Magnetohydrodynamic electric power generator

Abstract

This invention describes a generator that provides at least one of electrical power and thermal power, the generator comprising: (i) at least one reactive electrolyzer for catalyzing atomic hydrogen to form low-energy hydrogen identifiable by unique analytical and spectral characteristics; (ii) a reaction mixture comprising at least two components selected from: an H2O catalyst source or H2O catalyst; an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; reactants forming the H2O catalyst source or H2O catalyst and the atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; and a molten metal that makes the reaction mixture highly conductive; and (iii) a molten metal jetting system comprising at least one such device for providing a flow of molten metal. (iv) an electromagnetic pump and at least one reservoir for receiving the molten metal flow; (iv) an ignition system comprising a power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the at least one molten metal vapor to ignite a plasma, thereby initiating a rapid kinetic reaction of low-energy hydrogen and an energy gain attributable to the formation of low-energy hydrogen; (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma; (vi) a molten metal recovery system; and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting high-power light output from a blackbody radiator of the electrolyzer into electricity using a concentrated thermophotovoltaic cell or (b) converting the high-energy plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.

Description

[Technical Field] This invention relates to the field of electricity generation, and more specifically, to systems, apparatuses, and methods for generating electricity. More specifically, embodiments of this invention pertain to power generation devices and systems, and related methods, that generate optical power, plasma and thermal power, and electrical power via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, photoelectric power converters, plasma-electric power converters, photon-electric power converters, or thermoelectric power converters. Furthermore, embodiments of this invention describe systems, apparatuses, and methods for generating optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters and ignition using water or water-based fuel sources. These and other related embodiments are described in detail herein. [Previous Technology] Electricity generation can take many forms, utilizing power from plasma. The successful commercialization of plasma depends on power generation systems that can efficiently generate plasma and subsequently capture the power of the generated plasma. Plasma can be formed during the ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, which can release high light power. The high light power of the plasma can be utilized by the power converter of this invention. Ions and excited-state atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation, emitting light power. The light power can be converted into electricity by a photovoltaic device. [Summary of the Invention] Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to an electric power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes, such as solid or molten metal electrodes, configured to deliver power to fuel to ignite the fuel and generate plasma; a power source configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one magnetohydrodynamic power converter positioned to receive high-temperature and high-pressure plasma or at least one photovoltaic ("PV") power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons. In an embodiment, the SunCell® power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure, and containing reactants: (i) at least one catalyst source or catalyst containing nascent H2O; (ii) at least one H2O source or H2O; (iii) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; and (iv) molten metal. The system further includes a molten metal ejector system comprising at least one reservoir and a molten metal pump, the at least one reservoir containing some of the molten metal, the molten metal pump having an ejector tube for providing a flow of molten metal and at least one non-ejector reservoir for receiving the flow of molten metal; at least one ignition system comprising a power source for supplying electrical power to at least one molten metal vapor to ignite the plasma; at least one reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the process of reacting to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy; and at least one power converter or output system for at least one of light and heat output to provide electrical power and / or thermal power. The power system may further include at least one of a heater for melting metal to contain molten metal and a molten metal recovery system, wherein the molten metal recovery system may include at least one molten metal overflow channel that further breaks in the molten metal overflow flow from a non-ejector sump to an ejector system sump, thereby blocking any current path through the overflowing molten metal. The molten metal recovery system may include a non-ejector sump having an inlet that receives molten metal from the ejector tube of the ejector system at a height above the ejector tube and further including a drip edge that breaks the overflow flow. The non-ejector sump inlet may be located in a plane, and the plane may be aligned perpendicular to the initial direction of the molten metal flow from the ejector tube. Both the non-ejector sump and the ejector tube of the ejector system may be aligned along an axis at a greater than zero angle to a horizontal axis tangential to the Earth's axis of gravity, such as an angle between approximately 25° and 90°. The ejector reservoir may include electrodes in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-ejector reservoir may include electrodes in contact with the molten metal supplied by the ejector system. The ignition system may include a power source that supplies opposite voltages to the electrodes of the ejector and non-ejector reservoirs. This power source supplies current and power flow through the molten metal flow to cause the reactants to react and form plasma within the container. The power source may deliver high current energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react and form plasma. The power source may include at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may include one of the following: (i) a DC or AC conductive type, comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal via electrodes and a source of a constant or in-phase alternating vector cross-field; or (ii) an inductive type, comprising a source of an alternating magnetic field passing through a short-circuit loop in the molten metal.It induces alternating current in the metal; and is the source of the in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field. The current from the molten metal ignition system can be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system can be closed by the molten metal flow so that ignition further induces an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The molten metal may include at least one of the following: (i) silver, silver-copper alloys and copper, (ii) metals having a melting point below 700°C, and (iii) at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, preferably gallium, antimony or alloys such as Rose's metal, Cerrosafe, Wood's metal, Field's metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl and gallium-indium-tin alloy. The power system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one heat exchanger. At least one storage device may contain boron nitride. The reactants may contain a container gas comprising at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and water, wherein the container gas may further contain an inert gas. The power system may further include a reactant supplier and an inert gas supplier, wherein the supplier maintains the container gas at a pressure ranging from 0.01 Torr to 200 atmospheres. At least one power converter or output system for the reaction power output may include at least one of the following: thermo-photovoltaic converter, photovoltaic converter, photoelectric converter, magnetohydrodynamic converter, plasma converter, thermionic converter, thermoelectric converter, Sterling engine, supercritical CO2 cycle converter, Brayton cycle converter, external burner type Brayton cycle engine or converter, Rankine cycle engine or converter, organic Rankine cycle converter, internal combustion engine and heat engine, heater, and boiler. The container may include at least one of the following: a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window that transmits light from the interior of the container to the photovoltaic converter; a container geometry that causes a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent molten metal from encasing the PV window; and at least one baffle. The container geometry may include a reduced cross-sectional area toward the PV window. The PV converter may include a concentrating photovoltaic cell.It contains at least one compound selected from the following: crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAsSb), indium arsenide phosphorus (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, Group III nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN. The magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power converter may include a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a MHD channel, electrodes, a magnet, a metal collection system, a metal recycling system, a heat exchanger, and, optionally, a gas recycling system. In an embodiment, at least one component of the power system comprises at least one of ceramic and glass ceramics and metals, such as metal oxides, alumina, zirconium oxide, magnesium oxide, hafnium oxide, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, and silicon nitride; glass ceramics such as Li₂O × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (LAS systems), MgO × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (MAS systems), and ZnO × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (ZAS systems); and metals such as stainless steel and refractory metals. In an embodiment, the molten metal of the power system comprises silver, and the MHD converter further includes an oxygen source to form silver nanoparticles and accelerates the nanoparticles through the MHD nozzle, thereby imparting kinetic energy to the power generated in the vessel. The reactant supply system can additionally supply and control an oxygen source to form silver nanoparticles. In an embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, at least a portion of the kinetic energy stored in the silver nanoparticles is converted into electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel. The nanoparticles condense into molten metal in a metal collection system. The molten metal at least partially absorbs oxygen, including the oxygen-absorbed metal, which is returned to the ejector reservoir via a metal recycling system and oxygen is released via plasma in the container, wherein the plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to increase the oxygen absorbed by the molten metal. The electromagnetic pump may comprise a two-stage pump, comprising a first stage comprising a pump for the metal recycling system and a second stage comprising a pump for the metal ejector system. In an embodiment,The hydrogen product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen in an electric power system with a catalyst may include at least one of the following: a hydrogen product having a Raman peak at about 1900 to 2000 cm⁻¹; a hydrogen product having a plurality of Raman peaks spaced at integer multiples of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV; a hydrogen product having an infrared peak at about 1900 to 2000 cm⁻¹; a hydrogen product having a plurality of infrared peaks spaced at integer multiples of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV; a hydrogen product having a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks spaced in the range of about 200 to 300 nanometers with a spacing between integer multiples of about 0.23 to 0.3 eV; a hydrogen product having a plurality of electron beam emission spectral peaks spaced in the range of about 200 to 300 nanometers with a spacing between integer multiples of about 0.2 to 0.3 eV; a hydrogen product having a Raman peak at about 5000 to 20000 cm⁻¹; a hydrogen product having an infrared peak at about 1900 to 2 ... Hydrogen products with multiple Raman spectral peaks in the cm⁻¹ range having a distance between integer multiples of approximately 1000 ± 200 cm⁻¹; hydrogen products with X-ray photoelectron spectral peaks in the energy range of approximately 490 to 525 eV; hydrogen products causing matrix shifts in high-magnetic-field MAS NMR; and high-magnetic-field MAS with a value greater than approximately -5 ppm relative to TMS. Hydrogen products with NMR or liquid NMR shifts; hydrogen products containing large aggregates or polymers of Hn (n is an integer greater than 3); hydrogen products containing large aggregates or polymers of Hn (n is an integer greater than 3) with a Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of about 16.12 to 16.13; hydrogen products containing metal hydrides, wherein the metal includes at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; hydrogen products containing at least one of H16 and H24; hydrogen products containing inorganic compounds MxXy and H2, wherein M is a cation and X is a cation having M(MxXyH2)n. Anions of at least one of the following, where n is an integer; hydrogen products comprising at least one of the peaks of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) as shown in [Figure] and [Figure], respectively; magnetic hydrogen products comprising metal hydrides, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals; hydrogen products comprising metal hydrides, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals exhibiting magnetism by magnetic susceptometry; hydrogen products comprising a metal that is inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy.The EPR spectra include at least one of extremely high g-factor, extremely low g-factor, anomalous linewidth, and proton separation; hydrogen products containing hydrogen dimers, wherein the EPR spectra show at least one peak at approximately 2800–3100 G and a ΔH of approximately 10 G to 500 G; hydrogen products containing gases having negative gas chromatography peaks with hydrogen carriers; hydrogen products having a quadrupole moment / e of approximately [Figure], where p is an integer; proton hydrogen products containing molecular dimers with end-to-end rotational energies of integer J to J+1 transitions in the range of approximately (J+1)44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the deuterium-containing molecular dimer is half that of the proton-containing dimer; hydrogen products containing molecular dimers having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: (i) a hydrogen molecule separation distance of approximately 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) approximately 23 Å between hydrogen molecules. Vibrational energies of approximately 1.028 Å ± 10% and (iii) van der Waals energy of approximately 0.0011 eV ± 10% between hydrogen molecules; hydrogen products comprising solids having at least one parameter from the following group: (i) hydrogen molecule separation distance of approximately 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) vibrational energies of approximately 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10% between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) van der Waals energy of approximately 0.019 eV ± 10% between hydrogen molecules; hydrogen products having at least one of the following: (i) (a) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, (b) (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹, and (c) 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; (ii) exhibiting approximately 1.028 Å X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns showing separation of hydrogen molecules by ±10%, and (iii) calorimetric determination of vaporization energy of approximately 0.0011 eV ±10% / molecule of hydrogen; solid hydrogen products having at least one of the following: (i) (a) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ±20 cm⁻¹, (b) (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ±10 cm⁻¹ and (c) 23 cm⁻¹ ±10%; (ii) X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns showing separation of hydrogen molecules by approximately 1.028 Å ±10%, and (iii) calorimetric determination of vaporization energy of approximately 0.019 eV ±10% / molecule of hydrogen. In an embodiment, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen in the power system with a catalyst may include at least one of H(1 / 4) and H2(1 / 4), wherein the hydrogen product has at least one of the following: the hydrogen product has a Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR).It contains at least one of the H2(1 / 4) rotation energy at approximately 1940 cm⁻¹ ± 10% and the absorption band in the fingerprint region, wherein other higher energy features are absent; the hydrogen product has a proton magic angle rotation nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum (¹H MAS NMR) containing a high magnetic field matrix peak; the hydrogen product has pyrolytic gravimetric analysis (TGA) results showing the decomposition of at least one of metal hydrides and hydrogen polymers in the temperature region of approximately 100 °C to 1000 °C; the hydrogen product has an electron beam excitation emission spectrum containing an H2(1 / 4) rotation band in the 260 nm region, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at approximately 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; the hydrogen product has an electron beam excitation emission spectrum containing an H2(1 / 4) rotation band in the 260 nm region, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at approximately 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV, wherein the intensity of the peaks is between approximately 0 K and 150 K. The hydrogen product decreases at low temperatures within the K range; the hydrogen product has a second-order photoluminescence Raman spectrum containing a second-order H2(1 / 4) rotation band in the 260 nm region, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at about 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; the hydrogen product has a second-order photoluminescence Raman spectrum containing a second-order H2(1 / 4) rotation band, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced between about 5000 and 2000 cm-1 with intervals between about 1000 ± 200 cm-1; the hydrogen product has a Raman spectrum containing an H2(1 / 4) rotation peak at about 1940 cm-1 ± 10%; the hydrogen product has a Raman spectrum containing a peak at about 490-500 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of H2(1 / 4) total energy in eV; the hydrogen products contain large aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n (n is an integer greater than 3); the hydrogen products contain large aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n (n is an integer greater than 3) with a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of about 16.12 to 16.13; the hydrogen products contain metal hydrides, wherein the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu and W, and the hydrogen contains H(1 / 4). The hydrogen product contains at least one of H(1 / 4)16 and H(1 / 4)24; the hydrogen product contains inorganic compounds MxXy and H(1 / 4)2, wherein M is a cation and X is an anion, and at least one of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) contains a peak of M(MxXyH(1 / 4)2)n, where n is an integer; the hydrogen product contains at least one of K2CO3H(1 / 4)2 and KOHH(1 / 4)2.Furthermore, at least one of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) contains the peak values ​​of [Figure] and [Figure], respectively; the hydrogen product is magnetic and contains a metal hydride, wherein the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and an antimagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); the hydrogen product contains a metal hydride, wherein the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and an antimagnetic metal, and the H is H(1 / 4), wherein the product exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility measurement; the hydrogen product contains a metal inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at approximately 2800-3100 G and a ΔH of approximately 10 to 500 G; the hydrogen product contains [H2(1 / 4)]2, wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at approximately 2800-3100 G and a ΔH of approximately 10 to 500 G. ΔH from G to 500 G; the hydrogen product contains or releases H2(1 / 4) with a negative gas chromatography peak carrying a hydrogen support; the hydrogen product contains H2(1 / 4) with a quadrupole moment / e of approximately [Figure]; the hydrogen product contains [H2(1 / 4)]2 or [D2(1 / 4)]2 with end-to-end rotational energies of integer J to J+1 transitions in the range of approximately (J+1) 44.30 cm-1 ± 20 cm-1 and approximately (J+1) 22.15 cm-1 ± 10 cm-1, respectively; the hydrogen product contains [H2(1 / 4)]2 with at least one parameter from the following groups: (i) a separation distance of approximately 1.028 Å ± 10% of H2(1 / 4) molecules, (ii) a vibrational energy of approximately 23 cm-1 ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules, and (iii) a vibrational energy of approximately 0.0011 between H2(1 / 4) molecules. The hydrogen product comprises a solid H2(1 / 4) molecule having at least one parameter from the following groups: (i) a separation distance of about 1.028 Å ±10% of the H2(1 / 4) molecule, (ii) a vibrational energy of about 23 cm⁻¹ ±10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules, and (iii) a vibrational energy of about 0.019 eV ±10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules; the [H2(1 / 4)]₂ product has at least one of the following: (i) (a) about (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ±20 cm⁻¹, (b) about (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ±10 cm⁻¹, and (c) about 23 cm⁻¹ ±10% of the FTIR and Raman spectra; (ii) exhibiting a separation distance of about 1.028 Å ±10% of the H2(1 / 4) molecule. X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns of H2(1 / 4) molecules separated by ±10%, and calorimetric determination of vaporization energy of approximately 0.0011 eV ±10% / H2(1 / 4).The solid H2(1 / 4) product has at least one of the following: (i) (a) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of about (J+1) 44.30 cm-1 ± 20 cm-1, (b) about (J+1) 22.15 cm-1 ± 10 cm-1 and (c) about 23 cm-1 ± 10%; (ii) X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ± 10%; and (iii) calorimetric determination of vaporization energy of about 0.019 eV ± 10% / H2(1 / 4). Hydrogen products formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen in an electrical system with a catalyst may include at least one of the following low-energy hydrogen substances individually selected from the group consisting of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p), or miscible with at least one of the following: (i) an element different from hydrogen; (ii) a common hydrogen substance containing at least one of H+, common H2, common H-, and common [Figure]; an organic molecule; and (iv) an inorganic substance. Hydrogen products formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen with a catalyst may include oxygen anion compounds. The hydrogen product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen with a catalyst may comprise at least one compound having the formula selected from the group consisting of: MH, MH2, or M2H2, wherein M is a basic cation and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MHn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MHX, wherein M is a basic cation, X is one of a neutral atom or molecule such as a halogen atom or a single negatively charged anion such as a halide anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; M2HX, wherein M is a basic cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MHn, wherein n is an integer, M is a basic cation, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; M2Hn, wherein n The following are examples of compounds with the following characteristics: M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; M2XHn, where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; M2X2Hn, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; M2XHn, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; M2XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, X' is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MM'Hn, where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation.M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; MM'XHn, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; MM'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance; MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are single negatively charged anions, and H is a low-energy hydrogen substance. The following are examples of compounds: MXX'Hn, where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is a basic or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; MHn, where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; MXHn, where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a basic cation or an alkaline earth cation, X is such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element. The compound contains a base cation or a rare earth cation, and the hydrogen contents Hn of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; [Figure], where M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, m and n are both integers, and the hydrogen contents Hm of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; [Figure], where M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, m and n are both integers, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hm of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; [Figure], where M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen contents Hm of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance. The compound contains at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; [Figure], where M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen contents H of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; [Figure], where m and n are both integers, M and M' are both basic or alkaline earth cations, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen contents Hm of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance; and [Figure], where m and n are both integers, M and M' are both basic or alkaline earth cations, X and X' are single or double negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen contents Hm of the compound contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance. The anion of the hydrogen compound product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen with a catalyst may contain at least one or more single negatively charged anions, halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, nitrate ions, and double negatively charged anions such as carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfate ions. The hydrogen product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen with a catalyst may contain at least one low-energy hydrogen substance embedded in the crystal lattice. In exemplary embodiments, the compound comprises at least one of H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H-(1 / p) embedded in a salt lattice.The salt lattice contains at least one of alkali metal salts, basic halides, alkali metal hydroxides, alkaline earth salts, alkaline earth halides, and alkaline earth hydroxides. In one embodiment, the electrode system includes: a first electrode and a second electrode; a stream of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) electrically in contact with the first and second electrodes; a circulation system including a pump that draws the molten metal from a reservoir and conveys it through a conduit (e.g., a pipe) to generate the stream of molten metal exiting the conduit; and a power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first and second electrodes, wherein the stream of molten metal simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to generate a current between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the electrical power of the electrode system is sufficient to generate an arc current. In one embodiment, the circuit includes: a heating element for generating molten metal; a pumping element for conveying the molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit to generate the stream of molten metal exiting the conduit; and the first and second electrodes electrically connected to the power source element for generating a potential difference across the first and second electrodes, wherein the stream of molten metal simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to generate a circuit between the first and second electrodes. In one embodiment of the circuit including the first and second electrodes, an improvement includes passing the stream of molten metal through the electrodes to allow current to flow between them. In an embodiment, the SunCell® power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprises: at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; and reactants comprising: (i) at least one catalyst source or catalyst containing nascent H2O, (ii) at least one H2O source or H2O, (iii) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen, and (iv) molten metal; a molten metal injection system comprising at least two molten metal reservoirs, each comprising a pump and an injector tube; at least one reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed during the reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy; at least one ignition system comprising a power source for supplying a power supply of opposite voltage to at least two molten metal reservoirs, each comprising an electromagnetic pump; and at least one power converter or output system for at least one of light and heat output to electrical power and / or thermal power. A molten metal ejection system may include at least two molten metal reservoirs, each containing an electromagnetic pump that ejects intersecting streams of molten metal into the container. Each reservoir may include a molten metal level controller and an inlet riser. An ignition system may include a power source for supplying opposite voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs, each containing an electromagnetic pump, supplying current and power flowing through the intersecting molten metal streams to induce a reaction (including ignition) of the reactants to form a plasma within the container. The ignition system may include: (i) a power source for supplying opposite voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs, each containing an electromagnetic pump, and (ii) at least two intersecting streams of molten metal ejected from the at least two molten metal reservoirs, each containing an electromagnetic pump, wherein the power source is capable of transmitting short-pulse high-current electrical energy sufficient to induce a reaction of the reactants to form a plasma. The power source transmitting short-pulse high-current electrical energy sufficient to induce a reaction of the reactants to form a plasma may include at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may include one of the following: (i) a DC or AC conductive type, comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal via electrodes and a source of a constant or in-phase alternating vector cross-field; or (ii) an inductive type, comprising an alternating magnetic field source passing through a short-circuit loop in the molten metal, which induces alternating current in the metal; and a source of in-phase alternating vector cross-field. At least one union between the pump and a corresponding reservoir, and another union between the pump and components including the container, injection system, and converter, may include at least one of a wet seal, a flange and gasket seal, an adhesive seal, and a sliding nut seal, wherein the gasket may contain carbon. The DC or AC current of the molten metal ignition system may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. A power supply for transmitting short-pulse high-current electrical energy may include at least one of the following: a high AC, DC, or AC-DC hybrid voltage selected to induce a current in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak AC current density in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A / cm² to 1,000,000 A / cm², 1,000 A / cm² to 100,000 A / cm², and 2,000 A / cm² to 50,000 A / cm²; the voltage being determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, or wherein the voltage is obtained by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; a DC or peak AC voltage in at least one of the following ranges: 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and an AC frequency in the range of 0.1 V to 50 kV. The range is within at least one of the following: Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system can be closed by the intersection of molten metal flows to induce ignition, thereby further inducing an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The induction electromagnetic pump may include a ceramic channel forming a short-circuit loop for the molten metal. The electrical system may further include a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, for forming the molten metal from a corresponding solid metal, wherein the molten metal may include at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper. The electrical system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one cooler. The electrical system may include: a system for recovering the products of the reactants, such as a container including at least one of a vessel with walls capable of providing melt flow under gravity; an electrode electromagnetic pump; and a reservoir in communication with the container, further including a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another part of the container to condense the metal vapor of the molten metal in the reservoir, wherein the pressure in the container can be maintained by condensation. The recovery system including the electrode electromagnetic pump may include at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector-crossing ignition current component. The power system may include at least one power converter or output system for reactive power output, such as at least one of the following: thermo-photovoltaic converter, photovoltaic converter, photoelectric converter, magnetohydrodynamic converter, plasma converter, thermionic converter, thermoelectric converter, Stirling engine, Brundt cycle engine, Rankine cycle engine and heat engine, heater and boiler. The boiler may include a radiant boiler. A portion of the reaction vessel may include a blackbody radiator maintained at a temperature in the range of 1000 K to 3700 K. The power system's storage tank may include boron nitride, the portion of the vessel containing the blackbody radiator may include carbon, and the electromagnetic pump component in contact with the molten metal may include an antioxidant metal or ceramic. The low-energy hydrogen reactant may include at least one of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen and water. The reactant supply may maintain each of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen and water at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr.The light emitted by the blackbody radiator of the power system and directed to the thermo-photovoltaic converter or photovoltaic converter can be primarily blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell can be a concentrator cell, containing at least one compound selected from the following: crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAsSb), indium arsenide phosphide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP The photovoltaic (PV) cells are composed of GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. The light emitted by the reactive plasma and directed to the thermo-photovoltaic converter or PV converter can be primarily ultraviolet light, and the PV cell can be a concentrator containing at least one compound selected from group III nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN. The thermo-photovoltaic converter can convert low-temperature blackbody radiation (BBR) from radiators such as 5b4 in a temperature range of approximately 1500 K to 2500 K. The corresponding PV cell may contain bismuth. In an embodiment, the PV converter may further include a UV window to the PV cell. The PV window may replace at least a portion of the blackbody radiator. The window is substantially UV-transmitting. The window is resistant to wetting by molten metal. The window is operable at a temperature above at least one of the melting point and boiling point of the molten metal. Exemplary windows are sapphire, quartz, MgF2, and fused silica. The window may be cooled and may include components for cleaning during operation or maintenance. SunCell® may further include a source of at least one of an electric field and a magnetic field to confine the plasma to an area avoiding contact with the window and at least one of the PV cells. The source may include an electrostatic precipitation system. The source may include a magnetic confinement system. The plasma may be confined by gravity, wherein the window and at least one of the PV cells are at a suitable height relative to the location of plasma generation. Alternatively, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter may include a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, a magnet, a metal collection system, a metal recycling system, a heat exchanger, and, optionally, a gas recycling system, wherein the reactants may include at least one of H2O vapor, oxygen, and hydrogen. The reactant supply unit may maintain O2, H2, and the reaction product H2O at a pressure ranging from 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr. The reactant supply system, used to replenish reactants consumed during the reaction to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, may include at least one of the following: O2 and H2 gas suppliers, a gas housing, a selectively permeable membrane in the wall of at least one of the reaction vessel, the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the metal collection system, and the metal recycling system, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors for maintaining at least one of the O2 and H2 pressures, a flow controller, at least one valve, and a computer. In embodiments, at least one component of the power system may comprise ceramics and glass-ceramics, wherein the ceramics may comprise at least one of metal oxides, alumina, zirconium oxide, magnesium oxide, hafnium oxide, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, and silicon nitride, and the glass-ceramics may include Li₂O × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (LAS systems), MgO × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (MAS systems), and ZnO × Al₂O₃ × nSiO₂ systems (ZAS systems). The molten metal may comprise silver, and the magnetohydrodynamic converter may further comprise an oxygen source to form an aerosol of silver particles supplied to at least one of the reservoir, reaction vessel, magnetohydrodynamic nozzle, and magnetohydrodynamic channel, wherein the reactant supply system may additionally supply and control the oxygen source to form the silver aerosol. The molten metal may comprise silver. The magnetohydrodynamic converter may further comprise cell gas, which includes ambient gas, in contact with the silver in at least one of the reservoir and vessel. The power system may further include components for maintaining the flow of electrolytic cell gas in contact with molten silver to form silver aerosol, wherein the electrolytic cell gas flow may include at least one of forced gas flow and convective gas flow. The electrolytic cell gas may include at least one of rare gases, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2. The components for maintaining the flow of electrolytic cell gas may include at least one of a gas pump or compressor, such as a magnetohydrodynamic gas pump or compressor, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, and turbulence caused by at least one of a molten metal jetting system and plasma. The induction-type electromagnetic pump in the power system may include a two-stage pump, comprising a first stage comprising a pump for a metal recycling system, and a second stage comprising a pump for a metal jetting system to jet a molten metal stream intersecting with another molten metal stream inside the container. The power source for the ignition system may include an induction ignition system, which may include an alternating magnetic field source passing through a short-circuit loop in the molten metal, generating an alternating current in the metal containing an ignition current. The alternating magnetic field source may include a primary transformer winding, comprising a transformer electromagnet and a transformer yoke, and silver may at least partially serve as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn short-circuit winding, enclosing the primary transformer winding and containing an induction current loop. The accumulator may include a molten metal junction channel connecting two accumulators such that a current loop encloses the transformer yoke, wherein the induction current loop includes the molten silver contained in the accumulators, the silver in the jetting tube, and the current generated in the jetted molten silver stream intersecting to connect the induction current loop. In the case of a ceramic ejector tube, the tube can be submerged so that the circuit includes the molten silver contained in the reservoir and the junction channel, and the ejected molten silver flow intersecting to complete the induced current circuit. In an embodiment, the emitter generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, wherein the emitter comprises: at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants comprising: a) at least one catalyst source or catalyst containing nascent H2O; b) at least one H2O source or H2O; c) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen permeable through the container wall; d) a molten metal, such as silver, copper, or a silver-copper alloy; and e) an oxide, such as at least one of CO2, B2O3, LiVO3, and a stable oxide that does not react with H2; At least one molten metal ejection system comprising a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one reactant ignition system comprising a power source for inducing the reactants to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and a pyroelectric plasma, wherein the power source receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering molten metal and oxides; at least one of light and heat output to at least one power converter or output system for electrical power and / or thermal power; wherein the molten metal ignition system comprises at least one of the following: an ignition system comprising i) electrodes from the group consisting of: a) at least one set of refractory metal or carbon electrodes for confining the molten metal; b) refractory metal or carbon electrodes and a stream of molten metal delivered from an electrically isolated molten metal reservoir by an electromagnetic pump; and c) at least two streams of molten metal delivered from a plurality of electrically isolated molten metal reservoirs by at least two electromagnetic pumps; and ii) a power source for transmitting high current energy sufficient to induce the reactants to form a plasma, wherein the current of the molten metal AC, DC, or AC-DC hybrid ignition system is between 50 A and 50,000 A. Within the range of A; wherein the molten metal ejection system includes an electromagnetic pump, which includes at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a current source for providing vector cross-current components; wherein the molten metal reservoir includes an inductively coupled heater; an emitter, which further includes a system for recovering molten metal and oxides, such as at least one of a container including a wall capable of providing melt flow under gravity and a reservoir in communication with the container, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a temperature lower than that of the container so that metal is collected in the reservoir; wherein the container capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure includes: an internal reactive electrolytic cell including a high-temperature blackbody radiator; and an external chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; wherein the blackbody radiator is maintained between 1000 K and 3700 K. Temperatures within the range of K; an internal reactive electrolytic cell containing a blackbody radiator comprising a refractory material, such as carbon or W; wherein blackbody radiation emitted from outside the electrolytic cell is incident on a photoelectric power converter; wherein at least one power converter for reactive power output comprises at least one of a thermo-photovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter;The light emitted by the electrolytic cell is primarily blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light. The photovoltaic cell is a concentrator cell, containing at least one compound selected from the following: crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAsSb), and indium arsenide phosphide (InPAsSb), Group III / V semiconductors, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / The emitter can be configured as InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, and the power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one heat dissipation system, and the blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller. Depending on the application, the emitter may include at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein such additional reactants include: a) at least one catalyst source or catalyst containing primary H2O; b) at least one H2O source or H2O; and c) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen. The additional reactant injection system may further include at least one of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and a flow controller, wherein the flow controller includes at least one or more of a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a high-precision electronically controllable valve; the valve includes at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, wherein the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2 pressures at a desired value; wherein the additional reactant injection system maintains the H2O vapor pressure in the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr.

Implementation Method

Claims

1. An electrical system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising: at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants comprising: a. at least one source of nascent H2O; b. H2O or at least one source of H2O; c. atomic hydrogen or at least one source of atomic hydrogen; and a molten metal ejector system comprising at least one ejector reservoir for supplying molten metal for ejection, a molten metal pump having an ejector tube for supplying a molten metal stream from the molten metal in the ejector reservoir, and at least one non-ejector reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; wherein the molten metal stream is in contact with the reactants; at least one ignition system comprising a power source for supplying electrical power to the molten metal stream to ignite a plasma-forming reaction of the reactants; at least one reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the plasma-forming reaction of the reactants; and at least one power converter or output system from at least one of the light and heat output of the plasma to electrical power and / or thermal power.

2. The power system of claim 1, further comprising a heater for melting a metal to contain the molten metal.

3. The power system of claim 1 further includes a molten metal recovery system.

4. The power system of claim 3, wherein the molten metal recovery system includes at least one molten metal overflow channel from the non-ejector accumulator to the ejector system accumulator, which further creates a break in the molten metal overflow flow to block any current path through the overflowing molten metal.

5. The power system of claim 3, wherein the molten metal recovery system includes an inlet on the at least one non-ejector reservoir to receive molten metal from the ejector tube of the ejector system at a height above the ejector tube and includes a drip edge that causes the overflow from the molten metal stream to break.

6. The power system of claim 5, wherein the non-ejector accumulator inlet is located in a plane and the plane is aligned perpendicular to the initial direction of the molten metal flow from the ejector tube.

7. The power system of claim 1, wherein the at least one ejector accumulator includes an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the at least one non-ejector accumulator includes an electrode in contact with the molten metal supplied by the ejector system.

8. The electrical system of claim 7, wherein the ignition system includes a power source for supplying opposite voltages to the electrode in the at least one injector reservoir and the electrode in the at least one non-injector reservoir, the power source supplying current and power flow through the molten metal flow to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma inside the container.

9. The power system of claim 1, wherein the ejector accumulator is in fluid communication with a first electromagnetic pump and the non-ejector accumulator is in fluid communication with a second electromagnetic pump, wherein each electromagnetic pump independently includes one of: a. a DC or AC conductive type, comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal via electrodes and a constant or in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field source; or b. an inductive type, comprising an alternating magnetic field source passing through a short-circuit loop of the molten metal, which induces an alternating current in the metal; and an in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field source.

10. The electrical system of claim 1, wherein one of the currents from the power of the molten metal ignition system is in the range of 10A to 50,000A.

11. The power system of claim 1, wherein the molten metal comprises at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or an alloy such as Rose's metal, Cerrosafe, Wood's metal, Field's metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Gallium-Indium-Tin alloy (Galinstan).

12. The power system of claim 1, wherein at least one storage device comprises boron nitride.

13. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reactants comprise a container gas comprising at least one of hydrogen, oxygen and water.

14. The power system of claim 13 further includes a reactant supplier and an inert gas supplier, wherein the suppliers maintain the container gas at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 200 atm.

15. The power system of claim 1, wherein the hydrogen product formed by the reaction is at least one of the following: a. a hydrogen product having a Raman peak at 1900 to 2000 cm⁻¹; b. a hydrogen product having a plurality of Raman peaks spaced in integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV; c. a hydrogen product having an infrared peak at 1900 to 2000 cm⁻¹; d. a hydrogen product having a plurality of infrared peaks spaced in integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV; e. a hydrogen product having an infrared peak in the range of 200 to 300 nm with an infrared peak value of 0.23 to 0.3 eV. a. A hydrogen product with a plurality of UV fluorescence emission peaks spaced at an integer multiple of one eV; f. A hydrogen product with a plurality of electron beam emission peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 0.2 to 0.3 eV in the range of 200 to 300 nm; g. A hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman emission peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 1000 ± 200 cm⁻¹ in the range of 5000 to 20000 cm⁻¹; h. A hydrogen product with an X-ray photoelectron emission peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV; i. A hydrogen product that causes a high magnetic field MAS NMR matrix shift; j. A high magnetic field MAS with a magnetic field strength greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS. k. A hydrogen product containing a large aggregate or polymer Hn (n is an integer greater than 3) with an NMR or liquid NMR shift; l. A hydrogen product containing a large aggregate or polymer Hn (n is an integer greater than 3) with a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of 16.12 to 16.13; m. A hydrogen product containing a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; n. A hydrogen product containing at least one of H16 and H24; o. A hydrogen product containing an inorganic compound MxXy and H2, wherein M is a cation and X is a hydrogen product containing M(MxXyH2)n with an electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) shift of 16.12 to 16.13; The following are defined as follows: p. An anion containing at least one of the peaks of Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), where n is an integer; p. A hydrogen product containing at least one of the peaks of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), namely K2CO3H2 and KOHH2; q. A magnetic hydrogen product containing a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and an antimagnetic metal; r. A hydrogen product containing a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and an antimagnetic metal exhibiting magnetism by magnetic susceptometry; s.A hydrogen product comprising a metal inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum includes at least one of extremely high g-factor, extremely low g-factor, anomalous linewidth, and proton separation; t. a hydrogen product comprising a hydrogen dimer, wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800 to 3100 G and a ΔH of 10 G to 500 G; u. a hydrogen product comprising a gaseous hydrogen carrier with a negative gas chromatography peak; v. a hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e, where p is an integer; w. a hydrogen product having a moment between (J+1)44.30°C. A proton hydrogen product of a molecular dimer containing an end-to-end rotational energy of an integer J to J+1 transition in the range of m-1±20cm-1, wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer containing deuterium is half the rotational energy of the dimer containing protons; x. A hydrogen product comprising a molecular dimer having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: (i) a hydrogen molecule separation distance of 1.028 ű10%, (ii) a vibrational energy of 23 cm-1±10% between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) a van der Waals energy of 0.0011 eV±10% between hydrogen molecules. (e.g., energy); y. A monohydrogen product comprising a solid having at least one of the following parameters: (i) a hydrogen molecule separation distance of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) a vibrational energy of 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10% between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) a van der Waals energy of 0.019 eV ± 10% between hydrogen molecules; z. A monohydrogen product having at least one of the following:

1. (i) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, (ii) (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹, and (iii) 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; 2. Demonstrating 1.0 A calorimetric determination of an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern separating one hydrogen molecule at 28 Å ± 10%, and a vaporization energy of 3.0011 eV ± 10% / molecule of hydrogen; aa. a solid hydrogen product having at least one of the following:

1. (i) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics at (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, (ii) FTIR and (iii) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics at (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹, and (iii) 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; 2. A calorimetric determination showing an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern separating one hydrogen molecule at 1.028 Å ± 10%, and a vaporization energy of 3.019 eV ± 10% / molecule of hydrogen.

16. The power system of claim 1, wherein the hydrogen product formed by the reaction of the atomic hydrogen and the catalyst has at least one of the following: a. the hydrogen product has a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum containing at least one of the H2 (1 / 4) rotation energy at 1940 cm⁻¹ ± 10% and the sacrificial band in the fingerprint region, wherein no other higher energy features are present; b. the hydrogen product has a proton magic angle rotation nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H MAS) spectrum containing a high magnetic field matrix peak. c. The hydrogen product has a pyrolysis gravimetric analysis (TGA) result showing the decomposition of at least one of a metal hydride and a hydrogen polymer in a temperature range of 100°C to 1000°C; d. The hydrogen product has an electron beam excitation emission spectrum containing an H2 (1 / 4) oscillation band in a 260 nm region, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; e. The hydrogen product has an electron beam excitation emission spectrum containing the H2 (1 / 4) oscillation band in the 260 nm region, which contains a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV. a. A plurality of peaks, wherein the intensity of such peaks decreases at low temperatures ranging from 0 K to 150 K; f. The hydrogen product has a photoluminescent Raman spectrum comprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) oscillation band in the 260 nm region, the region comprising a plurality of peaks spaced apart from each other at intervals of 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; g. The hydrogen product has a photoluminescent Raman spectrum comprising the second order of the H2(1 / 4) oscillation band, the oscillation band comprising a plurality of peaks spaced apart at intervals ranging from 5000 to 20000 cm⁻¹, the intervals being integer multiples of 1000 ± 200 cm⁻¹. Peak value; h. The hydrogen product has a Raman spectrum containing the H2(1 / 4) rotation peak at 1940 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; i. The hydrogen product has an X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) containing the total energy of H2(1 / 4) from 490 to 500 eV; j. The hydrogen product contains large aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n (n is an integer greater than 3); k. The hydrogen product contains large aggregates or polymers H(1 / 4)n (n is an integer greater than 3) with a Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak from 16.12 to 16.13; l. The The hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W, and the hydrogen comprises H(1 / 4); m. The hydrogen product comprises at least one of H(1 / 4)16 and H(1 / 4)24; n. The hydrogen product comprises an inorganic compound MxXy and H(1 / 4)2, wherein M is a cation and X is an anion, and the electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and the time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) contain a peak of M(MxXyH(1 / 4)2)n, where n is an integer; o.The hydrogen product comprises at least one of K₂CO₃H(1 / 4)₂ and KOHH(1 / 4)₂, and the electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and the time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) respectively contain peaks of and ; p. The hydrogen product is magnetic and comprises a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); q. The hydrogen product comprises a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and a diamagnetic metal, and the H is H(1 / 4), wherein the product is shown by magnetic susceptibility measurement. Magnetic; r. The hydrogen product contains a metal that is inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800 to 3100 G and a ΔH of 10 to 500 G; s. The hydrogen product contains a [H2(1 / 4)]2, wherein the EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at 2800 to 3100 G and a ΔH of 10 G to 500 G; t. The hydrogen product contains or releases an H2(1 / 4) gas with a negative gas chromatography peak, the gas carrying a hydrogen carrier; u. The hydrogen product contains an H2(1 / 4) with a quadrupole moment / e; v. The hydrogen product contains H2(1 / 4) with a moment between (J+1)44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹ and (J+1) w. The hydrogen product contains [H2(1 / 4)]2 or [D2(1 / 4)]2 of an end-to-end rotational energy of the integer J to J+1 transition within the range of 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹; w. The hydrogen product contains [H2(1 / 4)]2 having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: (i) a separation distance of 1.028 Å ± 10% of H2(1 / 4) molecules, (ii) a vibrational energy of 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules, and (iii) a van der Waals energy of 0.0011 eV ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules; and x. The hydrogen product contains a solid of H2(1 / 4) molecules having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: (i) 1.0 y. A [H2(1 / 4)]2 product having at least one of the following: (i) a separation distance of 28 Å ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules, (ii) a vibrational energy of 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules, and (iii) a van der Waals energy of 0.019 eV ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules; y. an [H2(1 / 4)]2 product having at least one of the following:

1. (i) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, (ii) FTIR and (iii) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹, and (iii) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics of (J+1) 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; 2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing separation of 1.028 Å ± 10% between H2(1 / 4) molecules; and 3.0.A calorimetric determination of the vaporization energy of 0.011 eV ± 10% / H2(1 / 4), and z. solid H2(1 / 4) products having at least one of the following:

1. (i) FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics at (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ ± 20 cm⁻¹, (ii) (J+1) 22.15 cm⁻¹ ± 10 cm⁻¹, and (iii) 23 cm⁻¹ ± 10%; 2. an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing the separation of one hydrogen molecule at 1.028 Å ± 10%; and 3. a calorimetric determination of the vaporization energy of 0.019 eV ± 10% / H2(1 / 4).

17. The electrical system of claim 1, wherein the at least one ignition system includes an electrode system comprising: a. a first electrode and a second electrode; b. a stream of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with the first and second electrodes; c. a circulation system comprising a pump for drawing the molten metal from a reservoir and conveying it through a conduit (e.g., a pipe) to generate a stream of molten metal exiting the conduit; and d. a power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first and second electrodes; wherein the stream of molten metal simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to generate a current between the electrodes.

18. The power system of claim 17, wherein the power is sufficient to generate an arc current.

19. A circuit comprising: a. a heating element for generating molten metal; b. a pumping element for conveying the molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit to generate a flow of the molten metal exiting the conduit; c. a first electrode and a second electrode electrically connected to a power supply element for generating a potential difference across the first and second electrodes; wherein the molten metal flow simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to generate a circuit between the first and second electrodes.

20. A circuit comprising a first and a second electrode, and a flow of molten metal through one of the electrodes, the flow of molten metal allowing an electric current to flow therebetween.

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