound mIt includes at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy. The anion may include one of the anions of the present invention. Suitable preferred single negatively charged anions are halide ions, hydroxide ions, hydrogen carbonate ions, or nitrate ions. Suitable preferred double negatively charged anions are carbonate ions, oxides, or sulfate ions.

[0422] In one embodiment, the increasing bond energy hydrogen compound or mixture comprises at least one lower energy hydrogen species, such as a hydrino atom, a hydrino hydride ion, and a dihydrino molecule, embedded within a lattice such as a crystalline lattice, for example, a metallic or ionic lattice. In one embodiment, the lattice does not react with the lower energy hydrogen species. The matrix may be aprotic, for example, as in the case of the embedded hydrino hydride ions. The compound or mixture comprises H(l / p), H2(l / p), and H2 embedded within a salt lattice, such as an alkali or alkaline earth salt, for example, a halide. - It may include at least one of (l / p). Preferred alkali halides are KC1 and KI. The salt contains inherent H -In the case of (l / p), there may be no H2O. Other suitable salt lattices include the lattices of the present invention. Low-energy hydrogen species can be formed by the catalytic action of hydrogen having aprotic catalysts, such as the catalysts in Table 1, for example.

[0423] The compounds of the present invention preferably have an atomic percent pure of 0.1 or more. More preferably, the compounds have an atomic percent pure of 1 or more. Even more preferably, the compounds have an atomic percent pure of 10 or more. Most preferably, the compounds have an atomic percent pure of 50 or more. In another embodiment, the compounds have an atomic percent pure of 90 or more. In yet another embodiment, the compounds have an atomic percent pure of 95 or more.

[0424] In another embodiment of a chemical reactor for forming hydrinos, the cell for forming hydrinos and releasing power, such as thermal power, comprises the chamber of an internal combustion engine, a rocket engine, or a gas turbine. The reaction mixture comprises a catalyst and a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen to generate hydrinos. The source of the catalyst may be at least one of species containing hydrogen and species containing oxygen. Species or additional reaction products are, for example, H2, H, H + , 02, 03, O + 3, O - 3, O, 0 + , H20, H30 + , OH, OH + , OH - , HOOH, OOH - , 0 - , O 2- , 0 - 2, and 0 2-As in 2, it may be at least one of the species containing at least one of O and H. The catalyst may include oxygen or hydrogen species, for example, H2O. In another embodiment, the catalyst includes at least one of nH, nO (n = integer), O2, OH, and H2O catalysts. For example, the source of hydrogen, such as hydrogen atoms, may include hydrogen-containing fuels such as H2 gas or hydrocarbons. Hydrogen atoms may be produced by the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons during hydrocarbon combustion. The reaction mixture may further include a dissociator, such as the dissociator of the present invention. H atoms may also be formed by the dissociation of hydrogen. The source of O may further include O2 from air. The reactants may further include H2O, which can act as at least one source of H and O. In one embodiment, water acts as at least one additional source among hydrogen and oxygen that can be supplied by the ionization (dissociation) of H2O within the battery. Water can be dissociated into hydrogen atoms thermally or by catalytic reaction on a surface, such as a cylinder or piston head, for example. Such a surface may contain a material that dissociates water into hydrogen and oxygen.The water-dissociating substance may include elements, compounds, alloys, or mixtures of transition elements or internal transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), or cesium-intercalated carbon (graphite). H and O may react to form catalysts and H to form hydrinos. Sources of hydrogen and oxygen can be drawn in through corresponding ports or intakes, such as intake valves or manifolds, for example. Products can be discharged through exhaust ports or outlets. Flow can be controlled by controlling the inlet and outlet velocities through each port.

[0425] In one embodiment, hydrinos are formed by heating a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen, such as, for example, the solid fuel of the present invention. The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and percussion heating. Experimentally, Raman spectroscopy shows that hydrinos are formed by ball milling a solid fuel, such as a mixture of hydroxides and halides, or a mixture containing alkali metals such as, for example, Li. For example, 2308 cm⁻¹ -1 Inverse Raman effect peaks were observed from ball-milled LiOH + LiI and LiOH + LiF. Therefore, suitable preferred mixtures are LiOH + LiI or LiOH + LiF. In one embodiment, at least one thermal and trigger heating is carried out by a rapid reaction. In this case, an additional energetic reaction is provided by forming hydrino.

[0426] VII. Solid Fuel Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter

[0427] In one embodiment, a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy comprises: at least one vessel; a) a catalyst comprising at least one catalyst source or generator H2O, b) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen, and c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one set of electrodes for defining the hydrino reactants; a power source for delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy; a reloading system; at least one system for regenerating initial reactants from reaction products; and at least one direct converter, such as at least one plasma-to-electricity converter, such as a plasma dynamic converter (PDC), a photovoltaic converter, and at least one thermal-to-electricity converter. In a further embodiment, the vessel may have one pressure among atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, and below atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, the regeneration system may include at least one hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system. In another embodiment, at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter is a plasmadynamic power converter, direct Direct converter ( It may include at least one of the group consisting of a direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In additional embodiments, at least one thermal power to electric converter may include a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine-cycle engine, a Brayton-cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermoionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. The converter may be the converter given in the Mills prior disclosures and Mills prior applications.

[0428] In one embodiment, H2O is ignited by a high emission energy of at least one form among thermal power, plasma, and electromagnetic (photonic) power to form hydrinos. (In the present invention, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to form hydrinos, which may manifest as a burst, pulse, or other form of high-power release.) H2O comprises a fuel that can be ignited by applying a high current, for example, in the range of about 2,000 A to 100,000 A. This may be achieved by applying a high voltage, for example, of 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, for example, an arc. Alternatively, the high current may pass through a compound or mixture containing H2O, wherein the conductivity of the resulting fuel is very high, for example, as with a solid fuel. (In the present invention, the solid fuel or active material is used to mean a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst that further reacts to form hydrinos, for example, HOH and H. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solid. In several embodiments, the reaction mixture is a gas, It may be at least one of liquid, solid, slurry, sol gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, pneumatic flow, and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, the solid fuel having very low resistance comprises a reaction mixture containing H2O. The low resistance may be due to a conductor component of the reaction mixture.In several embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel is at least one of the ranges of about 10⁻⁹ ohms to 100 ohms, 10⁻⁸ ohms to 10 ohms, 10⁻³ ohms to 1 ohm, 10⁻⁴ ohms to 10⁻¹ ohm, and 10⁻⁴ ohms to 10⁻² ohms. In another embodiment, the low-resistance fuel comprises H₂O containing a trace or minor mole percentage of the added compound or mixture. In the latter case, a large current can flow through the fuel, causing breakdown to form a highly conductive state, such as an arc or arc plasma, thereby enabling ignition.

[0429] In one embodiment, the reactants may comprise a source of H2O and a conductive matrix forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and an atomic hydride. In further embodiments, the reactants comprising a source of H2O may comprise bulk H2O, non-bulk H2O, and a compound or compounds that perform at least one reaction among a reaction forming H2O and releasing bound H2O. Additionally, the bound H2O may comprise a compound that interacts with H2O in at least one state among absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physisorbed H2O, and hydrated waters. In several embodiments, the reactants comprise a conductor and one or more compounds or mixtures that perform at least one release among bulk H2O, absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physisorbed H2O, and hydrated waters and have H2O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, at least one of the source of the generator H2O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may include at least one of (a) at least one source of H2O, (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0430] In additional embodiments, the source of the catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the reactants for forming at least one of atomic hydrogen are at least one of H2O and the source of H2O; O2, H2O, HOOH, OOH -, peroxide ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H2, halide, oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, and oxygen, hydrated compound and a compound comprising a hydrated compound selected from at least one group of compounds including halide, oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, and oxygen; and a conductive matrix. In some embodiments, the oxyhydroxide may comprise at least one from the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AIOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; The oxide may comprise at least one from the group consisting of CuO, Cu2O, CoO, CO2O3, CO3O4, FeO, Fe2O3, NiO, and Ni2O3; the hydroxide may comprise at least one from the group consisting of Cu(OH)2, Co(OH)2, Co(OH)3, Fe(OH)2, Fe(OH)3, and Ni(OH)2; and the oxygen-containing compound may comprise sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO3, MXO4 (M = metal such as alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, for example;X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li2O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, MO, FeO, Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, P2O3, P2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, Cr3O3, CoO, Co2O3, Co3O4, FeO, Fe2O3, NiO, It may comprise at least one from the group consisting of Ni2O3, rare earth oxide, CeO2, La2O3, oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AIOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; and the conductive matrix may comprise at least one from the group consisting of metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

[0431] In several embodiments, the reactants may include a metal, a metal oxide of such metal, and H2O, wherein the reaction between the metal and H2O is not thermodynamically favorable. In other embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of metals, a metal halide, and H2O, wherein the reaction between the metal and H2O is not thermodynamically favorable. In further embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of transition metals, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H2O, wherein the reaction between the metal and H2O is not thermodynamically favorable. Additionally, in further embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of conductors, a hydroscopic material, and H2O. In one embodiment, the conductor may include metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the reaction between the metal and H2O is not thermodynamically favorable.In various embodiments, the hygroscopic material is lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such as, for example, KMgCl3·6(H2O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulose fibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemical, salt, desiccant, It may include at least one of the group consisting of silicon dioxide (silica), activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolite, deliquescent material, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salt. In some embodiments, the power system may comprise a mixture of a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H2O, wherein the relative molar range of (metal / conductor) (hygroscopic material) (H2O) is about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and at least one of (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), and (0.5 to 1). In some embodiments, the metal having a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H2O may be at least one from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In further embodiments, the reactants may be regenerated by the addition of H2O.

[0432] In additional embodiments, the reactants may comprise a mixture of metals, a metal oxide of such metals, and H2O, wherein the metal oxide is capable of being reduced by H2 at a temperature of less than 1000°C. In other embodiments, the reactants may comprise a mixture of oxides that are not easily reduced by H2 and are lightly heated, a metal having an oxide that can be reduced to a metal by H2 at a temperature of less than 1000°C, and H2O. In several embodiments, the metal having an oxide that can be reduced to a metal by H2 at a temperature of less than 1000°C may be at least one of the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In several embodiments, the metal oxide that is not easily reduced by H2 and is lightly heated comprises at least one of alumina, alkaline earth oxide, and rare earth oxide.

[0433] In embodiments, the solid fuel may comprise carbon or activated carbon and H2O, wherein the mixture is regenerated by rehydration including the addition of H2O. In further embodiments, the reactants may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound. In several embodiments, the current of the power source for delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactants to carry out a reaction that forms hydrinos at a high speed. In various embodiments, a power source for delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following: a voltage selected to generate a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA; 100 A / cm² 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2DC or peak AC current density in at least one range among; voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or active material, wherein the voltage is given by the resistance of the solid fuel or active material sample of a predetermined current multiple; the DC or peak AC voltage may be at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In various embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel or active material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.01 milliohm to 100 Mohm, 0.1 ohm to 1 Mohm, and 10 ohm to 1 kohm, and the conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area operating to form hydrinos is about 10 -10 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 6 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -5 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 6 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 5 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -3 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 4 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -2 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 3 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10-1 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 2 ohm -1 cm -2 , and 1 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2 It is in at least one range selected from.

[0434] In one embodiment, the solid fuel is conductive. In several embodiments, the resistance of a portion, pellet, or aliquot of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 ohm to 100 ohms, 10 -8 ohm to 10 ohms, 10 -3 ohm - to 1 ohm, 10 -3 ohm to 10 -1 ohm, and 10 -3 ohm to 10 -2 It is in ohms. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a high current. For example, a hydrino catalytic reaction, such as an active hydrino catalytic reaction, can be initiated by a low-voltage, high-current flow through a conductive fuel. Energy release can be very high, and a shock wave may be formed. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to generate a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture current that produces a high-current ignition in at least one range from, for example, 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, or 10 kA to 50 kA. The current density is 100 A / cm² of fuel that may contain pellets, for example, pressed pellets. 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2, 1000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000 A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2 It may be at least one of the following ranges. The DC or peak AC voltage may be at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 100kV, 0.1V to 1kV, 0.1V to 100V, and 0.1V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10kHz. The pulse time is about 10 -6 s to 10s, 10 -5 s to 1s, 10 -4 s to 0.1s, and 10 -3 It may be at least one range selected from s to 0.01s.

[0435] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material may comprise a source of H2O or H2O. The molar% content of H2O may be at least one range selected from about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate varies depending on the application or development of a large current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to generate a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one range from 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, and 10kA to 50kA. The DC or peak AC current density is 100A / cm². 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2, 1000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2 It may be at least one of the ranges. In one embodiment, the voltage is determined according to the conductivity of the solid fuel or active material. The resistance of the solid fuel or active material sample is at least one range selected from about 0.01 milliohm to 100 Mohm, 0.1 ohm to 1 Mohm, and 10 ohm to 1 kohm. The conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area operating to form hydrinos is about 10 -10 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 6 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -5 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 6 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 5 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -3 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 4 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -2 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 3 ohm -1 cm -2 , 10 -1 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 2 ohm -1 cm -2 , and 1 ohm -1 cm -2 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2It is within at least one range selected from. In one embodiment, the voltage is given by the resistance of the solid fuel or active material sample of a predetermined current multiple. In a preferred example where the resistance is approximately 1 mohm, the voltage is low, for example, < 10 V. In a preferred example of essentially pure H2O with infinite resistance, the voltage applied to achieve a high current for ignition is high, for example, above about 5 kV, such as a voltage above the breakdown voltage of H2O. In several embodiments, the DC or peak AC current density may be at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In one embodiment, a DC voltage is emitted to create a plasma containing ionized H2O, wherein the current is underdamped and oscillates.

[0436] In one embodiment, a large current is generated by the discharge of capacitors, such as supercapacitors, which can be connected in series and in parallel to achieve a predetermined voltage and current, wherein the current may be DC or regulated by circuit elements such as voltage regulators, such as low voltage transformers known to those skilled in the art. The capacitors may be charged by an electrical source such as grid power, a generator, a fuel cell, or a battery. In one embodiment, the battery supplies the electricity. In one embodiment, the appropriate frequency, voltage, and current waveform may be generated by power regulating the output of the capacitors or the battery.

[0437] The solid fuel or active material may comprise a conductor or conductive matrix or support such as a metal, carbon, or carbide, and a source of H2O or H2O such as a compound or compounds capable of reacting to form H2O or releasing bound H2O such as the bound H2O of the present invention. The solid fuel may comprise H2O, a compound or mixture interacting with H2O, and a conductor. H2O may exist in a non-bulk H2O state such as adsorbed H2O or bound H2O, for example, as physically adsorbed H2O or waters of hydration. Alternatively, H2O may exist as bulk H2O within a mixture in which H2O is highly conductive or made highly conductive by the application of an appropriate voltage. The solid fuel may comprise H2O, a material or compound such as a metal powder or carbon that provides high conductivity, and an oxide-like material or compound such as a metal oxide, for example, to facilitate the formation of an H2O and H2O catalyst. A preferred solid fuel may comprise R-Ni alone and with additives such as, for example, transition materials and Al additives, wherein R-Ni releases H and HOH by the decomposition of hydrated Al(OH)3 and Al(OH)3. A suitable preferred solid fuel comprises at least one oxide such as, for example, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, OOH, AIOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, a conductive matrix such as, for example, at least one of metal powder and carbon powder, and optionally H2O.The solid fuel may comprise at least one hydroxide, such as a transition metal hydroxide, such as Cu(OH)2, Co(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, and Ni(OH)2, and aluminum hydroxide, such as Al(OH)3, for example; a conductor, such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder, for example; and optionally H2O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one oxide, such as at least one transition metal oxide, such as at least one of CuO, Cu2O, NiO, Ni2O3, FeO, and Fe2O3, a conductor, such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder, for example; and H2O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one halide, such as a metal halide, such as an alkaline earth metal halide, such as MgCl2, a conductor, such as at least one of metal powder, such as Co or Fe, for example; and H2O. The solid fuel may comprise at least two of the following: a hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide, an oxide, and a halogen, such as a metal halide, for example; at least one conductor or conductive matrix; and a mixture of solid fuels, such as a solid fuel comprising H2O. The conductor may comprise at least one metal screen coated with one or more other components of the reaction mixture, and the reaction mixture comprises the solid fuel, a metal powder such as R-Ni, for example, a transition metal powder, Ni or Co celmet, carbon, or a carbide, or other conductors or conductive supports or conductive matrices known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, at least one conductor of the water-based (H2O-based) solid fuel comprises a metal of a metal powder, such as at least one transition metal like Cu, Al, and Ag.

[0438] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises carbon, such as activated carbon, and H2O. If ignition to form the plasma occurs under a vacuum or inert atmosphere, the carbon condensed from the plasma following the plasma-to-generation may be rehydrated to re-form the solid in a regeneration cycle. The solid fuel may comprise an acidic, basic, or neutral mixture of H2O, activated carbon, charcoal, soft charcoal, at least one steam and hydrogen-treated carbon, and at least one metal powder. In one embodiment, the metal in the carbon-metal mixture does not react with H2O at least partially. Suitable metals that are at least partially stable with respect to reaction with H2O are at least one of the group consisting of Cu, i, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The mixture can be regenerated by rehydration involving the addition of H2O.

[0439] In one embodiment, the basic essential reactants are a source of H, a source of O, and a good conductor that allows a high current to permeate the material during ignition. The solid fuel or active material may be contained within a sealed container, such as a sealed metal container, for example, a sealed aluminum container. The solid fuel or active material may be reacted by a pulse, such as a low-voltage high-current pulse generated by a spot welder, such as confinement between two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder, and receives a short burst of low-voltage high-current energy. The 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS, and the current may be about 10,000 to 40,000 A / cm² 2 This can be.

[0440] Preferred active materials and conditions are, for example, coated onto a mesh screen such as a slurry and dried, followed by an electric pulse of approximately 60 Hz, 8 V RMS, at 40,000 A / cm² 2 It is at least one of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AIOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, Ni2O3·H2O, La2O3·H2O, and Na2S04·H2O.

[0441] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises H2O, a dispersant, and a dissociator to form generator H2O and H. Suitable preferred dispersants and dissociators are halogenated compounds of metal halides, such as transition metal halides like bromides like FeBr2, compounds that form hydrates like, for example, CuBr2, and compounds such as oxides and halides having metals capable of multiple oxidation states. Other compounds are oxides, oxyhydroxides, or hydroxides, such as compounds of transition elements like, for example, CoO, Co2O3, Co3O4, CoOOH, Co(OH)2, Co(OH)3, NiO, Ni2O3, OOH, Ni(OH)2, FeO, Fe2O3, FeOOH, Fe(OH), CuO, Cu2O, CuOOH, and Cu(OH)2. In other embodiments, the transition metal is replaced with others, such as alkali, alkaline earth, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and Group 13 and 14 metals. Suitable examples are La2O3, CeO2, and LaX3 (X = halide). In yet another embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises H2O as a hydrate of an inorganic compound, such as an oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or halide.Other suitable hydrates are sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates, perchlorates, hypobromites, bromites, bromates, perchlorates, hypoiodites, iodites, iodates, periodates, hydrogen sulfates, hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphates, other metal compounds having oxyanions, and metal halides. For example, mole ratios of dispersant and dissociator, such as metal oxides or halogenated compounds, are any predetermined ratios that cause an ignition event. The appropriate moles of at least one compound to the moles of H2O are in at least one range from about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is (moles of compound / moles of H2O). The solid fuel or active material may further comprise transition metal powder, Ni or Co celmet, carbon powder, or carbide, or other conductors known to those skilled in the art, or a conductive support or a conductive matrix. An appropriate molar ratio of the number of moles of a hydrated compound containing at least one H2O compound to the number of moles of a conductor is about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.The range is at least one of 5 to 1, where the ratio is (moles of hydrated compound / moles of conductor).

[0442] In one embodiment, the reactant is regenerated from the product by the addition of H2O. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises H2O and a conductive matrix suitable for the low-voltage, high-current of the present invention to flow through the hydrated material to generate ignition. The conductive matrix material is a metal surface, metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, nitrile, or other material known to those skilled in the art of the present invention. The addition of H2O to form the solid fuel or active material and to release it from the product may be continuous or intermittent.

[0443] The solid fuel or active material may comprise a mixture of a conductive matrix, such as a mixture of a transition metal and at least one of the oxides of such transition metal, such as an oxide selected from Ag, Fe, Cu, Ni, or Co, and an oxide, such as a mixture of a metal and a corresponding metal oxide, and H2O. H2O may be in the form of a hydrated oxide. In other embodiments, the metal / metal oxide reactants comprise a metal that has low reactivity with H2O or does not oxidize during the hydrino reaction, corresponding to an oxide that can be easily reduced to the metal. A suitable preferred metal having low reactivity with H2O is one selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The metal may be converted into an oxide during the reaction. The oxide product corresponding to the metal reactant can be regenerated to the initial metal by hydrogen reduction according to systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. Hydrogen reduction can be performed at elevated temperatures. Hydrogen can be supplied by the electrolysis of H2O. In another embodiment, the metal is regenerated from the oxide by carbo-reduction, which is reduction by a reducing agent such as a metal more active to oxygen, for example, or by electrolysis, such as electrolysis in a molten salt, for example. The formation of the metal from the oxide can be achieved by systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. The molar amount of metal to metal oxide to H2O is any desirable amount that causes ignition when subjected to a low-voltage, high-current pulse of electricity, as given in the present invention.Suitable ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal), (metal oxide), and (H2O) are about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or active material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

[0444] The solid fuel or active material may comprise a mixture of a conductive matrix, such as a halide, for example, a mixture of a first metal and a corresponding first metal halide or second metal halide, and H2O. The H2O may be in the form of a hydrated halide. The second metal halide may be more stable than the first metal halide. In one embodiment, the first metal has low reactivity with H2O corresponding to an oxide that can be easily reduced to the metal, or does not oxidize during the hydrino reaction. Suitable preferred metals having low H2O reactivity are one selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The molar amount of metal to metal halide to H2O is any desirable amount that causes ignition when receiving a low-voltage, high-current electric pulse as given in the present invention. Suitable ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal), (metal halide), and (H2O) are about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1).The solid fuel or active material may include at least one of a slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and compound.

[0445] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material may include a conductor such as a metal or carbon, a hygroscopic material, and H2O. Hygroscopic materials include lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such as KMgCl3·6(H2O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulose fibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemicals, salt including table salt, and, for example Desiccants such as silicon dioxide (silica), activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves - typically, zeolites;It may include soluble materials such as zeolite), or, for example, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and many other deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art, as well as various other substances known to those skilled in the art. Appropriate ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal), (hygroscopic material), and (H2O) are about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or active material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

[0446] In the preferred active material, 0.05 ml (50 mg) of H2O is added to either Co3O4 or CuO, sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7 x 3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: 6,7, stamped, loosely fastened (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409)), and ignited with a current between 15,000 and 25,000 A at about 8 V RMS using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder. A high-energy explosion was observed, each evaporating the samples as an active, highly-ionized expanding plasma. Another desirable solid fuel ignited with similar results in the same way comprises Cu (42.6 mg) + CuO (14.2 mg) + H2O (16.3 mg) sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (71.1 mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7 x 3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: 6, 7, stamped, tightly fastened (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409)).

[0447] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises a source of the generator H2O catalyst and a source of H. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises a conductive matrix material that is conductive or makes a mixture of the source of the generator H2O catalyst and the source of H conductive. At least one of the source of the generator H2O catalyst and the source of H is a compound or a mixture of compounds and materials containing at least O and H. The compound or material containing O may be at least one of oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides such as, for example, alkalis, alkaline earths, transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, and group 13 and 14 metal oxides, halides, and oxyhydroxides.Compounds or substances containing O include sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, perchlorates, perbromates, and periodates, and MXO3, MXO4 (M = metals such as alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li2O, alkali metal oxides, alkaline earth metal oxides, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, MO, FeO, It can be rare earth oxides such as Fe2O3, Ta02, Ta2O5, VO, V02, V2O3, V2O5, P2O3, P2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, Se02, Se03, Te02, Te03, W02, W03, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, Cr02, Cr03, for example Ce02 or La2O3, or oxyhydroxides such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AIOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH.Preferred sources of H are H2O and compounds having bound or absorbed H2O, such as hydrates, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, hydrogen sulfates, hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphates, and hydrocarbons. The conductive matrix material may be at least one of metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The conductor of the present invention may be in other physical forms in other embodiments, such as bulk, particulate, power, nanopowder, and other forms known to those skilled in the art, which make a solid fuel or active material containing a mixture having a conductor conductive.

[0448] Preferred solid fuels or active materials comprise at least one of H2O and a conductive matrix. In a preferred embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H2O and a metal conductor of a transition metal such as Fe, in the form of, for example, an Fe metal powder conductor and, for example, an Fe compound such as iron hydroxide, iron oxide, iron oxyhydroxide, and iron halide, wherein the latter can replace H2O as a hydrate acting as a source of H2O. Other metals can replace Fe in any physical form, such as, for example, bulk, sheet, screen, mesh, wire, particulate, powder, nanopowder, and solid, liquid, gas, as well as in forms such as metals and compounds. The conductor may comprise one or more physical forms of carbon, such as, for example, bulk carbon, particulate carbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, graphene, KOH activated carbon or nanotubes, carbide-derived carbon (CVC), carbon fiber cloth, and fullerene. Suitable preferred solid fuels or active materials include a conductive matrix such as CuBr2+ H2O+; a conductive matrix material such as Cu(OH)2+ FeBr2+, for example, carbon or metal powder;FeOOH + conductive matrix material, e.g., carbon or metal powder; Cu(OH)Br + conductive matrix material, e.g., carbon or metal powder; AlOOH or Al(OH)3 + Al powder, where the additive H2 is supplied to the reactions to form hydrinos by the reaction of Al with H2O formed from the decomposition of AlOOH or Al(OH)3; e.g., H2O in conducting nanoparticles such as vapor-operable carbon nanotubes and fullerenes and H2O in metalized zeolites, where a dispersant may be used in wet hydrophobic materials, e.g., carbon; NH4NO3 + H2O + NiAl alloy powder; LiNH2 + L1NO3 + Ti powder; LiNH2 + L1NO3 + Pt / Ti; LiNH2+ NH4NO3+ Ti powder; BH3NH3+ NH4NO3; BH3NH3+ nitrates, carbonates, sulfates as well as CO2, S02, N02; LiH + NH4NO3+ transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH4NO3+ transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH4NO3+ R-Ni; P2O5+ conductive matrix having the hydroxides LiNO3, LiClO4, and S2O8 of the present invention, respectively;and sources of H such as hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, for example, one or more hydrogen storage materials of the present invention, diesel fuel, and sources of oxygen such as electron acceptors such as P2O5, for example and other acid anhydrides such as CO2, SO2, or NO2.;

[0449] The solid fuel or active material for forming hydrinos may comprise at least one highly reactive or active material, such as, for example, NH4NO3, tritonal, RDX, PETN, and other materials of the present invention. The solid fuel or active material may further comprise at least one conductor, a conductive matrix or conductive material such as, for example, metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile, hydrocarbon such as diesel fuel, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or oxide, and H2O. In a preferred embodiment, the solid fuel or active material comprises a highly reactive or active material, such as, for example, NH4NO3, Tritonal, RDX, PETN, and a conductive matrix, such as at least one of a metal powder, such as, for example, Al, a transition metal powder, and a carbon powder. The solid fuel or active material may be reacted with a high current as given in the present invention. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or active material further comprises a sensitizer, such as, for example, glass microspheres.

[0450] A. Plasmadynamic Converter (PDC)

[0451] The mass of the positive charge in the plasma is at least 1,800 times the mass of the electron, and therefore the cyclotron orbit is more than 1,800 times. As a result, electrons will be magnetically trapped on magnetic field lines while ions drift. Charge separation occurs, which can provide voltage to the plasma power converter.

[0452] B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Converter

[0453] Charge separation based on the formation of mass flow of ions in a crossed magnetic field is a well-known technique known as a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power converter. Positive and negative charges move in both directions in the Lorentzian direction and are received at the corresponding MHD electrodes, influencing the voltage between the electrodes. A typical MHD method for forming mass flow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas seeded with electrons through a nozzle to create a high-speed flow through a crossed magnetic field having a set of MHD electrodes that cross a deflecting field receiving deflected ions. In the present invention, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure but is not necessarily so, and directional mass flow can be achieved by the reaction of a solid fuel to form a highly ionized and rapidly expanding plasma.

[0454] C. Electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) transducer. Electromagnetic Direct (Crossed Field or Drift) Converter Direct Converter}

[0455] The guiding center drift of charged particles in magnetic and crossed electric fields is spatially separated It can be utilized to separate and collect charges from electrodes. Since the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to the guide field, plasma expansion is not required. Optimized The performance of the converter is facing the directions of the intersecting electric fields It depends on the inertial difference between the electrodes and the ions, which is the source of charge separation and voltage generation at the electrodes. Drift collection is also It can be used independently of or in combination with collection.

[0456] D. Charge Drift Converter

[0457] The direct power converter described in [AV Timofeev, “A scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy into electrical energy,” Sov. J. Plasma Phys., Vol. 4, No. 4, July-August, (1978), pp. 464-468; and VM Glagolev, and AV Timofeev, “Direct Conversion of thermonuclear into electrical energy, a drakon system,” Plasma Phys. Rep., Vol. 19, No. 12, December (1993), pp. 745-749] relies on charge injection to drift separated cations in order to extract power from the plasma. Such charge drift converters magnetic flux having the curvature of magnetic field lines B Source and magnetic flux BIt includes a magnetic field gradient in a direction that crosses the direction of the source. In both cases, the drifting of negative and positive charge ions moves in both directions perpendicular to the plane formed by B and in the direction of the magnetic field gradient or the plane in which B has curvature. In each case, the separated ions generate a voltage in opposing capacitors parallel to the plane, with a corresponding reduction in the thermal energy of the ions. Electrons are received at one charge drift converter electrode, and cations are received at the other. Since the fluidity of ions is very small compared to that of electrons, electron injection can be performed directly or by boiling, causing electrons to detach from the heated charge drift converter electrode. Power loss is low without incurring a cost for power balancing.

[0458] E. Magnetic Confinement

[0459] A blast or ignition event is considered when the catalyst for H to form hydrinos is accelerated to a very high speed. In one embodiment, the plasma generated from the blast or ignition event is an expanding plasma. In this case, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is a suitable conversion system and method. Alternatively, in one embodiment, the plasma is confined. In this case, the conversion is performed by a plasma-hydrodynamic transducer, a magnetohydrodynamic transducer, an electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) transducer, It may be accomplished by at least one of a direct converter and a charge drift converter. In this case, in addition to a power generation facility comprising an SF-CIHT cell and a system for ignition, reloading, regeneration, fuel handling, and plasma-to-power conversion, the power generation system further comprises a plasma containment system. Containment is achieved by a magnetic field, for example, a solenoidal field. The magnets may comprise permanent magnets, electromagnets such as at least one of non-cooled and water-cooled types, and at least one of superconducting magnets equipped with a corresponding cryogenic management system, the cryogenic management system comprising at least one of a liquid helium dewar and a liquid nitrogen dewar, a radiation baffle that may be made of copper, a high-vacuum insulator, a radiation shield, and a cryogenic pump and compressor that may be driven by the power output of a generator of the hydrino-base. The magnets may be composed of open coils such as Helmholtz coils. The plasma can be further contained within a magnetic bottle by other systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

[0460] Two or more magnetic mirrors may form a magnetic bottle to confine the plasma formed by the catalytic action of H to form hydrinos. The theory of confinement is provided in the applicant’s prior applications incorporated herein by reference in whole, e.g., microwave power cell, chemical reactor, and power converter, PCT / US02 / 06955 (short version) filed March 7, 2002, PCT / US02 / 06945 (long version) filed March 7, 2002, and U.S. Patent Application 10 / 469,913 filed March 7, 2003. Ions generated within the magnetic bottle in the central region move helically along the axes but will be reflected by the magnetic mirrors at each end. More active ions having a large velocity component parallel to certain axes will escape at the ends of the bottle. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the bottle can generate an essentially linear flow of ions from the ends of the bottle to the magnetohydrodynamic transducer. Since the electrons can be preferably confined due to their lower mass compared to the cations, a voltage is generated in the plasma-kinetic embodiment of the present invention. Power flows between the anode, which contacts the confined electrons, and the cathode, such as a confinement vessel wall, which collects the cations. The power is dissipated by an external load.

[0461] F. Solid Fuel Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell

[0462] The chemical reactants of the present invention may be referred to as solid fuels, active materials, or both. The solid fuel may constitute the active material by performing as an active material when conditions are created and maintained to induce very high reaction kinetics to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or deployment of a large current. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the reactants forming hydrinos receive a low voltage, high current, large power pulse that results in a very rapid reaction rate and energy release. The rate is sufficient to generate a shock wave. In a preferred embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than the 15 V peak, and the current is 10,000 A / cm² 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2 It is the peak, and the power is 150,000 W / cm² 2 and 750,000W / cm 2 Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers are suitable in ranges of about 1 / 100 to 1 / 100 multiples of these parameters. In one embodiment, the hydrino response depends on the application or deployment of a large current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to generate an AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one range from, for example, 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, or 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC, or peak AC current density is 100 A / cm² 2 up to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 up to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000 A / cm 2 Up to 50,000 A / cm 2It may be at least one of the following ranges. The DC or peak AC voltage may be at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 100kV, 0.1V to 1kV, 0.1V to 100V, and 0.1V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10kHz. The pulse time is about 10 -6 s to 10s, 10 -5 s to 1s, 10 -4 s to 0.1s, and 10 -3 It may be at least one range selected from s to 0.01s.

[0463] During the H-catalysis of hydrino, electrons are ionized from the HOH catalysts by energy transferred from H, which is catalytically converted into HOH. The steps of the catalytic reaction are as follows: (1) Atomic hydrogen reacts with an energy acceptor called a catalyst, and energy is transferred from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, forming cations and ionized electrons through energy acceptance. (2) Next, the negative electrons of H fall to a lower shell closer to the positive protons to form smaller hydrogen atoms, hydrino, releasing energy that generates electricity or heat depending on the design of the system. (3) The cations of the catalyst regain their lost electrons and reform the catalyst for another cycle with the release of the initial energy accepted from H (atomic hydrogen). The high current of the SF-CIHT cell generates an exceptionally high reaction rate, which counteracts the limiting effect of the charge accumulation from the lost electrons of the catalyst. These electrons (step 2) are transferred by an applied high current to prevent self-limiting of the catalytic reaction due to charge accumulation. The high current further induces electron-stimulated transitions or electron-stimulated cascades, where one or more current electrons increase the rate at which hydrogen (H) atomic electrons undergo transitions to form hydrino. The high current can cause catastrophic decay or an unusual hydrino reaction rate. The plasma kinetics generated by the hydrino can be directly converted into electricity.

[0464] The explosion is generated by rapid kinetics that in turn cause massive electron ionization. In several embodiments, plasma power from the ignition of solid fuel is, for example, MHD, PDC, and It is converted into power using a plasma-to-electricity converter, such as at least one of the direct converters. Details regarding these and other plasma-to-power converters are referenced in my prior publications, all of which are included herein by reference, for example, "Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity" by authors RM Mayo, RL Mills, and M. Nansteel, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, October (2002), Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 2066-2073; and "On the Potential of Direct and MHD Conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source to Electricity for Microdistributed Power Applications" by authors RM Mayo, RL Mills, and M. Nansteel, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, August (2002), Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 1568-1578; Authors RM Mayo, RL Mills, "Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity for Microdistributed Power Applications", 40th Annual Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, NJ, June 10-13, (2002), pp.1-4 ("Mills Prior Plasma Power Conversion Publications"), and my prior applications, all incorporated herein by reference, e.g., "Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter" filed March 7, 2002, PCT / US02 / 06955 (short version); PCT / US02 / 06945 (long version) filed March 7, 2002; U.S. Patent Application 10 / 469,913 filed September 5, 2003; "Plasma Reactor And Process For Producing Lower-Energy Hydrogen Species" filed April 8, 2004, PCT / US04 / 010608, 2015 It is presented in U.S. Patent Application 10 / 552,585 filed on October 12; PCT / US02 / 35872 filed on November 8, 2002, “Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for Laser, and Power Conversion” filed on May 6, 2004, and U.S. Patent Application 10 / 494,571 filed on May 6, 2004, {“MKills Prior Plasma Power Conversion Publications}”.

[0465] The plasma energy converted into electricity is dissipated in the external circuit. As demonstrated by calculation and experimentally in Mills’ prior published literature on plasma power conversion, more than 50% of the plasma energy can be converted into electricity. Heat, as well as plasma, is generated by each SF-CIHT cell. Using converters known to those skilled in the art, such as, for example, a steam engine or steam or gas turbine and generator, a Rankine or Brayton-cycle engine, or a Stirling engine, the heat can be used directly or converted into mechanical power or electricity. For power conversion, each SF6 CIHT cell may be connected to any converter of thermal energy or plasma to mechanical power or electricity described in Mills' prior publications, as well as converters known to those skilled in the art, such as, for example, heat engines, steam or gas turbine systems, Stirling engines, or thermionic or thermoelectric converters. Additional plasma converters may be plasmadynamic power converters described in Mills' prior publications, Direct converter ( It includes at least one of a direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In one embodiment, as presented in Mills prior art power converter publications, Mills prior art plasma converter publications, and Mills prior art applications, the battery includes at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine.

[0466] The solid fuel catalyst-induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell generator illustrated in FIG. 1 comprises at least one SF-CIHT cell (301) having a structural support frame (3011a) each having at least two electrodes (302) defining a sample, pellet, portion, or aliquot of solid fuel (303), and a source of power (304) for delivering a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy through the fuel (303). The current releases energy by igniting the fuel to form hydrinos. The power is in the form of the combustion of the fuel (303) and a highly ionized plasma that can be directly converted into electricity. (Here, the term “to ignite or to form an explosion” refers to the establishment of a high-grade hydrino reaction due to a high current applied to the fuel.) The plasma may be seeded to increase conductivity or the duration of conductivity. In one embodiment, a composition of a material such as an element or compound, such as an alkali metal or alkali metal compound like K2CO3, is added to at least one of the solid fuel and the plasma and seeded into the charged ions. In one embodiment, the plasma includes a seeding source, such as an alkali metal or alkali metal compound, which retains conductivity when the plasma is cooled. Desired power sources for igniting solid fuel to form plasma are the Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder and the EM Test Model CSS 500N10 current surge generator, 8 / 20US 10KA UP TO 10KA.In one embodiment, the power source (4) is DC, and the plasma-to-power converter is suitable for a DC magnetic field. Suitable converters that cooperate with a DC magnetic field are magnetohydrodynamics, plasmadynamics, and. These are power converters.

[0467] In one embodiment, the preferred solid fuel mixture comprises transition metal powder, its oxide, and H2O. The fine powder may be pneumatically sprayed into the gap formed between the electrodes (302) when the electrodes (302) are opened. In another embodiment, the fuel comprises at least one of powder and slurry. The fuel may be injected into a predetermined region, confined between the electrodes (302), and ignited by a high current. To better confine the powder, the electrodes (302) may have male-female halves to form a chamber that holds the fuel. In one embodiment, the fuel may be oppositely electrostatically charged so that the fuel flows into the inter-electrode region and electrostatically sticks to a predetermined region of each electrode (302) where the fuel is ignited.

[0468] In one embodiment of the generator illustrated in FIG. 1, the surfaces of the electrodes (302) may be parallel to the axis of gravity, and solid fuel powder (303) may flow by gravity from an overhead hopper (305) as an intermittent stream, wherein the timing of the intermittent stream is adjusted to the dimensions of the electrodes (302) as the electrodes (302) are opened to receive the flowing powder fuel (303) and closed to ignite the fuel stream. In another embodiment, the electrodes (302) further include rollers (302a) at their ends, the ends of which are separated by a small gap filled with fuel stream. Electrically conductive fuel (303) forms a circuit between the electrodes (302), and a high current flow through the fuel ignites this circuit. The flow of fuel (303) may be intermittent to prevent expanding plasma from obstructing the flow of the fuel stream.

[0469] In another embodiment, the electrodes (302) include a set of gears (302a) supported by a structural member (302b). This set of gears can be rotated by a drive gear (302c) driven by a drive gear motor (302d). In another embodiment, a set of rollers can be rotated by a drive roller (302e) driven by a drive roller motor (302d). In one embodiment, the drive roller may include a dressing wheel, and the pressure applied to the roller electrodes can be controlled. In one embodiment, the bearings of the electrodes include plain bearings. The electrode bearings may be lubricated with a conductive lubricant, such as MoS2, or a graphite lubricant. The drive gear (302c) can also act as a heat sink for each gear (302a), and heat can be removed by, for example, an electrode heat exchanger (310) that receives heat from the drive gear (302c). For example, gears (302a), such as herringbone gears, each contain an integer n teeth, where nl th Because the fuel within the inter-tooth gap is compressed by the n-1 tooth profile of the meshing gear, the fuel is n thIt flows into the gap between the teeth or into the bottom land. Other geometric structures for the gears or the operation of the gears, such as interdigitated polygonal or triangular-toothed gears, spiral gears, and augers known to those skilled in the art, are within the scope of the present invention. In one embodiment, a specific region of the gear teeth of the electrodes (302a), such as the fuel and the bottom land, may be electrostatically charged facing each other so that the fuel flows into a specific region of either or both of the electrodes (302a) where the fuel is ignited when the teeth mesh, and electrostatically adheres to such a specific region. In one embodiment, the fuel (303), such as fine powder, is pneumatically injected into a specific region of the gears (302a). In another embodiment, fuel (303) is injected into a predetermined region formed between the electrodes (302a), such as the interdigitation region of the teeth of the gears (302a) that are ignited by a large current. In one embodiment, the rollers or gears (302a) maintain tension against each other, for example, by means of spring action or by compressed air or hydraulic operation. The interlocking and compression of the teeth cause electrical contact between the interlocking teeth through the conductive fuel. In one embodiment, so that current flows selectively through the fuel, the gears conduct within the interdigitation region in contact with the fuel during interlocking and are insulated in other regions. In one embodiment, the gears (302a) include metal-coated ceramic gears that are conductive in the interdigitation region or are electrically insulated without a ground path.Additionally, the drive gear (302c) may be nonconductive or electrically insulated without a ground path. Electrical contact and supply to the meshing portions of the teeth from the electrodes (302) may be provided by brushes. A preferred brush comprises, for example, a carbon bar or rod that is pushed into contact with the gear by a spring. Alternatively, electrical contact from the bus bar of the electrodes (302) to the electrodes may be at least one of a bushing, a slip ring, a rotary transformer, and a synchros. In one embodiment, electrical contact from the power source to the electrodes (302) from the bus bar may be formed by Hg contact within a sealed reservoir. A rotary shaft may be connected to a roller that makes contact with the roller electrode (302).

[0470] In another embodiment, electrical contact and supply of electrodes (302) to the interlocking portions of the teeth may be provided directly through corresponding gear hubs and bearings. Electrical contact and supply from the electrodes (302) to the mutually facing portions of the rollers may be provided directly through corresponding roller hubs and bearings. A structural member (302b) may include electrodes (302). As illustrated in FIG. 1, each electrode (302) of a pair of electrodes may be centered on each gear and connected to the center of each gear or roller to act as both a structural member (302b) and an electrode (302), wherein gear or roller bearings connected to the shaft or hub of each gear or roller (302a) act as electrical contacts, and the only ground path is between the contact teeth of the opposing gears or rollers. In one embodiment, the outer surface of each gear or roller rotates around its center hub to have more electrical contact through additional bearings at a larger radius. The hub can also act as a large heat sink. An electrode heat exchanger (310) may also be attached to the hub to remove heat from the gears. The heat exchanger (310) may be electrically insulated from the hub by a thin insulating layer, such as an electrical insulator having high thermal conductivity, such as diamond or a carbon film similar to diamond. Electrodes, such as gear or roller electrodes, may be driven directly by at least one heat exchanger, and the hub may have a slip ring with rotating electrodes. The interface between the hub heat exchanger and the rotating roller or gear electrodes may have a bearing, such as a plain bearing. Coolant may flow through a shaft to the gear or roller electrodes, and furthermore, may flow through hollow channels within the electrodes, such as gears or rollers.The electrification of the gears or rollers can be timed using switching transistors, such as those used in computers and, for example, brushless DC motors. In one embodiment, the gears or rollers are intermittently powered so that a large current flows through the fuel when the gears mesh or the rollers come into contact. The flow of fuel can be timed to coincide with the delivery of fuel through the gears or rollers as the gears mesh or the rollers rotate, so that a current is generated and flows through the fuel. The resulting large current flow ignites the fuel. The fuel can flow continuously through rotating gears or rollers (302a) that push the fuel through the gap. As the fuel rotates to fill the space between the electrodes (302), including the meshing regions of a set of gears or the opposing sides of a set of rollers, the fuel can be ignited continuously. In this case, the output is fixed. In one embodiment, the resulting plasma expands to the sides of the gears and flows into the photoelectric converter (306). The plasma expansion flow may occur along an axis parallel to the shaft of each gear and across the flow direction of the fuel flow (303). This axial flow may be a PDC converter or an MHD converter as shown in FIG. 1. Additional directional flow may be achieved by confining magnets, such as Helmholtz coils or a magnetic bottle (306d).

[0471] The electrodes may be at least one that is continuously or intermittently regenerated by metal from a part of the solid fuel (303). The solid fuel may include a metal in the form that melts during ignition, such as any attachment to the surface, fuse, weld, or alloy, to replace the electrode (302a) with a material such as metal that corrodes or wears away during operation. The SF-CIHT battery generator may further include means for repairing the shape of the electrodes, such as the teeth of the gears (302a). Such means include at least one of a cast mold, a grinder, and a milling machine. Gear corrosion may be repaired continuously during operation. The gear electrodes of the SF-CIHT battery may be repaired continuously by electrical discharge machining (EDM) or, for example, EDM electroplating. Systems and methods for the continuous resetting of gears or rollers during operation in a vacuum, such as cold spray, thermal spray, or sputtering, for example, are known to those skilled in the art.

[0472] In one embodiment, the meshing gears are designed to trap an excess of solid fuel, such as solid fuel powder, which has high conductivity. Gear regions, such as each tooth profile and the corresponding gear subregion, have at least one of geometry and selective electrification so that only a portion of the excess fuel explodes. The selected portion may be separated from the surfaces of the gears by the unselected and non-exploding fuel. The volume shape of the fuel in the meshing region may be such that a selected small volume has a sufficiently high current to be tolerant of explosion, while a surrounding large volume through which the current passes may have a current density lower than that required for explosion. In one embodiment, the excess trapped fuel conducts a current that passes through a large area or volume of fuel and concentrates into a small area or volume, where the current threshold for explosion is exceeded and the explosion occurs in the selected portion of fuel having a high current density. In one embodiment, due to the geometry and selective electrification determining the length of the current path through the portions of fuel, the selected portion of fuel has lower resistance than the unselected portion. In one embodiment, the geometry of the gear causes the selected region to receive more compression of the fuel than the unselected region, such that the resistance is lower in the selected region. As a result, the current density is higher in the selected region and above the explosion limit. Conversely, the resistance is higher in the unselected region. As a result, the current density is lower in the unselected region and below the explosion limit. In a preferred embodiment, the selected region comprises a small portion (pinch) of an hourglass-shaped aliquot of the fuel.

[0473] In one embodiment, mutually facing electrodes, such as rollers or meshing gears, provide initial compression of the fuel and facilitate the flow of current into the fuel. Thus, the explosion and magnetic pinch force associated with the flow of current within the confined fuel act in such a way that they further compress the fuel to achieve the initial current and pressure densities required for further ignition. The latter may occur within a region of fuel located at a distance from the surface layers. In one embodiment, selective ignition in a selective region is achieved by selective inversion, selective compression, a selective magnetic pinch force of the high current flowing through the fuel, and selective shaping of the blast front and blast forces. At least one means of achieving selectivity may be attributed to a selective geometry. Selectivity may be attributed to achieving critical values ​​for pressure and current in a confined region of fuel located away from the surfaces of the gears.

[0474] Excessive surrounding non-explosive fuel absorbs at least some of the conditions that could cause corrosion to the gears if they are directly exposed to conditions where there is no non-explosive solid fuel in which the gears get stuck. These conditions include, for example, bombardment or exposure to at least one of high heat and high pressure, such as shock waves or blast over pressure, projectiles, plasma, electrons, and ions. The non-explosive fuel can be connected and recirculated by a fuel recovery system. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 2A, the fuel recovery and recirculation systems are a vapor condenser (315), a chute (306a), a product remover / fuel loader (313), a regeneration system (314), and a hopper (305).

[0475] In another embodiment, the gears may be actuated by a fastened mechanism, such as a reciprocating connecting rod attached to a crankshaft and actuated by it, similar to the system and method of a piston system of an internal combustion engine, for example. As the opposing electrode portions of the gears rotate to an engaging position, the opposing electrodes are driven to be compressed together by the fastened mechanism and then separated to move toward ignition. The opposing electrodes may be formed into any predetermined shape and may be optionally electrified so that at least a portion of the fuel receives greater compression in a selected region and the current density is greater in a selected region. The opposing electrodes may form a semispherical shell that compresses the fuel to the greatest pressure in the center. The greatest current density may also be in the center to selectively achieve a limit for explosion in the central region. The expanding plasma may flow out through an open part of the semispherical shell. In another embodiment, the opposing electrodes may form an hourglass shape, wherein the selected region may include the waist or neck of the hourglass.

[0476] In another embodiment, the gear may be composed of at least two materials, wherein at least one material is a conductor. At least one hardened material may serve as a resistance to corrosion when exposed to explosive conditions, where the explosion may occur in contact with or near the hardened material. The highly conductive material may be separated from the explosion by a non-explosive solid fuel. The arrangement of at least two types of materials provides at least one of selective compression of a selected area over an unselected area and selective inversion. In a preferred embodiment, the meshing of the gears forms an hourglass or pinched shape. The neck or waist of the hourglass may be formed by a highly stable or hardened material that can be an insulator, such as ceramic, for example. The non-waist or bulb portions of the gears comprise a metal, such as at least one of transition, internal transition, rare earth, Group 13, Group 14, and Group 15 metals, or an alloy of at least two of these metals, or a conductor, such as a carbide, such as TiC and WC. The waist region includes a selected area, and the current passes between non-waist or rounded regions so as to concentrate in the waist region. By doing so, the current density increases in the selected area including the waist to achieve the explosion limit. The waist prevents damage from the explosion by resisting corrosion of the waist material, which includes a hardened material. The non-waist or rounded regions, made of conductors, come into contact with unselected fuel regions, where fuel intervening between the explosion and the corresponding gear surfaces protects these surfaces from corrosion caused by the explosion.

[0477] An ignition power source (304), which can also function as a startup power source, includes at least one capacitor, such as a bank of low-voltage high-capacity capacitors, that supplies the low-voltage high current required to achieve ignition. The capacitor circuit may be designed to prevent ripple or ringing during discharge to increase the lifespan of the capacitors. The lifespan may be extended, for example, to a range of about 1 to 20 years. The capacitors may be designed to store at least a portion of the electric power wave reflected during an explosion. The bus bar of the electrodes may include layers or other means to achieve a capacitance that counteracts the inductance of the bus bar to weaken or control the reactive force leading to the explosion. The bus bar may be superconducting to carry a high current, for example, in the range of about 1,000 A to 1,000,000 A. The power supply for the capacitor heat may include a circuit that prevents the skin effect during discharge, which could prevent the current from penetrating into the rounded portion of the solid fuel. The power circuit may include an LRC circuit for capacitor discharge to ignite the solid fuel, wherein the time constant is long enough to prevent high frequency oscillations or pulse discharges containing high frequency components that hinder the current from flowing through the sample to ignite the sample.

[0478] To mitigate any intermittence, some power may be stored in a capacitor and optionally in a high-current transformer, a battery, or other energy storage device. In another embodiment, the electrical output from one battery may deliver a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to ignite the fuel of another battery. The output power may be further regulated by an output power conditioner (307) connected by power connectors (308a and 308b). The output power conditioner (307) may include components such as, for example, a battery or supercapacitor, a DC-to-AC (DC / AC) converter or inverter, and a transformer. The DC power may be converted into other forms of DC power having high voltage, and this power may be converted into AC, or a mixed DC and AC power. The output power may be regulated to a predetermined waveform, such as a 60Hz AC output, for example, and supplied to a load through output terminals (309). In one embodiment, the output regulator (307) can convert power from a photovoltaic converter or a thermal power-to-power converter to a predetermined frequency and waveform, such as an AC frequency other than the 60 or 50 Hz that are standard in the United States and Europe, respectively. Other frequencies may be applied to match loads for other frequencies, such as electric motors, for example, locomotives, aviation, marine, household, tools, and machinery, electric heating and space control, communications, and electronic applications. A portion of the output power at the output terminals (309) may be used for the power of the power source (304), for example, about 5-10 V, 10,000-40,000 A DC power. The PDC power converters can output low-voltage, high-current DC power which is very suitable for reactivating the electrodes (302) that cause the ignition of the fuel supplied later.A low-voltage, high-current output can be supplied to DC loads. This DC can be regulated by a DC / DC converter. Desired DC loads include DC motors, such as electrically rectified motors, for example, motors in motives, aviation, marine, home appliances, tools, and machinery, DC electric heating and space control, DC communications, and DC electronic applications. In one embodiment of a motive application, a vehicle can be used as a mobile distributed generation asset. Customers can purchase power for transportation through a service such as that provided by Uber Technologies, Inc. For example, a customer can request power from a pool of providers via a mobile phone, laptop, or computer, and the provider can drive to the customer's location to provide power to the customer, SF-CIHT or SunCell of the present invention. TM Electricity can be generated by a vehicle having.

[0479] Ignition generates output plasma and heat. Plasma power can be directly converted into electricity by a photovoltaic converter (306). The cell can be operated in an open state to the atmosphere. In one embodiment, the cell (301) can maintain a vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure. The vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure can be maintained by a vacuum pump (313a) that allows ions to avoid collisions with atmospheric gases for the expanding plasma of the ignition of the solid fuel (303). In one embodiment, the vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure is maintained within a system comprising the plasma generating cell (301) and the photovoltaic converter (306) connected thereto. In one embodiment, the cell (301) can be operated under either a vacuum or a cover gas pressure. The cover gas includes an inert gas, such as a noble gas like argon. For example, if the reaction of a nitride with a solid fuel to form a product such as a metal nitride is undesirable, the cover gas may contain the nitride. The cover gas may also contain a portion of hydrogen gas that reacts with oxygen formed from the reaction of H2O with hydrino and oxygen. Additionally, hydrogen may react with oxygen from some atmospheric pressure leakage to form H2O. When light is converted into electricity, the cover gas is selected so as not to have any undesirable absorption of light provided by the hydrino reaction. Additionally, the cover gas may be selected as a converter to transform one spectrum of light into a more desirable other spectrum for photoelectric conversion into electricity.

[0480] Heat can be extracted by at least one of an electrode heat exchanger (310) having cooling water flowing through an electrode cooling water inlet line (311) and an electrode cooling water outlet line (312), and a PDC heat exchanger (318) having cooling water flowing through a PDC cooling water inlet line (319) and a PDC cooling water outlet line (320). Other heat exchangers may be used to receive heat from a hydrorino reaction, such as a water-wall type that can be additionally applied behind at least one wall of a vessel (301), at least one other wall of a PDC converter, and the electrodes (317) of a PDC converter. In one embodiment, at least one of the heat exchanger and heat exchanger components includes a heat pipe. The heat pipe fluid includes molten salt or metal. Desirable metals are cesium, NaK, potassium, sodium, lithium, and silver. Designs of these and other heat exchangers for efficiently and cost-effectively removing heat from a reaction are known to those skilled in the art. Heat can be transferred to a heat load. Thus, the power system may include a heat exchanger that transfers heat to a heat load or a heater having heat supplied by at least one cooling water outlet line (312 and 320) to the heat load. The cooled cooling water can be recovered by at least one cooling water inlet line (311 and 319).Heat supplied by at least one cooling water discharge line (312 and 320) may flow into a heat engine, steam engine, steam turbine, gas turbine, Rankine cycle engine, Brayton cycle engine, and Stirling cycle engine and be converted into mechanical power such as to rotate at least one of, for example, a shaft, a passenger car, a generator, an aircraft turbofan or turbopropeller, a marine propeller, an impeller, and rotating shaft machinery. Alternatively, heat may flow from at least one cooling water discharge line (312 and 320) to a converter such as the thermal power to electric converter of the present invention. Suitable preferred thermal power to electric converters include at least one of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling cycle engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. The output from the thermal-to-electric converter can be used to power a load, and part of it can be used to power parts of the SF-CIHT battery generator, such as the source of power (304), for example.

[0481] The ignition of the reactants of the fuel (303) generates power and products, where the power may be in the form of a plasma of the products. In one embodiment, the fuel (303) is partially or largely vaporized into a physical state of gas, such as plasma, during a hydrino reaction explosion event. The plasma is transferred through the plasma to the power converter (306). Otherwise, the plasma emits light to the photovoltaic converter (306), and the recombined plasma forms atoms and compounds in a gaseous state. These are condensed and collected by a vapor condenser (315) and transferred to the regeneration system (313) by a product removal-fuel loader (313) which includes a conveyor connection to the regeneration system (314) and additionally a conveyor connection to the hopper (305). The steam condenser (315) and the product removal-fuel chargeer (313) may include, for example, at least one electrostatic collection system and at least one system such as an auger, a conveyor, or a pneumatic system such as a vacuum or suction system. The solid fuel or product material may be separated from a carrier gas, such as argon, by systems and methods such as filtration, cyclone, electrostatic, centrifugal, and magnetic separation, and gravity separation systems and methods such as a centrifugal jig and dry air shake table separation.

[0482] Fuel regenerated from the plasma product and regeneration system (314) is transported on an electrostatically charged conveyor belt (313), where the fuel and product particles are transported in a sticky manner. The regenerated fuel particles can be drawn from the regeneration chamber (314) into the pipe (conveyor belt; 313) above the regeneration chamber due to the strong electrostatic attraction of the particles to the conveyor belt. Suitable systems are known to those skilled in the art. Fuel or product transport can also be achieved using magnetic force. For example, magnetic or magnetized particles can be transported by the magnetic fields of permanent magnets or electromagnets. The latter can be operated in a time sequence that causes the particles to be collected, pushed, and attracted along at least one predetermined trajectory.

[0483] The regeneration system (314) may include a closed vessel or chamber with a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure and a heat exchanger within the regeneration chamber. The regeneration heat exchanger may be connected to a heat source such as at least one of an electrode heat exchanger (310) and a PDC heat exchanger (318). In one embodiment, water falls from the tank source (314a) onto the regeneration heat exchanger to form steam, which is processed to hydrate the plasma product. The steam may be refluxed from the regeneration chamber (314) to the water tank (314a) by a water condenser (322) having a line (321) from the regeneration chamber (314) to the water tank (314a). Hydration can proceed to batch regeneration involving cooling flow and condensation steps, recirculating H2O to a water tank (314a), transferring the regenerated solid fuel to a hopper (305) via a product remover / fuel loader (313), and refilling the regeneration chamber (314) with plasma via the product remover / fuel loader (313) to initiate another cycle.

[0484] In one embodiment, a plasma-to-electric converter (306), such as a plasma-kinetic converter or power generation system including, for example, a photovoltaic converter (306), includes a chute or channel (306a) for transporting the product into a product remover-fuel loader (313). At least one of the floor, chute (306a), and PDC electrode (317) of the PDC converter (306) may be inclined so that the product flow is at least partially due to gravity flow. At least one of the floor, chute (306a), and PDC electrode (317) of the PDC converter (306) may be mechanically shaken or vibrated to assist the flow. The flow may also be assisted by a shock wave formed by the ignition of solid fuel. In one embodiment, at least one of the floor, chute (306a), and PDC electrode (317) of the PDC converter (306) includes a mechanical scraper or conveyor to move the product from the corresponding surface to the product remover-fuel loader (313).

[0485] The hopper (305) can be filled with fuel regenerated from the regeneration system (314) by the product remover-fuel loader (313). For example, any H or H2O consumed in the formation of hydrino can be made into H2O from the H2O source (314a). Here, the consumed fuel is regenerated into the original reactant or into fuel having the consumed H or H2O, for example, as in the formation of hydrino, made into H2O from the H2O source (314a). The water source may include a tank, a cell, or a container (314a) capable of holding at least one of a substance or compound comprising H2O in a large volume or gaseous state, or H2O or one or more reactants forming H2O, such as H2+O2.In contrast, the source is atmospheric water vapor, or lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such as, for example, KMgCl3·6(H2O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulose fibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, Means for extracting H2O from atmospheric pressure may include hygroscopic materials such as desiccant, silicon dioxide (silica), activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolite, deliquescent material, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and many other deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art.

[0486] In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell generator further comprises a vacuum pump (313a) capable of removing any product oxygen and molecular hydrino gas. In one embodiment, at least one of oxygen and molecular hydrino is collected in a tank as a commercial product. The pump may further comprise selective membranes, valves, sieves, cryofilters, or other means known to those skilled in the art for separating oxygen and hydrino gas, and may further collect H2O vapor and supply H2O to a regeneration system (314) to be recirculated in the regenerated fuel. For example, H2 gas may be added to the vessel chamber to prevent any oxidation of generator components such as gears or PDC or MHD electrodes. Hydrogen may carry out combustion with any oxygen present. The generator may also comprise a recombine that catalyzes the reaction between H2 and O2 to form water. Alternatively, the reaction of H2 and O2 can be induced so that plasma forms H2O. Hydrogen can be supplied by the electrolysis of H2O, where H2 is separated from O2. This separation can be achieved by a selective gas membrane. Gases can be separated by using a hydrogen-permeable negative electrode that can be connected to the battery (301).

[0487] In one embodiment, the fuel (303) comprises fine powder that can be formed by ball milling the regenerated or reprocessed solid fuel, wherein the regeneration system (314) may further include means for forming small particles from large particles, such as a ball mill, a grinder, or other grinding or milling means known in the art. A preferred solid fuel mixture comprises a conductor, such as a conductive material powder, such as a powder of a transition metal, silver, or aluminum, or its oxide, and H2O. In another embodiment, the fuel (303) may comprise pellets of solid fuel that can be compressed within the regeneration system (314). The solid fuel pellets may comprise a thin foil of powdered metal containing a metal oxide and H2O, and optionally a metal powder. In this case, the regeneration system (314) regenerates the metal thin film by means such as at least one of heating in a vacuum, heating under a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, and electrolysis from an electrolyte such as a molten salt electrode. The regeneration system (314) further includes metal processing means such as rolling or milling to form a thin film from the regenerated thin film metal stock. A jacket may be formed by a stamping machine or a press, wherein the encapsulated solid fuel is stamped or press-processed inside.

[0488] In a preferred embodiment, the solid fuel is regenerated by means as presented in the present invention, such as at least one of the addition of H2, the addition of H2O, thermal regeneration, and electrolytic regeneration. For example, in the case of NiOOH (3.22 kJ output compared to 46 J input as presented in the preferred SF-CIHT cell experimental results section), products such as Ni2O3 and NiO can be converted into hydroxides due to a hydrino reaction with a very large energy gain relative to the input energy to initiate the reaction, such as about 100 times, and then, as presented in the present invention and known to those skilled in the art, can be converted into oxyhydroxides by chemical reactions as well as electrochemical reactions. In other embodiments, other metals such as corresponding oxides, halides, and oxyoxides, such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Sm, and the metals of the present invention, may replace Ni. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal oxide and H2O as a conductive matrix, and a corresponding metal as a conductive matrix. The product will be a metal oxide. The solid fuel can be regenerated by reducing a portion of the metal oxide to the metal with hydrogen, and then the metal is mixed with rehydrated oxygen. For example, suitable metals having oxides that can be easily reduced to metals by mild heat below 100°C and hydrogen are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In.In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises (1) an oxide that is not easily reduced by H2 and mild heat, such as at least one of aluminum, alkaline earth oxides, and rare earth oxides, (2) a metal that can be easily reduced to a metal by H2 at a normal temperature, such as less than 100°C, and (3) H2O. A preferred fuel is MgO + Cu + H2O. Thus, a product mixture of H2-reducible oxides and non-reducible oxides can be treated with H2 and heated under mild conditions so that only the reducible metal oxides are converted to metals. This mixture can be hydrated to form a regenerated solid fuel. A preferred fuel is MgO + Cu + H2O, where the product MgO + CuO undergoes H2 reduction treatment to produce MgO + Cu, which is hydrated into a solid fuel.

[0489] In another embodiment, an oxide product, such as CuO or AgO, is regenerated by heating under at least one of a vacuum and an inert gas flow. The temperature may be in at least one range from about 100°C to 3000°C, 300°C to 2000°C, 500°C to 1200°C, and 500°C to 1000°C. In one embodiment, the regeneration system (314) may further include a mill, such as at least one of a ball mill and a shredding / grinding mill, to mill at least one of a large volume of oxides and metals into powders, such as fine powders having a particle size range of at least one of about 10 nm to 1 cm, 100 nm to 10 mm, 0.1 μm to 1 mm, and 1 μm to 100 μm (μ = micro).

[0490] In another embodiment, the regeneration system may include an electrolytic cell, such as a molten salt electrolysis cell, containing metal ions, wherein the metal of the metal oxide product may be plated onto the negative electrode of the electrolytic cell by electrodeposition using systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. The system may further include a mill or grinder to form metal particles of a predetermined size from the electroplated metal. The metal may be added to other components of the reaction mixture, such as H2O, for example, to form a regenerated solid fuel.

[0491] In one embodiment, the cell (301) of FIG. 1 may maintain a vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure. The vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure may be maintained within the cell (301) by a pump (313a) and may also be maintained within a connecting plasma-to-electric converter (306) that receives active plasma from the cell (301), which is a plasma source. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal that is substantially thermodynamically stable toward a reaction with H2O and becomes a metal oxide. In this case, the metal of the solid fuel is not oxidized during the reaction that forms the products. A preferred solid fuel is a metal, an oxidized metal, and H2O. Then, the initial metal and the metal oxide as a mixture, and the product can be removed by a product remover-fuel loader (313) and regenerated by the addition of H2O. Suitable metals having substantially unfavorable reactions with H2O may be selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In other embodiments, the solid fuel comprises a metal that is non-reactive with H2O and at least one of oxyhydroxides which may include H2O, metal oxides, hydroxides, and the same or at least one other metal.

[0492] In one embodiment, H2 reduction, reduction under vacuum, and rehydration are performed to regenerate solid fuel quickly, efficiently, and cost-effectively.

[0493] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of a hygroscopic material containing H2O and a conductor. Preferred fuels are hydrated alkaline earth metal halides, such as MgX2 (X = F, CI, Br, I), and conductors such as transition metals, such as Co, Ni, Fe, or Cu.

[0494] The solid fuel may comprise a composition of a material such as a metal element or compound having at least one of a low melting point, high conductivity, and a low work function, wherein the work function is very low at high temperatures and further comprises at least one of a source of H2O and H2O. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a conductor such as a melting metal, and a high current from a power source (4) melts the conductor, for example, such as a metal, causing thermionic emission to form a low-voltage arc plasma, and the arc plasma causes H2O ignition. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises at least one low-melting point metal having high conductivity and a low work function at high temperatures, so that a low-voltage arc plasma is generated in the presence of H2O in the fuel, wherein the fuel consequently ignites.

[0495] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a source of H, such as a hydrocarbon, which can be a source of an mH catalyst according to equations (6-9) to form hydrino. The solid fuel comprises a conductor, a material that binds the source of hydrogen, such as carbon or another hydrophobic matrix, and the source of hydrogen, such as a hydrocarbon. The solid fuel can be represented by a high current that acts as a catalyst to form hydrino, resulting in the formation of a high concentration of reacting H.

[0496] The generator also includes means and methods for variable output. In one embodiment, the output of the generator is controlled by controlling a variable or interruptible flow rate of fuel (303) into electrodes (302) or rollers or gears (302a) and a variable or interruptible ignition rate of fuel by a power source (304). The rotational speed of the rollers or gears is also controlled to control the fuel ignition rate. In one embodiment, the output regulator (307) configures the power controller (307) to control an output that may be DC. The power controller can control the fuel flow rate and the rotational speed of the gears by controlling a gear drive motor (302d) that rotates the drive gear (302c) and then rotates the gear (302a). The response time based on at least one mechanical or electrical control of the fuel consumption rate or firing rate is very fast, for example, in the range of 10 ms to 1 us. Power can also be controlled by controlling the connectivity of the converter electrodes of the plasma-to-electric converter. For example, connecting the PDC electrodes in series increases the voltage, and connecting the converter electrodes in parallel increases the current. By changing the angle of the PDC electrodes or by selectively connecting sets of PDC electrodes (317) at different angles with respect to at least one magnetic field direction, the power collected by at least one change in voltage and current is changed.

[0497] In one embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2A, the power converter (306) comprises a photovoltaic or photovoltaic cell system. In one embodiment, the output controller / regulator (307) receives power from the photovoltaic converter (306) and delivers a portion of the power to the power source (304) in a form suitable for driving the power source (304) to cause the ignition of solid fuel (303) at a predetermined repetition rate. In one embodiment, the ignition is auto-triggered by the presence of fuel that sufficiently reduces the resistance between the electrodes to allow ignition. The fuel may be injected into the electrodes at a rate that achieves a predetermined ignition rate. Additional power received and regulated by the output controller / regulator (307) will be output to be delivered to an electrical load. Depending on the power conditions of the fuel ignition electric system, the power source (304), and the load, the appropriate integration of the photovoltaic output may be achieved with an output controller / regulator (307) used in the solar thermal industry known to those skilled in the art. A suitable solar power regulator outputs AC power at an appropriate voltage range to the grid, such as, for example, 120 V and its multiples. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the electrical output of the photovoltaic converter is a high voltage to reduce transmission losses in the transport of power to internal and external loads. This voltage may be in at least one range of about 10 V to 5,000 V, 100 V to 1,000 V, 200 V to 500 V, and 300 V to 400 V.

[0498] The power regulator (307) further includes sensors for input / output parameters such as voltages, currents, and powers. Signals from the sensors are supplied to a processor that controls the generator. At least one of the current ramp-up time, current ramp-down time, voltage, current, power, waveform, and frequency may be controlled. In one embodiment, the output power may be any predetermined waveform, such as DC or 60Hz AC, or AC of a frequency other than 60Hz, which includes a new reference for power. The generator may include a resistor, such as a shunt resistor, through which excess power beyond the power load required or a predetermined power may be dissipated. The shunt resistor may be connected to the output regulator or the power controller (307). The generator may include a built-in processor and system to provide remote control capable of suppressing the generator's function.

[0499] In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT generator includes a smart mobile device that performs at least one of monitoring and controlling the generator. The smart mobile device may further include a portal. The portal may facilitate wireless communication to and from the SF-CIHT generator. In one embodiment, the portal may function as at least one of means for transmitting and receiving internet types and communication content. The smart device may include at least one of a smartphone and a smart tablet. Internet-like services may be provided through the portal. Preferred internet-like services include GPS, internet access, social media, networking, email, voice or video over IP, search capability, and other uses of the internet known to those skilled in the art. The portal of each SF-CIHT generator may be connected to other such portals to form a network on interconnectivity. The network may function as an alternative or a parallel internet. For example, Airborne SunCells in aviation, such as in airplanes and drones, can serve as receiver-transmission tower replacements. In one embodiment, signals such as internet content from an SF-CIHT cell portal can be transmitted through building wiring that may be based on DC electricity.

[0500] In one embodiment, a portable or mobile SF-CIHT cell, such as one that can be mounted on a vehicle, may be connected to power conditioning equipment, such as an inverter capable of converting DC to AC power. The power conditioning equipment may be used for any application, such as auxiliary power. Preferred auxiliary power is vehicle-to-stationary power, such as vehicle-to-building or power plant, and vehicle-to-vehicle, such as vehicle-to-truck, vehicle-to-train, and vehicle-to-ship, and the vehicle providing power, such as a passenger car, may be transported by a vehicle receiving power. Preferred transport vehicles are trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes. In one embodiment, the power conditioning equipment may include a reverse car charging station, such as the reverse of car charging stations known in the art. In one embodiment, DC power supplied by a movable SF-CIHT cell, such as inside a vehicle, may be connected to power control equipment, such as a reverse charging station, which includes an inverter, to supply power to a stationary application, such as a building. In one embodiment, the vehicle may include a reverse charging station. The vehicle may include power control equipment, such as an inverter, which outputs appropriate power to an external load, such as a stationary or auxiliary application load. The output from the power control equipment may be connected to the external load by a matching power cord connected to the load. A preferred wire connection to the load is a beaker box in the building. In one embodiment, Airborne SunCells, such as those mounted inside the vehicle, may output DC power to an external load, such as a building, where DC power may be required.The connection may be made via wires. Power transfer may include inductive charging using a transmitter on the vehicle and a receiver that receives power and supplies it to an auxiliary load, such as a building. The connection between the power control equipment and the SF-CIHT battery may further include at least one of mechanical and electrical keys to control the flow of power from the SF-CIHT battery to the power control equipment. Additionally, control may be provided by monitoring and controlling the functions of the unit, which are possible through a portal.

[0501] In one embodiment, a portion of the power output is supplied at terminals (309) to provide power and energy to at least one of a power source (304), a gear (roller) drive motor (302d), a product remover-fuel loader (313), a pump (313a), and a regeneration system (314) to propagate chemical reactions to regenerate the original solid fuel from the reaction products. In one embodiment, along with a coolant return circulation by coolant inlet lines (311 and 319), a portion of heat from at least one of an electrode heat exchanger (310) and a PDC heat exchanger is fed into the solid fuel regeneration system (310) by coolant discharge lines (312 and 320) to provide thermal power and energy to propagate chemical reactions to regenerate the original solid fuel from the reaction products. A portion of the output from the thermal-to-electric converter (306) may be used to drive the regeneration system as well as other systems of the SF-CIHT cell generator.

[0502] G. Plasmadynamic Plasma to Electric Power Converter

[0503] Plasma power can be converted into electricity using a plasma dynamic power converter (306: FIG. 1) based on magnetic space charge separation. Since electrons have a smaller mass than cations, they are preferentially confined by the magnetic flux lines of magnetized PDC electrodes, such as cylindrical PDC electrodes or PDC electrodes in a magnetic field. While the electrons' mobility is restricted, cations are relatively free to collide with the electrons of the PDC, which are essentially or non-essentially magnetized. These electrons and cations collide completely with the unmagnetized PDC electrodes. Plasma dynamic conversion extracts power directly from the thermal and potential energy of the plasma and does not depend on plasma flow. Instead, power extraction by the PDC drives a current in an external load using the potential difference between the magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes immersed in the plasma, thus extracting power directly from the stored plasma thermal energy. The plasma dynamic conversion (PDC) of plasma thermal energy into an electric furnace is achieved by directly inserting at least two floating conductors into a high-temperature plasma body. One of these conductors is magnetized by an external electromagnetic field or a permanent magnet, or is inherently magnetic itself. The other is non-magnetized. A potential difference arises due to the large difference in charge mobility between heavy cations and light electrons. This voltage is applied across an electric load.

[0504] In various embodiments, the power system illustrated in FIG. 1 includes additional internal or external electromagnets or permanent magnets, or includes a plurality of essentially magnetized and non-magnetized PDC electrodes, such as cylindrical PDC electrodes, for example, pin PDC electrodes. A uniform magnetic field parallel to each PDC pin electrode (306b). BThe source of the source may be provided by electromag...

Claims

Claim 1 a) a set of separated electrodes to form an open circuit; b) an injection system for injecting a conductive material between the electrodes to form a closed circuit, wherein the conductive material comprises a metal; c) a power source connected to the set of electrodes to form a current and a voltage in the closed circuit, wherein the current and voltage in the closed circuit and the conductive material can initiate a plasma-forming reaction when H2O is present as a generator molecule; and d) a power converter for converting light and / or thermal output from the plasma into power and / or thermal power; comprising a system. Claim 2 A system according to claim 1, wherein the metal is Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, or In. Claim 3 delete Claim 4 delete Claim 5 delete Claim 6 delete Claim 7 delete Claim 8 delete Claim 9 delete Claim 10 delete Claim 11 delete Claim 12 delete Claim 13 delete Claim 14 delete Claim 15 delete Claim 16 delete Claim 17 delete Claim 18 delete Claim 19 delete Claim 20 delete Claim 21 delete Claim 22 delete Claim 23 delete Claim 24 delete Claim 25 delete Claim 26 delete Claim 27 delete Claim 28 delete Claim 29 delete Claim 30 delete Claim 31 delete Claim 32 delete Claim 33 delete Claim 34 delete Claim 35 delete Claim 36 delete Claim 37 delete Claim 38 delete Claim 39 delete Claim 40 delete Claim 41 delete Claim 42 delete Claim 43 delete Claim 44 delete Claim 45 delete Claim 46 delete Claim 47 delete Claim 48 delete Claim 49 delete Claim 50 delete Claim 51 delete Claim 52 delete Claim 53 delete Claim 54 delete Claim 55 delete Claim 56 delete Claim 57 delete Claim 58 delete Claim 59 delete Claim 60 delete Claim 61 delete Claim 62 delete Claim 63 delete Claim 64 delete Claim 65 delete Claim 66 delete Claim 67 delete Claim 68 delete Claim 69 delete Claim 70 delete Claim 71 delete Claim 72 delete Claim 73 delete Claim 74 delete Claim 75 delete Claim 76 delete Claim 77 delete Claim 78 delete Claim 79 delete Claim 80 delete Claim 81 delete Claim 82 delete Claim 83 delete Claim 84 delete Claim 85 delete Claim 86 delete Claim 87 delete Claim 88 delete Claim 89 delete Claim 90 delete Claim 91 delete Claim 92 delete Claim 93 delete Claim 94 delete Claim 95 delete Claim 96 delete Claim 97 delete Claim 98 delete

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