Evaluation of topological complexity and generation of quantitative markers in medical images

Abstract

A method can include receiving, at a computing system, a reconstruction image of a breast, the reconstruction image comprising image data corresponding to a plurality of transmission frequencies used by a transmitter of an imaging system; generating, by the computing system, a ductal and / or glandular image from the reconstruction image of the breast; and determining, by the computing system, a quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the ductal and / or glandular image. In certain applications, a quantitative measure of topological complexity can be used as a correction factor to estimates such as a Volpara estimate. In certain applications, a quantitative measure of topological complexity can be used as an input to a risk assessment model.

Description

QT-121CIP1XPCTEVALUATION OF TOPOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY AND GENERATION OF QUANTITATIVE MARKERS IN MEDICAL IMAGESBACKGROUNDElastic, acoustic, and electromagnetic waves in homogeneous and layered environments in the frequency range of a fraction of a cycle per second up to hundreds of millions of cycles per second and higher can be propagated through many solids and liquids. Elastic waves are waves that propagate through solids and have components of particle motion both parallel (longitudinal, or pressure, wave) and perpendicular (shear wave) to the direction of propagation of the wave energy itself. Acoustic waves are those waves that generate particle motion that is exclusively parallel to the propagation of wave energy. Electromagnetic waves have components of variation of field strength solely in the direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. All of these types of waves may be used to image the acoustic longitudinal wavespeed and absorption, the electromagnetic wavespeed and absorption, the shear wavespeed, and the density of the material through which the wave energy has travelled.Scattering is produced not only by spatial fluctuations in acoustic impedance, which is the product of mass density times wavespeed, but also by independent fluctuations in electromagnetic permeability, permittivity7and conductivity7, elastic compressibility, shear modulus, density, and absorption. These lead to variations in phase speed (which is the speed of propagation of fronts of constant phase) and in impedance (for the electromagnetic case, the ratio of the electric to the magnetic field strength). The net property of an object which describes the phenomenon of scattering in a given modality, is called the "scattering potential".There are numerous techniques to image scattering bodies within a given medium. The direct or forward scattering problem is concerned with a determination of the scattered energy or fields when the elastic or electromagnetic properties of the scattering potential are known. The inverse scattering problem uses scattered electromagnetic, elastic, and / or acoustic waves to determine the internal material properties of objects embedded in a known (ambient) medium. An incident wave field is imposed upon the ambient medium and the scatterer. The scattered field is measured at detectors placed a finite distance from the scattering objects. The material parameters of the scatterer are then reconstructed from the information contained in the incident and scattered fields. In other words, acoustic or electromagnetic imaging using inverse scattering techniques involves electronic or optical reconstruction and display of the size, shape, and unique distribution of material elastic or electromagnetic and viscous properties of an object scanned with elastic, electromagnetic, or acoustic energy (e.g.,QT-121CIP1XPCTreconstruction of that scattering potential which, for a given incident field and for a given wave equation, would replicate a given measurement of the scattered field for any source location).Medical imaging involves acquisition of data and image reconstruction from the data. Image reconstruction from acquired data can be treated as an inverse problem that can be solved via iterative methods. Often, an approximate solution - an assumed image or an initial estimate - is first obtained and then a better reconstruction is generated using multiple iteration steps -utilizing all the acquired projections data, the difference between the measured and the modeled fields is calculated, and updating the image based on comparison, resulting in progressive improvement of image uality and also reduction in reconstruction image artifacts. Image reconstruction may be carried out for imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), and Ultrasound.BRIEF SUMMARYEvaluation of topological complexity and generation of quantitative markers in medical images are described. Through the described techniques, it is possible to obtain quantitative estimates of complexity and use these quantitative estimates of complexity as markers for assisting a variety of diagnostic and predictive applications. Examples of applications of the quantitative estimates of complexity' include generation of correction factors and inputs to risk assessment models. The quantitative estimates of complexity, among other features that can be observed from the medical images, can be used clinical decision-making, tailored therapeutic approaches, and real-time response monitoring, all of which contribute to more personalized and effective patient management. For quantitative estimates of complexity', medical images can be processed to generate segmented images of fibroglandular tissue including in the form of glandular or ductal tissue separately or in combination, which are evaluated using graph theory and / or algebraic topology. The processed medical images can be generated through adaptive reconstruction, which involve the adaptability' of the algorithms and operations for imaging an object based on specified criteria and / or tests. Imaging techniques incorporating adaptive reconstruction can be referred to as adaptive imaging.In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a computer-implemented method for adaptive image reconstruction, including: generating, by a processor, a preliminary reconstruction image using a preliminary' reconstruction configuration; automatically adjusting the preliminary reconstruction configuration to an updated reconstruction configuration, by, at least: obtaining, by the processor, preliminary information from the preliminary reconstruction image; accessing, by the processor, a database of reconstruction configurations, the databaseQT-121CIP1XPCTproviding a mapping of characteristics of images and objects in the images to reconstruction configurations; and performing, by the processor, a lookup operation to identify the updated reconstruction configuration based on the preliminary information; and generating, by the processor, a reconstruction image using the updated reconstruction configuration. Reconstruction information can be obtained from the reconstruction image. For example, topological complexity of a breast can be determined from the reconstruction image.In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to receiving, at a computing system, a reconstruction image of a breast, the reconstruction image comprising image data corresponding to a plurality of transmission frequencies used by a transmitter of an imaging system; generating, by the computing system, a ductal and / or glandular image from the reconstruction image of the breast; and determining, by the computing system, a quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the ductal and / or glandular image. In certain applications, a quantitative measure of topological complexity can be used as a correction factor to estimates such as a surrogate estimate of breast density similar to that provided by Volpara software for mammograms. In certain applications, a quantitative measure of topological complexity can be used as an input to a risk assessment model.This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an ultrasound-based tomographic system that may be used to collect data used in the described image reconstruction and analysis techniques.FIG. 2 illustrates a process flow diagram of a process that can be carried out by an acquisition control system.FIG. 3 illustrates an example architecture for adaptive imaging.FIGs. 4A and 4B illustrate an example computer-implemented method for adaptive image reconstruction.FIG. 5 illustrates an example adaptive imaging process for generating transmission / attenuation image(s).FIGs. 6A-6D illustrate results of a cylindrical coordinate system-based algorithm. FIG. 7 shows reflection images of a breast, including the fusing of a processed attenuation image and reflection image.QT-121CIP1XPCTFIGs. 8A and 8B illustrate light wave propagation for diffraction-less beams.FIG. 9 shows a log plot of attenuation coefficient vs frequency from Bamber, 1986, Attenuation and absorption. Physical Principles of Medical Ultrasonics, ed. C RHill.FIGs. 10A-10D illustrate identification of tissue type through the power law variation of attenuation with frequency.FIG. 11 illustrates propagation between a transmitter and receiver.FIG. 12 shows a plot of Cs vs compressional speed.FIGs. 13A-13D provide images showing application of porosity estimation using Biot as described herein.FIG. 14A shows a method of generating a quantitative measure of topological complexity.FIG. 14B shows an example process of a graph-based approach for determining topological complexity.FIGs. 15A and 15B show example images of ductal structures.FIG. 16 shows a plot of VolparaDensity to mammographic density estimated by techniques described herein.FIG. 17 is schematic showing the Reflection coefficients relevant to the layered medium Green's function approach.FIG. 18 illustrates a rectangular scattering matrix according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 19 illustrates a N-by-N scattering region according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 20 illustrates a N-by-N scattering coalesced region according to the present invention.FIG. 21 shows a transducer coupling according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 22 shows the flowchart for the solution of the forward problem by means of the Parabolic FFT Marching method.FIGs. 23A / B / C show the flowchart for the solution of the Jacobian of the forward problem for the Parabolic FFT Marching method.FIGs. 24A / B / C show the flowchart for the action of the Hermitian conjugate of the Jacobian for the Parabolic FFT Marching method.QT-121CIP1XPCTFIGs. 25A / B / C / D show the flowchart for the application of the conjugate gradient method applied to the generalization of the Propagation-Backpropagation method of Inverse Scattering.FIG. 26 is the flowchart for the original Propagation-Backpropagation Method described in the paper " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography", Frank Natterer. which is included herein as reference.FIGs. 27A / B / C / D / E show the flowchart for the brightness maximization based phase aberration correction algorithm.FIG. 28 shows the basic Geometry for the paper " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography", Frank Natterer, which is included herein as reference. This is referred to as FIG. 1 in this paper. The square Q is the square of sidelength 2p whose boundary' is made up of r;(side-scatter directions), T / (Backscatter direction), and r;+(forward scatter direction). It encompasses the region, which contains the support of the object function y. 0 / is the direction of the incident w avefield propagation.FIGs. 29A and 29B show an elongated rectangle Q / enclosing the region Q, with boundaries 1} (side-scatter directions), T / (Backscatter direction), and r;+(forward scatter direction). 0 / is the direction of the incident wavefield propagation (for FIG. 29 A).FIG.30 shows the geometry7of an acoustic transducer array illuminating an anatomical region through an aberrating layer of fat. A region of interest (ROI), selected by the user, is also shown. The transducer elements that contribute to the image in the ROI are denoted emito Cm2.FIG.31 shows the method for solving for the object function y by means of a SQUARE nonlinear map, iteratively, in the scattered field domain.FIG. 32 shows the iterative method for solving for the object function by means of a SQUARE nonlinear map in the object function (y) domain.FIG. 33 shows the geometric set up for a typical calibration procedure.FIG. 34 shows a comparison of the normalized total fields' (predicted and measured) magnitude versus receiver position.FIG.35 shows the comparison of the normalized total fields' phase. Here, the two fields are the predicted field using the starting values for the scattering parameters, and the measured field.FIG. 36 shows the detailed model used for the receiver in the acoustic 2D case, in a ty pical calibration setup.QT-121CIP1XPCTFIG. 37 shows the geometric setup used for the calibration of the receiver and transmitter.FIG. 38 shows the scattering parameters used in the 2D acoustic calibration procedure typical of the calibration procedure used in inverse scattering, both for acoustic and EM modalities.FIG. 39 illustrates a generic imaging algorithm, according to the present invention.FIGS. 40A-40D detail an expanded imaging algorithm with respect to that shown in FIG. 39FIG. 41 shows the generic solution to the forward problem according to the present invention.FIGs. 42A and 42B show the generic solution to the forward problem (or any square system) using a biconjugate gradient algorithm according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIGs. 43A and 43B show the generic solution to the forward problem using the stabilized conjugate gradient algorithm, according to an embodiment of the present invention FIG. 44 illustrates the application of the Lippmann-Schwinger Operator to the internal field estimate according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG.45 illustrates the application of the Lippmann-Schwinger Operator in the presence of layering to the internal field estimate according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 46 illustrates the application of the Hermitian conjugate of the Lippmann-Schwinger operator.FIG.47 illustrates the scattering subroutine, according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 48 illustrates the propagation or transportation of fields from image space to detector position.FIGs. 49A / B / C illustrate application of the Jacobian Matrix in the generic case (free space— or no layering), according to an embodiment of the present inventionFIGs. 50A / B / C illustrates application of the Hermitian Jacobian Matrix in the generic case according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIGs. 51A / B illustrates application of the Jacobian Matrix with correlations according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 52 illustrates the application of the second Lippmann-Schwinger operator in the generic case.QT-121CIP1XPCTFIG. 53 illustrates the application of Hermitian conjugate of the second Lippmann Schwinger OperatorsFIG. 54 the illustrates application the Hermitian conjugate of transportation of fields from image space to detector position.FIGs. 55A / B illustrate application of the Hermitian conjugate of the Jacobian Matrix in the presence of layering according to an embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 56 shows an example computing system through which X may be carried out.DETAILED DESCRIPTIONEvaluation of topological complexity and generation of quantitative markers in medical images are described. Through the described techniques, it is possible to obtain quantitative estimates of complexity and use these quantitative estimates of complexity as markers for assisting a variety of diagnostic and predictive applications. Examples of applications of the quantitative estimates of complexity include generation of correction factors and inputs to risk assessment models. The quantitative estimates of complexity, among other features that can be observed from the medical images, can be used clinical decision-making, tailored therapeutic approaches, and real-time response monitoring, all of which contribute to more personalized and effective patient management. For quantitative estimates of complexity7, medical images can be processed to generate segmented images of fibroglandular tissue in the form of glandular or ductal tissue separately or in combination, which are evaluated using graph theory and / or algebraic topology.Medical imaging techniques including adaptive reconstruction are provided herein. Adaptive reconstruction involves the adaptability of the algorithms and operations for imaging an object based on specified criteria and / or tests. Imaging techniques incorporating adaptive reconstruction can be referred to as adaptive imaging.FIG. 1 illustrates an ultrasound-based tomographic system that may be used to collect data used in the described image reconstruction and analysis techniques. Referring to FIG. 1, imaging system 100 can include a transmitter 101, receiver 102, and transceiver 103. When operating in ultrasound frequencies, imaging system 100 can perform both reflection and transmission ultrasound methods to gather data. The reflection portion (e g., transceiver 103) directs pulses of sound wave energy7into tissues and receives the reflected energy7from those pulses - hence it is referred to as “reflection ultrasound.'’ Detection of the sound pulse energies on the opposite side of a tissue after it has passed through the tissue is referred to as “transmission ultrasound.”QT-121CIP1XPCTThe transmitter 101 and a receiver 102 are provided on opposite sides to enable the performing of transmission ultrasound. The transmitter 101 and the receiver 102 may be in the form of an array of transmitters and receivers. The transmitter array can emit broad-band plane pulses (e.g., 0.3-2 MHz) while the receiver array includes elements that digitize the time signal. The transceiver 103, which can include a set of reflection transducers, can be used to perform reflection measurements. The reflection transducers of the transceiver 103 can include transducers of varying focal lengths, providing a large depth of focus when combined. The focus can be fixed or variable in either or both directions. For example, in some cases, the focus may be in the vertical direction only, and the horizontal focus may be dynamic as controlled by a beamformer. In another embodiment, beamforming is included for the vertical direction.The transmitter 101 and / or transceiver 103 can include a waveform generator that can produce repetitive narrow bandwidth signals or a wide bandwidth signal. The advantages of using a suitable wide bandwidth signal is that in one transmit-receive event, information at multiple frequencies of interest may be collected. Indeed, by using multiple frequencies, it will typically be possible to obtain more data for use in reconstructing the image. Accordingly, a computing system performing image reconstruction can receive data captured by an imaging procedure using a multifrequency data collection method, which includes transmitting a pulse containing multiple frequencies towards an object being imaged.The lowest frequency used for the signal is selected such that the wavelength of the signal is not significantly smaller than the object to be imaged. In one embodiment, for example, the wavelength may be approximately twice the relevant characteristic length of the object (e.g., breast or other anatomical body part such as abdomen, extremities, etc.) or other smaller length. As a non-limiting example, a selected lowest frequency for imaging a breast may be 0.300 MHz. The highest frequency is selected such that the acoustic signal may be propagated through the object without being absorbed to such an extent as to render detection of the scattered signal impossible or impractical. Thus, depending upon the absorption properties and size of the object which is to be scanned, use of multiple frequencies within this range constraint will typically enhance the ability to more accurately reconstruct the image of the object. The use of multiple frequencies or signals containing many frequencies also has the advantage of obtaining data that may be used to accurately reconstruct frequency dependent material properties.A coupling medium (e.g., in the form of a liquid or gel for matching of refractive indices) can be used between the object of interest and the imaging system 100. For example, a receptacle 110 can be provided to present a water (or other liquid or gel) bath in which aQT-121CIP1XPCTpatient may rest at least the region of interest (e.g., the part 112 being imaged). Because the motion artifacts associated with patient movement can affect the image quality, mechanisms can be provided to facilitate retention and positioning of the breast or other body part. For example, in the case of breast tissue, an adhesive pad with a magnet can be placed near the nipple region of the breast and docked to a magnetized retention rod that gently holds the breast in a consistent position during the scan. As another example, a membrane over the bath between the breast and the liquid is used to hold the breast (and allow for alternative liquids in the bath).360° of data can be obtained through rotation of the system. The system (particularly arms containing the transmitter 101 and the receiver 102) may rotate 360° to acquire measurements from effectively all the angles (e.g., data sufficient to provide a 360° view even if not taken at every angle between 0° and 360°) and collect tomographic views of ultrasound wave data. The reflection transducer data can be collected with one or more horizontal reflection transducers of transceiver 103 that acquire data in steps or continuously as they rotate 360° along with the transmitter 101 and receiver 102. The transducers may also be tilted with a non-zero polar or azimuth angle.In a specific implementation, the system rotates around the patient while both transmission and reflection information are captured. It is not necessary to acquire an entire 360° scan; images can be reconstructed with limited information. For example, a patient can lie prone with their breast pendent in a controlled temperature water bath (e.g., 31 °C) within the field of view of the transmitter 101, receiver 102, and transceiver 103 as the transmitter 101, receiver 102, and transceiver 103 rotate 360° around the patient. Then, in one example case 180 projections of ultrasound wave data may be obtained. In another example case, 200 to up to 360 projections or beyond of the ultrasound wave data may be obtained. After performing a rotation, an array chassis holding the transmitter 101, receiver 102, and transceiver 103 can be raised or lowered in a desired sequence to acquire data at another level. The sequence of levels for acquisition may be monotonic or non-monotonic, depending on implementationOther detector configurations may be used. For example, additional detectors in a continuous or discontinuous ring or polygon configurations may be used. Of course, any configuration selected will have tradeoffs in speed and cost. In addition, in some cases, reflection arrays (the transducers for the reflection measurements) can do double-duty and perform independent transmission and receiver functions as well as reflection measurements. In another embodiment, the reflection array consists of a matrix of elements with multiple rows and columns.QT-121CIP1XPCTAn acquisition control system can be used to operate the various active components (e.g., the transducers) and can control their physical motion (when system 100 is arranged in a rotating configuration). An acquisition control system can automate a scan in response to a start signal from an operator. This automated acquisition process does not require operator interaction during the scanning procedure. Once the scan is complete, the acquisition control system (or other computing system having access to the data) can compute the reflection, speed of sound, and attenuation results from the collected data.Accordingly, the data captured by system 100 can be used to reconstruct an image using inverse scattering techniques. Applications describing techniques for inverse scattering include U. S. Patent Nos. 4,662,222; 5,339,282; 6,005.916; 5,588,032; 6,587,540; 6,636,584; 7,570,742; 7.684,846; 7.699,713; 7.771,360; 7,841.982; 8,246.543; and 8,366.617, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety - except for that which is inconsistent with the apparatus and techniques described herein. In addition, the techniques described in “Three-dimensional nonlinear inverse scattering: Quantitative transmission algorithms, refraction corrected reflection, scanner design and clinical results." Wiskin et al.. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics, Vol. 19, 075001 (2013), are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.Results can be provided to various computing systems including a viewing station and / or a picture archival and communication system (PACS). Thus, images can be automatically acquired, stored for processing, and available for physician review and interpretation at a review workstation.FIG. 2 illustrates a process flow diagram of a process that can be carried out by an acquisition control system. Referring to FIG. 2, operation of imaging system 100 of FIG. 1 can be carried out using an acquisition control system performing process 200. Here, in response to receiving an indication to initiate automated scanning (e.g., from an operator or from some programmatic trigger), an acquisition control system can initialize and send a transmission wave from a specified angle about a patient (210), for example from one or more transmitters (such as transmitter 101). As the receiver(s) 102 sense the signal transmitting through the patient (220), raw transmission data 221 is captured. Then, spatially compounded extended depth of focus B mode scans, for example using transceiver(s) 103, are acquired (230) to obtain raw reflection data 231. Of course, in some cases, the B mode scans may be performed before the transmission ones. Additionally, in some embodiments, reflection transducers may have different focal lengths to extend the overall depth of focus within the imaging volume. In one embodiment the focal length is in the vertical direction. Of course, as mentioned above,QT-121CIP1XPCTthe focus can be fixed or variable in either or both directions. In some cases, the transmitters (and transceivers) can be used to transmit a pulse containing multiple frequencies towards an object being imaged.The acquisition control system determines whether the detectors are in the final position (240). For a rotating system, the acquisition control system can communicate with a motor control of the platform on which the active components are provided so that a current and / or next position of the platform is known and able to be actuated. For a fixed system, the acquisition control system determines the selection of the active arrays according to an activation program. In some implementations, the system may be a combination of rotating and fixed. For example, the system may be partially rotating and / or allow for vertical movement only. Accordingly, the "detection" of final position may be based on information provided by the motor control, position sensors, and / or a position program (e.g., using counter to determine whether appropriate number of scans have been carried out or following a predetermined pattern for activating transceivers). If the detectors are not in final position, the acquisition control system causes the array to be repositioned (250), for example, by causing the platform to rotate or by selecting an appropriate array of transceivers of a fixed platform configuration. After the array is repositioned, the transmission wave is sent (210) and received (220) so that the raw transmission data 221 is collected and the B mode scans can be acquired (230) for raw reflection data 231. This repeats until the detectors are determined to be in the final position.FIG. 3 illustrates an example architecture for adaptive imaging. Referring to FIG. 3, an adaptive imaging architecture 300, which may be implemented on a computing system such as described with respect to FIG. 56, includes a reconstruction manager 310. Reconstruction manager 310 includes the instructions for controlling an adaptive imaging algorithm. For example, reconstruction manager 310 initiates appropriate preprocessing 320 of imaging data such as transmission data 312 and / or reflection data 314, directs generation of transmission / speed of sound / attenuation image(s) 330, directs generation of reflection image(s) 340, applies appropriate image evaluation processes 350 with respect to the generated images, and applies appropriate post processing 360 for the generated images. Reconstruction manager 310 enables automatic adjustments to the applied algorithms based on various aspects of the object being imaged in part based on the image evaluation processes 350 and the image itself such that each process can be adapted, allowing for dynamic selection of optimal parameters. As an illustrative example, as part of generating transmission / attenuation image(s) 330, the reconstruction manager provides an initial reconstruction configuration (e.g., from configuration directory 370) for generating an image and then uses information obtained fromQT-121CIP1XPCTthe image to update the reconstruction configuration so as to generate a better image. This process can include preliminary image reconstruction 332. preliminary reconstruction image evaluation 334, and image reconstruction. For example, reconstruction manager 310 can perform operations 410, 420, and 430 described with respect to FIGs.4A and 4B. Within each reconstruction process (e.g., including preliminary image reconstruction 332 and image reconstruction 336), aspects of the reconstruction can be dynamic and adaptable based on various characteristics identified, for example, using specified tests. For example, reconstruction manager 310 can provide a particular reconstruction configuration to use for generating an image along with the particular tests to apply during the reconstruction that can cause changes to certain parameters and / or cause the process to stop and be restarted with the same or different reconstruction configuration. In the illustrated example, the preliminary image reconstruction 332 involves reconstruction configuration “Config A” 380 and test(s) 382; and the image reconstruction 33 involves reconstruction configuration “Config B” 390 and test(s) 392.FIGs. 4A and 4B illustrate an example computer-implemented method for adaptive image reconstruction. Referring to FIG. 4A, a method 400 for adaptive image reconstruction can include generating (410), by a processor, a preliminary reconstruction image using a preliminary' reconstruction configuration; automatically adjusting (420) the preliminary7reconstruction configuration to an updated reconstruction configuration; and generating (430), by the processor, a reconstruction image using the updated reconstruction configuration.Referring to FIG. 4B, automatically adjusting (420) the preliminary reconstruction configuration to an updated reconstruction configuration can include obtaining (422), by the processor, preliminary information from the preliminary reconstruction image; accessing (424), by the processor, a database of reconstruction configurations, the database providing a mapping of characteristics of images and objects in the images to reconstruction configurations; and performing (426), by the processor, a lookup operation to identify the updated reconstruction configuration based on the preliminary7information.Generating (430) a reconstruction image using the updated reconstruction configuration can include applying an inverse scattering algorithm based on propagation through freespace (which can be modeled as empty water); and applying a phase mask at each propagation step of the inverse scattering algorithm to give a total field comprising an incident field plus a scattered field. This method for generating the reconstruction image is applicable for generating (410) the preliminary7reconstruction image as well. As will be described in more detail herein, the inverse scattering algorithm can be adapted to a particular coordinate system. In addition,QT-121CIP1XPCTvarious aspects of the inverse scattering algorithm can be adapted in accordance with the adaptive imaging processes described herein.After the reconstruction image is generated, reconstruction information can be obtained from the reconstruction image; and the reconstruction image and reconstruction information can be output, for example, to a display.Returning to FIG. 3, as an illustrative example implementing adaptive imaging architecture 300, the process may be started by command prompts from a technician. Certain preselected parameters may be selected to provide a starting point for operations and / or provide user input to the adaptive imaging processes. A preliminary configuration is selected from the configuration director}' 370 by default, based on characteristics of the data, and / or based on input received from the technician. The configuration directory 370 contains all possible recipes. Recipes are sets of frequencies to be used in reconstruction of images from the transmission data. The recipe can include a range of frequencies and the intervals between each frequency. The recipe can also include the iterations at each frequency and each data level. Other aspects can be part of the recipes including parameters such as sections, anisotropic pixel selection, coordinate system, and stopping criteria.Based at least in part on the recipes that may be selected for the preliminary configuration, preprocessing for the raw transmission data 312 is carried out. For example, preprocessing can include performing a Fourier transform. The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that transforms the data from the time domain to the frequency domain. After the Fourier transform, magnitude is the y-axis and frequency is the x-axis for the data for operations carried out using the cartesian coordinate system. In another embodiment, the order of the data is changed to allow for quicker sequential access in memory. For a cylindrical or spherical coordinate system, additional preprocessing may be performed to transform coordinates to cylindrical or spherical. In some cases, the data is collected on a system that has the geometric shape corresponding to cylindrical or spherical or ellipsoidal coordinate surfaces.After preprocessing, the generation of a preliminary image is carried out. The preliminary configuration enables an initial image to be generated quickly. The preliminary image is a relatively fast image, formed using relatively fewer frequencies, for relatively fewer iterations, and is generally blurry. In one embodiment, the image is formed using all levels of data. To form the preliminary image: all data levels may be used. “Data levels” refers to one particular level of data collection. In one embodiment, the array chassis (see e.g., discussion of system of FIG. 1) rotates through 360 degrees collecting transmission and / or reflection data at various azimuthal angles. In another embodiment, the rotational and vertical movement areQT-121CIP1XPCTcombined so the concept of ‘data level’ refers to one 360 degree rotation before the array changes azimuthal direction. In another embodiment, the arrays change direction before all 360 degrees are traversed. ‘'All data levels” means every cross-section from the raw data, whether the cross-sections intercept the object or not. Taking all data levels will provide quantitative data regarding the size of the object, which can be included in the preliminary information obtained during the preliminary reconstruction image evaluation 334.Some of the magnitude and frequency data from the preprocessed data are selected for each image, based on the recipe from preliminary configuration (e.g., Config A 380). In some cases, the preliminary reconstruction configuration includes a set of instructions involving capturing an entire volume of a 3-dimensional image space; using a maximum distance between cross-sections of the 3 -dimensional image space; using a limited range of frequencies to generate the preliminary reconstruction image; and using a limited number of iterations to generate the preliminar ■ reconstruction image. Other intermediate preliminary7reconstruction images may be included.As an illustrative example, the recipe can include first generating an initial attenuation image (time of flight), then generating a 2D image (e.g., based on the initial attenuation image), then generating a 3D coarse image (e.g., based on the 2D image), and then generating a 3D fine image (e.g., based on the 3D coarse image), where the 2D image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 0.3 MHz and 0.8 MHz, the 3D coarse image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 0.4 MHz and 0.8 MHz, and the 3D fine image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 0.8 MHz and 1.3 MHz for example. Other embodiments can use different sets of frequencies, which may overlap for the three grids mentioned here. Note the ‘coarse' grid refers to voxels with generally larger dimensions and / or anisotropy.Accordingly, multiple images are generated for the preliminary image - each based on a different frequency signal / band. For each image, large-scale optimization can be performed (“running inversions”). In particular, as will be described in more detail herein, acoustic wave propagation through an object is simulated and the properties of the object are optimized to make the simulated propagation fit the observed propagation from the transmission data. The optimization problem can be solved using a stochastic gradient algorithm and the optimization results are used to assign values to pixels and form images. The pixels are squares on a 2D grid. Each 2D grid corresponds to a cross-section, or “data level” of the object being imaged. In some cases, as described in more detail herein, an adaptable anisotropic pixel may be used as a parameter in the reconstruction algorithm.QT-121CIP1XPCTThe reconstruction manager 310 provides the stopping criteria (e.g., included in test(s) 382) which in various embodiments may involve various data (e.g., residuals) associated with the minimization procedure, and subsets chosen for each iteration by the stochastic gradient algorithm and these characteristics can be dynamic for different iterations. The number of iterations for optimization may generally increase with each image formed (e.g., from the TOF, to the 2D image, to the coarse 3D image, to the fine 3D image), leading to higher quality images at the end of the sequence.As part of the test(s) 382, detection of local minima can be performed early in the optimization process, for example, detection of local minima during the 3D coarse image generation where the residual is above a threshold can trigger the operations to cease and restart using a different recipe. This test of residual behavior may also be referred to as a process detecting whether a salt and pepper image is being formed - such an image is a pseudo-random juxtaposition of high and low values in place of physiologically correct estimates of the speed of sound. In such a case, the test may communicate this failure to the reconstruction manager 310, which can then obtain a different preliminary configuration, and restart the transmission image formation process.Other tests 382 can also evaluate the object being imaged. For example, there may be a test to detect the presence of a silicone (or other) implant if there is a high residual or a high number of voxels which have a large number of pixels above a certain threshold (e.g., using pixel counts and speed of sound estimation). The test may determine the number of voxels having this value above the certain threshold is too large (above a certain number, for example). Tests can be performed to identify whether high speed voxels occur near the chest wall in the case of breast tissue (or other anomalous values that may be different than expected at a particular location) and this number is above a certain threshold. Indeed, tests 382 can include pixel (voxel) counts and speed of sound estimation, evaluation of gradients and residual magnitude, ratios of magnitudes of gradients and their behavior such as rate of decrease, and the like. Accordingly, tests can be included based on identified objects and based on the image formation process, which provide information used by the reconstruction manager 310 to select an updated reconstruction configuration (used to restart the preliminary image reconstruction 332 and / or generate the reconstruction image 336).Indeed, in addition to stopping criteria and certain tests performed during the preliminary reconstruction, evaluation 334 of the resulting preliminary image is conducted. For example, for an image of a breast, quantitative measures such as percentage of fibroglandular tissue (sometimes referred to as mammographic density) or fibroglandular tissue volume orQT-121CIP1XPCTratio (FGV, FGR) - especially when skin volume is omitted) and the size of the breast can be obtained. These measures are then used to update the reconstruction configuration so as to best address the type of tissue and other object characteristics during the reconstruction algorithms. For example, the number of sections / data levels can be selected based on the size of the object / breast. Here, ‘sections’ may refer to the number of data levels used in the reconstruction - in one embodiment the top 24 mm (say 12 data levels at 2 mm separation) may be used for the reconstruction of the ‘top’ section, the bottom 32 mm may be used for the reconstruction of the bottom part of the image and intermediate consecutive data levels may be used for the reconstruction of the middle part of the image. In addition, the frequency ranges may be adjusted based on the size, mammographic density, and results of test(s) 382.In the following discussion, examples are not meant to be restrictive to a particular body part. Adaptive imaging is applicable to a variety of imaging applications including, but not limited to, the pediatric, orthopedic, and whole body imaging contexts. Tissue types vary with different applications (pediatric, etc.) and need not refer to breast imaging only. The presence of bone and air is a known complication that can be addressed using the described techniques. For example, the percentage of bone and air in a particular imaged volume can determine different recipes similar to that described in more detail below.The updated reconstruction configuration (e.g., Config B 390) is then used to generate the reconstructed image 336. Compared to the preliminary image, the transmission image is a relatively slower image, using more frequencies, for more iterations, and is high-resolution. The process for forming the transmission image is similar to the process for the preliminary image. That is, acoustic wave propagation through an object is simulated and the properties of the object are optimized to make the simulated propagation fit the observed propagation from the transmission data. The optimization problem can be solved using a stochastic gradient algorithm and the optimization results are used to assign values to pixels and form images.In some cases, the updated reconstruction configuration includes a set of instructions involving capturing a portion of the volume of the 3-dimensional image space; capturing a portion of the volume of the 3 -dimensional image space; capturing a portion of the volume of the 3 -dimensional image space; and using an increased number of iterations to generate the reconstruction image. As an illustrative example, the recipe for the updated reconstruction configuration can include generating a 3D coarse image, generating a first 3D fine image, and generating a second 3D fine image, where the 3D coarse image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 0.4 MHz and 0.8 MHz, the first 3D fine image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 0.8 MHz and 1.2 MHz,QT-121CIP1XPCTand the second 3D fine image is generated for each frequency of a set of frequencies selected between 1.2 MHz and 1.3 MHz. In some cases, the 3D coarse image and / or 3D fine image generated during the preliminary image reconstruction 332 is used as a starting point for the 3D coarse image during the image reconstruction 336. As with the preliminary image, multiple images are generated based on a different frequency signal / band and the various adaptions and stopping criteria tests described with respect to the preliminary image reconstruction are applicable. More or fewer images and / or processes may be part of the updated reconstruction configuration (e.g., Config B 390) and tests 392. However, unlike for the preliminary image reconstruction, fewer than all data levels may be used. Here, the number of data levels / sections can be based on the size of the object.FIG. 5 illustrates an example adaptive imaging process for generating transmission / attenuation image(s). Referring to FIG. 5, an example adaptive imaging process 500, which may be implemented as code executed by a computing system such as computing system 5600 of FIG. 56, can begin with an estimate of data properties 502. The estimate of data properties 502 may be received via a user input or be provided with the captured data (e.g., associated with a patient). From the estimate of data properties 502, an initial number of data levels (e.g., based on breast size) is determined for use by the fast reconstruction algorithm. An initial fast image is generated (504), for example using a coarse grid, 2D reconstruction, and / or time of flight algorithm. In some cases, the initial image is a transmission image. In some cases, a reflection image and / or data can be used to supplement the transmission image.The generation of the initial fast image can be carried out such as described with respect to preliminary image reconstruction 332 of FIG. 3 and preliminary image reconstruction 410 of FIG. 4A. From the initial fast image, size of the breast can be estimated (506) and mammographic density estimated (508). The breast size estimation (506) can involve determining the size category for the breast, for example, using categories of small, medium, and large. The estimation of the mammographic density (508) involves determining the percentage of fibro-glandular tissue and determining the density category for the breast, for example, using categories of fatty, scattered / heterogenous, and dense. Based on the breast size and mammographic density, the recipe for inversion and number of sections can be determined (510). For example, the adaptive imaging process 500 can use a lookup table (LUT) or matrix, which in the case of breast can be such as follows.QT-121CIP1XPCTExample LUTDensity\size Small Medium Large Fatty Config Config 2 Config 1 3 Scattered / heterogeneous Config Config 5 Config 4 6dense Config Config 8 Config7 9In some cases, each configuration / recipe for the different combinations of breast tissue characteristics is different. In some cases, a same or similar recipe may be used for a subset of different combinations of breast tissue characteristics. Percentages of bone and air may also be part of the characteristics used in whole body / pediatric / partial body imaging. Similarly, for other anatomical regions of the body, a similar LUT could be created. For instance, for human body extremities and musculoskeletal tissue, it could be based on the expected ratio of fat vs muscle vs bone tissue.Using the matrix / table one or more reconstruction configuration / recipes can be selected for use on each section of the breast. In the illustrated example, a coarse transmission image 512 is generated and a fine grid transmission image 514 is generated. These images can be generated such as described with respect to image reconstruction 336 of FIG. 3 and image reconstruction 430 of FIG. 4A.Stopping Criteria and TestsThe reconstruction configurations can be selected and / or changed on the basis of various stopping criteria and tests (e.g., test(s) 382, 392). The criteria and tests can be based on image characteristics and can trigger the restart of an inversion process using a different set of parameters (e.g., frequencies, iterations, anisotropic pixels, or coordinate systems more suited to the data). The tests can include whether there is a silicone implant, whether there is a salt and pepper local minimum developing, and whether the image is going to be blurry.Indeed, as mentioned above, as part of the test(s) 382, detection of local minima can be performed early in the optimization process, for example, detection of local minima during the 3D coarse image generation where the residual is above a threshold can trigger the operations to cease and restart using a different recipe. As another example in breast tissue, there is a test to detect the presence of a silicone implant if there is a high residual (e.g., using pixel counts and speed of sound estimation). Tests can be performed to identify whether abdominal fat is identified near the chest wall (or other anomalous values that may be different than expected at a particular location). Indeed, tests 382 can include pixel counts and speed of soundQT-121CIP1XPCTestimation, evaluation of gradients and residual magnitude, ratios of magnitudes of gradients and their behavior such as rate of decrease, and the like.Thus, according to certain embodiments, an adaptive imaging method can thus include detecting one or more errors in the preliminary reconstruction image in real time while generating the preliminary reconstruction image; stopping generating the preliminary reconstruction image; selecting a new preliminary reconstruction configuration from the database of reconstruction configurations based on the detected one or more errors in the preliminary reconstruction image; and restarting the method beginning with generating the preliminary' reconstruction image using the new preliminary' reconstruction configuration.In some cases, generating the preliminary' reconstruction image comprises assigning values to a plurality’ of voxels, wherein detecting one or more errors in the preliminary reconstruction image in real time while generating the preliminary reconstruction image comprises: evaluating values of voxels located near each other; and detecting an error if the values of voxels located near each other are above or below a voxel value threshold. In an example implementation where the object being imaged is a patient’s breast, detecting an error if the values of voxels located near each other are above or below a voxel value threshold can include detecting the presence of a silicone implant if the values of voxels located near each other are above a silicone implant voxel value threshold. Another test involving evaluating values of voxels located near each other includes evaluating values of voxels near a patient’s chest wall, wherein detecting an error if the values of voxels located near each other are above or below a voxel value threshold comprises detecting the presence of fatty tissue or non-biological material near the patient’s chest wall if the values of voxels located near the patient’s chest wall are above a chest wall voxel value threshold.Similarly, tests are applied during generating the updated reconstruction image. For example, the adaptive imaging method can include detecting one or more errors in the reconstruction image in real time while generating the reconstruction image; and stopping generating the reconstruction image. Similar to tests during the preliminary’ reconstruction, detecting one or more errors in the reconstruction image in real time while generating the reconstruction image can include evaluating values of a residual of the reconstruction image; and detecting a local minimum if the values of the residual are above a local minimum threshold value.Once stopped, either a new preliminary' reconstruction configuration can be selected (e.g., to start the process over at step 330) or a new updated reconstruction configuration can be selected (e.g., to restart process 350). For example, an adaptive imaging method can includeQT-121CIP1XPCTselecting a new preliminary reconstruction configuration from the database of reconstruction configurations based on the detected one or more errors in the reconstruction image; and restarting the method beginning with generating the preliminary reconstruction image using the new preliminary reconstruction configuration. Of course, in other cases, the adaptive imaging method can include selecting a new reconstruction configuration from the database of reconstruction configurations based on the detected one or more errors in the reconstruction image; and restarting the method beginning with generating the reconstruction image using the new reconstruction configuration.Although not described in detail, generation of reflection images can also include adaptive parameters and tests for the reflection image configurations can include, but are not limited to, whether there is a bright spot in the reflection image and whether there is a dark spot in the reflection image.Adaptive Sectioning and FrequenciesThe breast is a 3D object but has different characteristics relevant to wave propagation near the chest wall and in the sub-areolar regions. Based on the acquisition system, it is possible to include data redundancy in the vertical direction.This means it is possible to collect data every 2 or 4 mm (which also could vary with the particular part of the volume of breast that is being imaged.) This vertical redundancy supports image quality in the presence of compromised SNR and data quality. By simultaneously inverting (imaging) from data at several different close levels, it is possible to increase the redundancy over not incorporating the information at the same time in inversion. It is noted that trying to invert from many levels simultaneously has an over-regularizing effect that creates a ‘smoother’ image that may not be appropriate for the Reader or for diagnostic purposes. By separating the breast into sections, it is possible to optimize for the particular tissue / anatomy. In various embodiments, the breast can be divided into 2, 3,... N sections.RecipesIt is possible to determine a ‘recipe’ for imaging the breast. A recipe includes the sequence of operations, including frequencies selected for use in the simulations. For example, a subset of frequencies within a range of frequencies corresponding to the frequencies used in the data acquisition can be selected (e.g., 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,... 1.35 MHz). The change between frequencies is determined empirically and is dynamic, it may change during the inversion process. In addition, the order in which frequencies are used is not required to be consecutive / monotonic That is, the frequency steps do not have to be monotonic increasing. In one embodiment the frequencies rise, then fall then continue to rise and this cycleQT-121CIP1XPCTcan repeat. For example, a sequence can be 0.4, 0.425, 0.45, 0.475, 0.45, 0.425, 0.45, 0.475, 0.5,....In one embodiment a set of frequencies is chosen from 0.4, 0.425,..., 1.3 MHz, where the step / difference between frequencies is chosen here as.025 MHz. In another embodiment a subset of frequencies are imaged simultaneously. The spacing between the simultaneous frequencies being used can also be adaptive intra and inter-breast. That is, the spacing may change depending on the section. The code / program determines which set of frequencies and how many iterations to carry out at a given frequency to optimize image qual ity and also avoid ‘local minima’.Accordingly, with reference to FIG. 3 and FIG. 4A. a preliminary reconstruction configuration can include a set of instructions, comprising forming a sequence of intermediate preliminary reconstruction images involving a sequence of intermediate preliminary reconstruction images, where each intermediate preliminary reconstruction image has an increased resolution relative to the previous intermediate preliminary reconstruction image. In some cases, the sequence of intermediate preliminary reconstruction images starts at a low frequency preliminary reconstruction image and proceeds in a stepwise fashion to higher frequency intermediate preliminary reconstruction images. In some cases, the sequence of intermediate preliminary reconstruction images is carried out at frequencies in a nonmonotonic progression.Similarly, an updated reconstruction configuration can include a set of instructions, comprising forming a sequence of intermediate reconstruction images involving a sequence of intermediate reconstruction images, where each intermediate reconstruction image has an increased resolution relative to the previous intermediate reconstruction image. In some cases, the sequence of intermediate reconstruction images starts at a low frequency reconstruction image and proceeds in a stepwise fashion to higher frequency intermediate reconstruction images. In some cases, the sequence of intermediate reconstruction images is carried out at frequencies in a non-monotonic progression. The sequence of frequencies for the updated reconstruction configuration may be the same or different than that used in the preliminary reconstruction configuration. In addition, for reconstruction configurations involving multiple levels of reconstruction (see e.g., examples provided for Config A 380 and Config B 390), where the intermediate images increase in resolution (e.g., from coarse to fine) the frequency sequence used in the reconstruction images may differ between the coarse reconstruction and the fine reconstruction.QT-121CIP1XPCTFrequency recipesHow the frequencies are chosen can impact whether local minima are encountered (see also stopping criteria). fj,j = 1,..., Nk, where k = 1,..., Nreq. In one embodiment the frequencies are equally spaced. In another embodiment the frequencies are chosen so that delta lambda (5 ) is constant since the change in wavelength will determine whether cycle skipping takes place. In such an embodiment, to maintain a constant 8 A. the relationship between f (frequency) and 8 A is not linear. That is, since 8fj = — ^8Aj so that at a particularfrequency J, the step size in frequency is 8fj = --^-8 A: or 8 fj = — — 8 A;, that is the stepAy Cosize in frequency can in fact increase quadratically with frequency to keep the change in the wavelength the same. If the relative increase in wavelength is required to be constant than the formula 8f7; = — I —A ) indicates the step size increase linearly with frequency. The \,- / Joptimal step size may be determined empirically.Adaptable anisotropic pixelAn anisotropic pixel selection can be carried out as part of an adaptive imaging process. That is, a size of steps used in an inverse scattering algorithm (e.g., propagation and backs catt ering) for generating a reconstruction image can be based on an anisotropic pixel selection, where the anisotropy is through the geometry (e.g., having different lengths in different directions). An anisotropic pixel selection includes a distance in one direction between surfaces of the steps used in the inverse scattering algorithm. The one direction may be in the direction of propagation, perpendicular to the direction of propagation or some other angle with respect to the direction of propagation. In some cases, at least two iterations of the inverse scattering algorithm use different anisotropic pixel selections. For example, the distance in one direction between surfaces of the steps used in the inverse scattering algorithm can change from one iteration to another iteration. As an illustrative example, a first distance may be used for five iterations and then a second distance is used for the next three iterations followed by a return to the first distance or a change to a third distance, which may be larger or smaller than the first and / or second distance.The anisotropic pixel selection can vary between frequencies and iterations in any manner of combinations. In addition, to the distance in one direction that can vary, the direction in which that distance is adjusted may vary between frequencies and / or iterations.QT-121CIP1XPCTCoordinate systemAs mentioned above, the adaptive imaging process can be adapted to different coordinate systems. Available coordinate systems include, but are not limited to, rectangular, circular-cylinder, elliptic-cylinder, parabolic-cylinder, spherical, prolate spheroidal, oblate spheroidal, parabolic, conical, ellipsoidal, and paraboloidal. Indeed, available coordinate systems can be a cartesian coordinate system, a curvilinear coordinate system, or even a hybrid / expanding coordinate system. As long as an exact solution exists, it is possible to perform an inverse scattering algorithm based on propagation a short distance through free space (or empty water) via a closed or semi-closed form solution, for example, and application of a phase mask. The reconstruction configurations for the different coordinate systems utilize an appropriate phase mask. For example, cartesian coordinates have the plane wave, cylindrical coordinates have Bessel functions and exponentials, spherical coordinates have spherical Bessel (half integer order) and spherical harmonics (associated Legendre functions and exponentials), and expanding coordinates have narrow waist Gaussian functions multiplied by¬ solutions to a paraxial approximation equation.The ability to adapt the processes for a particular coordinate system such as curvilinear supports the receipt of data collected using a cylindrical array of transmitters and / or receivers. Such data can be transformed into cylindrical coordinates during preprocessing (e.g., operation 320 of FIG. 3) and subsequently analyzed in cylindrical coordinates.In some cases, an indication of a particular coordinate system from a selection of a cartesian coordinate system and a curvilinear coordinate system can be received; and available reconstruction configurations at the database of reconstruction configurations can be filtered according to the particular coordinate system before generating the preliminary reconstruction image using the preliminary reconstruction configuration. In some cases, the system is adapted to a curvilinear coordinate system, wherein available reconstruction configurations including for the preliminary reconstruction configuration and the updated reconstruction configuration are based on the curvilinear coordinate system.An example for spherical expanding coordinates via Gaussian beam is as follows. Note the system involves propagation of energy primarily in the z direction. Here, the paraxial approximation equation can be obtained by factoring out the predominant wave propagating in the z direction:Acoustic energy field: u(r) = Up(r)e~l z.Given the Helmholtz equationQT-121CIP1XPCTd2u d2u d2u~r~ 2 + x- 2+TT+^2(r)u - 0dxzdyLdz£We can make the assumption that the energy moves predominantly in the z direction and factor that out. as above, i.e.,: u(r) = up)e~l^zThis gives us / 2 2 2 \I d uvd uvdun2 d uv2 \ ■<,\-^+^-2i^-^+^+ k u^ = oFinally, the variation in the acoustic field in the z direction is considered small compared to the variation that is factored out:dupd2up0dz dz2This gives the paraxial approximation:a2a2d Up d Up- 210 up— 0dx2dy2Put 0 = k for the following: (the energy is propagating at the appropriate frequency) Gaussian Beam factor:Note the Helmholtz equation does have the exact solution: (Green’s function in 3D) £ l / V|l 1 |U47r|r- r'| ’Now using r' = (0,0, — ib)gives, with the Fresnel approximation:x2+y2ibe (.z+tb)U = Un0— - - - -,(z+ib) ’N w pu b 7o t = — —. In this formulation this is a Gaussian beam with waist WoSo we thus have the diverging solution:e-ifc(x2+y2) / q(z)W(x) = - TN - q(z)WhereQ(z) = z +i^L =z + ib,b= w7A ’ 2A 2QT-121CIP1XPCTNow factor out the Gaussian beam with w0waist size and use expanded coordinates for the remaining part of the wave, where for now a is an arbitrary complex value:axx' = - z + lb, _ ayy = - z + ib, _,=a2{z2 -zi)Z2 Z1(z2+ i<b)(z1+ ib)c-ik(x2+y2Vci(z)The function variation v(xz) uses the 'expanding coordinates’ for reasons seen below: We take a particular form of the diverging beam:Now we assume that the Gaussian waist is infinitesimal, e, so the wave is approximately spherical. Note the transformation:ax ay a2(z2—^i)x' - - ~>y' - - ~ >z2 ~zi=7 - - “TZ + l£ Z + IS (Z2+ is) (Zr+ is) In the limit as £ goes to zero and a G R (a real), a will be constrained by the calculations below.ax ax ay,,x' = lim - = —,y' — >z2 “zi = - e^oz + is z z Z2Zi, a2(z— zf)For calculation purposes we use: z' — z\ = - - — - -(Z+IEXZJ+IE)d dx' d dy' d dz' dUse — dz—" T d-z T dx7 + V dz dy+V dz T dz7sincedz' a2a2a2- O—Z = - ZZ-L Z —zZ-L & ~zi)=~ Zzd dx' d a ddx dx dx' z dx'QT-121CIP1XPCTcc dx' d2f cc\2‘ d2And so — — = —=I—) T- 77- with similar expression for y coordinate, and ox2z dx dx2\zj dx2g-ifc(z2+y2) / q(z)zsolves the paraxial equation.q(z)Now factor out the expanding wave and transform to the expanded coordinate system. u(x) = v(x')w(x) = ^—ie~Lk'x2+y2l' / q(z>. and we get:q(z) d2v(x')w(x) d2v(xO z. dv(x') dw(x) z,^2w(x). Using, - — - = w(x) + Z — - - - 1- V(X ) — and similardx2dx2ox ox ox2for y and chain rules above, so that:d2V d2V dvox,z- dy'£oz'Propagation in the primed coordinates:The total field isu(x)=S2e-ifc(.v2+y2) / zzThe first fact v satisfies the paraxial equation (by above)7 7— d v? +. d v— T — ZQ■; dvIK. — T =nU, so use j the transverse, T F-ouri •er trans cform, T- FT:dx2dy2dzv(kx',ky',z'^ = JJ v(x,y,z)ekr XdxT= FT(y) Equation is now(kx + kx }v — 2ik^ = 0 and so ( fcx2+ k^} V has the exact solution:kx xJ dz dz 2ik0kx xJV (ky, ky, z^ = e2ik<>^kx +kx^z Z°^A, constant A: that is:1 '2z2 ' 'v(k.,k.,z) = e^<>^l +li’:^('z~Zo',v kx.,ky.,z'oIs the exact solution. Using 8z' — z* — ZQ' )v{x',y', z' + 5z') = Fyf1(v[kx', kyf,z' + 8z'^, putting in all the operators:Fy1is the inverse transverse Fourier transform:QT-121CIP1XPCT ( 1 \e2ik0^kx +kx^Szv{kx!, kyi, z'^ jP-1 ( ^j-{kx'2+kx’2)6z’ Z(= FT11 eZlli° FT[y(x, y, z )jIn operator theoretic notation (read from right to left) this is just the transport in free space formula.v(x', y', z' + 8z'~) = F1[P0FTV with free space propagator: Po= Q T2i7k-o(Kfcx +fcx )j5z'The total solution is:u(x) = ^le-ik^2+y^ / q^q{zy= z + i^= z + ib b =i^l=^l7A 2A 2Letting ego to zero to get the used coordinate system:,. ax ax, ay,lim — -r- = —, y = ——,z-? — Zy —8— >0Z + IS z z1^1The coordinate transformation valid for Zj_ < Z < Zjz zGives for the original coordinates: y = —y1, x = — x',; a — Zjj Ry,, ax, xx = lim — —; — > x = —E— >oz + is Riz and x, y coordinates valid for Zj_^ < Z < Zjuse a = Zj,' R[ = z / Zj,so nowa2{zj - Zj^ _ {zj - Zjl)Rj-l6z; y X6z\ = -=—!-; y' = — —; x'Pj-i Ri-i Pi-1Szi'=lK^J-1QT-121CIP1XPCTPropagate from— > Zy in primed coordinates using the propagator derived above, then evaluate Gaussian part at y^+1= ~yj+^=Riyj+i,'x =~x>,'x =Rix', and z =,e- / fe(x7+i+y7+i) / 2z7+i Zj + OZj — Zj+1(recall that Zj_ Z — Zj- ) — 0 by construction so, - — -,then use / xe~ik^+1+yi+1^2zi+1u(x) = v (x'(xj+1)) -v 7 z / +lk0Ydz Then apply the phase mask for Zj_ — > Zj which is e / -1, dz is the infinitesimal Z ' zalong the coordinate x. y path in x, y, z space: X — —x'; x — R^x' and y = —y' — Riy'z \ r x,koYdzu(x) u(x)e J-1In this way we march along for ZOl, Zj_^, Zj Notice the x, y coordinates do expand due to the » 1 and increasing as z increases.FIGs. 6A-6D illustrate results of a cylindrical coordinate system-based algorithm. Referring to FIG.6A, a simulation model was created from a breast image and is shown along with the position of the cylindrical algorithm circular array and the circle defining the point source boundary7condition.The solution was first computed by solution of the integral equation. The simulation model was 1024 by 1024. 1 / 8 wavelength pixels at 1.5 MHz (128 by 128 mm). The point source solution was computed with the Bi-Stab, FFT algorithm with a k-average preconditioner which converged in 40 steps. The total field on the receiver circle was then computed from the rectangular grid values using bi-quadratic interpolation.The total field on the receiver circle was then computed via a cylindrical FFT-propagator, phase-mask algorithm.FIG.6B shows a comparison of a total field magnitude on the receiver circle; and FIG.6C shows a magnified solution match. It can be seen that there is agreement of the cylindrical propagation algorithm with the simulation solution (referred to as IE solution) for all scattering angles.FIG. 6D illustrates a cylindrical problem space with a radius of 100 mm and a height of 60 mm. Referring to FIG. 6D, the source is shown as a truncated, focused line source 30 mm high. The line source is also apodized with a Hamming window. The line source focalQT-121CIP1XPCTrange = 100 mm. The small, offset circle containing the source has a radius, ai = 5 mm. The line source position in the small circle is xi = -2.5 mm. yi = 1.5 mm. This offset was done to ensure proper propagation of an asymmetric field.The goal is now to evaluate the field on the 5 mm radius cylinder by Green’s theorem and then to propagate the field onto the 100 mm radius cylinder using the cylindrical propagator algorithm. The Green's theorem calculation from the focused line source to the 5 mm cylinder is given by:I 2 2 i <3 '2 2 h, ( ~ik0 ialcos(<ill)-xD +(alsinW,l)-3 / L) +(z~z-z+fL2 47rJ(a1cos(01)-xi) +(a1sm(01)-yj +(z-z ) where w(z') is a Hamming window, a = 5 mm, hL= 30 mm, fL=100 mm, xL= -2.5 mm, yL= 1.5 mm, ZCQ — — ~,f — 1-5 MHZ, CQ =c1.5 mm / microsecond.oReturning again to FIG. 3, after generating the transmission image, reconstruction manager 310 directs generation of reflection image(s) 340 from the reflection data 314. During the preprocessing 320, the intensity of acoustic reflection based on the time it takes the waves to travel back to the source can be obtained from the reflection data 314 (e.g., a Fourier transform may be applied such as described with respect to the transmission data 312). In addition, other preprocessing operations may be carried out such as coordinate system adjustments, etc. Any suitable reconstruction algorithm may be used to generate the reflection image. In some cases, the reflection image is corrected for refraction based on the transmission image. For example, more detail is added to interfaces within the object being imaged through use of the attenuation image (from the transmission data). The interface data can also be added after image formation. As an example implementation, an attenuation image can be obtained of the reconstruction image (e.g., generated in process 336), a reflection image can be generated (e.g., via suitable reconstruction algorithm), a morphological operation can be performed with respect to the attenuation image to generate a processed attenuation image, and the processed attenuation image can be fused with the reflection image to generate a final reflection image.FIG. 7 shows reflection images of a breast, including the fusing of a processed attenuation image and reflection image. As shown in FIG. 7, the original reflection images correspond to the reflection image generated by any suitable reconstruction algorithm. Attenuation images are obtained and processed using a morphological operation. Examples of morphological operations that may be carried out on the attenuation images include, but are not limited to, erosion, dilation, opening, and closing. The processed attenuation images areQT-121CIP1XPCTthen fused with the original reflection images to generate the final reflection images shown. As a comparison, the speed of sound (SOS) image is shown in the figure to illustrate that the information now visible in the final reflection image are not artifacts being added to the image. Advantageously, when the attenuation images highlight interface information, that interface information can improve the reflection image.With the transmission image(s) and the reflection image(s) generated by processes 330 and 340, appropriate image evaluation processes 350 with respect to the generated images can be applied. The quantitative data obtained from the generated images can be similar to that obtained with respect to the preliminary image, but with more resolution / accuracy. For example, the quantitative data obtained from the generated images can be used for diagnostic and other purposes. Post processing 360 can be applied to the images to remove noise, perform decluttering, as well as apply desired metadata to make the images into a useful package for viewing and / or as training data for machine learning. As an example, the final reflection image(s) and transmission image(s) can be converted to DICOM format.In some implementations, data for transmission data 312 and / or reflection data 314 can be acquired using a system such as described with respect to FIG. 1 and / or FIG. 2. Indeed, data captured by an imaging procedure using a multifrequency data collection method such as by transmitting a pulse containing multiple frequencies can be received.In some cases, adaptive imaging architecture 300 includes or is in communication with a data resource of data collected using vertically limited diffraction-less beams. For such implementations, image reconstruction is carried out on the data collected using vertically limited diffraction-less beams. For example, in some of such implementations, the preliminary reconstruction image and / or the reconstruction image is generated by applying a 2D reconstruction algorithm. Through the adjusting of the reconstruction configuration as described herein, it is possible to reduce artifacts and speed up reconstruction.In other of such implementations, the preliminary' reconstruction image and / or the reconstruction image is generated by applying a 3D reconstruction algorithm. In some cases, the thickness of the diffraction-less beams are varied (and the 3D reconstruction can reflect such variance). In some cases, the diffraction-less beams are rotationally limited.Creating diffraction-less beams to sonicate a breast (or other tissue) has the advantage that only second order scattering with be out of plane. The acoustic energy' must scatter out of the plane, then scatter back into the plane of the receiver array.FIGs.8A and 8B illustrate light wave propagation for diffraction-less beams. FIG.8A illustrates a cross-section of non-diverging diffraction-less beams and FIG. 8B illustrates aQT-121CIP1XPCTcross-section of a present acoustic total field. A system for creating diffraction-less beams can form beams similar to optical light sheets used in lightsheet microscopy. As illustrated in FIG.8A, it can be seen that the beam remains narrow and can hold form for approximately 171, which would be 252 mm at 1 MHz (acoustic). These beams can be concatenated to create the horizontal ‘sheets’.Formulation:The well known expression generates a Gaussian profile Bessel beamikAik(z+Pi\ / ikkpp \ — * (k2+!^£i\ _ p \ 2z) I [P\ C 4Q(Z)\PZ2J2zQ(z)Jo\2zQ(z)J where Q(z) =(Q — t / t / 2z), kpis transverse (x-y) wavenumber,It is also possible to use superposition as these represent solutions to the wave equation. They are reasonable approximations when considering finite apertures.__ikAL_ ik(z+^\ ( ikkpp 'pjfaz) =IzQ^z)Jo\2zQj(z)) with Qy(z) = (qy- ifc / 2z)It is known these beams do not ‘diffract’ or spread out as normal propagating wavefields do. This spreading requires the 3D algorithms to account for first order scattering from planes outside of the central plane. Only second order scattering effects occur with the ‘confined’ beam. Using these Gaussian-Bessel beams (and superpositions of them) means that only second order scattering will occur - scattering out of plane followed by scattering back into plane.Such a superposition is:*p(p,z) = ) ^jCP>z)This formulation can create a pseudo-plane wave with limited diffraction in the vertical direction (a ‘sheet’ of acoustic energy). This is similar to 'light sheet microscopy’ fields.It is also possible to use a time domain plane wave (pseudo plane wave).Advantageously, the confinement of the acoustic signal means that out of plane scattering is second order and so a 2D algorithm of any kind will produce a much better image than with standard unconstrained ultrasound incident fields. These beams can be produced in the time domain as well, as constrained pulses and 2D plane wave pulses.QT-121CIP1XPCTEvaluation processesAs noted above with respect to operations for evaluating a preliminary reconstruction image 334 (including obtaining (422) preliminary information from the preliminary reconstruction image) and image evaluation 350, mammographic density can be measured (see also operation 508 of FIG. 5). In some cases, estimating mammographic density includes separating exterior voxels from breast voxels of the preliminary reconstruction image; segmenting high speed value breast voxels from other breast voxels of the preliminary reconstruction image to generate a first segmented image, wherein high speed value breast voxels are breast voxels having a speed value above a threshold; removing, from the first segmented image, high speed value breast voxels corresponding to skin tissue of the patient’s breast to generate a second segmented image; and calculating mammographic density by determining a percentage of the high speed value breast voxels in the second segmented image.Other information can also be obtained from the preliminary' reconstruction image and / or final / updated reconstruction image. As also noted above, multifrequency images are collected. While generating a final multifrequency image, intermediate multifrequency images can be kept and used to obtain information from the preliminary reconstruction image and / or final / updated reconstruction image. As such, certain characteristics of the imaged object that vary' with frequency can be used to extract useful information. While attenuation and speed of sound images are described in detail, the principle applies to images based on the backscatter (reflection) data, including with respect to attenuation coefficient slope estimate (ACS) and envelope statistics and derived parameters such as the effective scatterer diameter (ESD), effective acoustic concentration (EAC), and the p parameter (effective scatterer density7) from the HK distribution. Some of the estimates can be determined directly from the backscattered signal. As provided in detail herein certain parameters can be estimated based on tomographic reconstructed images using the transmitted signal.Tissue Type IdentificationIt has been verified in the literature that certain mammalian tissue ty pes behave in a particular manner with frequency. It is known that attenuation varies with frequency via the power law dependency. Advantageously, by using the Kramers-Kronig relationship that relates the frequency dependence of the attenuation to the speed of sound frequency dependence, it is possible to yield a corresponding power law for the speed of sound (and use the described reconstruction images to obtain useful information to identify tissue / lesions). From the power law relationship, it can be seen that the rate of change frequency for the SOS is less than forQT-121CIP1XPCTatenuation. In fact, the frequency dependence for speed can be shown to be -1= <z0(%) tan j (coa 1- w”T) when a (co) = a0)a(see below).c(x,coo)This is reflected in measured values as well, where the dependence of speed is hard to measure, whereas the dependence of atenuation is measured relatively easily. There is strong evidence from the literature that atenuation varies with frequency in a way that may help to characterize biological tissue.In particular, the standard tissue model used for atenuation istz(co) = a0(jOa, a) = 2nfwhich leads to the linear relationship:log a(x, co) = log a0(x) = a log coThis is acknowledged in the literature as being an approximation since the true model involves a summation of terms which represent ‘relaxation processes’ at various frequencies. The phenomenological results of investigations indicate the power law to be generally satisfied.FIG. 9 shows a log plot of atenuation coefficient vs frequency from Bamber, 1986, Attenuation and absorption. Physical Principles of Medical Ultrasonics, ed. C RHill. The plot of FIG. 9 shows the power law behavior for most tissue ty pes is a power law' variance with frequency.The tissue type (bone, skin, ducts, glands, fat, fibroglandular tissue, cancer, etc.) may affect the atenuation coefficient as well as the ‘power law-’. Speed varies with frequency by virtue of the Kramers-Kronig relations. Note that these relations are non-local in their exact form. They involve integration over the entire real line in fact. There are, however, semi-local forms that can be used in an approximate manner. Note also that an argument based on operator series shows that for the special case of a power law variation of atenuation with frequency, i.e., ( / (til) = a0OJathe speed of sound must also have variation w ith frequency given by the formula: (proved below)1= a0(x) tan (y) (&)a 1- <x).C(X, M) J \ L / These formula show that the variation of speed with frequency will not necessarily be large since a ~ 1.3. This is bome out by experimental evidence as shown in FIGs. 10A-10D.FIGs. 10A-10D illustrate identification of tissue type through the power law variation of atenuation with frequency. FIG. 10A shows a log-log plot of atenuation vs frequency (.775,.8,.825,.85,.875,.9 MHz) for an image with a known cancer lesion. The region ofQT-121CIP1XPCTinspection (ROI) is a 2 mm diameter centered in the known cancer lesion as determined by the speed of sound map. FIG. 10B shows a log-log plot of attenuation vs frequency for an image with fat. FIG. IOC shows panels of intermediate multifrequency images of a point in cancer and FIG. 10D shows panels of intermediate multifrequency images of a point in fat. Each image of the multifrequency images correspond to an image at a particular frequency (e.g., starting from the top with attenuation / SOS at 1.3 MHz and subsequent panels shown the attenuation images at sequentially lower frequencies to.400 MHz).The calculation of these parameters over multiple frequencies can be carried out over a volume or region of interest to increase signal-to-noise (SNR) and stability. As can be seen, there is a different relationship between attenuation and frequency for a fat ROI as compared to a cancer ROI.Using formula: \oga(x, 0)) = log(Zo(%) = a log 0)The coefficient here is a=10.2.Power law result: Note these are empirical results subject to noise and are for illustrative purposes only. More accurate estimates can be obtained using a volume of interest in place of a single voxel.Power lawFat 10.2cancer 6.16Advantageously, this strong separation through the power law parameters can be used to assign a cancer risk.Accordingly, it is possible to obtain reconstruction information from a reconstruction image by identifying frequency -dependent characteristics using values across frequencies of the intermediate multifrequency images, including attenuation and speed of sound. For example, it is possible to calculate a frequency-independent wavenumber by removing a frequency dependent part of a wavenumber from a Helmholtz equation based model using information across frequencies of the multifrequency image. By quantitatively determining the spectral behavior of the speed of sound and attenuation images, it is possible to determine any correlation to the linear coefficients to the tissue type and / or abnormality. It is also possible to estimate mass density and porosity using such spectral behavior (e g., the frequencyindependent wavenumber). Indeed, as described herein, it is possible to estimate porosity based on identified frequency-dependent characteristics.As an illustrative example of estimating mass density, once the attenuation is determined spatially (see e.g., examples in the imaging algorithms), mass density can beQT-121CIP1XPCTdetermined by first isolating the frequency independent wavenumber, solving a simple forward problem to estimate density’ distribution, and dividing out the density’ to yield the bulk modulus.It should be noted that in the linear approximation (Bom approximation) of the forward problem a simple calculation indicates that different parts of the data originate from either the monopole scattering from the bulk modulus or the dipole scattering from the density variations.As illustrated, the data comes from different scattering potentials depending on yvhere it is located: Note this is not an inversion scheme, rather it shows that there is some separation in the scattered data that may be exploited by a suitable scheme that has suitable regularization (see below for regularization schemes). Given a configuration such as shown in FIG. 11, yvhich illustrates propagation between a transmitter and receiver. Note the Lippmann-Schwinger (LS) equation reads:P(r) = f(r) - kl [ yK(r')f(r')gko(R)dr' + f V'JR3JR3• (r„(r'){V7(r')})^(R)dr'Directly from the differential equation. Integrate by parts and use Gauss theorem to remove total divergence:PO) = f(r) - J + J YP(r'){V' / (r')} • Vg^Wdr’Using R — r — r' and f — fl(r) — elkf,r(plane wave incident) and the standard approximation:e~ikRe~ik\r~rIe-^(r-ur«r')e~ikr,9kSR^ ==^ = ^-7| «4.in =rV gk(R) = —ikuTe~ikUr'rfor Green’s function yvith approximation.Define: kr= kuTvector pointing toward the receiver array element.Substitute plane wave and Green’s function approximation in the IE to get> ^kRfs(r) - f kK(r')+k,. krf yp(r'){e-^-k^r'}dr') Inner product is cos of angle between them times k2so:g-ifcr, r r. fs(r) - k2( I yK(r')e~l(k’~ki)’r' dr' + cos 0 I yp(r'){e_l(kr-ki)*r,}dr jThese are Fourier transforms and give expression for scattered field.QT-121CIP1XPCTfS(r) ~ (rK(kr- kj) + cos 0rp(kr- ki)) where 6 is the anglebetween kr, k,.This gives the relation in the linear approximation between scattered data and the object functions for density and bulk modulus. To complete the separation, the following correlations between mass density and speed can be utilized, particularly for the speed values of interest for mammalian tissue.K = (1706.507c2- 1611.737)MPaK= 893c3- 349c2= c2(893c - 349)MPa The above correlations are particularly useful as a regularizing term in density reconstruction and can be used during the preliminary image reconstruction. For example, it is possible to estimate the bulk modulus and shear modulus for breast and mammalian tissue from these correlations. Note:K — c2p < X c3which indicates that the cube of the speed image can be considered a stiffness image.Bulk modulus and shear wave estimation is possible from the speed of sound images (e.g., as reconstruction information from the reconstruction images). For example, the shear modulus turns out to be more sensitive in some sense to the presence of a hard lesion, since a cancer can have a shear speed 30 times greater than normal tissue.Accepting (based on cs= ^—)c [K—c— - gives (see below)s I1Ku ~ so that U oc - 9000 9000Accordingly, it can be seen that a shear moduli estimation is possible.In particular, the estimate of p based on the shear wave speed of tissue being approximately 5 m / sec is_ KK>K~ (c / f ~ (30°)2” 9 * 104The Bulk modulus formula:K = 893c3= c2(893c — 349), c in mm / p sec, K in MPa.Using this formula, it is possible to show ‘stiffness’ directly in the images.QT-121CIP1XPCTHere ‘stiffness’ is bulk modulus. Thus it is possible to show a quantitative representation of stiffness that others are showing qualitatively. Note that it is possible to determine the Young’s modulus as ~3 p, the shear modulus presumably using the perturbation formula from (E is Young’s modulus):3A. + 2u. u E = p — — « g3(l + 2jtz / 3A)(l - 7 + - )A + p AThe perturbation expansion to first order in p being E ~ 3 / 1.Note also, as illustrated by the plot of FIG. 12, the shear wave speed greatly magnifies the differences in speed between compressional wave speed 1560 to 1610. This is the range for differentiating between fibroadenomas and cancer.Using the formula:u = where K = 893c3- 349c2= c2(893c - 349) MPa(7es) Mass density estimationAccordingly, it is possible to utilize the multifrequency images in attenuation and remove the frequency dependent part of the ‘equivalent wavenumber’ that results from the square root transformation utilized to justify neglect of density. Once the frequency independent of the ‘equivalent wavenumber’ is determined, there remains a nonlinear second order differential equation that can be transformed in two stages into a linear second order equation (essentially a Helmholtz equation) with know n wavenumber and boundary' conditions known (it is an elliptic equation).The problem can be solved once (since it is not an inverse problem), and the spatial distribution of the density can be retrieved.Once the density is know n it is possible to estimate the bulk modulus by virtue of the formula:KThe density dependent wave equation is known to be V p + — p = V • (ypVp) -co~2 ~YKP where yK= ( / € — KO) / KO, yp= p — p0) / p are the gamma object functions for compressibility' and density respectively. Pressure is p, frequency is to = 2 / rf and background speed of sound is c0. Wavenumber k = to2 / c2. Using p' = - = the equation becomesQT-121CIP1XPCTSl2p'(x) + k'2(x)p'(x) = 0 with pseudo-wavenumber given by: k'2(x) = k2(x) -—; (Vp)2+ — V2p. Note the true wavenumber k(x) = - - + itz(x). As noted the 4p22pJc(x)v 7attenuation generally follows a power law with exponent of about 1.2 or so for mammalian tissue. Accordingly, it is possible to remove the frequency dependent part. Kramer’s Kronig relations can be exactly integrated in this case and the power law for speed of sound ~0.2 ind ( ) is the frequency independent part that remains when the frequency dependent part is subtracted out.Because multiple frequency images are generated, there is access to this information. We use the identity - V2p = V • Vp + p • Sip. (proved by direct calculation).The equation now reads: k'2(x) — k2(x) = k2nd= — -V ln p - V ln + -V - 4 2 (V In p). To solve this equation we use the transformation: To solve this equation, we first 1y transform to a new y variable: - dj lnp= — d{ Iny. The equation now reads - =k2nd( ) which can be rewritten as V2y(x) + / c2nd(x)y(x) = 0.The method can include generating images at the multiple frequencies; estimating the attenuation at multiple frequencies, removing the frequency dependent part of the wavenumber, leaving / c;nd(x). solving V2y(x) + / <;2ld(x)y(x) = 0, the forward Helmholtz problemfory (suitable BCs), and estimating density as p £1 = —, for suitably determined constant, y2y2K determined by the known density of water at the boundary and in the water bath.Biot - porous mediaIt is noted that the integral equation formulation for the Biot Theory in the Acoustic approximation is provided in the imaging algorithm section (see the vector Lippmann-Schwinger equation - Fredholm of Second Kind) as well as the paraxial approximation to the Helmholtz.Expanding upon the imaging algorithm provided below a conversion to the paraxial form is provided. An explicit method for determination of the porosity parameters based on the spectral determination of speed of sound and attenuation is included.The full elastic Biot model is shown as follows:Pn P12\ ( 3t2u\=IP Q\ (Sl(Sl. u)\ _ [N(Sl x V x u). P21 P22J \d2u) 7? AV(V. U)J I 0QT-121CIP1XPCTThis is reduced via homogenization theory to effective parameters (see below for definition of the parameters):AUs+ (A + / z)grad div (Us) = -oi2(pnUs+12Uz) + ic zy (Us- Uz) na / (3 grad div [(a / n — 1)US— U;]= -w2(p21Us+ p22Uz) - iw7](Us- UJ,strain inertial viscous energy terms dissipation whereH = Hi + iH2= 1 / K(w)withPn = (1 -n)Ps+ a(nH2 / w - pf)P12 —n(Pi ~ aH2 / co) T] = cmH1P21 =a(Pi “ nH2 / M)P22 = anH2 / (u.This is a full elastic representation and the details are in Boutin et al. (C. Boutin, G. Bonnet, and P. Y. Bard, " Green functions and associated sources in infinite and stratified poroelastic media," Geophysical Journal International, vol. 90, pp. 521-550, 1987).FIGs. 13A-13D provide images showing application of porosity estimation using Biot as described herein.As shown in FIG. 13A, segmentation of marrow in tibia based on the SOS and constrained by ellipsoid gives average value 1402.2 m / s which agrees with literature values.FIG. 13B shows bone segmentation (trabecular) in tibia. FIG. 13C shows segmentation of trabecular bone in coronal and sagittal views in femur.The Table 1 below gives the quantitative accuracy of the bone marrow and speed of sound of the Biot slow wave.Table 1: comparison of segmented vs literature values for marrow7and Biot slow wave human bonemarrowBiot slow waveSOSLiterature values QTUS measured values-1410 m / s 1402, 1389-1470 m / s [2, 3] 1472, 1466m / sHomogenization in Biot context:QT-121CIP1XPCTNote that often in mathematical analysis of wave or diffusion phenomena in disordered or periodically structured media, homogenization is used. When the characteristic size of the periodicity for example is size s«l compared with the 0(1) size of the macrostructure, analytic expressions relating coefficients at the macroscopic scale based on the microstructure and the concomitant coefficients can be formulated. Furthermore, as the ratio 8->0, characteristic homogenization parameters are created. These macroscopic parameters are useful for studying wave and diffusion parameters in microstructured media. In particular in porous media:Using the notation of Boutin el al., the following model for wave propagation in porous media results:(A + 2 / z)V2Ps+ a)2pPs— aQ\72P = —V • F(x) W2p - flp - a0Ps= — K(x)Where Ps= VUSis the divergence of particle motion in the solid matrix, and a0, Q, p are parameter’s defined in the following way:P = (1 -n)ps+ pt[n + p^K^ / ia)]6 =ao= a + p^2K(< JJ) / I< JJ = a + Pi(o20Where, a = 1 —Kb / Ks. with = 3A + 2 / z / 3. the bulk modulus, and 1, m are the Lame’ parameters in standard linear elastic theory. Also fl = a — n / Ks+ t / f, and: CO is the frequency of the interrogating waveis the density of the liquid phasePlPs is the density of the solid phasen is a saturation parameterK(o>) the generalized, explicitly frequency-dependent Darcy coefficient introduced via homogenization theoryIn the above, an approximate value based on homogenization theory for straight ducts can be used:K(co) = (ik) / (vco*) / 2(V— 8ico*) / / 0(V— 8ico*); k = na2 / 8; co* = cok / nv with Jo, J2being the Bessel functions, a the radius of the ducts, and v the kinematic viscosity of the fluidThis is an acoustic approximation to the full elastic equations but presents an opportunity' for an exact solution to the Green’s function equation:fiiot 3" ^2x2^00 0- where I2x2 is the 2D identity andQT-121CIP1XPCTC • Z?2,3, n2Is a matrix Biot Green’s operator. B is the operator matrixR = PV2 -^-a°— a0V2AV2+ co2p.Using the adjoint of this matrix (i.e.. the signed matrix of cofactors, not the linear adjoint), the following solution is obtained for the Biot Green’s operator.r1 a° L °1, ( MlPlot = TZZ77T2 - M M zy fl + (W - V) -47TtU (02 — 01 ) ( La0yJ [ 0 ~PJJThis is used in the Generalized acoustic Biot Lippmann-Sch inger equation:G2x2{x - ^D'^r^d^Yi0Contains the object functions that contain the tissue characteristics. Also whereR:R2,3 ^2s. ^2,3 ^2are vectOr-valued functions on R3or R2given byP(x)r(%) = r P*)Ps(x). V • F(x).where w: R3-» R2is the 2D vector defined by:e-t5i|x|w =e-i5 X2IW IWhere it is seen that the d are effective wavenumbers in porous media and the vectorsd.=U r= fL1iAre so defined.The 81 are the effective wavenumbers.Using this Green’s function the forward problem is well defined.Furthermore, the Jacobian calculation and adjoint of the Jacobian calculation proceeds as described herein (see e g., step 4150 of FIG. 41 and SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND ON SQUARING AN OVERDETERMINED SYSTEM TO APPLY BiSTAB.QT-121CIP1XPCTThese operations respectively provide a step length and the gradient direction.This allows for the full implementation of the inversion algorithm.In one embodiment the imaged parameters are: Darcy coefficient and Porosity. FIG.13D shows an attenuation image of human (ex vivo) cadaver knee. The patella, tibia, fibula and femur are present, the tibiofemoral space is clear. This anomalous attenuation is related to the Biot generalized D’Arcy coefficient.Other embodiments can include more or fewer parameters in addition to the standard wave speed and attenuation. The other parameters that are not ‘imaged’ via this disclosure can be determined from literature values.These calculations can be carried out on CUDA or similar AMD cards / processors for speed.Acoustic theory appropriate for multiple organsNote that although orthopedic images are shown here, the porosity and density parameters apply to lungs, kidneys, liver, and other organs or abdominal imaging.Paraxial approximation for Biot wave theory’:Recall that pressure in the solid is: Ps= V USPs= USThe inhomogeneous Biot equation from above is: / [(Z + 2 / z)V2+ O)2p] -a0V2\ / ps\ _ / -VF\\ -aoe\I2- p) \ P )Rewriting this as: / (Z + 2 / z) -a0\ ^2+KO 6 ) \-a0-fij y p j \ —V / And using the matrix definitions:Gives the following form for the Biot acoustic approximation.( AV2+ B) (Ps\ = 0VJ\ P JThis can be solved using the Biot Acoustic Green’s function developed above. This leads to a generalized Lippmann- Schwinger equation that is rigorous and leads to an inversion algorithm by itself and the concomitant step length and gradient direction calculations.As can be seen from the images, it is possible to detect the slow Biot nonstandard compression wave (P wave) and have segmented the trabecular bone region interior to the boneQT-121CIP1XPCTand obtained a value commensurate with the predicted speed of sound for this slow Biot wave, yielding clinically valuable effective parameters.Paraxial approximation:This vector Helmholtz equation can be approximately factored into / (A + 2rt -a0\V2+0 V(VAV + iVB)(VAV - <7B) \ 0 O ' \ (X-o p / Where P = (a — ri) / Ks+ n / K is a. volume averaged ‘averaged’ Bulk modulus And a is a relative difference modulus, and a0is a frequency dependent relative difference modulus with the effective Darcy coefficient K:a= 1 — Kb / Ks, a0= a + piO)2K(a)) / ia) The matrix square root can be found in the standard way for A and B:This leads to the parabolic PDE (paraxial approximation);(VAV - lVB)P « 0By direct calculation then:We are working in the acoustic approximation, so p ~ 0 andSo that finally the acoustic approximation ( / Z ~ 0) Biot theory' reads:Paraxial approximation in suitable formQT-121CIP1XPCTThe w ave equation for the Biot acoustic model in the paraxial approximation now reads in a form that allows for determination of the effective speed of sound and other parameters:0Now the inverse of sqrt(A ) can be calculated and the appropriate calculation carried out explicitly to yield:-i ao(p!0 — A / I) roJp 0 T^eIJe O)2p + ftSo that now the wave (factored) equation is using:rr r — «oA / A) CCO(j.-J'p My / 'pP) 1 - ~e - + p iyfpyjAAnd the acoustic approximation, p ~ 0 as below:That is, explicitly2x2^.a —i —o1 - 1^6 a>2p + ft A- eri <(o2p + p If we neglect terms that have w, w in the denominator, we get:.cro(V0 - VI)1 12x2^ — i1^ = 0 pj0Note also the simplification:QT-121CIP1XPCTao(y[0 - VI) _ aoA - 0 “ yfe + VISo thatIt is possible to separate out parametersNote this form makes clear that there is only one component that truly corresponds to a propagating wave, (although the complex values of the effective parameters indicates a mixture of modes).Note that as expected the relevant parameters, q, b, 1 all occur in square root form and the frequency occurs linearly in this approximation.The bottom equation is diffusion since(3 = (a — ri) / Ks+ n / Kfis a. volume averaged ‘averaged’ Bulk modulus and 1 is real.Also a is a relative difference modulus, and ao is a frequency dependent relative difference modulus with the effective Darcy coefficient K:a= 1 — Kb / Ks, a0= a + p;m2K(oj) / tm The top equation reads:VPS- i— “I- - = 0VI VlV0(Ve + VI)The last term is diffusion like (although sqrth / ) is complex so there is a propagation component) and corresponds to evanescent waves that won’t propagate to the receiver arrays.Recall that / ? = (a — ri) / Ks+ andthat a = 1 — Kb / Ks, a0= a + p;w2K(w) / l oAlso recalla0, 6, p are parameters defined in the following way:QT-121CIP1XPCTP = (1 - n)ps+ pi[n + p^K^ / ia)]6 — K(o)) / i(j)a0— a + piO)2K(a)) / ia) — a + Pico29 The equation approximately yields: (ignoring the evanescent waves)vps- i^fp„ = o.This has form of a paraxial wave propagation with an effective wavenumber keff =ceffWhererCeff ~ Jp’Define the effective wavenumber and speed of sound. Note the numerator is interpreted as the known Lame’ coefficient (first). The denominator is complex valued and has effective components involving porosity and the effective Darcy coefficient K. This K also encapsulates information about the size of the ‘ducts' in the porous medium and its tortuosity.Under certain assumptions, it is possible to measure the effective parameters which contain porosity (w), and the effective Darcy coefficient.These parameters may thus be effectively estimated in parts of the body and give phenomenological basis for the measurements related to and affected by osteoporotic conditions.This may allow monitoring and / or early detection of osteoporosis.To consider the frequency dependence of q or r, the following is provided.- - = Re(fceyy)^measFrom which the real and imaginary parts of the Ce^ can be read off.QT-121CIP1XPCTAlso note thatPR= (i -n)Ps+ pzn + p2wK;(w)Pz= -P?" KR(CO)Rep = (1 ~ ri)ps+ pzn + pz2wKz(w) = —7 -5 - «2w \^measImp = — pz2wKR(to) = — 2a -^measTherefore, the following overdetermined system can be set up to solve for the porosity and the effective complex D’Arcy coefficients. (K, real and imaginary parts). / A / w?9\\—Ps+~p. (^2a) / Pl -Ps 0 A0 0 — 2an 1 metis K0;Pi ~ PspfoN A / 2—pja)NPs ~~p ( 72 v'measaA\ \-2 cr^N^-meas ' This can be solved in multiple ways including pseudo-inverse in the sense of Penrose:■ 1 2x = argmmx^HAx-bH2X 'T x-1ATb / n \X = ( KR )\KZ / Note that a parametric dependence of K on frequency yields the relationships:For frequencies:a)j,j = 1,..., N2N x (1 + 2(NK+ 1)) = 2N x (3 + 2NK)Where the constraints on the parametric form of K is given by:KR(m) = KO+ K^CO1; KR(to) = K0+ KjOp; j = 1,.. NKKR(W) = Kj(i)J; j = 0,.. NK2 / V - 3 3NK< —— = N — —; NK< N — 2QT-121CIP1XPCTThis places constraints on the number of parameters but NK~ 2 is likely and N is ~20 or more so in fact NK« N — 2 and the system is greatly overdetermined which allows for noisy data to be compensated for.Accordingly, it is possible to detect clinically relevant parameters by measuring the speed of sound in trabecular bone as outlined above by segmentation or similar means, estimating porosity, and estimating Effective Darcy coefficient KIn one embodiment the relationship:p= (1 — n)ps+ pt(n — ipiCoK^a))) is used:VT(1) ceyy = - = is measured by segmentation based on obtained images.V P(2) r is determined from ceff — -= where 1 is the first Lame' coefficient for bone and is assumed known, since the bone matrix itself is assumed to change in a known way with osteoporosis. For example, the bone itself loses volume content, but the chemical nature of the small amount of bone remaining is the same.(3) The relation: ceyy =. —=[Pp ~ iPi shows thatceff has a complex part.JpR+iPl'P'NSee above and JpR- ipI= 71 / 2 (Jlpl + PR~ i J|p| “ PR^A (4) The relationship p = — — is used to determine real and imaginary parts of r.Ceff(5) Re p = (1 — n)ps+ pin is used to estimate porosity.(6) Im p = —p ajKQi)) is used to estimate the Darcy coefficient since other parameters are known.The imaginary part of Ce^ is known to contain attenuation. This can be removed based on the known power law for attenuation of bone.The remaining anomalous attenuation is used in the above calculations.This anomalous attenuation has been observed in our images and it is related to the porosity parameters as well, (see above).The generalized Darcy coefficient (based on homogenization) is treated as a phenomenological parameter that is calculated for various stages of osteoporosis and interpreted after the fact in clinical situations after numerous data have been obtained.In one particular embodiment, only the real part is used to estimate porosity’.QT-121CIP1XPCTOver time clinical results would be tabulated so that the relative effective values could be used for diagnosis or as an aid.Another embodiment involves using l+2m in place of 1 as an effective first Lame’ coefficient in the above derivation.Another embodiment: The Darcy coefficient (based on homogenization) is treated as a phenomenological parameter that is calculated for various stages of osteoporosis and interpreted after the fact in clinical situations after numerous data have been obtained.Of course, instead of using the paraxial approximation, the full acoustic Biot approximation may be used. In this case the more complete formula for the effective wavenumber from the integral equation developed above may be used. In this case the simplified wavenumber developed above for the paraxial approximation may be used.Furthermore, as a body of images and effective values are developed it is possible to train a U-net, or encoder-decoder or other relevant NN to determine porosity.Transfer learning could be used to utilize ResNet or a multitude of other “Universal” models (LLM) that are trained on the described data.In another embodiment the image used for segmentation is created with machine learning (ML), including, but not limited to, deep neural nets (DNN), encoder-decoder architecture, GAN (including e.g. cycleGAN), transfer learning, etc.The acoustic Biot approximation equations can also be solved in the standard way with finite difference frequency domain methods (FDFD), or with finite element methods.This disclosure shows the ability to estimate porosity and other medically relevant parameters using the acoustic Biot model.In an embodiment, a method of imaging an object having variable density can include determining images of the object at multiple frequencies; estimating the attenuation of the object at multiple frequencies from the images of the object at multiple frequencies; estimating the speed of sound of the object at multiple frequencies from the images of the object at multiple frequencies; expressing the attenuation of the object at multiple frequencies and the speed of sound of the object at multiple frequencies as an elastic Biot model; performing a paraxial approximation of the elastic Biot model; and obtaining an image of the object based on the paraxial approximation of the elastic Biot model, wherein the image shows the variable density of the object.Topological ComplexityAs a result of imaging using any of the imaging techniques described herein, it is possible to obtain various information from the images. For example, through variousQT-121CIP1XPCTtechniques described herein it is possible to perform selective segmentation of ductal tissue, identifying the ductal tissue independent of glandular, fat, connective tissue and skin tissue in the breast. Once the ductal tissue has been segmented, the structure of the human breast ducts / tissues can be analyzed. A quantitative measure of topological complexity can be obtained from the analysis. Similar analyses can be carried out on segmented images of glandular tissue (independent of ductal tissue) and images containing both glandular tissue and ductal tissue. As used herein, "ductal tissue” refers to the ducts, or tubes, that transport milk to the nipple, while “glandular tissue” is used to refer to the glands in the breast including lobes and lactiferous lobules (that make milk).FIG. 14A shows a method of generating a quantitative measure of topological complexity. For example, referring to FIG. 14A, a method 1400 can be performed including receiving 1410, at a computing system, a reconstruction image of a breast, the reconstruction image comprising image data corresponding to a plurality of transmission frequencies used by a transmitter of an imaging system; generating 1420, by the computing system, an image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue, or fibroglandular tissue from the reconstruction image of the breast; and determining 1430, by the computing system, a quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the image. The computing system can be implemented as described with respect to computing system 5600 of FIG.56 with appropriate instructions stored thereon for the any of the methods described herein for generating and / or using a quantitative measure of topological complexity.The reconstruction image of the breast that includes image data corresponding to a plurality of transmission frequencies can be a high resolution image. A high resolution reconstruction image can be generated as described herein, for example, using predicate images (in the reconstruction algorithm) of multiple frequencies (at increasing frequencies or some other pattern such as described above with respect to recipes and frequency recipes) to generate a high resolution image (which may be considered a multi -frequency image since it contains information from predicate images of different frequencies in its reconstruction). While details have been provided herein of various reconstruction algorithms that may be used, it should be noted that the quantitative measure of topological complexity of a breast may be carried out on images obtained from not only quantitative transmission ultrasound but also MRI.Generating (1420) the image can include performing, by the computing system, segmentation operations on the reconstruction image to generate a preliminary image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, a combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue, or fibroglandular tissue.QT-121CIP1XPCTMorphological operations, such as erosion, can be applied to the preliminary image to generate the glandular image.For determining (1430) a quantitative measure of topological complexity, a graph can be generated from the image and a quantitative measure of topological complexity can be generated from the graph. The graph can be a 2D graph or a 3D graph. The 3D graph may be nonplanar or planar.The ductal tissue can have a tree-like structure. By applying erosion to an image comprising ductal tissue, a 3D non-planar graph can be created. The graph generated from the ductal image can be analyzed for cycles, etc.Alternatively, layers can be analyzed independently as a series of planar graphs. In such cases, each level graph may be independently analyzed.The size and order of relevant graphs and sub-graphs can be determined. The graph(s) can be evaluated using adjacency, incidence, distance, Laplacian matrices, or a combination thereof. The spectral properties of the adj acency matrix and derived matrices can be considered characteristics of the breast ductal and / or glandular system.In some cases, certain quadrants or sub-volumes of the breast are separately evaluated to generate an associated quantitative measure of topological complexity. These different quadrants or sub-volumes can be separately tracked over time and / or used in tracking and / or diagnosing disease.In various implementations, a software program, plug-in. or module may be provided with instructions to generate a quantitative measure of topological complexity using the graphbased approach for any suitable reconstructed image (e.g., of sufficient resolution). FIG. 14B shows an example process of a graph-based approach for determining topological complexity'. Referring to FIG. 14B, process 1450 includes instructions to perform (1452) segmentation operations on a reconstructed image to generate a preliminary image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, or a combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue; apply (1454) morphological operations to the preliminary image to generate a ductal and / or glandular image; generate (1456) a graph from the ductal and / or glandular image; and generate (1458) a quantitative measure of topological complexity from the graph. In some cases, an image of fibroglandular tissue may be generated and converted to a graph for generating a quantitative measure.Returning to FIG. 14A, instead of the graph-based approach, for determining (1430) a quantitative measure of topological complexity, the preliminary image can be analyzed as a 2D (or even ID) manifold representation. Here, persistent homology is applied. As such, determining (1430) the quantitative measure of topological complexity’ of the breast from theQT-121CIP1XPCTimage can include evaluating the preliminary image based on algebraic topology, which can include applying a Morse function to the image, obtaining Betti numbers from the image, determining homology groups, cohomology' ring, homotopy, or a combination thereof. Cohomolgical data are determined by treating the homological data as vector spaces. The cohomology7refers to the space of continuous linear mappings from these homology vector spaces to R (real numbers) (also referred to as the adjoint or dual of the vector space).As with the graph approach, in some cases of the algebraic topology approach, certain quadrants or sub-volumes of the breast are separately evaluated to generate an associated quantitative measure of topological complexity'. These different quadrants or sub-volumes can be separately tracked over time and / or used in tracking and / or diagnosing disease.As an illustrative example, connected components (0thhomology’ group), first homology group, and second homology group can be obtained. The zeroth (0th) homology group can be used to count connected components. These may be further counted as different connected components within each quadrant of the breast or each quadrant of the breast at each level. The zeroth homology group will determine the number of connected components in the breast ductal or glandular structures. The first homology group is a measure of the number of ID ‘loops’ that are the boundary' of some surface in the 2D manifold. In particular they do not disconnect the manifold upon their removal. For example, for a 2-torus the H()( ) = Z and A =1 - The first homology' group of a manifold(A / ),j=l, is a measure of the number of independent 1 -cycles that are boundaries of a 2-simplex. For example a 2-torus has 77j (A2) = Z ®Z, the direct sum of the two copies of the integers, and corresponding Betti number = 2.The 2nd (second) Homology group is related to the number of 3D holes in the 2D manifold. This can all be made precise in the context of Homology theory (e.g. Vick). Since the 2D manifold is isometrically embedded into 3D space many of the intricacies of the fully developed theory’ are not required. In particular, torsion does not occur since the manifold is oriented and embedded in 3-space so the coefficient group can be taken as the real numbers for simplicity'. For example, for a 2-torus the H2T2) = Z and fl. = 1.There is no torsion since the 2D manifold is embedded in 3D space and orientable. Thus, the Betti numbers can reflect topological complexity7. The homology’ groups and cohomology rings measure the 2D and 3D holes in the structure and provide a unique indexQT-121CIP1XPCTfor each patient related to the Betti numbers for the ductal and / or glandular tissue structures treated as a 2D manifold.In addition to the graph techniques and homology / cohomology based techniques, geometric estimation may be used for estimating topological complexity. For example, topological complexity can be determined by calculating a surface area and a volume of breast fibroglandular tissue. Calculating the surface area and the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue can include evaluating fibroglandular tissue, glandular tissue, ductal tissue, or a combination of glandular and ductal tissue from a segmented image of the reconstruction image. A complexity value can be generated by calculating a ratio of the surface area to the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue, calculating Betti numbers, calculating surface area and / or volume of fibroglandular tissue or glandular or ductal tissue separately or in combination, calculating a Morse Index, or a combination thereof.The above described indices can be considered characteristics of a patient and not only monitored over time, but also have application to risk assessments as the indices may be correlated to various disease states.For example, the interface between the fibroglandular tissue and fat is where it is hypothesized most cancers develop and so the complexity7of the fibroglandular (ductal and glandular together or separately) tissue may be a risk factor for cancer. Surface area vs volume, as well as the graph theory -based approach and persistent homology evaluations can produce quantitative markers that correlate with disease states of the breast. Furthermore, estimating fibroglandular tissue is an important risk factor for cancer, in particular the ratio of fibroglandular volume to total breast volume (minus the skin) is an important measure known as mammographic breast density (also referred to as QBD).Accordingly, in some implementations, the quantitative measure of topological complexity (from any of the graph, homology, and geometric techniques) can be provided as an input to a risk assessment model. For example, the described quantitative measures may be used for a Tyrer-Cuzick risk assessment model. As another example, the quantitative measure of topological complexity can be an input to a machine learning model for breast cancer risk assessment.It is possible to extract radiomic features, including aspects of the quantitative measures of topological complexity as described herein, from the images of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue, or fibroglandular tissue. These radiomic features can be used in prognostic, predictive, and therapeutic response assessment. To this end, a system can be provided for prognostic, predictive, and response assessmentsQT-121CIP1XPCTbased on quantitative imaging maps (e.g., from the described reconstructed images). Such a system can include an imaging module configured to generate quantitative imaging maps (which in some cases can involve the adaptable imaging methods described herein), a feature extraction module that can be configured to derive radiomic features from the quantitative imaging maps, and a prediction module that uses the derived radiomic features to forecast clinical outcomes. The feature extraction module can extract features including the various quantitative measures of topological complexity and other characteristics that can be observed in the imaging maps. In some cases, the prediction module can include a machine learning model trained on historical patient data to predict individual patient outcomes based on the radiomic features (e.g., and associated patterns). In some cases, the feature extraction module is configured to quantify feature changes over the course of treatment, providing real-time feedback for therapeutic adjustments. In some cases, the prediction module uses an algorithm that is optimized to distinguish between various prognostic groups, therapeutic response profiles, or adverse event risks based on specific patterns within the radiomic features.It is possible to develop a large data set with quantitative measures of topological complexity so as to train any number of different machine learning models for cancer risk assessment utilizing topological complexity as one of the features. Not only can single measures be used, but the change of the quantitative measure over time may be used.Indeed, it is possible to generate and store quantitative measures of topological complexity of a patient’s breast over a period of time, tracking the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast over a period of time from reconstruction images of the breast of a patient captured at different times over the period of time. Indeed, it is possible to follow glandular tissue (by itself) or ductal tissue (by itself) over time, including over one or more menstrual cycles. These topological and time dependent characteristics can be tracked for sub-volumes of the breast. For example, it is possible to track quadrants at different levels of the breast (and over time) or at sub-areolar sub-volumes or near axillary sub-volumes of interest.A method can include determining a presence of or likelihood of developing a disease using a model that includes a correlation of the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast over the period of time to the presence of or the likelihood of developing the disease. In this manner, it is possible to determine a patient’s prognosis by correlating specific radiomic feature values (including the described quantitative measures) with survival rates, disease recurrence probabilities, or disease progression risk levels. In addition, the radiomic features (including the described quantitative measures) can be used to predict patient responseQT-121CIP1XPCTto a designated therapy by assessing feature changes that correlate with responsiveness, resistance, or adverse event likelihood. These features can be repeatedly assessed over time to monitor and quantify a patient’s response to therapy, facilitating adaptive modifications in the therapeutic regimen based on detected changes in these features.It is possible to integrate clinical and demographic data with the extracted radiomic features to enhance prognostic, predictive, and response assessment accuracy, wherein the combination of clinical, demographic, and radiomic data provides a composite score for patient stratification.The quantitative measure of topological complexify can be used in conjunction with other features including tissue type identification (which may optionally be included in available radiomic features that can be extracted from images generated as described herein). For example, the power law parameters extracted from the speed of sound / attenuation images such as described above can be used to improve the accuracy of the quantitative measure of topological complexify by further differentiating tissue types and assisting in identifying regions of the breast that are more likely to contain cancerous tissue. In some cases, a method can include quantitatively determining a spectral behavior of speed of sound and attenuation images of a reconstruction image to identify tissue types based on a power law correlation of linear coefficients associated with attenuation, speed of sound or other tissue characteristic (see e.g., power law section above) to a tissue type and / or abnormality; and using the tissue type and / or abnormality information with the quantitative measure of topological complexify (e.g., for the breast as a whole, a segment of the breast, or a specific region based on the abnormality information) for further assessments.The various images may be displayed in a graphical user interface and visual representations related to the quantitative measures of topological complexify can be provided. For example, the quantitative measure of topological complexify can be determined for a right breast and left breast of a patient. A visual indicator for a difference betw een the topological complexify of the right breast and the left breast of the patient can be provided for display. For example, it is possible to highlight differences in the presence of cancer in one breast compared to the other.In some cases, a visual representation of the quantitative measure of topological complexify of breasts for a plurality of patients having one or more similar characteristics can be generated. The one or more similar characteristics comprise one or more demographic characteristics, genetic characteristics, or a combination thereof. Demographic characteristics can include, but are not limited to, age. Genetic characteristics can include, but are not limitedQT-121CIP1XPCTto, epidermal growth factor receptor - HER1-2 and gene expressions (e.g., BRCA1 or BRCA2). For example, a visual representation of the quantitative measure of topological complexity’ of breasts for a plurality' of patients having similar gene expressions can be generated.FIGs. 15A and 15B show example images of ductal structures. The complexity of the breast ductal tissue is apparent from the images.FIG. 16 shows a plot of VolparaDensity to mammographic density’ estimated by techniques described herein. Referring to FIG. 16, the relationship between the projection based method (Volpara™ ) applied to digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT) and the mammographic density' methods such as described herein shows the inability of the Volpara™ method to resolve high density values correctly. Related to this is the complexity of the breast. The more complex the topological nature of the fibroglandular tissue is, the more likely the estimate is to be incorrect. Therefore, a quantitative determination of the complexity of the breast is important. The homological index provides, through persistent homology, Morse functions, and graph theory quantitative measures of topological complexity that are computable yvith modem compute power.The quantitative measure of topological complexity can be used to provide a correction factor to the Volpara estimate or other surrogate estimates of breast density (e g., other volumetric breast density estimate provided by mammography based software). The correction factor can be based on size, density, and complexity of the fibroglandular tissue. For example, the complexity in the form of a complexity value calculated from geometric estimations or quantitative measures from graph theory or homology / cohomology based techniques can be used.Imaging AlgorithmsThere will be several types of algorithms discussed herein:(1) sine basis, rectangular coordinate, convolutional algorithms(2) cylindrical and rectangular coordinate recursion(3) Parabolic (Spectral and Finite difference ) marching methods(4) Refraction corrected reflectivity and brightness functional gradient method adaptive focus.(5) Calibration algorithms employed in the cases (1), (2), and (3), which can be used to optimize resolution and quantitative accuracy (e.g., enhancement of inversion capability).These methods can be used for generating images from wave field energy applied to an unknown scattering object, which is then measured at some finite distance away from said scattering object. The incorporation of these algorithms support the production of accurateQT-121CIP1XPCTreconstructions of distributions of parameters which characterize the scattering object. These parameters may be "reflectivity" in the case methods such as (4) above, or they may be speed of sound, attenuation, compressibility, electromagnetic dielectric constants, conductivity, or Lame' parameters in the case of the more advanced and time intensive algorithms such as described with respect to (1-3) above. Furthermore, the reconstructions may or may not be quantitatively accurate depending upon the computational complexity of a given algorithm, and the amount of computational effort expended to obtain the reconstruction image.Certain algorithms described herein use the scattering potential (y) as the sole independent variable in the nonlinear minimization problem related to inverse scattering, (see example 1 below, for details).It is defined herein a functional F=||R||2where the residual R is defined as the difference between two values at the detectors: these two values being (1) the scattered field value at the detectors predicted by the forw ard problem on the basis of a postulated scattering potential distribution and (2) the measured value of the scattered field, i.e. R = fcaIc— fmeas.The essence of the described method (apart from the appropriate techniques to substantially reduce the computational cost of the algorithm) is the iterative construction of y^. forn = 1,2, such that y^ ~ y7"". until finally VF ~ 0. Given a guess ynone calculates the derivative of F with respect to y, in order to calculate the next guess, y(n+1). The actual calculation of this derivative is detailed below. The functional to minimize is interpreted as depending on the scattering potential alone and not both the internal fields and the scattering potential. Symbolically, if one calls the functional that is minimized F, one can write: F = F(y, f) to indicate the dependence upon y, the scattering potential (see glossary), and f. the total field inside of the obj ect. Here, the internal fields f are considered as intermediate variables dependent upon y, i.e. f = f(y) so that the functional F = F(y, f(y)) = F(y).This employment of one variable instead of two involves much more than merely neglecting (or holding constant) one of the variables. Rather, as indicated above, the effect of changing variable y. has a nontrivial effect upon the other variables (^(y), the field due to the incident wave from position cp and at frequency or. for each possible cp and m. The net result is a functional that is highly nonlinear in the remaining variable y, and therefore much more difficult to solve numerically.As used herein "real-time" is defined as the performance which allows for practical, clinical implementation of breast scanners, or of geophysical imaging apparatus, or of Non-QT-121CIP1XPCTDestructive Imaging of composite material. The data is collected and processed on-site, not sent off-site to be processed.It can be seen that the construction and utilization of suitable Green’s functions (e.g., the layered Green’s functions) enables improved applicability of the inverse scattering algorithm. The layered Green's function takes the place of the free space Green's function in the presence of multiple layering in the environment surrounding the space to be imaged. This layered Green's function allows the quantitative imaging of objects located within an arbitrary distribution of layers of constant speed. The presence of these layers within the Green's function obviates the need to encompass them within the computation grid.The described convolutional structure is incorporated into not only -the free space Green's function, but also into the layered Green's, the acoustic Biot Green's function, the elastic (including shear wave motion) Green's function, and into all combinations of these Green's functions. Furthermore the direct application of this convolutional structure to the inverse scattering algorithm is used in conjunction with operations including the use of biconjugate gradients and BiConjugate Gradients Stabilized [BiSTAB],For the inverse scattering problem, iterative methods are used for the overall nonlinear system and the linear systems that arise during its solution. Three different nonlinear iterations are used: the Gauss-Newton (GN) iteration, the Fletcher-Reeves (FR) nonlinear conjugate gradient iteration, and a modification of the Fletcher-Reeves algorithm— the Ribiere-Polak (RP) iteration. All three nonlinear iterations are described in [Fletcher, R. D., 1980, Practical Methods of Optimization, Vol. I, Unconstrained Optimization, John Wiley and Sons, New York] herein incorporated by reference.The GN iteration is the fastest in CPU time per step but is not guaranteed to be globally convergent unless CPU time intensive exact line searches are used. Empirically it was found that the GN method sometimes fails or requires more steps in the presence of high contrast in the scattering parameters. The more CPU intensive FR and RP iterations have been found to succeed for many of these high contrast / large size problems. The optimum strategy is often to use a combination: start with FR or RP when far from the solution and then switch to the faster GN iteration as the solution is neared. All three methods require utilization of the Jacobian of the scattering equations.As provided herein, the Jacobian can be implemented entirely with shift invariant operations (FFT computable), thus avoiding explicit storage and time consuming direct matrix calculations. This is opposed to other techniques which require explicit storage of the JacobianQT-121CIP1XPCT(requiring a very large amount of memory) and which implement its effect on a given vector by a direct matrix product (requiring enormous CPU time).During the computation of a nonlinear step with the above methods, linear systems are encountered. The use of the minimum residual conjugate gradient (MRCG) method and the biconjugate gradient (BCG) (and the stabilized BCG or " BiSTAB") method, for the efficient solution of these linear systems are among the other ideas that can be present to create a workable and practical method of imaging in real time. Biconjugate gradients (or BiSTAB) is used to solve the forward problems. These problems are amenable to the BCG method because they have the same number of unknowns as they have equations to solve (they are "square" systems). The use of BCG results in approximately the square root of the number of iterations required by traditional conjugate gradients (CG) used in our previous patent. This BCG implementation of the forward problem also plays a critical role in the shift invariant operator implementation of the Jacobian.The MRCG algorithm can be utilized to solve the overdetermined (non-square) Jacobian equation that is encountered when computing a GN linearization. This obviates the need for a computationally intensive matrix inversion and avoids the introduction of a "regularizing" parameter since the MRCG algorithm is self-regularizing. This also results in a substantial savings in time. The FR and RP iterations are themselves nonlinear versions of the MRCG algorithm.The examples given herein assume that the different frequencies, or. and source positions, cp, are all computed in serial fashion. It is important to note, however, that the different frequencies and different views are independent computations (in both the forward problem and Jacobian calculations), and therefore can be computed in parallel. The implementation of this parallelization is explained in detail below.A Bom-like approximation can be made within the Jacobian. This is not the standard Bom approximation common in optics and acoustical imaging (diffraction imaging). This approximation has a much greater radius of convergence than the standard Bom approximation.[Borup, 1992], Its purpose is to give a much faster w ay of computing the Jacobian in the presence of high contrast objects than would be possible if the exact Jacobian (see glossary for definition of terms) were used in the Gauss-Newton algorithm (or FR and RP algorithms).Since operators are provided based on Green's theorem that allow' the scattering at the border of the convolution range to be extrapolated to receivers at any position external to the border, it is possible for receivers with complicated shapes (non-point receivers) to be used inQT-121CIP1XPCTdata collection. Furthermore, empirical measurements of the radiation patterns of the receiver elements (and their mutual coupling and cross talk) can be built into these projection operators.The described algorithms can handle geometries where the source or receiver locations do not completely circumscribe the object or where the solid angles defined by the source or receivers with respect to the body are small. This applies to not only the acoustic case, but also to the elastic and electromagnetic scenarios. The presence of layering is now incorporated into the Green's function so that it actually helps to increase the resolution in the incomplete view problem.In addition to exploiting the Cartesian convolution structure of the scattering equations, it is possible to utilize cylindrical coordinates since, when expressed in cylindrical coordinates, the scattering equations become separably symmetric in the radial coordinate while retaining convolutional form in the angular coordinate. A general 1-D operator requires order N2arithmetic operations. One dimensional convolutions can be implemented by FFT in order Nlog2(N) arithmetic operations while separably symmetric kernels can be implemented recursively with order N arithmetic. Thus, cylindrical coordinates offer considerable improvement in speed. An even greater savings can be realized by going a step further by radially recurring multiple view scattering operators. This allows the calculation of the solution of the forward problems for all views (source positions) in order N3log2(N) arithmetic as compared to order Nbc^N3log2(N) arithmetic for the 2-D FFT, BCG approach (N / jc^ is the number of BCG iterations required for adequate convergence). This approach to forward problems scattering also has the advantage that it is non-iterative-it requires a fixed amount of computation. This is particularly fortuitous since there are cases where the BCG iteration fails to converge.In addition to cylindrical coordinate recursion, a scattering matrix recursion in rectangular coordinates is possible. This new approach can be shown to require only order N3operations for computing all views of a 2-D scattering problem.The following explanation of notation is given to facilitate obtaining an understanding of certain algorithms described herein. The scattering potential y changes from point to point within an object or body as well as changing with frequency of the incident field. Thus Ya>j = Ya>(xj)>xj R3or R3used to signify the scattering potential at pixel j or point j, for the incident field at frequency (i), y^can be considered to be the vector composed of all values ofQT-121CIP1XPCTj. i.e. for all pixels: y(1= (yCdly(Z)2where T indicates "transpose". For purposes of exposition and simplicity', the following considers the case where y is independent of frequency, although this is not necessary’.Notation: vector field notationThe folloyving notation denotes a vector field describing elastic waves, or electromagnetic waves:f(r) = (x, y, z) = (fxSx,y,z.T denotes ‘‘transpose” to represent the total field. The incident field is the field that would be present if there was no object present to image. In the case of layering in the ambient medium, it is the field that results from the unblemished, piecewise constant layering.The scattered field is the difference between the total field and the incident field, it represents that part of the total field that is due to the presence of the inhomogeneity, e.g., the "mine" for the undersea ordnance locater, the hazardous waste cannister for the hazardous waste locator, the school of fish for the echo-fish locator / counter, and the malignant tumor for the breast scanner: fs(r) = f(r) — P(r) / fsx(x,y,z)\fs(r) = fysCx,y,z)\fsz(x,y,z}jT — denotes “transpose”denotes the scalar incident field coming from direction (source position) q> at frequency co. The r could represent either a 3 dimensional, or a 2 dimensional vector of position.Scalar field notationA scalar field is indicated by a nonbold f (r), r 6 R3.EXAMPLE 1ACOUSTIC SCATTERING-SCALAR MODEL EQUATIONSQT-121CIP1XPCTThis first example is designed to give the basic structure of the algorithm and to point out why it is so fast in this particular implementation compared to present state of the art. The background medium is assumed to be homogeneous medium (no layering). This example will highlight the exploitation of convolutional form via the FFT, the use of the Frechet derivative in the Gauss-New ton and FR-RP algorithms, the use of the biconjugate gradient algorithm (BCG) for the forward problems, the independence of the different view, and frequency, forward problems. It will also set up some examples which will elucidate the patent terminology. The field can be represented by a scalar quantity f. The object is assumed to have finite extent The speed of sound within the object is c = c(x). The speed of sound in the background medium is the constant co. The mass density is assumed to be constant. The attenuation is modeled as the imaginary part of the wavespeed. These are simplifying assumptions, which we make so as to focus on the important aspects of the imaging algorithm. By no means is the imaging algorithm restricted to the scalar case, either in theory, or, more importantly, in practical implementation.We consider the tw o dimensional case first of all (equivalently the object and incident fields are assumed to be constant in one direction). Given an acoustic scatterer with constant mass density and constant cross-section in z, illuminated by a time harmonic incident field, fM(pinC, with eia>ttime dependence and source position (incident angle), (p. the total field satisfies the following integral equation.~ ff r (?) (?) 9<» (|P - P'|) dx dy (1)c2 where y = -7 — 1c2p = (x, y) and where f =is the field internal to the object at frequency co and resulting from the incident field from source position,: fa)<pmC. The 2-D Helmholtz Green's function is given by:, 29M(\P " P' | ) = 47 C \p - p' |)(2)where HQ is the Hankel function of the second kind, and zeroth order.Now7it is required to compare the field measured at the detectors, with the field as predicted by a given guess, y^n\ for y. To accomplish this, first define the scattered field at the detectors as the total field minus the incident field.QT-121CIP1XPCTf^P) =This represents the field due entirely to the scattering potential. Using this relation to rewrite (1). gives) = ff y (P) (P) P. (|P - P I)dx dy <2These two equations, (1) and (2) are the basis of the imaging algorithm. They must be discretized, then exported to the computer in order to solve practical imaging problems. The purpose of the apparatus and method herein described, is to solve the discretized form of these equations without making any linearizing assumptions (such as used in conventional diffraction tomography), and in real time, with presently available computers.DISCRETIZATION OF THE ACOUSTIC FREE-SPACE LIPPMANN SCHWINGER INTEGRAL EQUATION AND GREEN'S FUNCTION— 2D FREE SPACE CASELet us for a moment drop the frequency and source position subscripts. The scalar field "y / ” is given byDiscretization of the integral equation is achieved by first decomposing this function into a linear combination of certain (displaced) basis functionsNxyNy c f x'-n'8 \n' = l Yy'-m'SJ (3) where it has been assumed that the scatterer y lies within the support [0, Nx5] x [0, Ny< S]- -a rectangular subregion.The basis functions S can be arbitrary except that we should have cardinality at the grid nodes:whereas for all other choices of n', m'.(n'6\S „ I = 0, n', m' 0\m'6 jAn example of such a function is the 2-D "hat" function. The algorithm uses the "sine" function as its basic building block-the Whittaker sine function which is defined as:,xsin ( TTX)sinc(%) = — - — -nxQT-121CIP1XPCTThe two dimensional basis functions are defined by the tensor product:5(y'-m's)= sinc(( ' - n'8) / 8) ■ sinc((y' - m'5) / 5) (4) If the equality in equation (3) is presumed to hold at the grid points x=n5, y=m5: the coefficients anm can be determined to be precisely the value of the field yfvf (x’\ _ yNx(n'8\ f (n'8\ (x'-n'8\\y'J ^-‘n'=l = l ym'Sj J ym'Sj yy'—m'Sj ' Now this expression for the product yf can be substituted into (1):21'n m In particular this equation holds at(x\ _ (nS\ yy J \m8 ) for which we get: A = f - yNxyNyn = l,..., NxJ nm J nm ^-‘n'=± ^-‘m =\ ' n m ' n m & n—n,m—m ’ ni = 1,..., Ny >where the 2-D discrete Green's function is defined as:g(n — — m') =<s) Although it is not clear that the dependence of g on m and n is as so stated, in is indeed the case, since we have by the substitution of the transformationx -» x 4- n8y' -> y' + m'5into this last equation show s explicitly that the discretized Green's function "g", does in fact depend only on the differences n — n', and m — m". Thus the discrete equation (7) has inherited the convolutional form of the continuous equation (1). It is this fact which allows the use of the 2-D FFT to compute the summation in (8) in only order NxNylog2(NxNy) arithmetic operations and is therefore critical to the real-time speed of the algorithm.QT-121CIP1XPCTEXTENSION OF THE METHOD TO REMOTE RECEIVERS WITH ARBITRARY CHARACTERISTICSThere is a case that the receivers do not lie within the range of the convolution and / or they are not simple point receivers. It is well known that, given source distributions within an enclosed boundary, the scattered field every where external to the boundary7can be computed from the values of the field on the boundary by an application of Green's theorem with a suitably chosen Green's function, i.e.:fs(p) — <$Bfs(p ^P(p,p ^ dl,p outside boundary B (12)where P is the Green's function, the integral is about the boundary, and dl' is the differential arclength (in the 3-D case, the integral is on an enclosing surface). Equation (12) allows for the construction of a matrix operator which maps the boundary7values of the rectangular support of the convolution (2 Nx+ 2 Ny— 4 values in the discrete case) to values of the scattered field external to the rectangle. Furthermore, this "propagator matrix" can be generalized to incorporate more complex receiver geometries. For example, suppose that the receiver can be modeled as an integration of the scattered field over some support function, i.e.;vn= signal from receiver n = J fs(p)Sn(p ds (13) where Snis the support of receiver n. Then from (12):vn—BfS(p ) {jj Snp)P p, p ds dl, p outside boundary B (14) =Bfsp' P' n,p' dl', P' n,p' = JJ Sn(p)P(p,p')dsDiscretizing the integral gives the matrix equation:vn= PnlfpTl = 1, -, Nd(15) where Nb= 2N + 2Ny— 4 is the number of boundary7(border) pixels and Ndis the number of receivers. Equation (15) defines the matrix that we shall henceforth refer to as P or the "propagator matrix" for a given distribution of external receivers. The equation:v™$as=P^ (GMfa)(p) (16) Note that P is a function of frequency, but is not a function of source position. V™^asis a vector of dimension Nd.The added flexibility of this propagator matrix formulation is particularly advantageous when interfacing our algorithms with real laboratory or field data. Often times the preciseQT-121CIP1XPCTradiation patterns of the transducers used will not be known a priori. In this event, the transducers must be characterized by measurements. The results of these measurements can be easily incorporated into the construction of the propagator matrix P allowing the empirically determined transducer model to be accurately incorporated into the inversion.Equation (16) then provides in compact notation the equations which we wish to solve for the unknown scattering potential, y. First, we consider the forward problem, i.e. the determination of the field fM(pfor a known object function y and known incident field, fM(pl. Then we establish how this forward problem is then incorporated into the solution of the inverse problem, i.e.. the determination of y when the incident fields, and the received signals from a set of receivers are known. Note that the internal field to the object is also-along with the object function y, an unknown in the inverse problem.Since (7) is linear init can be solved by direct inversion of the linear system: f = (J- G[y])’7icm In discrete form, this is a matrix equation (after linearly ordering the 2-D supports of the domain and range into vectors). Since the dimension of the range and domain of the linear system is NxNy. the dimension of the linear system is the same giving a total of (NxNy) elements. The arithmetic required to solve the system by standard direct means is thus order(NxNy). In other words, a doubling of the edge dimension of the problem space will increase the CPU time required by a factor 26= 64 times! The arithmetic work required will quickly become intolerable as the size of the problem increases. It is precisely this large growth rate which has convinced many researchers not to pursue inverse scattering approaches based on integral equations. One could, of course, go to an iterative method. A single iteration of an iterative linear system solver, such as bi-conjugate gradients requires order (NxNy) operations (essentially a matrix- vector product). It can be shown that the growth rate in the number of required iterations for sufficient convergence for the BCG algorithm is order N for this equation. Thus, the overall computational complexity is order N5-only one order of N has been saved over direct inversion. Since inverse problems in 2-D generally require order N views, the iteration must be done N times and we are back to order N6computation for BCG.The key to overcoming this objection is the convolutional form of (7). If this is exploited by use of the FFT algorithm, the computation needed to perform a matrix-vectorQT-121CIP1XPCTproduct is only order NA. Nylog2(NxNy). This allows the BCG algorithm to be applied to a single view with order / V3log2(( ) operations and to all views with order (V4log2( / V) operations. Due to the slow grow th rate of log2(N), this is essentially a reduction of two orders of N over nonconvolutional methods. Also, this convolutional approach avoids the necessity of storing the order N4computer words needed to contain the linear system in full matrix form. Only order N2words are needed due to the shift invariance of the discrete Green's kernel in (7). It is these two savings, more than any other advance that we have made, that allows us to perform inverse scattering in reasonable time for meaningfully sized problems. The use of BCG over the original CG algorithm also represents a major advance since it converges in essentially the square root of the number of iterations needed by CG. This combination of FFT and CG algorithm was originally developed in [Borup, 1989, Ph. D. dissertation, Univ, of Utah, Salt Lake City], herein incorporated by reference.THE IMAGING OR INVERSE PROBLEMIn order to solve the imaging problem, we need a set of equations relating the unknown scattering potential, y, and total fields, fM(p, with measurements of the scattered field on a set of external detectors. These detector equations are given in ( 16). Equation (16), and the internal field equations are the equations which are solved simultaneously to determine y and the fM(p. There are NxNyunknowns corresponding to the y values at each of the grid points, and NxX NyX (1 X (D, unknowns corresponding to the unknown fields, Q is the number of frequencies, and < D is the number of source positions (angles). We have improved upon the state of the art by considering the internal field equations to define fM(p. for a given y. Thus, the total number of unknowns is reduced to NyN yv.The total number of measurement equations is NdX (1 X <t> where Nrfis the number of detectors. In the general case, where, the sources and detectors do not completely surround the object, the problem of determining y is "ill-posed", in a precise mathematical sense, therefore, in order to guarantee a solution, the number of equations NdX fl X > NxNy, is chosen to be larger than the number of pixel values for over determination. Then the system is solved in the least squares sense. More specifically the solution of (9,16) for y and the set of fields, fM(p, in the least squares sense is obtained by minimizing the real valued, nonlinear functional:QT-121CIP1XPCTmin ||rw0||2= minl&)j0||v5as- [ / J y||2(18)subject to the satisfaction of the total field equations, (9), as constraints. The vectorof dimension Ndis referred to as the "residual" for frequency, io, and angle,.The methods used to solve the nonlinear optimization problem in our inverse scattering algorithms are, thus far, all "gradient methods" in that second derivative information is not used (as it is in the full New ton and quasi-Newton methods). The principal computation involves the calculation of the gradient vector of (18). A straight forward calculation gives the gradient formula: V (x) = — JH(x)r(x) where the superscript H denotes the Hermitian transpose (complex conjugate transpose of the matrix) and J is the Jacobian of the nonlinear system:r d d 1 ox, / (X) = (19) d d.dx,tMdxNThe simplest gradient algorithm is the Gauss-Newton (GN) iteration. The GN iteration for finding a solution to V = Ois given by:= y — (20.1)=Hr(n)(202)%(n+l) -x(n)+ Sx(n) (20.3) where a is the vector of nonlinear equations. This iteration is well defined assuming that the columns of Jnremain linearly independent. Since (20.2) is equivalent to the quadratic minimization problem:7 min 11 / 5xW -r^|| (21)£x(n)K n" M it can be solved by the minimum residual conjugate gradient method (MRCG). This approach also ensures that small singular values in Jnwill not amplify noise if care is taken not to overconverge the iteration.Here, the fields fM(pare considered to be dependent variables, with dependence upon y given implicitly byQT-121CIP1XPCTIn order to find the Jacobian expression we must then differentiate the residual vector defined in (18) with respect to y. The details of this calculation are given in [Borup, 1992.]. The result is:(22)The final Gauss-Newton algorithm for minimizing (18) subject to equality constraints is:GN Select an initial guess,1.GN Set n — 02.GN Solve the forward problems using (biconjugate gradients) 3.BCG: = ( / -GN Compute the detector residuals:4. J”) >,.meas (n) (n) 07 - 1,a>(j) ~vco<t>'0 = 1,GN 2,(«)5. 5JU)< > ) < £GN Use MRCG to find the least squares solution to the6. quadratic minimization problemmin > 5y(«) Z_j ^,+P<»c4 / -[xw]G„)-1[4’]arw a><p for 8y^ GN Update / : y(n+1) = y(n) + 7 GN Set n = n + 1, go to GN 3The crux of the GN iteration is GN 6 w here the overdetermined quadratic minimization problem is solved for the scattering potential correction. This correction is approximated by applying a set of M iterations of the MRCG algorithm. The details of GN 6 are:GN Initialize the zeroth iterate of MRCG: 8y° = 0 6.1GN Initialize the MRCG residuals equal to the GN outer loop6.2residuals: r°0QT-121CIP1XPCTNote that iterates pertaining to the MRCG iteration are indexed without the ( ) in order to distinguish them from outer GN loop iterates.GN Compute the gradient of the MRCG quadratic functional:633° = (' - GN Set the initial search direction equal to minus the gradient:6.4p0=_g0GNSctm = 06.5GN Computee* = wjj - [C]pm7= I1; / .'.’*.GN Compute the quadratic step length:6 7a™ = £ ll^ir / ll^ll2GN Update the solution of the quadratic minimization:6.8 8ym+ 1= Sym+ ampmGN Update the MRCG residuals:6.9 „m+l _ i „num‘ a><p ' oj<t>GN Compute the gradient of the MRCG quadratic 6.10 functional:&)< / > GN Compute:6.11 r= ii^+1n2 / ii^mii2GN Update the MRCG search direction:6.12 pin+1 _ _ m+l |t) ' P PGN If m = M, go to GN 6.156.13GN 771 = 771 + 1, go to GN 6.86.14GN Equate the solution of the quadratic minimization problem with 6.15 the last iterate MRCG:5y(n) = SyMGN Return to the GN algorithm at GN 7.6.16A problem with the algorithm above is the presence of the inverse of the transposed total field equation (I —[y^]G in the computation of the Jacobian and its adjoint in 6.3 and 6.10 Since we do not invert (or even store) these large linear systems, the occurrenceQT-121CIP1XPCTof these inverse operators must be dealt with. This problem can however be overcome by computing the action of this operator on a given vector, as needed during the MRCG iteration, by a few iterations of BCG. When performed in this way, the shift invariance of the Green's function is exploited in a maximal way. No large matrices need to be inverted or stored. This is because the Jacobian implementation now consists exclusively of shift invariant kernels (diagonal kernels such as pointwise multiplication by y or f and the shift invariant kernel composed of convolution with the Green's function) Such shift invariant kernels can be implemented efficiently with the FFT as previously described.An even greater increase in numerical efficiency can be obtained in cases for which the approximation:(J - [r<n)]G<»)_1« P + y <23» (which is similar to the Bom approximation of the forward problem) can be used in the Jacobian. This has been found to be the case for many acoustic scattering problems for biological tissue, and for EM problems for which the contrast in dielectric contrast is small.The other two gradient algorithms that are used to solve the inverse scattering equations are the Fletcher-Reeves and Ribiere-Polak algorithms. For the inverse scattering equations, they are given by the iteration:RP Select an initial guess,RP Solve the forward problems using (biconjugategradients) BCG:for the internal fields,RP Compute the detector residuals: / 0) (0) >..meets 1,..., 12a>cp = P< A [C]r ’0 = 1,RP Compute the gradient:4,(0) — P C f (°)] n / (°) — vmeas W —a><pP Compute the search direction:= —g^RP n = 0RP Compute the Jacobian operating on the search direction:tw= P G (i - FV(O)1GW = 1’-’NQT-121CIP1XPCTRP Compute the step length (quadratic approximation):a (Zn- -D Kpe Vt\ra>(p ’ J / I V / ,2a><p axpUpdate the solution: y^n+1^ = yW + anp^RP Solve the forward problems using (bi conjugate gradients) BCG: 10ac= o - G4r(’,+ 1,])C1,7Z11.RP Compute the detector residuals:11 (n+l) _ p p [^(n+l)l (n+1) _ ^meas W — 1,...,£1 '(i>cpra>ua> J a><p ' Q RP12 RP Compute the gradient:13s("+1)= Y [C+1)] (' - G4 / ,(”+1’])’1GiP" C1)CL>< P RP Compute.14, 7 7||_g(Tl+1) || / ||.g(n) ||, Fletcher-Reeves( / "+U - 5'(n)) / ||5(n)H2, Ribere-PollackRP Update the search direction: p(n+1) = -g(n+r> + pnpW RP n = n + 1, go to RP 716The distinction between FR and RP lies in the calculation of 0 in RP 14. It is generally believed that the RP calculation is more rapidly convergent. Hence, the RP iteration may be used in most cases rather than FR.Comparison of the linear MRCG iteration and the nonlinear RP iteration reveals that they are very similar. In fact, RP is precisely a nonlinear version of MRCG. Note that the only difference between them lies in the fact that the RP residuals, computed in steps RP.10 and RP.11 involve recomputation of the forward problems while the MRCG residuals are simply recurred in 6.9 (additional, trivial, differences exist in the computation of the a’s and 0's). In other words, the RP iteration updates the actual nonlinear system at each iteration, while the MRCG simply iterates on the quadratic functional (GN linearization). The overall GN-MRCG algorithm contains two loops-the outer linearization loop, and the inner MRCG loop, while the RP algorithm contains only one loop. Since the RP algorithm updates the forward solutions at each step, it tends to converge faster than GN with respect to total iteration count (numberQT-121CIP1XPCTof GN outer iterations times the number. M, of inner loop MRCG iterates). The GN method is, however, generally faster since an MRCG step is faster than an RP step due to the need for forward recomputation in the RP step. The overall codes for the GN-MRCG algorithm and the RP algorithm are so similar that a GN-MRCG code can be converted to an RP code with about 10 lines of modification.Before leaving this example, it is important to note that the examples given assume that the different frequencies, co, and views, cp, are all computed in serial fashion. It is important to note however, that the different frequencies and different views are independent in both the forward problem and Jacobian calculations, and therefore can be computed independently and in parallel. This should be clear by examining, for example, the computations in GN.3 and GN.6.3. The forward problem calculations, GN.3 are completely independent and in the gradient calculation, GN.6.3, the computations are independent in frequency and view up to the point at which these contributions are summed to give the gradient. The GN and RP algorithms could thus be executed on a multinode machine in parallel with node intercommunication required only 2 to 3 times per step in order to collect sums over frequency and view number and to distribute frequency / view independent variables, such as scattering potential iterates, gradient iterates, etc., to the nodes.EXAMPLE 2IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION IN LAYERED AMBIENT MEDIA USING OPTIMIZATION OF A BILINEAR OR QUADRATIC OBJECTIVE FUNCTION CONTAINING ALL DETECTOR MEASUREMENT EQUATIONS, AND WITH INTERNAL FIELDS REPRESENTED AS A FUNCTION OF THE SCATTERING POTENTIALExample 1 has a characteristic that the object function y is considered to be the sole independent variable, and the internal field resulting from the incident field and y interaction is considered to be a function of this yy. Thus the scattered field can be written asfcSCz\ ^ =f(to(r)Vw = 1Q (24)The difference between Example 2, and Example 1 is that the background medium, in which the object is assumed to be buried, is assumed to be homogeneous in the previous case, whereas it is here assumed that the background is layered. The residual is defined in the same way as the previous example, with d0& Jused to represent the N< / -length vector of measured scattered field at the detector positions. That is, the residual vectors for all co, 0 are defined in the following way.QT-121CIP1XPCT?dco = fpL(K) - d0wOV 0=1 ' 0 (25)The functional F(y), dependent upon y is defined in the same way as example 1:F= Z p lr0 l2 (26) This is the functional, dependent upon the object function y in a highly nonlinear manner, which must be minimized in order to determine the y values at each gridpoint in the obj ect space.It is again necessary to compute the Jacobian:(^) =T. ((I-G„ • [y])_1(G„ • [fsJ))v *=(27)where 0 again refers to the multiple views and the ID to the multiple frequencies available to us. That is, we again assume that the noise level in the system is zero. We apply the Gauss Newton algorithm to the associated least squares problem and get the same result. This leads to the overdetermined system described above (the notation is identical to the previous example, the difference lies in the actual form of the layered Green's function).[flk] KI [T° ([ / - Gfe• [y]]-1Gfc) <8> ^0x©] 5yG) = - V / c: (28)-[ / ©fc]KI which must be solved for the y-update 5y. The left hand side of the above formula is given by (29)T «([I - G„ • [r]]-*Gft) ® IexeTGt( / - 0.. 0 T 000.0 TGt( / - Again, it is possible to use the complex analytic version of the Hestenes overdetermined conjugate gradient algorithm, adapted for least squares problems to iteratively solve this system. This is equivalent to finding the minimum norm solution.The formula for the Jacobian in the layered medium situation in the presence of multiple frequencies, is,(^) = To ((I-Gw• [r])-1(Gw• [f0W])) / = ® (30)QT-121CIP1XPCTwhere Gwis the Layered Green's function for the frequency or. Therefore, in effect, to determine the y-update, 5y, we merely solve the multiple view problem for each particular frequency, that is, we solve the overdetermined system:[M • 5y(n) = - (31).[ / ©fcl Vk = 1,...,nwhich in component form is:[T = ([ / - • [ / ] ] - 1 GJ] srw = - [r<«] Vk.=1' - (32)For multiple view and multiple frequency inversion then, the inversion scheme in layered media reads:STEP Choose an initial guess for the scattering potential, y(°)1.STEP Set n = 0STEP solve the forward problemsusing biconjugate gradients, and use the result to compute the -forward mapsandr^J = 00£O(y(n)) - = 0 '"'®STEP Determine the L2norm of the total residual vector:STEPIf £ then stop.co = l 0 = 1QT-121CIP1XPCTSTEP Solve the N^Q by N overdetermined system:6.in the least squares sense for 8y^nusing the conjugate gradient algorithm adapted for least squares problemsSTEP Update y via the formulay(n+Z) _ y(n) _|_STEP Set YL — TL + 1, go to begin8.The actual values of the angles of incidence 0 are chosen to diminish as much as possible the ill conditioning of the problem. Equally spaced values 0 ^ 0 ^ 2n are ideal, but experimental constraints may prohibit such values, in which case the multiple frequencies are critical.For biological contrasts (y < 0.15 say) the following approximation, which is essentially identical to the assumption in the previous example, is valid:- y]]’1« U + My]] (33) This is the same Bom-like approximation restricted to the Jacobian calculation only, that is assumed in example 1. This approximation has a much larger radius of convergence than the standard bom approximation, but substantially reduces the computational complexity of the problem.HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION IN LAYERED MEDIUM IMAGINGAll of the above calculations have been carried out without using the fact that the operation of matrix multiplication with G is in fact the sum of a convolution and a correlation, which is transformed into a pair of convolutions. Symbolically GL= G + G, where Gp is the correlation and G is a convolution operator. The actual numerical implementation of the above formulas, therefore, is somewhat different than would naively appear. TheQT-121CIP1XPCTimplementation of the correlation with convolution is a little more challenging than the convolution in the homogeneous case, in that a change of variables must be used to convert the correlation to a convolution before the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)s can be applied. A "reflection" operator must be applied to y before the convolution is applied, this operator is denoted by Z, and is defined by:(Zf)(x,y, z) = f(x,y,h — z) (34) The use of this operator is incorporated into the action of the Lippmann-Schwinger equation on the field f. That is, the equation for the internal fields, which in example 1 read: (I — Gy)f = fmc. Now becomes (7 — Gvy — GRZy)f = finc.This change has non-trivial ramifications for the construction of the algorithms discussed above. The FFT implementation of this is given below. To prevent the notation from getting out of hand we use [ ] to indicate that a diagonal matrix is constructed out of an n vector, so that[y denotes pointwise multiplication of the vectors y and f. Also F is used to denote the Fourier transform, and * is used to indicate "convolution". In this notation, the Lippmann-Schwinger equation becomes, in the symbolic form adopted above,(I — Gvy — GRZy)f = (f — Gv* ([ / ] / ’) — GR* Z([y]f)) = (35) (r - p-'mcy) ■ 5(Mni - (?(GR) • fM®)Substantial savings is achieved through the observation that the Fourier Transforms of G and GRneed only be done once, then stored, and finally, that the reflection operator, Z, will commute with Fourier transformation in the x and y (horizontal) directions, since it only involves reflection in the z (vertical) direction.There are changes also, for example in the computation of f. The biconjugate gradient algorithm requires the use of the adjoint in the solution of the above equation. This adjoint differs from the homogeneous ambient medium case with the introduction of the correlation operator. Also, there are substantial changes in the implementation of the overdetermined conjugate gradient algorithm used to solve (in the least squares sense) the overdetermined system of equations. In this section, as before, we incorporate the kx / Tactor into the Gr and GR terms. Of course, rather than carry out the inversion of a matrix, we use biconjugate gradients and Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT's), which require the Lippmann Schwinger operator, which we denote by LS, and its adjoint, which are defined by the following formulas:(LS)f = ( / - F->[(G„ • F) + (GR• F • Z)])([y]fl (36)QT-121CIP1XPCTwhere Gv= F(G ) and GR= F(GR) are the Fourier Transforms of G and Gfi. and need only be calculated once, then stored. The unitarity of F is used below to determine the adjoint (LS)H.(LS)« = ((7 - r-1[(Gl, - r) + (GB- y o Z)])[y])'' (37)= [7](I - + ( / "y-'G?)]^-1)")= [r] (i - where we have used the unitarity of Fourier Transformation F: FH = F-1. and the fact that point wise multiplication is used, and the fact that Z = Z. For practical problems it is best to obtain a reasonable first guess using low frequency data, then to build on this using the higher frequency information.THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE LAYERED GREENS FUNCTIONUp to this point, it has been assumed there exists the layered Green's function. For simplicity in describing the construction of this function, we deal with the scalar case, although the inclusion of shear wave phenomena is conceptually no more difficult than this case. The details are given in [Wiskin, 1991], The general idea is based upon standard ideas in the literature concerning reflection coefficients in layered media. See for example [Muller, G., 1985, Journal of Geophysics, vol. 58] which is herein incorporated by reference. Here, the combination of the reflection coefficients into a bona fide Green's function, and the utilization of this in a forward problem, then more importantly, in the inverse problem solution is described. The procedure involves decomposing the point response in free space into a continuum of plane waves. These plane waves are multiply reflected in the various layers, accounting for all reverberations via the proper plane wave reflection / transmission coefficients. The resulting plane waves are then re-summed (via a Weyl-Sommerfeld type integral) into the proper point response, which in essence, is the desired Green's function in the layered medium. The final result is:Gv(x — X] |Az — Az |) =ei0JU(X-X')C(-u^ [e-i^sc|4z-4z'|+ R+R- eia>bsc\te-te'\}du,(38)and GR(X — x; Lz + Az ) = [ / ?+e-^i’sc(Az+Az')l r7?-e-io>bsc(AZ+AZ')i(39)QT-121CIP1XPCTwhereC(u) = (Z - R+ft-)-1—®SCR~ and R+are the recursively defined reflectivity coefficients described in Muller's paper,u is the horizontal slowness,sin 6u = - cRecall that Snell's law guarantees that u will remain constant as a given incident plane wave passes through several layers.co is the frequencybscis the vertical slowness for the particular layer hosting the scattering potential This Green's function for imaging inhomogeneities residing within Ambient Layered Media must be quantized by convolving with the sine (really Jinc) basis functions described below. This is done analytically in [Wiskin, 1991], and the result is given below.DISCRETIZATION OF LAYERED MEDIUM LIPPMANN- SCHWINGER EQUATIONUnfortunately the basis functions that were used in the free space case (Example 1) cannot be used to give the discretization in the layered medium case because of the arbitrary distribution of the layers above and below the layer which contains the scattering potential. The sine functions may continue to be used in the horizontal direction, but the vertical direction requires the use of a basis function with compact support (i.e., should be nonzero only over a finite region). The sampled (i.e., discrete) Green's operator in the layered case is defined by GL(J, k, ni) = GL(J 8, kS, m3) (40) where the three dimensional basis functions are of the form:S(x) = F(x,y,z) =5)(%)5)(y)Arn(z) (41) (I is the set of integers) and where: / X\X = f y j 6 JI3^jkm = k8 G I\m8 / QT-121CIP1XPCTThe basis functions in the horizontal (x-y) plane S( ^ are based upon the Whittaker sine function:sin (TTX)sinc(x) = -nxThe basis functions in the vertical (z) direction, on the other hand, are given by Am(z) = A(z — m3),where A(z) is the "tent" function:(-(z + 5) z G [— 5, 0]A - / “ 4d1l --(z - 5) z G [0,5]X 0The form of the discretized Lippmann Schwinger equation is / n5\ / nS\ finclm8] = fZi = f[ m8] - (42) X 18 ( J \ 18 J n — n' \ fn'8\ / n — n' \ / nr8\ m — m' \yLf m'<5 bcs2c- m - m',I - I' / X 1'6 J nfa.v X I - I' / X 1'6 / with the vectors G^sand G^ / g are the result of first convolving the Green's function with the basis functions, and then sampling at the gridpoints. The superscript R refers to the correlation part, whereas the superscript V refers to the convolution part of the Green's function. Both are computed via Fast Fourier Transforms, and are very fast. In the free space case the correlation part is zero. That is, we make the definition for L=V or R-(i.e., convolution or correlation):(n8 — x'\ m3 - y I dx'dy'dz (43)18 — z / substitution into equation (17) yields the form (42).In matrix notation, this equation gives:_ -1 / ■ = (; - k]cG}n- kJcGB-zn) (44) where now * represents discrete convolution in 3D. Now that we have constructed the Integral equations in discrete form, we must derive the closed form expression for the layered Green's operators. The construction of the closed form expression of the sampled and convolved acoustic layered Green's function G^.,s. from the layered Green's function given inQT-121CIP1XPCTequations (38 and 39) above is given by performing the integration in (43) analytically. This process is carried out in [Wiskin, 1991], The final result is, for the convolutional part,Gv(m, n) I ruS2 ( (eia>bsca _ ( (eia>bsc8 _ I lx R R+-1 +.}+ 1 - 1 -7I du n = 0 u=0 ia>bsc( ia)bsco j ( ia)bsco ) rUsI 1 A 7oC(u)3, (2 - eia>bscS-e-i™bsc8]e-ia>bsc\n8\+ R-R+ei«>bsc\n6\ lduIni > 1 k Ju=0 a>2h2c8{- ) Vm G [0, M — 1], Vn G [—IV + 1, N — 1] (45) and rus (2 — eiayt>mS— e~iayb' Gr(m, n) = A I JQC (u) ± - - Ju=o m2h2c8 _|_R- ^eia>bsc(h+2d)eia>bscn8y^ Vm G [0, M — 1], V n G [-N + 1, N - 1] (46)In the above formulas Jo= Jo(uco| m| 5) is the zerothorder Bessel Function, and the upper limitis defined as:1 n / 6us= l / c5- ks— - - M (J)for wavenumber= n / 8. Also, C(u) = (1 — R-R+)-1ScwheretarnSc^scwith bscdefined as the vertical slowness in the layer containing the scattering point.When this layer is assumed to have acoustic wave velocity / 3SC. it is given explicitly by:f Ibsc = ^2- ~u2A PscThese expressions give the discretized 3D Acoustic layered Green's function, which is used in the layered media discretized Lippmann-S ch winger equation to obtain the solution field within the inhomogeneity.As can be seen, the correlation part of the green's function is included. This correlation part is zero for the free space case. This correlational part is directly applicable as it occurs above to the fish echo-locator / counter, and to the mine detection device in the acoustic approximation. (There are specific scenarios, where the acoustic approximation will beQT-121CIP1XPCTadequate, even though shear waves are clearly supported to some degree in all sediments). The inclusion of shear waves into the layered media imaging algorithm (the technical title of the algorithm at the heart of the hazardous waste detection device, the fish echo-locator, and the buried mine identifier) is accomplished in Example 6 below. A generalized Lippmann-Schwinger equation is proposed. This general equation is a vector counterpart to the acoustic Layered Green's function, and is discretized before it can be implemented. The process of discretization is virtually identical to the method revealed above. Furthermore, the BCG method for solving the forward problem, the use of the sine basis functions, and the use of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) are all carried out identically as they in the acoustic (scalar) case.EXAMPLE 3IMAGING WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE ENERGYThe use of electromagnetic energy does not greatly affect the basic idea behind the imaging algorithm, as this example will demonstrate. Furthermore, we will see that it is possible to combine the layered Green's function with the electromagnetic free space Green's function to image materials within layered dielectrics. In fact this process of combining the layered Green's function with Green's functions derived for other structures and / or modalities than the free space acoustic case can be extended almost indefinitely. Another example is given below, where the combination of the Acoustic Biot Green's function with the layered Green's function is carried out. Further extensions that are not detailed here, are: (1) Combining Elastic (including shear wave energy) Wave equations with the layered Green's function, (3) Combining the Elastic Biot equations with the layered Green's function, (4) Combining the elastic and electromagnetic wave equations to model transducers. For simplicity, we consider a homogeneous, isotropic, non-magnetic background material. The time dependence will be e16Jt. the magnetic properties of free space are summarized in Zo= iti) / zo, and the electric properties are summarized in yo= iw£o. Within the object being imaged the magnetic properties are Z = Zo= ia)[io(the equivalence with the free space value is the nonmagnetic media assumption). The electric properties of the object being imaged are summarized in y = <7 + y0= <7 + ico£r£0, which is the complex admittivity of the object. The larger o is. the less able the medium is able to support electromagnetic wave transport. These properties are combined inko = -yozo= U2P-OEO = -y (47)coQT-121CIP1XPCTwhich is a measure of the number of wave cycles present per unit distance for a given frequency co, when the wave speed of propagation is c0. The object's electrical properties (recall it is assumed non-magnetic for simplicity) are summarized in the "object function", y. (the normalized difference from the surrounding medium):The total electric field equations are:e— ifc0|r— Pl E*(r) = E(r) - (k2+ VV •) J y(r')E(r')4?r|r-r<|d3r' (49)where El(r) is the 3-D incident field, E(r) is the 3-D total field.The construction of the sine basis discretization and the GN and RP algorithms for this 3-D EM case is essentially equivalent to the 2-D scalar acoustic case described above. See [Borup, 1989] for the details of the discretization and solution of the forward problem by FFT-BCG. The vector— tensor nature of the fields-Green’s function is the only new feature and this is easily dealt with.For simplicity, we now look at the situation where there is no z dependence in either the object function, i.e y(x, y, z) = y(x, y), neither in the incident field. The vector p = (x, y) is used for the position vector in (x,y)-space.^ (50(P) = E(p) - (k2+ vv o MPWP^<\ / GIP -p'lW ) in matrix form the equation (50) looks like:d2dxdy E‘(P) = F(P) - d2f Y(p')E(p')j-. H^2\ko\p - p'\)d2p' dydx(51) From this form of the equation, it is clear that the electric field in the z-direction is uncoupled with the electric field in the x-y plane. Thus, in this situation the field consists of two parts. The so-called transverse electric (TE) mode, in which the electric field is transverse to the z direction, and the transverse magnetic (TM) mode, in which the electric field has a nonzero component only in the z direction. The TM mode is governed by the scalar equation:E^p) EZ(P) YCp')Ez(p')H^2)(k0\p - p'\)d2p' (52)QT-121CIP1XPCTEx \ (Ex\where El(p) = Ey I and E(p) = I EyI (x,y)EJ \EJwhich is identical to the 2-D acoustic equation discussed previously. Thus, the 2-D TM electromagnetic imaging algorithm is identical to the 2-D acoustic case discussed in detail above.The TE mode is given by the following equation:Ex(p) Ey(p)J (E / P'))Ho2^ko \P ~ P'\W (53)The field is a two component vector and the Green's function is a 2x2 tensor Green': function:'9xx 9xy~(54).9xy 9yy.1 ox2dxdy Ho2\k0\p - p'|) 4i d2792ko+2. dydx dy In compact notation:£' = ( / - GQEwhere:Ei =IH'E =KP=io?i <55)andr_ [y0[0 y]This equation also has a convolution form and can thus be solved by the FFT-BCG algorithm as described in [Borup, 1989] The construction of the GN-MRCG and RP imaging algorithms for this case is identical to the 2-D acoustic case described above with the exception that the fields are two component vectors and the Green's operator is a 2x2 component Green's function with convolutional components.QT-121CIP1XPCTFinally, note that the presence of layering parallel to the z direction can also be incorporated into these 2-D algorithms in essentially the same manner as above. Special care must be taken, of course, to insure that the proper reflection coefficient is in fact, used. The reflection coefficient for the TM case is different from the TE case.EXAMPLE 5EXTENSION TO BIOT THEORY (ACOUSTIC APPROXIMATION)Note: an extensive discussion of Biot Theory in the acoustic approximation and a resulting imaging method with corresponding implementations are described above in the section entitled Biot - porous media. In the current example provided below, an initial imaging theory' is discussed.In the article [Boutin, 1987, Geophys. J. R. astr. Soc.. vol. 90], herein incorporated by reference, a Green’s function for the determination of a point response to a scattering point located in an isotropic, homogeneous, porous medium that supports elastic waves is developed. The implementation of this Greens' function into an imaging algorithm has never been carried out before. In this section, we have adapted their approach to derive an acoustic approximation to the fully elastic Biot theory that enables us to present a simplified practical tool for the imaging of porosity-like parameters in a geophysical context. The implementation of the full elastic Biot imaging algorithm using the Green's function of [Boutin, 1987] in place of the one derived in [Wiskin, 1992] is no different from the discretization employed here. The use of the sine basis functions, the FFT's, the biconjugate gradients, and so on, is identical.We have developed a model that incorporates the parameters of fluid content, porosity, permeability7, etc., but instead of the 3+1 degrees of freedom of the two phase elastic model, has only 1+1, corresponding to the two independent variables. ps. and P[. the pressure field within the solid (modelled as a liquid in this approximation) and truly liquid phase respectively. As with the previous example. The use of the Biot theory7Green's function can be combined profitably with layering, to image material in a layered background.Define (see [Boutin, 1987]., for more complete discussion of the parameters):® as the frequency of the interrogating wavePl as the density of the liquid phasepsas the density7of the solid phasen as a saturation parameter / ^(m) as the generalized, explicitly frequency-dependent Darcy coefficient introduced via homogenization theory.QT-121CIP1XPCTao, 3, p are parameter's defined in the following way:p = (1 — n)ps+ p1[n + p1n>2A'(6o) / ito]0 = / C(co) / ico) a0= a + p1a)2K(a)) / i(ji) = a +The "acoustic two phase Green's function" is the Green's function obtained by solving the above system with a distributional right hand side, where 5(x) is the Dirac delta distribution. That is we seek the solution to the following matrix operator equation: BGBl0t+^2x2^00=0, where Ggiot:^2’3“ * is a function on R3or R2and / 2x2is the two dimensional identity matrix. B is given by:R = PV2 -^ ~a° —a0V2AV2+ co2p.This author obtained rG 1 a° C °1, rao P Biot = TZZ77T2 - 7K ) O •d) „ n + (w • v) R4n3A (62 — Oi ) Lao [ 0 — p\) where w: R3— > R2is the 2D vector defined by:\ 1*1 / and x E R3for the acoustic two-phase 3D model, and where d and v are 2 component vectors (representing the two phases) given byA very similar analysis gives an equation and corresponding Green's Operator for the acoustic two-phase 2D (two spatial independent variables) case, in which w: R2— > R2and X E R2The operator is very similar except that the w vector contains Hankel functions of the zeroth order:|H'2,G52|X|JQT-121CIP1XPCTNotice the existence of the two wavenumbers 5i and 62 in this acoustic approximation to Biot theory guarantee the existence of a fast and slow compressional wave--a distinguishing characteristic of the classical elastic Biot theory.More importantly this algorithm provides us with a computationally feasible means of inverting for phenomenological parameters derived from the classical elastic two phase Biot Theory.Finally, it is important to point out that convolving the above functions with the sine basis function analytically is done in exactly the same manner with GBiot= G2x2above as it was done above because x only occurs in the form of the scalar acoustic Green's operator. This is why it is possible to create very efficient algorithms based upon the sinc-Galerkin method and FFT's as described in [Borup, 1992], using the Green's Operator described above.It is now possible to obtain an algorithm for the inversion of the 2D Biot porous medium by analogy with the algorithm based upon the Lippmann- Schwinger equation used earlier. This new algorithm is based upon a "two phase" Lippmann- Schwinger type equation derived in a future publication.r0(x) —r(x)—0 2 where0D'(x) = / 2.and the object functions y, are given by. {bjCx) \nW = (-l)J— r - 1 7 = 1.2\ bj JThis equation is discretized in the same manner as above, and the convolution character is preserved. With the explicit form of the discretized Biot Lippmann-Schwinger Integral Equation the imaging problem is solved by applying the analogous conjugate gradient iterative solution method to the Gauss-Newton Equations in a manner exactly analogous to the discussion above. See above for the paraxial approximation to this imaging theory (e.g., in the section entitled “Biot - porous media’' and the section entitled “paraxial approximation”).Finally, as mentioned above, it is certainly possible to construct, using the above principles, a layered Green's function for the Biot theory in exact analogy with the construction for the acoustic layered Green's Operator. This operator will be a matrix operator (as is the acoustic two phase Green's Operator constructed above), and will consist of a convolutionalQT-121CIP1XPCTand correlational part (as does the acoustic single phase Green's Operator constructed earlier). Because of these convolutional and correlational parts, the FFT methods discussed above are directly applicable, making the algorithm feasible from a numerical standpoint.EXAMPLE 6NON-PERTURBATIVE INVERSION OF ELASTIC INHOMOGENEOUS STRUCTURES BURIED WITHIN A LAYERED HALF SPACEIn elastic media (by convention in this patent, media that supports shear wave activity) the relevant parameters are y, p, (Lame1parameters), p (density) and absorption. The inversion for these elastic parameters (i.e. the first and second Lame' parameters,, and p, follows virtually the same prescription as was outlined above for the acoustic scalar case. In a manner similar to the Electromagnetic Inversion problem discussed above, it is possible to break up the arbitrary 3 dimensional vector u(x,y,z), representing the displacement into components that propagate independently. The exact description of this procedure is given in [Wiskin, 1991], and [Muller, 1985], This example will not deal with this decomposition since the idea behind this is more easily seen by looking at the electromagnetic example given earlier.The idea here is to incorporate the above solution to the layered inversion problem directly into the Green's operator. As before, in the electromagnetic and the acoustic case, this Green's function is used in the integral equation formulation of the inversion problem of imaging an inhomogeneous body extending over an arbitrary number of layers.The following is the general elastic partial differential equation which governs the displacement vector field u in the general case where X and p both depend upon x G R3. When X and p are independent of x, we have the homogeneous elastic case.d „ -OJ _ZJO(X)U!(X) - —d— r ox> A(x) dxKtod.+^K)fe dxlu~',(x) +fl(x) represents the applied body force, and p(x) and X(x) are the Lame' parameters, their dependence upon x G R3is the result of both the inhomogeneity to be imaged and the ambient layered medium. In particular Uj(y)y G R3is the ithcomponent (i=l,2,3) of the displacement field at point y G R311° (y) is the ithcomponent of the incident field.QT-121CIP1XPCTPi( ) + p0(z)— P(*) is the total density variation, it consists of the 3-D variation in p and the vertical 1-D variation in pQ.Ai(%) + A0(z) = A(%) is the total variation in Z. the first Lame' parameter, Zi has 3-D variation, andohas 1-D vertical variation.i(%) +0(z) =is the total variation in the second Lame' parameter p. The pi has variation in 3-D, the p2 has variation in 1-D (vertical).p(x)=density= Pi(x) + p0(z), where p0(x) represents the layered medium without the object, and p i (%) represents the object to be imaged.0(z) and o(z)arethe z-dependent Lame' parameters representing the layered mediumA1(%) and i(x are the Lame' parameters representing the object to be imaged The above differential equation is converted to the following elastic " Generalized Lippmann-Schwinger equation"Wj(y) = u?(y) - fff = 1,2,3by means of the kernel G^Y\y, x) which is constructed below. Where the volume integral is performed over the finite volume that contains the image space (and the object being imaged, for example, an ore body, submarine mine, oil reservoir, etc.). This is the basic integral equation which forms the theoretical foundation for the Layered Green's Operator approach to Inverse Scattering in a layered medium.This kernel is a 3 by 3 matrix of functions which is constructed by a series of steps: STEP 1:Beginning with the acoustic (scalar or compressional) Green's function given bye- ik0|r- r' |STEP 2:The free space elastic Green's matrix is a 3 by 3 matrix of functions, built up from the free space Green's function. It's component functions are given asQT-121CIP1XPCT= [iG(kT\r — r'[)8img d2+IXt ta m - r'l) - G (kLI r - r'|)]k? oxldxmSTEP 3:Next the layered Green's function, Girn(y, x),f or a layered elastic medium is defined. It is defined in terms of Gm, the components i,m=l,..., 3, of the elastic Green's function in homogeneous elastic media given above. The components of the layered Green's matrix are integrals over Bessel functions and reflection coefficients in essentially the same manner as the acoustic layered Green's function consisted of integrals over wavenumber, of the acoustic reflection coefficients. This dyadic is patterned after [Muller, 1985], in the manner discussed in [Wiskin, 1992],STEP 4:Finally the layered Green's kernel G^Y\y, x).is constructedx e R3GimAY)(y’^ = -M2Glm(y>x)Pi(x)d u d.d1 A )+ G^y’x) +dUGi^y’ Jwhere Gimy, x) is the layered Green's function for the elastic layered medium. The progressive constructions can be represented in the following way, beginning with the acoustic free space Green's function:GCLAV)(y> x)Alternatively, in words:Acoustic free space elastic free space elastic layered kernel for elastic layered Lippmann- Green's function Greens function Green's functionSchwinger equationUsing the last "kernel" in this series in the generalized elastic layered Lippmann-Schwinger Equation gives the vector displacement.ut(y) =uKy) - fff {GimAY)(y^}um(x)dxQT-121CIP1XPCTwhich is then discretized, using the sine basis in exactly the same way as for the previous examples, and, the FFT, and biconjugate gradient, and conjugate gradient algorithms are then applied to this vector equation, in the same way as done above. Thus the elastic modality (including shear waves) is accounted for.The construction of the layered Green's function in the full elastic case (with shear wave energy included is slightly more complicated than the purely scalar case. For this reason, we look at the construction in more detail, see also [Wiskin, 1993]For discretization of the resulting equations see the electromagnetic case discussed in example 3.The Construction of the Continuous Form of the Layered Green's Operator G'-3D and with full elastic mode conversion CaseNow we proceed with the construction of the continuous variable form of the Layered Green's operator. The closed form expression for the discretized form of the bandlimited approximation to this continuous variable Green's operator is constructed in a manner exactly analogous to the vector electromagnetic case discussed in example 3.By analogy with the acoustic (scalar) situation, the construction of the layered Green's operator can be viewed as a series of steps beginning with the 3D free space Green's operator.Step a) Decompose a unit strength point source into a plane wave representation (Weyl-Sommerfeld Integral). For the elastodynamic (vector) case we must consider the three perpendicular directions of particle motion, which we take to be the horizontal direction, the direction of propagation, and the direction perpendicular to the previous two. Muller has given the representation for a point source in elastic media in [Muller, 1985],Step b) Propagate and reflect the plane waves through the upper and lower layers to determine the total field at the response position. The total field will consist of two parts: Uup rthe upward propagating particle velocity, and urf(r). the downward propagating particle velocity at position r. This propagation and reflection is carried out analytically by means of the reflection coefficients, which in the elastic case, are the matrices R~ and R+(R~ and R+are 2x2 matrices), and the scalars, r~, and r+. The matrices correspond to the P-SV (compressional and shear vertical polarized w aves) for the case of horizontal stratification, (x is the horizontal, and z is the vertical coordinate, z is positive downward). The scalar coefficients correspond to the SH (horizontally polarized) shear waves, which propagate without mode conversion to the other types for the case of horizontally layered media.QT-121CIP1XPCTR and r. represent the wave field reflected from the layers below the source position, and R+and r+represent the cumulative reflection coefficient from the layers above the source position, for the matrix and scalar cases respectively.These total reflection coefficients are formed recursively from the standard reflection coefficients found in the literature (e.g., Muller

[1985] , and Aki and Richards, Quantitative Seismology, Freeman and Co., 1980, herein included as a reference].FIG. 17 is schematic showing the Reflection coefficients relevant to the layered medium Green's function approach. With reference to FIG. 14, as in the scalar case, in order to have a single reference position, R+and R~ are both given with respect to the top of layer that contains the scattering point, which is denoted by " SC". That is, R+represents the reflection coefficient for an upgoing wave at the interface between layer sc and sc-1.In our case the expressions SMand Sd, Sdand Su. and are those derived from the Sommerfeld integral representation of a point source of unit strength, given in Muller, [see also Aki and Richards, 1980], For example:gd _eiMbsc(z'-zsc) _eiMbsc&.z'Su— e~l(Dbsc(z~zsc) — e — [co 1DSCAZ'for the scalar case.As shown in detail, by Muller, the total contribution of the upward travelling wave is given bySu+ R-R+Su+ R R ' R R + Su+ R R+R R+SU+ •••= [1 + R~R++ R-R+R~R++ R-R+R-R+R~R++ -]SU=[1 - R-R+]-1Sufor the transverse shear wave (SH or horizontal shear wave), andSu+ R~R+SU+ R~R+R~R + Su+ R~R+R~R+SU+... = [1 + R~R++ R-R+R R++ R-R+R R+R R++ • ]SU=[1 — R R+]rSufor the P-SV matrix case. Note that some care must be exercised in the convergence of the matrix series, however, for practical situations we can omit this detail.Step c) The process of forming the total field at the response point must be broken up into two cases:QT-121CIP1XPCTCase 1: the response point is above the scatter point, that is Az — Az' < 0 (Az is the distance from the interface above the scattering layer, to the response point, the z axis is positive downward), andCase 2. where the response point is below the scattering point Az — Az' < 0.Furthermore each case consists of an upward travelling, and a travelling wave:Upward travelling wavefield:First, in case 1:[1 — R-R+]-1Suand [1 — R-R+]-1Surepresent the contribution to Uupfrom the upw ard travelling part of the source. A similar expression can be formed for the contribution from the downward travelling part of the source, it is[1 - R-R+^R-S11, and [1 - H-R^RS*Thus, the total upw ard component of the w ave field at the response point is formed from:up> / (I - R R+)1(SU+ R“Sd)Uy (7 — r-r+)-1(Su+ r~Sd>)Case 2: the response point is below the scatter point, that is Az — Azz> 0The result here is similar, the change occurring in the coefficient of the S”, and S".(I - R-R+)1(R R+SU+ R“Sd)Uup=(7 - r"r+)"1(5d+ r~Sd)Downw ard Component of WavefieldCase 1: A similar expression gives the downward component of the total wave field at the response point r, for case 1:.. / (I - R+R ) ’ R+R Sd\ / (I — R R )-iR+Su Ijdown —v yI I IVy (7 — r+r~')~1r+r~SdI y (7 — r + y or- d.own — |]d, — | / (vI - R+R- ')-1(vR+R-Sd+ R+Su)z\|y ( / — r+r~)~1(r+r~Sd+ r+Su) JCase 2: For case 2, the result is similar, here the response point resides below the scatter point, that is Az — Azz> 0„ / (I - R+R“)“1(Sd+ R+Su)y(7 _r+r-yi(r+r-$d _|_r+gu^QT-121CIP1XPCTStep d) The final step in the process is the recombination of the plane waves to obtain the total wavefield (upgoing and downgoing waves) at the response position:For the scalar case 1 Az — Az' < 0, and:GL(x - x', y - y', z I z') = fu+ fd. with uup= J J0(ua) / r - r' |)[1 - R“7?+]-1[Su+ R-Sd]expia>bsc^-zscUuud= J J0(uci> / r - r' |) [1 - 7?- / ?+]-1[ / ?+Sw+ R+R~ Sd]ex^-iaibsd^z~zsc^du so that GL(x — x',y — y',z / z') = f J0(U(i) / r — r' |)[1 — + R~— zsc) -|- R + Q ~ i<j)bsc(z— zsc)j duWhile for case 2, Az — Az ' > 0, similar algebra gives:GL(X — x',y — y',z / z'~) = f J0(uci) / r — r' I) [1 — R~ / ?+]-1[ / ?+5u+ ^djje-iwbsctz-Zsc) _|_ R-e-i^bsc(z-zsc^du_For case 1 this can be rewritten as:GL(r — r',z | z')co = A C(u: r -r')[sueLMb^z+ R~sdeLMb^z•^11=0+R+sue~iMb^z+ R+R~Sde~lojbscAz}du where the coefficient function C(w. F — F ) is given by:. IMUC(u\ r - r') = / 0(uw|r - r'|)(l - R R+)1- —bscFor case 2, Gbcan be written as:GL(r — r',z \ z')Z' co = A C(u: r - r')[R+R-Sueid)b^z+ R~sdeid)b^zAt=o +R+sue~id>b^z+ Sde~iMb^z]du Finally, using the definitions for S" and and recognizing that products such as gdgi<z>bscAzcan be rewritten asQT-121CIP1XPCTcdpio)t>scAz _ p(albscAz,pt&jdscAz _ pi<z>bsc(Az+Az,) the operator GLturns out (after rearrangement of the above equations) to be the sum of a convolution and a correlation kernel:GL(r — r', z | z') = GR(r — x', z + z') + Gv(j — r', z — z') Case I has (Az — Az') = 0, where Az = z — Z^rand Az' = z' — zrwith 7.rbeing the z co-ordinate of the top part of the layer that contains the scatterer. In fact Gfiand Gy turn out to be given by the following formulae (they appear to differ from the integrals above because of the rearrangement that leads to the decomposition into convolutional and correlational parts):rooGR(r - r', Az I Az') = A J _o / 0(uto|r -r'|)C(u){R+e-^c(Az+Az,)+ R~eiMb^z+^}duGy(r — r', Az | Az') = A J _oJ0(uw|r —r'|)C(u){R+R_e-i<yi'sc^z+Az^ + elMb^Az+Az'^du.where, now:C(u) = (1 - R+R-y1bscR-and R+are the recursively defined reflectivity coefficients described in Muller's paper,u is the horizontal slowness,sin 0u = - cRecall that Snell's law guarantees that u will remain constant as a given incident plane wave passes through several layers.co is the frequencybscis the vertical slowness for the particular layer hosting the scattering potential Case II consists of the case where (Az — Az') = 0. The Gp and G are now given by the following:QT-121CIP1XPCTGv(r — r',z | z')p co = / 0(uw|r- r'|)C(u){R+R-e^b^Az+Az^ Ju=0 + e~iMb^z+^]du and GR(r - r',z | z') = A J _o / 0(uco|r - r'|)C(u){R_ei&j£lsc(Az+Az,)+ 7?+e- / £0^(Az+Az,)}du, These expressions can be combined into one equation by the judicious use of absolute values. The correlational part of the Green's operator can be transformed into a convolution by a suitable change of variables. The resulting Green's function for imaging inhomogeneities residing within Ambient Layered Media must be quantized by convolving with the sine (really Jinc) basis functions described below. This is done analytically and the result is given below.The same process is carried out as detailed above, in order to determine the P-SV total wavefield (the 2 by 2 matrix case), and is not repeated.The matrix case is handled in exactly the same manner, with allowance for the differing algebra associated with matrices, the preservation of the convolution is preserved for the same reason as shown above in the scalar situation.On avoiding convergence problems due to the presence of derivatives in the elastic Green's function (i.e. with shear wave motion)One difficulty with this formulation is the presence of four derivatives acting upon the acoustic free space Green's function in the construction of the dyadic G(L4}). This problem we have overcome (see related code in Appendix E) by the following method:Given an inhomogeneous distribution of isotropic density p and Lame parameters X and p. imbedded in a homogeneous medium with density po and Lame parameters Xo and po, the total infinitesimal displacement vector u satisfies the partial differential equation O)2pUi + (Auyj). + [p(Ui,j + Uj i )],y = 0 (1)while the incident displacement field u!satisfies(t)2pu- + (A0Uyy) + [u0(ut-y + Uyy)]. = 0 (2)where p0, A0, and Po are the homogeneous parameters of the imbedding medium. Subtracting (2) from (1) and rearranging results inQT-121CIP1XPCTui+(~2 ~ (uf i} + ~2 i +=~fi (3)\kpksJV J, J,iks, J Jfor the scattered displacement field Us= U — Ul. The inhomogeneous term f is given(4)where the respective shear-wave and compression-wave velocities csand cPand corresponding wave numbers ks and kp are given by„S2=^p0o,. KK.s2 — ^c2-,- rCp2=A°+ 2 / z°, ■ K 1'p2 —faj 2(5)for the imbedding medium. Introducing the scattering potentials(6) gives fi = YPui + {nuj.j} + [Yp(ut,j + Uj't)} (7)>*■ > J Solution of (3) by the introduction of the free-space Green's function results inut = Gij * fj = fvfj^Gtj^F - r')dv' (8) where * denotes 3-D convolution, v is the support of the inhomogeneity, and the Green's function is given by [Aki and Richards, Quantitative Seismology. Freeman and Co., 1980, herein included as a reference]:n 2 Gj / r - r') = k^gCk^r - r'VSij + — — (g(ks\r - r'\ -g(kp\r - (J x> i O jQ J r'|)}(9) where g(kR) is the scalar Helmholtz Green's functioni / cR i*kR> = ™(10)where eia>ttime dependence has been assumed. Inserting (7) into (8) and integrating by parts yields the following integral wave equation:(Ypuj J + Gijj + Gijk[Yp(Uj,k 4“ (11) For now, consider the case where =0 and note that:QT-121CIP1XPCTGtj.j =ks ^.g(ksR) + (12) using(V2+ k2)g(kR) = — 5(|r — r'|) (13) reduces (12) to:(*i;,y — ^P ~ C J / (^P^)’ (14)7 which will henceforth be denoted C. We have now arrived at the integral equation:0 o U‘ 'Gc - xxGxyuxz rn 0 Yp 0 u‘uyGyxGyyGGy *uy yz (15) uz0 0GzxGzyGz YPuz Uz. zGZ.0 0 0 LV • u since ufc= V • uThe integral equation (15) can be solved by application of the 3-D FFT to compute the indicated convolutions, coupled with the biconjugate gradient iteration, or similar conjugate gradient method. [Jacobs, 1981J. One problem with (15) is, however, the need to compute V*u at each iteration. V arious options for this include taking finite differences or the differentiation of the basis functions (sine functions) by FFT. Our experience with the acoustic integral equation in the presence of density inhomogeneity indicates that it is best to avoid numerical differentiation. Instead, the system is augmented as:■ ■Gxy Gxzruyuyuyyuyz y r * uzluzuzy GzzV u -V ■ if y D (16) 0 0 0 1 r U 0 YP 0 0 0 0 Yp 0.0 0 o nJ whereD = C- •y,y z,z = k2V2g(kpR~) = ~kp[k2g(kpR} + 5(7?)}. (17) Iterative solution of ( 16) for the four unknown fields Ux, uy, Uz, and V»u now involves no numerical differentiation of u, since all derivative operators have now been applied analytically to the Green's function. The incident component V ■ Ulis assumed known. Equation (16) can be written symbolically asQT-121CIP1XPCTU‘ = (f-G[y]dJ( / (18) where Uland U are the augmented 4-vectors in Eq. (16), [y] iag is the diagonal operator composed of ypand yZ, and is the 4x4 dyadic Green's function in Eq. (16).Inclusion of ypScattering to Give the General Elastic-wave Integral Equations.We now give a method for solving integral equations in the general case for the inhomogeneous material properties p, X, and p.Because the inclusion of the more complicated term in ypcauses the matrix notation used above to require breaking the equations into parts on several lines, we elect for efficiency of space to use the more compact tensor notation. This should cause no difficulty because the translation is clear on comparing the special case of yp= Oin the general tensor equations which follow with the previous matrix notation for this same case.First we give again (see Eq (11)) the integral equations (which in practice have been discretized by sine basis functions) for inhomogeneous p,, and p. Here * means convolution (the integration operation):uf = Gij[ypUj] + Gi*7)7[yAuk;fc] + Gijik*[yp(uj,k+ ukJ)] (19) We note that the displacement field u7and its derivatives also Ujkappear. We choose not to compute derivatives of the fields numerically and avoid the associated numerical instability-. Instead, we augment the above equation with additional equations to compute the derivatives in a more stable way by solving for them directly. Thus, solving for (U j + Uj j) directly is more efficient and replaces computation of nine fields with only six. Forming the six unique symmetric-derivative pairs, we obtain an integral equation for these pairs.ui,lS+ul,iS= (Gij,1 + [FPU / ] + (Gij,kl +Glj,ki) [Yk(uJk + " I" (^17'7'1 " I" ^177i) [VAuk,k] (20) Note that d2GiJJ= (21)We now augment the system Eq. (19) for the three components of Ujswith the system Eq. (20) which has six pairs of unique component derivatives.These nine equations can also be placed in a matrix form similar to that of the augmented system given in Eq (16). The augmented system of nine components could beQT-121CIP1XPCTsolved for yp, y^, and yp, assuming knowledge of the fields u!and derivativesSince the fields and derivatives are also unknown, we must solve for them simultaneously with yp, y^, and yp. This is done by adding these constraint equations. These nine equations are composed of the three equations for u(^0,7 [Xz^fc. / c] ^ij,k (22) and the six equations for + Ukj +Wi,i) (^1,1 (. Gij’l " I" * [Ypuj] (& ij,kl + ^lj,kl) * [Yp(ujk + (jjijJl " I” Gljjl) * [TA^ / C. / C] (23) These 9 equations can also be placed in a matrix form similar to that of the augmented system given in Eq (16).Solving these twelve equations (Eq. (19, 22, 23)) for (yp, y, yp), the fields, and their derivatives is accomplished using the Frechet derivative methods described next. As in Eq. (16) for the. —.ocase, Eq. (23) can be written symbolically asU‘ = (l — G[y]diafl)U (24) where the operators < G and [yjdiag are now 9x9, and the vectors U and Ulconsist of the three components of u and its six symmetric derivative sum-pairs.EXAMPLE 7CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE METHODS FOR NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE SIEThe above examples all use the FFT-BCG algorithm for imaging. This method is one of three methods discussed in this patent. The other two methods are(1) The cylindrical coordinate recursion method (Cylindrical Recursion)(2) Rectangular recursion of scattering matrix method (Rectangular Recursion for short reference)We now' discuss the cylindrical recursion method:7.1 CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SIE FORMULATION AND DISCRETIZATIONWe begin with the acoustic scattering integral equation (SIE) for the constant density case:P(p) = / (p) - 77 If - P'\WP anQT-121CIP1XPCTLet each field be expanded in a Fourier series in the angular variable: / (P) = Ynfn(P^.Then using Grafs addition theorem:Xn H^kop)Jn(kop')e^^')' P > P' ^2)(fc0|p -p'l) (1.2)•Sn ^2)( / c0pX( / c0p)e™^-^) P < P' results in the cylindrical coordinate form of (1.1):fn(p) = Em Yn-m(. P')fm(p')Bm(ikQp)Cm(ikQp')p'dp' (1.3)where the kernel is separably symmetric:'H^\kop)Jn(kop') P > P' Bm(J^oP)^m^oP 3 (1.4)X2)(fcoP') / n(^oP) P < P' Henceforth assume that k0= 1. Discretizing the radial integral by trapezoidal rule using an increment of A results in:fl,n = fnl.n ~ {^.n 2p=i ( / f) l', TJ l',n + J l',n 2f'=Z+l l'M 0-5) wherefi.n = A(W), h,.„ = A (lb),p„ = & &„(!&) (16) andXm Yl',n—mfl',m (1.7) Notice that the extra f resulting from the p1in the integral in (1.3) has been placed in the definition of (y / )^>n. Equation (1.5) is the final discrete linear system for the solution of the scattering integral equation in cylindrical coordinates. It can be rewritten as:- {[hz]E^=1[jr] [r^ff + [jdS=i+1[Mr^fp} (1.8) where the vector components are the Fourier coefficients:, or, equivalently, {fjn= / Z n, n = —N,..., N (1.9)where N is the range of the truncated Fourier series (The vectors are length 2N+1). The notation [x] denotes a diagonal matrix formed from the vector elements:QT-121CIP1XPCT'x_N0... 0 ■r, 0(1-10). 0 XN. and the notation [yy *] denotes a convolution (including the I' factor):{[rP ]fZ'}n=l' %m=-N ™ = ~N, (1 11) Writing (1.8) out in full gives the matrix equation:(1.12)[Ji][hL]-: _ [h2]Di]L0.... o “j LthJuil [kW-r

[71] 0... O -i 0:(1.13): 0- o... 0 [yL]_ Notice that the kernel is composed of a LxL block matrix with 2N+1 x2N+l diagonal matrix components and that the LxL block matrix is symmetric-separable, i.e.:J ([Jn] [hmL n < mmniMk], n > m(1 14)where L is one of the LxL component matrices.For reference in the next section, we make the definitions:si = £r=hz'] *]fr (1 15) Pz = Z^hz [rz*]fi' d -16) 7.2 RECURSIVE SOLUTION OF THE CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SIE The recursion for the 2-D cylindrical equation is:Initialize:(2.1) {■kin fL,n / ^L,nQT-121CIP1XPCTFor 1 = L,...,1Sl-1 = Si [ji] [yz*]{[ / l ] i + [jMPl-1 = Pl + M [ l *]{[ / li]Si + [ji piNext 1.Thus far, we have assumed that the number of angular coefficients is the same for each radius 1. In fact, the number of angular coefficients should decrease as 1 decreases. We find that for A=A / 4, an accurate interpolation is achieved with Nx= 21 — 1, n = — N(,..., N;Fourier coefficients. To introduce this modification, we must slightly redefine the operators as:{[yf]x}n= [L^=-N1Yi,n-mxm. |n| < Nt (2 3)(0, |n| > Ntwhere the vector operated on is alw ays length N where N is now the maximum number of Fourier coefficients. N=NL. The total field at each layer, 1, is given by:hl,nsl,n + J l,nPl,n + fl,n> 1^1 — ^l0, \n\ > NtIn order to eliminate the need to know the starting values, Sz, we note that at each iteration, S;and P / are linear functions of Sz:SL= lSL+ b Pi = C sL+ dt(2.5) where the matrices(dimension 2N+1 x2N+l) and the vectors b{, d;(dimension 2N+1) have the initial values:= / , Q = 0 b;= 0, d(= 0 (2.6) Using (2.5) and (2.6) in (1.1) and equating common terms leads a matrix and a vector recursion:Initialize:A / ,=I, CL= 0 bL= 0,dL= 0 (2.7) For I = L,...,1Ai-i = A — [jz] [yz* ]{[hz]Az+ [jz]Cj]bi-i = bi - [ji] [Fi*]{[hi]bz+ [jjd, + f;!}-i = Ci + [hz][ [hz] + [jz]CJQT-121CIP1XPCTd; i= d, + [hj[yf]{[hz]bz+ [jz]dz+ f / }Then using the fact that SL= 0 leads to the solution:M+bo = 0, sL= -AofL ns= sL n / hL n(2.8) for the scattered field at the outer boundary. Iteration (1.1) with (1.4) can then be used to evaluate the total field internal to the obj ect.Notice that the LHS matrix recursion in (2.7) is independent of the incident field. Once it is used to compute Ao, the RHS vector recursion can be done for any number of incident fields. Concurrent solution for any number of incident fields can be obtained by replacing the RHS vector recursion with the matrix recursion:Bt= O, Dt= O (2.9) Bi-i = B, - [ / iWKlBJB, + D D, + F‘]= Dt+ [hj [Y,*] {[ / 1,]B, + [ / ;]£>, + Fl}where the matrices B;, D(are 2N+1 xNv where Nv is the number of views and the matrix of incident fields, F;1is given by:(2.10)where the superscript after i is the view number (note that although the incident matrix is written as 2N+lxNv, the entries are zero for the row index N;< | n| = N ). A more compact recursion can be obtained by concatenating the two recursions to give:GL=, Bt] = [7,0], HL= [CL, DL] = [0,0] (2.11) For 1=L,...,1G<-! = G, - D'. KN, + [ N + [0, F / ]}= H, + [ / i,] [ / ;•]{[ / !, H + [ / 'JC, + [o, F / ]} where the matrices Gj, Hi are 2N+1 x2N+l+Nv and in the notation [A, B] the first matrix is 2N+lx2N+l and the second is 2N+lxNv. Then Go= [Ao, Bo] and the solution for all views is given by:QT-121CIP1XPCTJI -N (2.12) r-S, NvJL, N A slightly modified recursion can be shown to yield the scattering matrix of the object. Recall that the total field is given by:fr = Wsl+ [jl]pl+ f (2.13) Any externally generated incident field can be expanded in a bessel series which implies that there exists a sequence, g_N1,..., gN1such that:= A JfjXn S / UnCP)?™* (2.14)(recall that we are assuming that k0= 1) which means thatfl = Ul (2.15) Redefining P / ~ * P / + g(then gives f[ = [h s^ + [j p^ and leads easily to the iteration:CL = [ / ,0], Ht= [0,1] (2 16) For l=L,...1G<-1 = G, - [ / (IIXc 'M, + '<c<}H,_! = H, + Mtr, •]{[ / !, ]A, + [)-,]C,] where the matrices are now 2N+1*2(2N+1). The last iterate Go= [Ao, Bo] yields the scattering matrix:s(r) = A (2 17) for the body y which relates the incident field coefficients to the scattering coefficients: gs= Sgl, where fs(p, 0) = A (2 18)for all incident field coefficient vectors, g!. Notice that in the previous notation:Sin fh,n jL,n> 9n fh,n / ^L,n (2 19) 7.3 COMPUTATIONAL FORMULAS FOR THE JACOBIAN AND ITS ADJOINT In order to apply the Gauss-Newton iteration to the solution of the imaging problem we must first derive recursive formulas for the application of the Jacobian and its adjoint. The Jacobian of the scattering coefficient vector. Sz,, operating on a perturbation in y is given by:QT-121CIP1XPCTJSy = #.=1<3*>I ' l',n' From (2.8) we get:SL=~24Q1(^O + ^O5L) (3-2) where the prime denotes differentiation followed by summation over the elements of 6y.SL' = ISY = SX-K,, <33a>bJ = ^=1sX-K[1, (33b>' I,nA'o = Ep=i ZJ=_N,Syi'.n'^—Ao (3-3c)‘ ' l,n Equation (3.2) provides the formula for computing J Sy is recursive formulas for AQ and b' can be found. Define the notation:4 = S=1+1(34a)c; = Sr=1+1sn.„' (34b)I ' V,n' (note the lower limit of the 1' summation). Then using the LHS recursion in (2.7), it is simple to show that:A'l-! = 4 U)]{[r, •]{[ / !, A't+ UJC,’} + + [ / HC,}} (3.5a)ct-i = c; + + DUO’} + [WKfoM + UJCJ) nsw A further reduction in computational requirements can be achieved by noting from (3.2) that we do not need A'obut rather AQS;where SLis the matrix whose columns are the SL's for each view. The matrix Ao is 2N+1*2N+1 while the matrix ArQSLis 2N+l*Nv. Thus define:A'ts= A'SL, C[S= C[SL, Ast= AtSL, Cts= CtSL(3.6) Then we get the recursion:S= ALSL= ISL= SL, CLs= O, ALS= O, CLS= Q (3.7a) For l-L....,1A{-, = 445s- Di]{[n*] + [jAcn + + Ud Gs}} (3.7b) G'-ts= G's+ +h]cn + [5yr]{[GW + DW)}Gs)(3.7c)QT-121CIP1XPCTAt_s= Ats- [ / / ][ / / ^{[hiAts+ W) (3-7d) G-ts= Cts+ [ht] [Yl*]s+ [j^Cn (3.7e) Similarly, for the b's and d's we get the recursion:BL= 0, DL= 0, BL' = 0, DL' = 0 J(3.8a) For l=L,....1B;-I = B; - [ / J {[rrKLAjs,' + [ / MI + + UJD, + F,1)} O SW D,'_1 = D,' + [ / !,] {[^{[W + [ / ,]»,')[? / ] {[W + [ / ,]D, + F,'}) (3.8c) B,_! = Br[ / ,] [ / , •]{[ / !, ]B1+ D1]D1+ Fl] <3.8d) D(-i = D, + [ft,] + D'1]D1+ Fl] (3 8e) where the matrices are all 2N+1 xN». The final Jacobian is then:SL' = ~A0+ A'os) (3 9) where the columns of S'L are the vectors Jn8y for each view n = 1,..., Nv.We can of course concatenate these two recursions to give:GL= [St, 0], HL= [0,0], G' = [0,0], HL' = [0,0] (3 10a) For 1=L,.,.,1G[-i = G,’ - [ / ,] {[y,-]{[b,]G,' + MH,’} + [< Syf]{[ / l,]G, + D,]H, + [0, (3 10b) Bi'-r= Hl + | / l, { 110 + [ fa \H; } + [ Syl ] { [ hi ] G, + [ / ,] / / ; + [0. F,']j (3 10c)Gr-i = Gt- [ / £] [Y, ’KlMCr + [JM + [0, F / ]} (3.10d) H(-l = H, + [ / l,][ Tl / lJG, + [ / , + H, + [0, F,1]} (3 10c) where, at the last iterate, G = [AQS, BQ. The matrices (G's and H's) in this recursion are all 2N+1 x2N«. This is the form of the Jacobian recursion used in the imaging programs.EXAMPLE 8RECTANGULAR SCATTERING MATRIX RECURSIONThis section describes a new recursive algorithm the used scattering matrices for rectangular subregions. The idea for this approach is an extension and generalization of the cylindrical coordinate recursion method discussed in the previous section. The computational complexity is even further reduced over CCR. The CCR algorithm derives from the addition theorem for the Green's function expressed in cylindrical coordinates. The new approachQT-121CIP1XPCTgeneralizes this by using Green's theorem to construct propagation operators (a kind of addition theorem analogue) for arbitrarily shaped, closed regions. In the following, it is applied to the special case of rectangular subregions, although any disjoint set of subregions could be used.FIG. 18 illustrates a rectangular scattering matrix according to the present invention. Consider two rectangular subregions A and B of R2as show n in FIG. 18. Although the regions are drawn as disjoint, assume that they touch at the center of the figure. Let C denote the external boundary of the union of A and B. Define the scattering operator, S, of region A as the operator that gives the outward moving scattered field on the boundary A, given the inward moving field, due to external sources, evaluated on the boundary A. Similarly, define the scattering matrix for boundary' B. The goal is to find the scattering matrix for boundary C, given SA and SB --the scattering matrices for A and B.Let the incident field due to sources external to boundary C, evaluated on boundary A be denoted fAanc^ similarly define g. For the total problem (A and B both containing scatterers) there exists a net, inward moving field at boundary A. Denote this field fAnand similarly define f. The total field leaving boundary' A is then fAut= SAfAn. Knowledge of the radiated field on a closed boundary due to internal sources allows the field external to the boundary' to be computed at any point. Let the operator that maps AOUonto the boundary B be denoted T A (rectangular translation operator from A to B). Similarly denote the operator mapping futto boundary A be denoted TAB.The total, inyvard moving field at boundary A has two parts— that due to the incident field external to C and that due to sources internal to boundary B. From the forgoing definitions, it should be obvious that the inward moving fields satisfy:(la)(lb) Solving for the total inward moving fields gives:I AB°B fin (2). B. ~TBA$A The total scattered field at boundary A has two components-one from inside A and one from inside B. It should be obvious that the total scattered fields at boundaries, A and B are given by:(3a)QT-121CIP1XPCTfin fB = TBAS. JA (3b)rflAsi finJA TAB$B A i rrBsj? fin (4)BASA SB B. Combining (2) and (4) gives: rfsi SA TABSB_ T c -i—1 Ffi IyA ABR*aJBR(5)L< BJ TBASA SB—TBASA I Assuming that the scattering operators are invertible, then we have the equivalent form:c-l rff i i TABdA TAB 11Ff'I c-t (6) HBJTBA TBAdB L*B1 The scattered field on the boundary C can be obtained from f and fBby simple truncation (and possible re-ordering depending on how the boundaries are parameterized). Let the operator that does this be denoted:rfsi fcs —FCA ^B] (7)L< BJ Let the incident field on boundary C due to external sources be denoted fB. There exist operators DAand DBthat operate on to give f^and fB(similar to the external translation operators TAB and TBA). Thus: / TAB] SA TABfc—F^A Cfi] [TBA1 ~TBA SB1r R L^ nBJrIc(8)from which we see that the scattering matrix for boundary C is given byc1 TAB] SA S ~1~TAI[CA ^B] (9)[TBA I ~TBA SB1Equation (9) then gives the core computation for our rectangular scattering matrix recursion algorithm. Technical details concerning the existence and discrete construction of the translation and other needed operators has been omitted in this write-up. We have, however written working first-cut programs that perform (9).AN O(N3) ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING ALL SCATTERING VIEWS BASED ON RECTANGULAR SCATTERING MATRIX RECURSIONConsider a region containing scattering material covered by an NxN array of rectangular sub regions as shown in FIG. 19.QT-121CIP1XPCTAgain, although drawn as disjoint, assume that the subregions touch. Assume that the scattering matrix for each subregion is known (for example, if each subregion is only / 2 on edge, the calculation of S is trivial given the material enclosed). Now coalesce 2x2 sets of these scattering matrices into larger scattering matrices (this coalesce of 4 subregions into one is similar to the algorithm defined above for coalescing two subregions). There are N / 2xN / 2 such 2x2 blocks to coalesce. When done, we have scattering matrices for the set of larger subregions shown in FIG. 20.This process is continued until, at the final stage, the scattering matrix for the total region is computed. Note that the physical parameters of the scattering media (speed of sound, absorption, etc.) are used only in the first stage (computation of the NxN array of scattering matrices).Assuming that N is a power of two, the algorithm will terminate after log2(N) such stages with the scattering matrix for the whole region. A careful accounting of the computation required reveals that the total computation is O(N3). The end resulting scattering matrix then allows fast calculation of the scattered field anywhere external to the total region for any incident field (angle of view).Although derived assuming that N is a power of 2, the algorithm can be generalized by including 3x3 (or any other sized) coalescing at a stage, allowing thereby algorithms for any N (preferably N should have only small, say 2,3,5, prime factors). Also, there is no reason that the starting array of subregions cannot be N x M (by using more general nxm coalescing at some stages).In addition, the existence of layering can be included. If layering occurs above and below' the total region so that the total inhomogeneity resides in a single layer, then the algorithm proceeds as before. Once the total region scattering matrix has been obtained, its interaction with the external layering can be computed. If inhomogeneous layer boundaries he along horizontal borders betw een row of subscatterers, then the translation matrices can be modified when coalescing across such boundaries, properly including the layer effects. This is an advantage over our present layered Green's function algorithms which require that the inhomogeneity lie entirely within a single layer (This can be fixed in our present algorithms but at the expense of increased computation).The O(N3) computation of this approach is superior to the O(N4log2(N)) computation of our original FFT-BCG approach and our present recursion based on cylindrical coordinates which is O(N3log2(N)).QT-121CIP1XPCTEXAMPLE 9MODELING SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION INCLUDING DRIVING VOLTAGE, TRANSMITTING TRANSDUCERS RECEIVING TRANSDUCERS, PREAMPLIFIERS, ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER ETCLet the transfer function of the transmitting waveform generator, power amplifier, transmitting multiplexer, transmitting transducer, ocean / sediment, receiving transducers, preamplifiers, differential amplifier, differential waveform generator, and analog to digital converter be, respectively, TTWG, T / G. TTM, TZT, To / s, T G. T / ur, Tzu, TZWG, and TDAC. These separate transfer functions can be identified. Then the total transfer function is:T'totai — T / MC( TDXI TRM TRT To / STTMTPATrwc— TDA2TDWG) Note that the term TD 2TDlVGis subtracted in order to remove direct path energy and to remove reverberations in the transducers and the platform; this subtraction effectively increases the analog to digital converter dynamic range. The signal in the differential waveform generator is programmed to produce a net zero signal output from the analog to digital converter for the case of no sediment present.Recall that the equation for the scattered field(from the sediment) at a transducer (not the output voltage) at a given temporal frequency is given in terms of the transducer-to-sediment Green's function D, the sediment's acoustic properties y and the internal field in the sediment f byy(sc)=The field (at a given temporal frequency) within the sediment itself f is given in terms of the incident field fmcthe sediment's acoustic properties y. and the sediment-to-sediment Green's function C byy(inc)=(-j _Cy^On combining these two equations we eliminate the internal field and find the scattered field in terms of the incident field and the sediment propertiesy(sc)= Dy (j _Cyl (inc)These equations involving C and D are true for both the free space Green's function (" Nonperturbative Diffraction Tomography Via Gauss-Newton Iteration Applied to the Scattering Integral Equation. Borup, D. T. et al., Ultrasonic Imaging) and our newly developed layered Green's functions Johnson, S. A., D. T. Borup, M J. Berggren, Wiskin, J. W., and R. S. Eidens, 1992, " Modelling of inverse scattering and other tomographic algorithms inQT-121CIP1XPCTconjunction with wide bandwidth acoustic transducer arrays for towed or autonomous subbottom imaging systems," Proc, of Mastering the Oceans through Technology (Oceans 92), 1992, pp 294-299.]. We now combine the scattering equations with the transfer functions. First, identify f(sc)with To / sTrrTwTp.iTnrG andwith TrpTwT / piTr»G. Next we note that measuring is a direct way of finding the productWe also note that Ttotai can be written asT'totaiCv > TTWG)=T'DACC TDXI TRM TRrDy( / — Cy)1TTITTMTPylTTWG—TQA2 TDV / G)- Then Ttotal(y> TJWG) is a nonlinear operator that transforms (y, TTWZC) into recorded signals T'total— measured- Thus, for a given set of Ttotai— easured measurements and for a given TWG, we may in principal find y by a nonlinear inverse operator 7—Ttotai ( Ttotai— measured (Y > TTWG))- Since the exact form of Ttotai'1is not known, we find y by a Gauss-Newton iteration method. This requires that the Jacobian of Ttotai(y, TTWG) be computed. The Jacobian is readily computed in closed form [Borup, 1992] and is given by / ( / ) = -aTM(,l(yyW. T7. H,0) / ay.Then the Gauss-Newton iteration for computing y is given by: (1) set n=l, estimate a value for y " T (2) compute J(y^); (3) solve ]T(yfo))j(y(n))dyfo) = HT(y(n))(y(”))[Ttotai-)7ieasured-Ttotai(y(:’1), TrwG)] for 5y(n); (4) update y(n)by the formula y(n+1)= y(n)+ 5y(n); (5) if Ttotai-measured-Ttotat(y(n\Trw)] < e then set y = yfo+i)anc| qUite, else go to step 2.The extra dynamic range provided by the differential waveform generate r / analog to digital converter circuit raises questions as to the optimal setup procedure (e.g., how many bits to span the noise present with no signal). We have modeled the signal to noise ratio that can be achieved by a beamformer which delays and sums multiple channel signals, each channel being such a circuit. We find as a rule of thumb, that the lowest order one or two bits should span either the noise or the signal, depending which ever is smaller (i.e., for signal to noise ratios greater than unify the noise should be spanned, but for signal to noise ratios less than unify the signal should be spanned). Upon using commercial 16 or 18 bit analog to digital converters this method may well extend their range to 20 bits or more.QT-121CIP1XPCT2. MODEL ELECTRICAL CROSSTALK, ACOUSTIC CROSSTALK Electrical cross talk can be removed by use of knowledge of the cross coupling matrix M. Let Vn'""c)be true electrical signal at transducer n and letm{meas)be the measured signal at transducer m. Thenn{meas}=M„™Vm(frMe). We observe for small cross talk that matrix M has the form M=D2(I+e)Di, where I is the identity matrix, Di and D2 are diagonal matrices and e is the differential cross talk matrix whose elements are small in value. We seek=M-1V»(meas). By the binomial theorem (I+ej'^I-e). Thus, M’1~Df1(I-€)D2’1. Once Di, D2, and M are measured the problem of removing cross talk is quite inexpensive numerically (even if s is not small the exact inverse M1can be computed once and stored). If the matrix M turns out to be noninvertible (as can be the case for large magnitude coupling) then we can alternatively concatenate M onto the inverse scattering equation to give:^7“’ =to which the inverse scattering algorithm can be directly applied.We believe that cross talk can be removed by good fabrication techniques including careful shielding. Nevertheless, the above numerical method can be used if necessary.Acoustic cross talk can be removed by several methods: (1) acoustic baffling of each transducers; (2) calibration of individual (isolated) transducers, computing the acoustic coupling in the array from wave equations methods, then inverting the model by a cross talk matrix as above; (3) direct measurement of the coupling in a finished array to find the cross talk matrix and then inverting as shown above. A more difficult type of cross talk to remove is the direct mechanical coupling between transducers. This problem will be attacked by using vibration damping techniques in mounting each transducer on the frame. We believe that such damping methods will eliminate direct mechanical coupling. As a backup we note that modeling of the coupled system are theoretically possible and has been successfully accomplished by the university 's AIM Lab for circular mounting geometries (by derivation of a new- "total system Green's function" for the imaging system that that includes cross coupling between elements).EXAMPLE 10INCLUSION OF TRANSDUCER COUPLINGIn the event that significant coupling exists between the object to be imaged and the transducers (and / or coupling between transducers is not negligible), a computationally efficient means of incorporating this coupling into the inverse scattering algorithm is needed.QT-121CIP1XPCTEquivalently, the transducers must be included as part of the scattering problem This section details a computational algorithm for achieving this incorporation.FIG. 21 shows a transducer coupling according to an embodiment of the present invention. Consider an object to be imaged, y, illuminated by a transmitter, T, with the scattering received by a receiver, R, as shown in FIG. 21 Let C denote a closed surface separating y from the transceivers.Let S be the scattering matnx of y which, given the incident field generated from sources outside of C, gives the outward moving scattered field evaluated on C. This operator can be computed by solving a sufficient number of forward scattering problems for the object Y- Let P« denote the operator that computes the field impinging on R due to sources inside of C from the scattered field evaluated on C. This is a simple propagation operator computable by an angular spectrum technique.Let P ' denote the operator that computes the field impinging on T due to sources inside of C from the scattered field evaluated on C. This is a simple propagation operator computable by an angular spectrum technique.Let ART denote the operator that computes the field impinging on R due to scattering from T (it operates on the net total field incident on T). This operator is computed by a moment method analysis of the transmitter structure.Let ATR denote the operator that computes the field impinging on T due to scattering from R (it operates on the net total field incident on R). This operator is computed by a moment method analysis of the receiver structure.Let Br denote the operator that computes the field on C due to scattering from T (it operates on the net total field incident on T). This operator can be computed by a moment method analysis of the transmitter structure.Let B / ? denote the operator that computes the field on C due to scattering from R (it operates on the net total field incident on R). This operator can be computed by a moment method analysis of the receiver structure.Assume that the transmitter T also produces a field, f, due to eternally applied excitation (electrical). Denote by fc the values of this field on C. Denote by ft the values of this field on the receiver surface. We assume that these field values are known (i.e., we know the free-space radiation characteristics of the transmitter).QT-121CIP1XPCTGiven these definitions, the total field incident from outside of C evaluated on C is given by:fctot= + BTftot+ BRfROt(1) where the superscript tot indicates the field incident on the particular element due to all other sources. For T and R we have:ftot=pTSftot+ ArRftot (2) fROt= f + PTSfctot+ ARTf^0t(3) Note that the formula for fRothas no superscript i term since the incident field emanates from its interior. Solving 1-3 for the tot fields gives:"ftot" ■f totrC I —BT~Bp -1 "rCftot P ftotrT —TS 1 —ATR0 — rT(4) ftOtUR J PRS —ARTftoI fi tUR JThe size of this matrix operator is O(N>< N) and so computation of its inverse does not require much CPU time (mere seconds). In order to compute the signal received by the receiver transducer, we take f^otcomputed in 4 and compute the surface currents (EM case) or surface velocities (acoustic case) from which the signal from the receiver can be computed.This procedure for analyzing a scatterer in the presence of coupling between the T / R pair includes all orders of multiple interaction allowing transducers with complex geometries to be incorporated into our inverse scattering algorithms.EXAMPLE 11FREQUENCY DEPENDENT SCATTERING PARAMETERSThroughout the previous sections it has been assumed that y is independent of frequency. Suppose now that y is a function of frequency. In the event that only a single frequency is needed (transmission mode with encircling transducers and only one complex parameter to be imaged) this is not a problem— the algorithm will simply image the 2 or 3-D distribution of y evaluated at that frequency. However, in reflection mode or when imaging multiple parameters, multiple frequencies are needed. This increases the number of unknowns to Q*Nv*N if we naively seek a separate image at each frequency. Since multiple frequencies were already needed to complete the data for a frequency independent unknown, we have no way of correspondingly increasing the number of equations by a factor of Q. Instead, consider approximating the frequency variation with a set of parameters at each pixel:~ Ynm(0)tp(0)(w) + ynm+ - +?nmQT-121CIP1XPCTwhere the basis functions vp are selected based on the physics of the frequency dependence (we may, for example, simply use the monomial basis:= (i)nor, perhaps a rational function basis might be chosen since simple relaxation dispersion is a rational function). The formula for the GN update for this case is:where summation over j is assumed and the matrix M is given by:^M = 0(1)O2) V'<2)("z)C<?-1)(w2)-ip(1)("n) #2)G< Q)Solution for the q XNxX unknowns, assuming that q is sufficiently smaller than Q can then carried out via the GN-MRCG or RP algorithms. We have already verified the success of this approach using quadratic polynomial models of the frequency variation (q = 3, t / / ®(w) = Mn).EXAMPLE 12— PARABOLIC MARCHING METHODSHaving seen in the previous pages how the full nonlinear inversion yields substantial increases in resolution and utility of image, we are now prepared to discuss the advanced marching technique employed in both the forward problem and the Jacobian calculations (as well as the closely related Hermitian conjugate of the Jacobian calculation).Scientific Background and Detailed Description to Advanced Parabolic Marching MethodThe parabolic equation method is a very efficient method for modelling acoustic wave propagation through low contrast acoustic materials (such as breast tissue). The original or classical method requires for its applicability that energy propagate within approximately ±20° from the incident field direction. Later versions allow propagation at angles up to ±90° from the incident field direction. Further modifications provide accurate backscattering information, and thus are applicable to the higher contrasts encountered in nondestructive imaging, EM and seismic applications. [M. D. Collins, A two-way parabolic equation for acoustic backscattering in the ocean, Joum. Acoustical Society of America, 1992, 91, 1357-1368, F. Natterer and F. Wubbeling, " A Finite Difference Method for the Inverse Scattering Problem at Fixed Frequency, " Lecture Notes in Physics, 1993, vol. 422:157-166, herein included as reference]. The source / receiver geometry we use in this device, and the relatively low contrast of breastQT-121CIP1XPCTtissue, allow us to utilize this efficient approximation. The resulting speed up relative to the Gauss Newton, conjugate gradient method [Borup et al., 1992] described in the previous patent, is dependent upon the contrast but is estimated to be 100-400 times. Furthermore the coarse grain parallelization employed in the integral equation method is equally applicable to the parabolic algorithm. The basic structure of the parabolic inversion algorithm is also essentially unchanged. The main difference is in the use of the Parabolic equation approximation, and more exactly, the "split step Fourier Method" [R. H. Hardin and F. D. Tappert " Applications of the split-step fourier method to the solution of nonlinear and variable coefficient wave equations," SIAM Rev. 15, 423 (1973). and M. D. Collins, " A Split-step Pade' solution for the parabolic equation method," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93, 1736-1742 (1993), herein included as reference] in the construction of both the Jacobian of the residual function, and the solution to the forward problems for each view. The source / receiver geometry requirements and the relatively low contrast of breast tissue, allow us to utilize this efficient approximation, for breast cancer scanner applications, for example. In particular because we may elect to use only- transmission data in the breast problem, we are able to use this "parabolic approximation" in a straight-forward, simple manner [see Hardin and Tappert],To derive and elucidate the parabolic equation method, we begin with the 2-D Helmholtz wave equation governing wave propagation in inhomogeneous media:£+(fc2(x'yN^)}r(^y) = o iNow Fourier transforming y to results in:+ -A2)]76-A) =0 2where:fc2(A) = k2(x,2) = £^k2(x,y)e-aydy 3 and the * notation denotes convolution:r(A).5u) = j_" 4 Eqn (2) can be factored in the sense of pseudo-differential operators [M. E. Taylor, " Pseudo-differential Operators," Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1981, herein included as reference]£ + u^k2m2- >-2£ - t &^w2- *27(^,9 = oQT-121CIP1XPCTAn intuitive feel for the manner in which the Parabolic equation arises can be seen by looking at particularly simple case: when k is a constant, then we have, upon Fourier Transforming (1):(-?- + iVfc2- A2) (-?- - i^k2- A2) / (%, A) = 0 6where the square root is now simply the square root of a scalar. From 6, it is clear that in this special case, two solutions exist:(£ + iV / c2- A2) / (%, A) = 0, / (x, A) =.g(A)e-fWfc2-A27for an arbitrary function g, which represents a rightmoving wave for elwttime dependence and:( - i fc2- A2) (x, A) = 0,f(x, A) = _g(A)eix k2-A28 representing a wave which "moves" to the left. Suppose that we know that the field is due to sources entirely on the LHS of the x-y plane. Then, for x>0 we must have: / (x, A) = gWe~ixy / k2-A29 Note that knowledge of f on the line x=0 (boundary condition) completes the solution since: / (0, A) = ^(A) 10 and so, on inverse Fourier Transforming:f(x, A) = ^ / 7raf(0-A)e-'xVk^eUydA,% > 0 11 In fact, for any Xo> 0: / (%, y) = / Xo f(x0’ x > xQ> 0 12 The idea behind the parabolic equation method is to try to factor a general inhomogeneous (i.e. k=k(x,y)) problem into forward and backward moving (in x) factors and then solve only the forward (+x) moving part (assuming that the field source is to the left (on the x-axis) of the scatterer).Let xn= nA, n = 0,.. then 12 is:A+1(y) = L” 13 Since 13 is local X = (n + 1 / 2)A we consider the discretization / approximation:1 _ oo ~ r»+iO') = ^L„ / »('l)e 1 e'^di 14QT-121CIP1XPCTfor propagating forward through k that is inhomogeneous in x and y i.e., k = k(x, y), and fn(y) = f (xn, y). Computationally (14) would be an inverse Fourier transform except for the y -dependence ofk. Definingkn = k2(*n+l / 2)gives27rJ-co Advanced Parabolic Marching MethodNow we desire to take the y-dependence out from under the square root in order that it may then be factored out from under the integral, which will result in the integral being an inverse Fourier Transform, and yield a substantial increase in efficiency. This goal can be achieved approximately in the following manner:Q— i / \knynJ a / kn mr2~ giA( / cn rn— fcn)g — iAkn^ / l— (A / kn)2so that, defining kn / m= k(xn+ 1 / 2, ym). and yTO= mA, then yields: / n+l(ym) ~ eiXymdX (15) or g ~ i&(kn,m~ kn) - Ai-nOm) » - 7. - f^e-^^-WK^e^dAj-co We have thus approximately maintained the y variation in k, while simultaneously giving a Fourier Transform formulation for the field fn+i.— fcn) r - fM1(y) » - 5 - f^e-^^-W^e^dA2nJ-a and in fact using the notation: / O') = 57 fWe-^dAto indicate the Inverse Founer Transform, gives: / n+l ) = Mwhere Pnis the range dependent propagator defined as:QT-121CIP1XPCTp„(y) =c’i42^^-'12This is one basic equation for the parabolic split step method. Various alternative forms can be used in similar algorithms. A common form for the parabolic equation is derived by using the binomial approximation:1 / / L71 - (A / fcn)2« - —in the above integral. This yields a "standard" form of the split-step parabolic equation method:z2J_" 7„(A)ei4«.e‘^dA 16Numerical experiments have indicated the superiority of 15 over 16. In Fourier notation, 16 is:f 21 A MiO™) = e‘ (ym) 17This is the usual form of the split-step PE method. Our more general equation is (in Fourier notation):fn+Aym) = Je-^fcnA / i-WM2F{fn](A)} (yra)An interesting interpretation of the split step method is evident from this: The algorithm step consists of an exact propagation a distance of A in ko (which includes diffraction) followed by a phase shift correction, i.e, multiplication byp~ j n.m—feo) i e which corrects the phase of a plane wave travelling forward.Relation to the Generalized Bom ApproximationThe above split step Fourier method can be seen to be a generalization of the " Generalized Bom" method as developed at TechniScan scientific research division in the following manner. Suppose that we assume that the field variation in y is very7slow, i.e., F{^}(A) 0 for A x 0so that we may replacee-iAknj i-(A / fcn)2~e~iAknin the above integral whichQT-121CIP1XPCTfnWe-^-^^e^dA « 19 Then 28 is: fn+i(ym) = e~^kn-mfn(ym),fn+1(ym) =e-^=okn,m 20(since / o(y) = 1) which is: f(x,y) = e~lf* k(x',y)dx' 21This is the generalized Bom approximation to the field. Thus, the PE formula 17 reduces to the GB formula if straight line propagation and no diffraction are assumed.The PE method should be significantly superior to GB, particularly if the PE total field is rescattered: / S(P) = ko ff V(p')fPE(p')H° ^°JP~P^ds' 22 where fPEis computed from 17 by the split step algorithm. This will also improve the calculation of side and backscatter. The PE formulation has no backscatter (or large angle scattering) in it. Equation 33 is a way to put it back in, in a manner that gives a good approximation for weak scattering.It is important to note that the above formulation of the parabolic equation inversion method does not require the storage of any fields (unlike the integral equation method of the previous patent). Of course, this method (as in the previous method) does not require the storage of a large Jacobian, or its adjoint.Inverse Problem and Construction of JacobianThe construction of the inversion algorithm requires the formula for the Jacobian:dk- ■(ym) _|_ Q iA(kn,m ^o) p 1e-iAfcOA / l-(A / / co)2j7More exactly, we use the conjugate gradient algorithms in our inversion, and consequently require only the action of the Jacobian defined above on the perturbation Sky., i.e. the total variation of f with respect to k:QT-121CIP1XPCTSfn+AVm) =The recursion formula for the action of the Jacobian on the perturbation in k is given bvQ ^o) / ? 1(ym)It is advisable to rewrite the recursion expression for the field values fn+(ym) as:f co / n+lOm) = tn.m fn^e^ eiAymdAJ — coWhere eithertn,m _ g ^o)1 + yJVn.m + 1is the "transmission coefficient+phase mask" characterizing the medium, depending upon The form used depends upon whether the model used as the background medium includes a priori known layering or not. In this case the equation for the Jacobian itself reads:...-A -i& Jk;--A2( 9fn1 1 tn, mF ' &yF ■? (A)?■ (yTO)k J J and the total variation in terms of 5t is:fifn+ltym) =i,jl, JThe recursion formula for 5f is therefore:Sf^Aym) =+ [e-^-A^FlSfMX)} (y„)QT-121CIP1XPCTThe Formula for the Hermitian Conjugate of the JacobianThe recursion for the total variation in the data 5 / v can be written as:8fN= 8tNvN+ WN8fN-rwhere x denotes the Hadamard product, which is defined in the following manner - t±- - Vi - tiVit 0 V =^N-lVN-1.VN. ^NVNAlso, the matrix Wj is defined as:Wj = [t;]where [t ] represents the diagonal matrix:o o - 0 000 0 0 tj, M.whose diagonal terms consist of the elements of the vector ty, and Aj is the matrix defined as (where juxtaposition always indicates matrix multiplication:Aj = F~1PjFAlso the vector v / is defined asVj = Ajfj_i.e.Vj = F-^PjFfj_rNote that with the definitions:0 0 O ’t2o 00 00 0 tj4- for the M - M matrices A. and [t], it follows that the matrix product is given by:[t]A =That is, the ithrow of [t] A, is ti multiplied by the ithrow of A.With these notational assumptions, the recursion for the total variation becomes:QT-121CIP1XPCT[N ~ [VN- 1 + ^N^(W-l) [^V-2]^tN-2 ++ (vyN^_1)... py1)

[70] 5t0The Vj — F1P fj-iarecomputed and stored as the forward fields are computed within the "subroutine jach" which computes the action of the Hermitian conjugate of the jacobian on (the complex conjugate of) the residual vector.The updates for one view', then, are constructed in sequence using the formulae:[5tw] — [T]V][< N][5tjv-i] — [Tjv-i]W / v [< Viv] — [VN-I\FPNF1[t / ] [< VJV] etc.See FIGs. 19-24.SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND FOR THE GENERALIZED BORN APPROXIMATION:The exact scattering 2D integral equation is given by:fscat(p) = If Y(p’V(p') 4-t ds' 1 where f is the exact total field. The generalized Bom approximation is obtained by approximating f in (1) with a straight-line phase integrated field approximation. For a plane wave traveling in the +x direction, this approximation is:x’ f(x'ry') ~ e~ik°x' e~iu>,y')-i / c0)dx"2which has the proper phase (time delay) assuming straight-line propagation. For a point source incident field, the approximation is:Wn(2)(&> (dZ / cU)))1 Ptz3where Ptranis the position of the point source. For a point receiver at prec, equation 1 using equation 3 gives:f^Prec) = ko JJ Z(p')H° ^fptran (dl / C(l^Ho2)^\Pree-p'\)44i 4i Where the path of integration from ptranto p' is a straight line.Transformation to the time domainUsing the asymptotic approximation:QT-121CIP1XPCT(2) lLp-ixTtX gives the approximation:e~i(ii\prec~pr\co fSat(prec' Ptran, *>) = “ 7Z7 If / fa')oTL yi\ Ptran P'WPrec P?l where the path integral is given by:P'(dl / c(T)')c PtranTransforming to the time domain gives:SCat(Prec, Pmax, t) =7%TtC0dt 'j YPJ\ptran-p'\\Prec-p'\In reflection mode (precon the same side of the body as Ptran), there is a problem with equation 7 of this section in that the scattering from point p’ arrives at the receiver at the wrong time. The transmitter pulse arrives at p’ at the properly delayed time,C p'(dZ / c(Z)).JPtranbut then the response travels back to the receiver as if the body were absent (time back to receiver=|prec-p7co). Thus, equation 7 in this section is acausal. To correct this, in reflection mode, we time delay the receiver path as well:fSCatCPrec> Ptran, =1 dff fI ^ppeCI, - — ff y (P ) — — / - - ds887TCQ dt \ \prman P I I Prec P I Equation 8 has been found to be quite accurate in reflection mode. In transmission mode, we retain 7 because in transmission, the scattered field is, in fact, acausal (in the sense that part of the scattered field arrives as if no body were present).In reality, transducers have a limited bandwidth. Let s(t) be the system response of the transducers. Then equation 8 becomes:QT-121CIP1XPCTfSCa\Prec, Ptran, ^=(dZ / c(Z))- [f,rec(dZ / cH))) JJ>( / )1T,, - -ds' 9V I Pran P llPrec / U where the * denotes convolution in time. Equation 9 provides a very pow erful algorithm for time-domain, reflection-mode scattering calculation. It's main advantage over, say, the parabolic algorithm, is that it is in the time domain. Reflection mode scattering using the parabolic method requires that each frequency be computed separately, while equ. 9 gives the full time waveform with one computation.The addition of attenuation into equ. 9 is trivial:fSCat(Prec> Ptram O = “ * OTTCQj] r(p') -1V—P- -Lds’( llPtran ~ P'\ \Prec ~where a is the inhomogeneous attenuation.Imaging algorithms can be derived from 9-10 by using these equations as the nonlinear operator (in y) for predicting the scattering data and applying our standard Fletcher-Reeves or Ribere-Polack approach.BASIS FOR FAST COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHM BASED WARPING OF METRIC IN IMAGE SPACEThe 1-D Generalized Bom J formula in the frequency domain is:ra 'f, Sr(x')dx'+dlca} y(x)e X11■ ’ >dx 1 oAssuming fl(to, x) =e_M*+0 / co)where: S;.(%) = relative slowness = - / / (%) + 1Inverse Fourier transformation of 1 to time gives::-2c0F-1j7(t) = y(x)5 (t ~ ^f0XSr(x')dx' - 2d / c0) dx 2 or — 2c0fs(tr+ 2d / cQ,—d')dt' = f" y(x)3 (t — — J* 5r(x')dx') dx 4U U \ CQ U JQT-121CIP1XPCTChange of variables:f'xCz') x- f x i / j dz z =JIo Srr(\x J)dx,> dx = - Sr(x(z.y) 5 to get: Jrt ' r^(a) fs(t' + 2dfc0, —d)dt' = l > ~ ^~z’} dz' 6 o0which gives:C IZICQ—4 fs(t' + 2d / c0, -d)dt' = ^-—-^- 7Jo7 7°75r(x(z)) where x(z) is defined in 5 which is also:z" x I czdz x(Vz7) - ——' 8JoSr(x(z)) which provides a recursive formula for x(z) for the discretized case. For example, trapezoidal integration of 8 gives:x — — A -i — — A s( - I “F, 2QV / n- 1-1) > 9n2 Sr(xn) 2 (Sr(0) Z-i / =1Sr(xdy xn= x(zn), zn= Anwhich is easy to solve for xnif, for example, Sris piecewise constant.This simple one dimensional example illustrates the technique for changing the metric to obtain a fast algorithm. The 2D case is exactly similar, with the direction of the incident plane wave being rotated to correspond to the x-axis in the above algorithm.SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND FOR PROPAGATION-BACKPROPAGATION METHOD AND PROPAGATION-CG GENERALIZATIONThis section is by nature technical.The Helmholtz Equation (also referred to as the "reduced wave equation" is desired to be solved exactly (i.e., without any type of linearization or perturbation assumption) in order to reconstruct certain parameters in an object. The unknown object is illuminated with some type of wave energy (whether acoustic, or electromagnetic). The wave equation that is solved is of the form:V2f + fc2(l - y)f = 0QT-121CIP1XPCTwhere k0is the wavenumber in free space. Note that Natterer uses the notation V2= A for the Laplacian, therefore in the following, this notation will be used. The y is the object function:C2( \Where y is the object function definition employed by Natterer. It is the negative of the standard definition of y as defined and used in this patent. Furthermore, in the papers included as reference, written by Natterer, and Natterer and Wubbeling, the notation f is used to represent y.For purposes of this discussion we will define Vg in the following manner:f = eifc°e r(l + v0)where 0 is a unit vector in R2.In other wordsf =eiko0 r _|_Qiko0 rv^so thateifc09-ris the incident plane wave and Vg ise-i / co0 rfscwhere fscis the scattered field.NOTE: The definition of y(r) here is designed to correspond to the object function used in " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography", Frank Natterer. This definition is the negative of the standard y used in this patent., and previous patents..When the definition for the field f is substituted into the Helmholtz equation, the result is the equation that Vg must solve:Vy + 2ik06j • Vvy - fc2(l + Vy)y = 0FIG. 28 shows the basic Geometry for the paper " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography", Frank Natterer, which is included herein as reference. This is referred to as FIG. 1 in this paper. The square Q / is the square of sidelength 2p whose boundary is made up of ly (side-scatter directions), ly-(Backscatter direction), and Iy+(forward scatter direction). It encompasses the region Q, which contains the support of theQT-121CIP1XPCTobject function y. 0y is the direction of the incident wavefield propagation. FIGs. 29A and 29B show an elongated rectangle Qzenclosing the region Q, with boundaries ly (side-scatter directions), f-(Backscatter direction), and I^+(forward scatter direction). 6j is the direction of the incident wavefield propagation (for FIG. 29A). The geometry of FIG. 28 shows the incident field direction 0 / , the boundary' in the backscattered direction,, the boundary in the sidescattered direction, ly, as well as in the forward scattered direction f+The ultimate goal is to determine the distribution of appropriate scattering coefficients, y, or y, given the measured fields QQ. = Qj on dQy = I^+U ly U~. j = 1,..., Nvjew, where Nvjewis the number ofviews. dQy is the boundary of Q / . This goal will be achieved by applying the Paige-Saunders Least Squares conjugate gradient algorithm to the functional which is the difference between the measured field on fy+. and the calculated scattered field on If+. The scattered field on I^“, and on the sides ly is also incorporated into the algorithm, since these values are used as boundary' values in the numerical solution of the partial differential equations enumerated below.As is well known, we are required to calculate the "derivative of v / with respect to y" in order to utilize the method of conjugate gradients. This derivative will be denoted by dVjUy’and is also referred to as the Frechet Derivative. It is the functional analysis equivalent of the Jacobian in the calculus of several variables. This " Frechet derivative" is a linear operator which acts upon object functions, 5y, and delivers up a calculated total field on Q: i.e.,dv;dyis a total calculated field. Now, in accordance with the papers by F. Natterer and F. Wubbeling included herein as references, we will also introduce the notation Rj(y) = Vy|r+.That is, Ry(y) = Vj restricted to Iy+, the forward scattering part of the boundary of Q. By definition, the derivative3Rj(rr)dyis the restriction ofQT-121CIP1XPCTdVjdyto the forward scattered direction: / dRj(yr>) dvj \\ dr / r+1iWe will calculate these operators explicitly below. To be exact, the conjugate gradient algorithm we employ requires the calculation of„ ^vj"a?acting on Sy, for specific, known Sy, ie the calculation of the functiondvjdy1To make the equations easier to read, this function will be notated as coy, that is:dvjJ= d ayis a function representing a total field on region Q.First, consider the forward problem in the direction j, which we have denoted (as in F. Natterer's papers) by R / .: given some object function y, which describes the distribution of parameters within the image grid Q, determine the solution vj, to the following boundary7value problem.Avy + 2iko9j • vj — kg(l + Vj y = 0 for j = 1,... Nviewsubject to the conditions (from measured values g;.:dVj dgVj = g< on U E and — — = — — on EJ J JJ ov ov1Then Ry(y) = Vj restricted to Iy+i.e., Rj(y = Vj |r+. Where vj is the solution to the above boundary value problem.NOTE: The solution of this boundary value problem requires the knowledge of the total field on the sides and backscatter direction, and the normal derivative of the total field on the backscatter direction boundary Fy, by virtue of the finite difference marching method employed to solve the partial differential equation. Thus, from a physical point of view the aperture is 360°. The side scattered and back-scattered fields are both included in the solution.The system that we require to solve for y is a nonlinear system, of the form:QT-121CIP1XPCTKj (r) = 9j I r)Recall that g / is the measured data in the direction 0;. Because it is a nonlinear system, it must be solved iteratively by means of the Newton-Raphson method. To this end, given a guess yr, as an approximation to the solution of (1) consider Ry (yr+ 5yr). One can write: / ?y(yr+ 5yr) fy(yr) + SyrwheredRdyis the " Jacobian" map which linearly approximates Rj at yr. Note that this is a linear map: / OBJECT x / MEASUREDx~dy ’ ^FUNCTIONS / \ FIELDS J We can use this fact to obtain an explicit representation of the functiondRf\ / OBJECT x / MEASURED x~dy ’ \ FUNCTIONS / \ FIELDS J Let (y,+ 5vy) be the total field resulting from applying the incident field in direction j to the object function (yr+ 5yr) That is, A(V7+ 5v7) + 2iko07• V(v7+ bv7) — k02(1 + (vj + <5V7)) (yr+ <5yr) = 0Restricting (v7+ 5vy) to the forward scattering border gives the symbolic equation:Ry(yr+ <5'yr) = (vj + 5v,-)|+1i Using the fact that A(vy) + 2tk06j ■ V(vj) -+vy)(yr) = 0 gives A(5V;) + 2ik06j ■ V(dVj) - ko(<5vj)(yr) = / CQ [(1 + Vy)5yr+ dy'Avy] The last term on the right hand side contains the quadratic terms in 6y and so will be ignored, since we are interested in the linear variation of Vj with y. Therefore, using the definitiondVj oWy = -^5y,7dyQT-121CIP1XPCTwhich is the part of 5vj which is linear in by., it follows that is the solution to the following initial value problem with known, nonzero right hand side.A(<n7) + 2tfco0yV(<n;) — k^a>jyr= fco(l + v;)dyrwith the boundary values:U da>:fy, and initial value — — = 0 on fyThe boundary values follow from the following considerations: Since Jj is the linear part of the total variation of Vj it follows that Vj + 8 Vj = Vj + (Vj +higher order terms...It follows that, at the boundaries: Vj + 8 Vj = gj, but Vj = gj at the boundaries, by definition of Vj, therefore 8Vj = 0 at the boundaries, as stated.For purposes of the Paige-Saunders method, or for direct application as backpropagation, it is important to determine a similar explicit repreintation for the Hermitian adjoint or Hermitian transpose of the " Jacobian map"dRj'dyAgain, it is the action of the Hermitian transpose on a given function which is actually- used by the conjugate gradient type algorithms.rdv7iH / TOTALX / OBJECT \. ~dy ' \ FIELDS ) VFUNCTIONS / Using the definition of Rj as the restriction of the total field to I^+, it follows that the Hermitian conjugate ofdRj'wis a linear map: / MEASURED \ / OBJECT \_"9y" J ' ^FIELDS ON f / / VFUNCTIONS / The calculation of the action ofdRj]HQT-121CIP1XPCTon a given measured field on T / is a somewhat tedious process carried out in Natterer " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography" [included in this patent as reference]. The final result is: Given g;, a function on T / +, the action of—dRj]Hon^, isfe) = fco(l + Vj)zwhere z is the solution to the initial boundary value problem:Az + 2iko6j ■ Vz — k°yz = 0(where y(r) denotes the complex conjugate of y) with boundary values:U I), and initial value —dz = gj on fjNOTE that gj is used only on the forward scattering border f;+, which is as it should be since this is the only place that the function gj is defined. Note that the gj is "back-propagated" back across the region Q, in order to obtain the function z, which is then used to obtain the functiondRiHJ91which is defined on all of Q.NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD APPLIED TO INVERSIONNow consider the system:gj =Rj(yr+ £yr) / ? / yr) +Rewriting this gives the following linear system which must be solved in order to obtain 6y.- (5yr) = gj - Rj(yr)The vastly underdetermined form of this system leads one to define the function d such that the following equation holds:QT-121CIP1XPCTThen the corresponding system for d is:dRj~\ \dR^Hd = gj - Rj(yr)dy dyand the expression for 5yris given by:Now, the efficient method for the determination of 6yr. will involve some form of approximation:For example C;=Identity has been shown to work well (This is the approach taken by Natterer in " A Propagation-Backpropagation Method for Ultrasound Tomography". Other choices include C / =some diagonal matrix. One could also use Paige-Saunders Least Squares Conjugate Gradient method to find the minimum norm solution to:dR,'— j 8yr= gj - Rj(yr)In any case, once the update 8yrhas been found. It is added to the previous guess with some multiplicative factor p = 1 to obtain the new estimate for the y.y'+1= r' + / W)This process is repeated for j=l,... Nv;ew. This approach differs significantly from the approach described earlier in that a vastly underdetermined problem is solved for each direction, as opposed to solving an overdetermined problem for the update 5y.Note that the forward problem can be updated after 1, 2, or any finite number of directions have been carried out. The tradeoffs are that it is much more difficult to calculate the forward problem each time for each direction. However, the speed up in the convergence may make it worth the computational effort.QT-121CIP1XPCTSCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND AND DETAILED DESCRIPTION FOR BRIGHTNESS FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO PHASE ABERRATION CORRECTION WITH CONJUGATE GRADIENT METHODSThe scientific background to the phase aberration correction based upon the brightness functional is simply that the L2 norm (functional) of the B-scan image intensity is maximized when the phase shifts (time delays) are such that the image is maximally focused [L. Nock and G. E. Trahey, " Phase aberration correction in medical ultrasound using speckle brightness as a quality factor," Joum. Acoustical Society of America, 1989, 85, 1819-1833, herein included as reference].FIG. 30 shows the geometry of a linear B-scan acoustic transducer array illuminating an anatomical region through an aberrating layer of fat. We develop the algorithm here for the linear array for simplicity. Modification for convex, sector scanning arrays etc. is trivial. A region of interest (ROI), selected by the user, is also shown. The image in the ROI is formed by M beams produced by the beamformer hardware. The transducer elements that contribute to the formation of the M beams in the ROI are denoted emito Qmi.The goal of the algorithm is to focus the image in the ROI by finding a set of time delays applied to the signals from each transducer element emito e„,2 such that the brightness functional in the ROI (square of the L2 norm of the image intensity7, B(t), over the ROI) is maximized:{n,m}cR0lwhere \n,m is the image intensity at pixel (n,m) and the vector t, t™: m=mi,..., m2 is the vector of transducer element time delays. Our algorithm applies gradient based optimization methods (steepest descent, Fletcher- Reeves conjugate gradients, Ribere Polak conjugate gradients, etc.) to solve the maximization problem.Clinical B-scanners operate by breaking the image up in range into a number of focal zones. The receiver beamformer then focuses the transmitter and receiver at a focal range equal to the center of the focal zone. Thus, each beam (laterally scanned) has one delay set (one delay for ech element contributing to the beam) over the focal zone range. If the ROI is contained entirely within one focal zone (as in FIG. 30), then the delay perturbations for focusing need to be added to only one beamformer delay set per beam. In the case that the ROI overlaps two of more focal zones, the time delay perturbations must be added to the beam delay sets for each focal zone.QT-121CIP1XPCTThe only hardware needed to implement this phase aberration correction algorithm is a B-scanner with a computer iterface, allowing the image to be read from the B-scanner into the computer memory and allowing the beamformer hardware delays in the B-scanner to be reset from the computer.Nearly all ultrasound clinical scanners use and display the envelope of the RF beam signals as the image intensity. This is done by low pass filtering the modulus of the analytic RF signal or, in some low cost systems, by low pass filtering the rectificated video. The enveloping process is often followed by further processing that includes time variable bandwidth filtering to supress noise and by logarithmic compression to extend dynamic range. We emphasise that the proper use of the brightness phase aberration correction algorithm must de- emphasize the amount of, or eliminate entirely, logarithmic compression, else logarithmic emphasized excess brightness in the side lobes of the point response function will destroy the attempt to focus the image by maximizing the strength of the central lobe of the point responce function of the image.The following steps outline the algorithm for brightness based phase- aberration correction.Choose 5t=the time perturbation to be added to a selected element delay for derivative calculation.Choose line search time increment, 5r. and number of line search steps. Ns.1. Load the beamformer with precalculated delays based on 1540 m / s tissue average speed.2. Acquire the initial image from the b-scanner.3. Select the ROI (region of interest) comprising one or more receiver and transmit and one or more beam locations and focal ranges.This selection determines a sub set of transducer elements that are used in the image formation of this ROI, emi,..., e™2 where ml is the first element and m2 is the last, e.g., mi, m2 G [1,..., Niran] for an Niran element array.Set itertype=’SD', FR, RP or RPP for steepest descents, Fletcher-Reeves, Ribere-Polack, or Ribere-Polak with the Powel modification.Set hm=0, m=mi,...,m2, set pm=0, m=mi,...,m2.Set r0=l.Set tm=0, m=mi,...,m2 the element time delay perturbation vector.4. For 1=1,...5. Compute bo=sum of squares of the image intensity on the ROI.QT-121CIP1XPCTIf 1=0, bmfta / =bo.6. For m=mi....,iri26.a. Calculate a new delay set with 5t added to all delays for which element emis the transducer element used.6.b Load the new delay set into the beamformer.6.c Acquire the new image from the B-scanner.6.d Compute bm=surn of squares of the image intensity on the RO1.6.e gm=(bm-bo) / 8t.6.f Next m.7. If (itertype=’SD’) set pm=gm, m=mi....,m2, go to 13.8. Computem2ri = 9mm=m19. If(itertype- FR' ) |3=n / ro.10. If(itertype- RP )m2P ~ 9rn(.9m ~ ^m) / r0m=m111. If (itertype- RPP' ) then. If P<0, P^O.12. Update the search direction and save the gradient in vector h:Pm gm + PPm>m=ml- -,m2hm gm>m= m2r0Il13. ComputeM = max |pm|.m=m1...,m214. Line search by Trial and Error. For n=l,..., N.s:14. a fm= tm+ n5crpm / M, m = m,..., m2(Note that this formula ensures that the maximum time perturbation is N^. ST.14. b Compute the new beamformer delay set with element time delay perturbation vector f.14. c Acquire the new B-scan image and compute the brightness b« over the ROI. 14. d Next n.QT-121CIP1XPCT15. Determine n for which b„ is maximum, then set: tm-> tm+ 50n5Tpm / M, m = m2Steps 14 thru 15 can easily be replaced by a gradient, or quadratic, or Fibonacci search, or other line search for efficiency,. The above trial and error method is included for concreteness only)16. Load new delay s into beamformer with vector t of element time delay perturbations added.17. Display B-scan image.18. Check convergence criteria such as the percent change in brightness functional is less than some small and arbitrary number such as 5%. Do another gradient convergence step? If yes, increase 1 by 1, (go to 5).Clearly computing the gradient by perturbation of each time delay in sequence is one of many ways and is straightforward. It is possible to use a basis set for the gradient based upon the singular value decomposition of the Hessian of the Brightness functional (which is closely related to the Jacobian of the Brightness vector— ie the vector whose modulus squared is the Brightness functional)The number of significant singular vectors will generally be somewhat less than m2 -mi, so that using the singular vectors as a basis for finding the gradient will in general be much more efficient.SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND FOR IMAGING WITH DIFFUSION EQUATION MODELSElectric Conductivity Imaging by Frequency Domain, Nonlinear Inversion (the method we use for wave equation inversion, now modified for the Diffusion Equation)We start with the receiver and media diffusion equations, modified to eliminate the Electric field E, internal to the image grid, which then becomes a non-linear expression for the conductivity (or its reciprocal, resistivity) in terms of the incident field and the measured field at a fixed frequency co. Define the residual field R (note the frequency, source and receiver indices of R are suppressed, but under stood to be active) by the standard formula:R= Em- Eb+ D[\ / \]([ / - = 0Here, Em(r) is the measured electric field, E.?=Em-Ei is the measured scattered electric field, and E Ar) is the incident field or response in the (homogeneous) background medium.It should be noted that the definitions provided in this section are isomorphic to the wave equation definitions given in the previous examples and only the Green’s functions haveQT-121CIP1XPCTchanged (but these are available from" Morse and Feschback, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vols.l. and 2, McGraw-Hill.").This provides the correct value for the measured field Electric field Emwhen substituting the correct value for y and Eb and on setting R=0. We solve for y by finding the y that minimizes R by minimizing the objective functionalF(y) = (1 / 2)ll^ -Eb - r>[\y\][ / - C[\y\]]-1Eb||2= (%) ||R||2In general, we can define the norm of the residual vector R to be general enough to weight each frequency component of F(y) to increase the convergence rate in some cases:F(y) = (1 / 2)||< = ^frequency consources snrecejvers mI I Define the Jacobian of the residual R with respect to y by(d / dy)7? = —D(I - yXjCr VI]Then the Gauss-Newton algorithm for finding the y that minimizes F(y) is isomorphic to the earlier wave equation case, and is given by:(a) Select an initial guess yw. Set n=0.(b) Solve the forward problem for E(n)by us of the biconjugate gradient (BCG) or stabilized biconjugate gradient (BiSTAB) algorithms.EW = Qi - C[\yW\]](c) compute the receiver residualsR(") = Em- E„ + D[\y\W] Ql - C[\yV")]]-1E„(d) For some small number e the size of the noise to signal ratio,if||R(n)|| / l|Em|| < r,then stop. Else(e) Minimize||(d / ay)R<nMy^ + R^||for 8y by using the conjugate gradient algorithm.(f) Update yby y(n+1)= yW + 8y(n)(g) Set n=n+l, go to (b).We note that for many problems that the Jacobian can be approximated by the first two terms of the Neumann seriesQT-121CIP1XPCT(< W)R = -D(I + [| / |C)[\E\]]This is like a Bom approximation to the Jacobian, but it is not the Bom approximation to the scattering equations. We find that this Jacobian has a larger radius of convergence than the Bom approximation itself.This method tends to be self regularizing if the iterations are halted when the changes in||R<”’|| / IIE„IIbecome small relative their early changes. Other regularization methods may also be used such as the "squaring" method described below:SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND ON SQUARING AN OVERDETERMINED SYSTEM TO APPLY BISTAB:The basic algorithm for reconstruction of y is reviewed below: We start with the receiver and media propagation equations, modified to eliminate E, which then becomes a non linear expression for the object function in terms of the incident field and the measured field at a fixed frequency o>. Define the residual field R (note the frequency, source and receiver indices of R are suppressed) byR- (Em- E„) - D[\y\]([l - C[\Y\]]]-1E6= 0 Here, Em(r) is the measured field, E=Em-E / , is the measured scattered field, and ETr) is the incident field or response in the (homogeneous) background medium. [\y\] is the diagonal matrix formed from the vector y.This provides the correct value for the measured field Emwhen substituting the correct value for y and E / , and on setting R=0. We solve for y by finding the y that minimizes R by minimizing the objective functionalR(r) = (1 / 2)ll£- - Eb- D[\Y\]] ([ / - C[\Y\]]_1M2= (V2) ||R II2In general, we can define the norm of R to be general enough to weight each frequency component of F(y) to increase the convergence rate in some cases:F(V) = (1 / 2)HRII2^■frequency w^sources ^receivers m I ^a>^a>sm I Define the Jacobian of the residual R with respect to y byWW = -D(l - [\Y\]0-1[[\E\]]Then The Gauss-Newton algorithm for finding the y that minimizes F(y) is given by: (a) Select an initial guess y(n). Set n=0.QT-121CIP1XPCT(b) Solve the forward problem for E(H)by us of the biconjugate gradient (BCG) or stabilized biconjugate gradient (BiSTAB) algorithms.EW=Qj _ c[\y< X>]]-1(c) compute the receiver residualsRW= Em- Ej + D [V'"’ \] ([l - C [V'"’ \]]“1E6(d) For some small numberthe size of the noise to signal ratio,if||R(")|| / ||Em<ethen stop. Else(e) Minimize2||(d / dy)R(n)5yW + R(n)||for 5y^ by using the conjugate gradient algorithm.(f) Update yby y(”+1) = + 5y(n)(g) Set n=n+l, go to (b).We note that for many problems that the Jacobian can be approximated by the first two terms of the Neumann series(d / dy) / ? = —£)) / + [\y\]C)[\E\]]This is like a Bom approximation to the Jacobian, but it is not the Bom approximation to the scattering equations. We have found that this algorithm with approximate Jacobian has a larger radius of convergence than the Bom approximation per se.This method tends to be self regularizing if the iterations are halted when the changes in||RW|| / I|E„IIbecome small relative to their early changes. Other regularization methods may also be used such as Singular Value Decomposition based methods. The difficulty with this algorithm is that it is based upon using some form of general conjugate gradients to solve an overdetermined system. The way to avoid this bottleneck is to create a square system from the overdetermined system and use BiSTAB on the square system. This can be done in several ways when the system is linear.QT-121CIP1XPCTInvestigation of a new inversion method based on finding square Jacobian.It is known that solving the rectangular, over determined, linear system Ax=b can be accomplished by multiplying both sides of the equation by the adjoint AG, thereby giving the square system (AGA)x = (AGb). This system is called the normal system and the corresponding equations the normal equations. The solution is the least squares solution to the original over determined system. However, the new system has singular values that are the square of the singular values if the original system (i.e., AGA is ill conditioned). This means the conjugate gradient (CG), one the most efficient of all methods, converges slowly in solving the normal equations. Although CG methods for solving the over determined system directly exist, they essential form products (AG, A) implicitly. Thus, the speed advantages of CG are compromised. The system Ax=b in our example represents the system(5 / dy)R(n)5y(n)+ R(n)= 0i.e., equation 4.2; 18(e), where (d / d )RMis the Jacobian Jw.We note JWGJ('!)is square but ill conditioned. In our example Ax=b. let x=By and let AB be square. Then on substitution, ABy=b. Now, y can be solved by BiCG and then x is found by a simple multiplication by B. Further, suppose that B can be chosen so that y=b, then AB~I., where I is the square identity matrix. In this case, solving ABy=b is very well conditioned and BiCG should converge in only a few iterations. We next generalize A and B to be nonlinear operators (not matrices). Then the Jacobian of the operator AB is square. We also may choose B to be an improved generalized Bom approximation, the Bom approximation, or backpropagation. These methods are discussed in the detailed description section below in conjunction with FIGs. 28 and 29.General Discussion of ConditioningSuppose that the goal is to find min ||At — r ||2, where A is m by n matrix (m<n), t is an n-dimensional vector, and r is m-dimensional "residual" vector. By making a change of variables Bs=t, to s, where B is n by m., the system to be solved is nowABs=rand AB is a square system. Therefore the BiConjugate gradient method or BiCGsquared algorithm can be applied to this system. BiCG squared has much better convergence behaviour than standard conjugate gradient methods for non-square systems. Consequently the convergence to a solution s will generally be much quicker, whereupon t=Bs computes the answer to the original problem. Due to the position of the conditioning matrix B, after the original coefficient matrix A, this procedure is sometimes referred to as ' postconditioning'QT-121CIP1XPCTTwo special cases:1. B=Ar, in which case s is the minimum norm solution to an underdetermined problem ~ Where indicates the direct sum in(Dtpthe sense of vector spaces over all frequencies, ie concatenation.In fact, for operators Ai, which act on vectors xy AJXJ, the operator0 0 0^2 0 00 00 0 Ay / .acts on the total vectorwhere0 0 0 ’Vi’A20 0 v2A2V20 00 0 Ay / . VN ANVN.Of course, this is a nonlinear operator, and the corresponding Jacobian isdAB > dA(y) dB > / by \ > dA(y)g dy 3g ylinearity / QyThis Jacobian is evaluated at some iterated guess, and is an object that is used in the BiCG minimization routine. B in this case is the Bom or Rytov reconstruction.The general procedure for the solution of the Jacobian equation:dA(y),,— - — -B8gsc= -r^dythen involves the application of said Jacobian (1), and its conjugate transpose:dA(y)HBHr(n)dyIn the above formula g'c;is the scattered field to which the Bom reconstruction procedure is applied to yield y,y = Bgscwhere the standard Bom approximation is utilized:gsc(x) = G(x,x')r(x')fmc(x')dx'JQ.QT-121CIP1XPCTwhich upon discretization reads:gscwhere the standard notation for the matrix whose diagonal elements are the components of the vector fLnc. has been used:incincincConsequently the operator B can be written explicitly:B = finc]G~although it is important to realize that the actual inversion is never earned out: rather, the standard Bom reconstruction based upon the Fourier Diffraction Theorem is used, for computational efficiency.Scientific Background for Calibration TechniquesThe idea behind the use of nonlinear optimization for calibration is to collect scattering data from several known phantoms. A computational model of the scattering process, functionally dependent on the unknown calibration parameters, is then varied with respect to these parameters until a match with the data is obtained. If the objects are sufficiently well known and sufficient in number and location, then the resulting match should provide an accurate estimate of the unknown calibration parameters.Generic Gauss-New ton Minimization Algorithm for Calibration:Suppose that a dataset, fseQy, f1^, of scattered and incident fields is measured forseveral view angles q, receiver positions f, and know n test phantoms, g. A typical phantom used in practice is an agar cylinder. Note that the incident measurements fle^ are notdependent on the test object.Assume further that a computational model for the scattering problem exists which predicts the measured data, given such calibration parameters as position, radius, and speed of sound in the agar cylinder, and position and orientation of the receiver array (e.g., the orientation defined by Euler angles with respect to a selected fixed coordinate system). This might be a general forward solver such as an integral equation solution or an FDTD algorithm. A simpler, less computationally involved method, in the event that the test phantoms are cylinders or collections of cylinders, is the use of the Bessel series analytic solution. Let this computational solution be denoted:QT-121CIP1XPCTcfrotpr (O»for the M scattering parameters in the vector C / Q\c2\C = I:\CM / The optimization approach is to minimize the L2 norm of the mismatch between theoretically predicted and experimentally measured fields by adjusting the values of the scattering parameters in vector C:mmF = min [| (c) - + |<^(c) - / ^|2It is also possible and desirable to enforce bounds on the scattering parameters:Lj Cj i Uj, j = 1,..., MMinimization of the functional is computed by first explicitly deriving the elements of the Jacobian for the scattering equations:de deThe Gauss-Newton method for the minimization of the functional2 - 2’F == | < Pe<py(c) - fe<py| + | < Pe<p (c) “ fe<p I is the followingSTEP 1: Choose an initial guess for the parameter vector, Coand put n=0.STEP 2: Form the residual vectorsrlns= Y (hns— fsrlnl= ( 'th'nl— flnlwhere the vectors used in the definition of rj are given by:tPdtpy^S-n) j fnSTEP 3: Form the Jacobian matrices:dcm— dcm— 70n(Cn)dfpecpM ^07i(Cn) -J 0n(^n)-dCm L dcmJand solve the system:QT-121CIP1XPCTM r5C - -lrnnsiW L plnt JSTEP 4: Update the parameter values:Cn+l =Cn +and update n: n«— n+1, and go to STEP 1 if a convergence criterion has not been met. Modification of this algorithm to incorporate equality constraints can be achieved by the method of Lagrange multipliers.Inequality constraints can be included by the use of slack variables, Sequential Quadratic Programming, Projected Gradient, Augmented Lagrangian or Generalized Reduced Gradient methods. Of course Penalty function methods can also be employed in theory, but straightforward application of this procedure is generally ill-posed in the numerical sense. Enforcement of these constraints tends to be very important for the present problem. For instance, receiver positions might be constrained to movements less than the assumed precision in their physical measurement (these physical measurements determine the starting values, co).ModificationsPerhaps the most essential modification to the basic Gauss-Newton algorithm above, for the present problem, is the incorporation of rescaling and truncation operators. An example of rescaling would be the case where one of the unknowns is an angle, a, (linear array angle offset). In order to give this unknown angle the same weight as an unknown distance, we solve for 8a'=r8a where r is a relevant distance which may be a function of receiver position. A need for truncation is illustrated by the fact that multiple test phantoms are needed to fully test the receiver transducer pattern. For a given phantom, only a certain range of receiver pattern parameters are tested. Also, the sensitivity of each receiver position to a given pattern parameter can be estimated geometrically. This information can be incorporated into the Jacobian with a combination of rescaling (emphasizing some receiver values and deemphasizing others) and truncation operators (removal of data not affected by a given parameter). Rescaling and truncation improve the conditioning of the Jacobian and avoid the emphasis of noise in data not relevant to a given parameter.Description of Calibration Procedure for Acoustic ImagingThis example gives a specific example of how the calibration procedure is employed for a particularly simple system as employed at TechniScan Inc. This example can easily be applied to electromagnetic waves with the appropriate changes in the notation.QT-121CIP1XPCTIn order to obtain a well calibrated inverse scattering image, the acoustic pressure field due to the transmitter and the sensitivity’ field of the receiver (equal to the pressure field produced by the receiver acting as a transmitter) must be known. Presently available transducers (PZT and PVDF) suffer from piezoelectric parameter variations, preventing the construction of a transducer with a field pattern prescribed to within better than 10%. Thus, transducer field measurements are needed to calibrate the transducer fields prior to (or concurrent with) optimization for the target acoustic parameters.The inverse scattering algorithm also requires accurate measurement of geometrical parameters such as the physical location of the transmitter and receiver transducers relative to the region to be imaged. As a concrete example, suppose that multiple view data for the imaging of an object is obtained by a single receiver mechanically scanned to form a linear receiver array, a fixed transmitter location, and a rotated object holder: See FIG. 28 for a picture of the relevant geometry.In FIG. 28, the object to be imaged is assumed to be fixed in the primed coordinates. The unprimed coordinates are defined by segment 1 connecting the transmitter center to the rotation axis of the object, d, is the unknown length of segment 1, bt is the unknown transmitter misalignment angle, qm, m=l,..., M is the rotation angle of the object, dr is the unknown distance from the rotation center to the receiver scan line (in the direction of segment 1), a is the unknown misalignment angle of the receiver scan line with respect to the normal to 1, br is the unknown misalignment angle of the receiver with respect to the scan line, D is the known receiver scan increment, y„, n=-N,..., N is the distance from the intersection of segment 1 with the receiver scan line to the nth receiver position which is known if yo =ysand D are known. We assume that the rotation increment, dq. is known. The exact placement of the object to be imaged in the primed coordinate system is not needed since its absolute shift and rotation will be imaged. The 6 geometrical unknowns are thus: dr, dr, br, br, a, ys. In this 2D example, the third dimension is ignored. In a real experiment, displacements and angle offsets in this dimension are also unknown. However, a basic assumption of our present approach is that, even if fields with 3D variation are produced by the transmitter and receiver, if the object is 2D (no variation in the third dimension) then there exist 2D transducers which will produce the same eikonal (total field measurement divided by the incident field measurement) data.Calibration by OptimizationIn order to determine the transducer fields and geometry' of the experiment, optimization techniques are used. Consider the case where the transducers fields are known and it is desired to calibrate for the geometry'. Assume that a calibration phantom consisting ofQT-121CIP1XPCTa saline filled plastic circular cylinder is placed in the sample holder. Assume that the thickness of the plastic is known but the exact speed of sound in the saline is unknown. Assume also that the cylinder is centered precisely on the rotation axis so that only one view is needed (if this is not so, one could rotate the object holder and include x,y displacements of the cylinder axis with respect to the rotation axis as unknowns). Adding the unknown scattering potentials of the saline and plastic to the list of unknowns gives the 8 values dr, dr, br, br, a. ys, gs, gPto be determined. As a further simplification, let us take the transducers to be line sources which are perfectly colinear with the cylinder axis. For these omnidirectional transducers, there are no br, br, unknowns.As a simulation example, data was generated by analytic cylinder solution for the following parameter values:frequency =312.5 KHzCo =1485 m / s (speed of sound in water)Outer diameter of plastic cylinder=l"Thickness of plastic=0.73 mmNumber of receiver positions=128Receiver sample interval, D=1.195 mm (yn=(n-64.5)D+ys)gs=-0.12gP=-0.5dr=5 cma=3 degreesys=3 mmdt15.cmThe data used to optimize for the parameters is the log of the eikonal:datan= ln(fn / fn!) = ln(|fn / fnl|) + i Phase(fn / fnl) The optimization functional is then:F(Ys> YP>a,ys,dr,dt) = |ln (ys, Yp> a,ys,dr,dt) - datan\2n The starting guess for the optimization is:gs=-0.1gP=-0.4dr=4.5 cma=0.0 degreesQT-121CIP1XPCTys0.0 mmdt=15.5.cmComputing the data for these two parameter sets gives the comparison shown in FIGs.31 and 32Solution after 3 Ribere-Polack steps applied to the minimization of the functional gives the solution:F(final solution)Normalized residual = - — - — — = 0.1016598Z„|data„|2VF (final solution)Normalized gradient = - -: - - = 0.2283959VF (starting guess)gs= -.116789, 2.68% errorgp= -0.59277, 18.6% errordr= 4.756 cm 4.9% error a = 2.29916 degrees 23.4% errorys= 2.18673 mm 27.1% error dt= 15.0 cm 0% error For 5 R-P steps:Normalized residual = 5.11123E - 02Normalized gradient = 0.122296gs= -0.117978, 1.75% errorgp= -0.57, 14.0% errordr= 4.87 cm 2.6% error a = 3.08706 degrees 2.9% errorys= 2.92 mm 2.7% error dt= 15.0 cm 0% error For 9 R-P steps:Normalized residual = 1.01880E - 02Normalized gradient = 1.22823E - 02gs= -0.118573, 1.17% errorQT-121CIP1XPCTgp= -0.518917, 3.78% errordr= 5.0 cm 0% error a = 3.08706 degrees 2.9% errorys= 2.96672 mm 1.1% error dt= 15.0 cm 0% error Overview of Calibration Steps for Acoustic 2D GeometryFirst incident field, scattered field, the total field corresponding to the FIG.30 are read into memory.STEP 1:Creation of receiver model. For this purpose a procedure is carried out whereby the receiver is rotated in its center position with transmitter at some fixed position. The receiver is rotated at equi-angular intervals from -p / 2 to p / 2. For the 2D model the receiver is modelled as 51 weighted line receivers separated by some fixed distance dree, which is fixed, as shown in FIGs. 33 and 34STEP 2Next a transmitter model is constructed which consists of an infinitely long, infinite impedance cylinder with a source function on its surface. The transmitter model equivalent source surface is discretized by an np=31 pt. spline function, interpolated to n>np points for the computation of the incident field.The np node values on the surface of the non-physical infinite impedance cylinder are the unknowns which are optimized to give a best fit in the least squares sense of the incident field as measured on the receiver array, as shown in FIG.33.STEP 3The next step is the use of the incident field generated by this impedance cylinder model, and exact Bessel solution models for scattering from a cylinder to create a scattered field, which is matched with the measured scattered field, using the receiver model calculated above. The setup is as shown in FIG. 38.SOFTWARE DESCRIPTIONSHaving described some examples in the previous section which illustrate mathematical and physical models which may be used to model scattered wavefield energy and to process data so as to reconstruct an image of material parameters using inverse scattering theory, reference is next made to FIG. 39.QT-121CIP1XPCTThis figure schematically illustrates a flow diagram for a computing system carrying out an imaging process. The flow diagrams provided herein are merely illustrative of one implementation using the scalar Helmholtz wave equation or vector wave equation or similar wave equation for modeling scattered wavefield energy as described in Example 1.As shown in FIG. 39, as schematically illustrated in Step 3602, for each transmitter from which a signal is sent, the system next causes a receiver multiplexer to sequence each receiver array so as to detect the scattered wavefield energy at each position.Once the scattered wavefield energy has been detected, processed, and digitized, the system next determines the incident field fro< '”e, as indicated at step 3604. The incident field is determined from the wavefield energy (e.g., frequency and amplitude components of the transmitted waveform) and transducer geometry from which the incident field is transmitted. The process of determining this incident field may involve direct measurement of the incident field or calculation of the incident field using the appropriate Green's function whether it be Biot, elastic, electromagnetic, scalar, vector, free space or some combination or permutation of these. The incident field is determined at each pixel in the imaged space for each source position cp=l,...,0 and for each frequency co, which varies from 1 to. In step 3606, the scattered wavefield is measured, recorded and stored at the wavefield transducer receivers for each co, varying from I to Q each source position 1 -< D, and each pixel element at each wavefield transducer receiver position. In step 3608, the initial estimate for the scattering potential can be set at either 0 or at an average value which is derived from the average material parameters estimated a priori for the object. When applicable, a lower resolution image of y, such as produced by a time of flight method as described in U. S. Pat. No. 4,105,018 (Johnson) may also be used to advantage (in the acoustic case) to help minimize the number of iterations. Similar approximations for other forms of wavefield energy may be used to advantage to help minimize the number of iterations.The system next determines in step 3610 an estimate of the internal fields for each pixel in the image space and for each frequency co, and each source position. This estimate is derived from the incident field and the estimated scattering potential. This step corresponds to step 3622 in FIG. 40A as well as to step 3610 in FIG. 39.For a given and fixed frequency co, and fixed source position cp, the forward problem consists of using equation 1 or 17 (provided in EXAMPLE 1) to determine the total field fro< Pgiven the scattering potential y and the incident field fncand the appropriate Green's function. This Green's function could be the scalar Green's function which is essentially the Hankel function of the second kind of zero order, or it could be the elastic Green's functions which isQT-121CIP1XPCTderived from the scalar Helmholtz Green's function, or it could be the Biot Green's function, or it could be the electromagnetic vector or scalar Green's function as well as a layered Green's function derived from one of the preceding green's function in the manner described above. The process whereby this is done is elucidated in FIGs.42A and 42B.Before applying this algorithm, equation 1 or 17 is discretized so that it may be input into a processor. This process is described in detail in the Examples. The number of frequencies that are used in the inverse scattering problem is a function of the source receiver geometry, among other things.All forward problems for all possible frequencies, and all possible source positions can be solved, for example, for the two-dimensional case or for the three-dimensional case, whichever is relevant. FIG. 41 gives in detail the procedure for solving for the internal fields at all possible source positions and all possible frequencies. From step 3622 in FIG. 40A we enter step 4140 on FIG. 41. In step 4140 of FIG. 41, all of the files that contain all of the Green's functions for all possible frequencies and the files that contain the incident fields for all possible frequencies and all possible source positions are rewound. In step 4142 of FIG.41, co is set equal to 1, i.e., we indicate that we are about to calculate the forward problem for the first frequency. In step 4144 of FIG. 41, the Green's function for this particular frequency is read into memory. In step 4146 of FIG. 41, the source position index cp, is set equal to 1 indicating that we are solving the forward problem for the first source position. In step 4148, the incident field for this particular q>, i.e., source position, and this particular m. i.e.. frequency, is read into memory. In step 41 0, the forward problem for this particular frequency and this particular source position is solved using either biconjugate gradients or BiSTAB. This process is detailed in FIGs. 42A and 42B for the biconjugate gradient or BCG algorithm and FIGs.43 A and 43B for the BiSTAB or biconjugate gradient stabilized algorithm. In FIG. 42A, in step 450 which follows step 4150 in FIG. 41, the predetermined maximum number of biconjugate steps and tolerance are read into memory', and the forward problem, which in discrete form reads (I-Ga>)f=f”c, is solved. For purposes of generality7, we consider the BCG or biconjugate gradient algorithm applied to the system Ax=y. A is a matrix which is square, x and y is a vector of suitable dimension. Step 4252 consists of reading in an initial guess X° and calculating an initial residual which is calculated by7applying A to the initial guess X° and subtracting from the right-hand side Y. In step 4254, the initial search direction P°, bi-search direction Q, bi-residual S are calculated and stored. In step 4256, we put N equal to 0. In step 4258. we calculate the step length anby taking the inner product of the two vectors s and r, the bi-residual and residual respectively, and dividing by a quantity which is the innerQT-121CIP1XPCTproduct of two vectors. These two vectors are 1) q, the bi-search direction, and 2) the result of the application of the operator A to the present search direction P. In step 4260 of FIG. 42A, the guess for x is updated as per the equation that is shown there. In Step 4262, the residual R is updated as per the formula given, and the bi-residual S is updated as per the formula given. (H indicates Hermitian conjugate.) In particular, the bi-residual is given by the previous biresidual Snminus a quantity which is given as a*„, which is the complex conjugate of a„, multiplied by a vector, which is the result of the operation of the Hermitian conjugate of the operator A, applied to the vector q, the bi-search direction. This is carried out by a call to FIG.46, which we discuss below. In step 4264, check to see if the stop condition has been satisfied, i.e., is the present updated residual less than or equal to e (which is given a priori) multiplied by the initial residual in absolute value. Step 4266 consists of the determination of 0, the direction parameter, w hich is given as the ratio of two numbers. The first number in this ratio is the inner product of the new' updated bi-residual with the updated residual and the denominator is the inner product of the previous residual with the previous bi-residual, which has already been calculated in box 4258. In step 4268, use the calculated 0 to update and get a new bi-search direction, and anew search direction given by the formulas shown. In step 4270, N is incremented by 1 and control is taken back to step 4258. In step 4258, a new step length is calculated, etc. This loop is repeated until the condition in step 4264 is satisfied, at which time control is returned to step 4150 in FIG. 41. The forward problem for this particular frequency and this particular source position has now' been solved and the result, i.e., the internal field, is now' stored.In step 4152, back in FIG.41, it is determined if cp is equal to < D, i.e., have we computed all the forward problems for this particular frequency for all possible source positions. If not, then cp is incremented by 1 in step 4154 and control is returned to step 4148 of FIG. 41. If so, we have calculated the forward problem for all possible source positions cp and control is transferred to step 4156 where it is determined if co is equal to, i.e. have we calculated the forward problem for all possible frequencies co?" If not, co is incremented by 1 in box 4157 and control is returned to step 4144. If so, we have com...

Claims

QT-121CIP1XPCTCLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A method comprising:receiving, at a computing system, a reconstruction image of a breast, the reconstruction image comprising image data corresponding to a plurality of transmission frequencies used by a transmitter of an imaging system;generating, by the computing system, an image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue, or fibroglandular tissue from the reconstruction image of the breast; anddetermining, by the computing system, a quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the image.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein generating the image comprises: performing, by the computing system, segmentation operations on the reconstruction image to generate a preliminary image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, or a combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein generating the image further comprises: applying, by the computing system, morphological operations to the preliminary image to generate the image.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the morphological operations include erosion.

5. The method of claim 3, wherein determining the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the image comprises:generating, by the computing system, a graph from the image; andgenerating, by the computing system, the quantitative measure of topological complexity from the graph.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the graph comprises a 3D graph.QT-121CIP1XPCT7. The method of claim 5, wherein generating, by the computing system, the quantitative measure of topological complexity from the graph comprises:evaluating, by the computing system, the graph using adjacency, incidence, distance, Laplacian matrices, or a combination thereof.

8. The method of claim 2, wherein the preliminary image provides a 2D manifold representation.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein determining the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast from the image comprises:evaluating, by the computing system, the preliminary image based on algebraic topology.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein evaluating the preliminary image based on algebraic topology comprises applying a Morse function to the image, obtaining Betti numbers from the image, determining homology groups, cohomolog}' ring, homotopy, or a combination thereof.

11. The method of claim 1, further comprising:calculating a surface area and a volume of breast fibroglandular tissue.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein calculating the surface area and the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue comprises evaluating glandular tissue, ductal tissue, a combination of glandular and ductal tissue, or fibroglandular tissue from a segmented image of the reconstruction image, wherein the segmented image of the reconstruction image for evaluating ductal tissue comprises a ductal image, the segmented image of the reconstruction image for evaluating glandular tissue comprises a glandular image, the segmented image of the reconstruction image for evaluating the combination of glandular and ductal image comprises a ductal and glandular image, the segmented image of the reconstruction image for evaluating fibroglandular tissue comprises a fibroglandular image.

13. The method of claim 11, further comprising:generating a complexity value by calculating a ratio of the surface area to the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue, calculating Betti numbers, calculating surface area and / orQT-121CIP1XPCTvolume of glandular or ductal tissue separately or in combination, calculating a Morse Index, or a combination thereof.

14. The method of claim 13, further comprising providing a correction factor to a volumetric breast density estimate provided by mammography based software based on the complexity value.

15. The method of claim 13, further comprising providing the complexity value as an input to a risk assessment model.

16. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing a correction factor to a volumetric breast density estimate provided by mammography based software based on the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast.

17. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing the quantitative measure of topological complexity as an input to a risk assessment model.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the risk assessment model comprises a Tyrer-Cuzick risk assessment model.

19. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing the quantitative measure of topological complexity as an input to a machine learning model for breast cancer risk assessment.

20. The method of claim 19, wherein the quantitative measure of topological complexity is one of a plurality of radiomic features extracted from the image.

21. The method of claim 20, further comprising:tracking the plurality of radiomic features including the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast over a period of time from reconstruction images of the breast of a patient captured at different times over the period of time.

22. The method of claim 1, further comprising:QT-121CIP1XPCTtracking the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast over a period of time from reconstruction images of the breast of a patient captured at different times over the period of time.

23. The method of claim 22, further comprising:determining a presence of or likelihood of developing a disease using a model that includes a correlation of the quantitative measure of topological complexity of the breast over the period of time to the presence of or the likelihood of developing the disease.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein the quantitative measure of topological complexity is determined for a right breast and left breast of a patient.

25. The method of claim 24, the method further comprising:providing, by the computing system, a visual indicator for a difference between the topological complexity of the right breast and the left breast of the patient.

26. The method of claim 1, further comprising:generating, by the computing system, a visual representation of the quantitative measure of topological complexity of breasts for a plurality of patients having similar gene expressions associated with risk of breast cancer.

27. The method of claim 1, further comprising:generating, by the computing system, a visual representation of the quantitative measure of topological complexity of breasts for a plurality of patients having one or more similar demographic characteristics, genetic characteristics, or a combination thereof.

28. The method of claim 1, further comprising displaying, at a graphical user interface associated with the computing system, the image.

29. A computer-readable storage medium having instructions stored thereon that when executed by a computing system direct the computing system to:perform segmentation operations on a reconstructed image to generate a preliminary image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, or a combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue;QT-121CIP1XPCTapply morphological operations to the preliminary image to generate a ductal and / or glandular image;generate a graph from the ductal and / or glandular image; andgenerate a quantitative measure of topological complexity from the graph.

30. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 29. wherein the morphological operations include erosion.

31. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 29, wherein the graph comprises a 3D graph.

32. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 29, wherein the instructions to generate the quantitative measure of topological complexity from the graph direct the computing system to:evaluate the graph using adjacency, incidence, distance, Laplacian matrices, or a combination thereof.

33. A computing system comprising:one or more processors; anda computer-readable storage medium having instructions for adaptive image reconstruction stored thereon that when executed by the one or more processors of the computing system direct the computing system to:generate a preliminary reconstruction image using a preliminary reconstruction configuration;automatically adjust the preliminary reconstruction configuration to an updated reconstruction configuration, by, at least:obtaining preliminary information from the preliminary7reconstruction image; accessing a database of reconstruction configurations, the database providing a mapping of characteristics of images and objects in the images to reconstruction configurations; andperforming a lookup operation to identify the updated reconstruction configuration based on the preliminary information;generate a reconstruction image using the updated reconstruction configuration; andQT-121CIP1XPCTobtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of a breast from the reconstruction image.

34. The computing system of claim 33, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image direct the computing system to:generate an image of ductal tissue, glandular tissue, combination of ductal tissue and glandular tissue, or fibroglandular tissue from the reconstruction image of the breast; and determine a quantitative measure of topological complexity- of the breast from the image.

35. The computing system of claim 33, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image direct the computing system to:segment, from the reconstruction image, ductal tissue from glandular tissue to generate a ductal image:apply morphological operations to the ductal image to generate a final ductal image; generate a 3D graph from the final ductal image; andevaluate the 3D graph to generate a quantitative measure for the topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image.

36. The computing system of claim 35, wherein the instructions to evaluate the 3D graph to generate the quantitative measure comprises instructions to evaluate the 3D graph using adjacency, incidence, distance, Laplacian matrices, or a combination thereof.

37. The computing system of claim 33, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image direct the computing system to:segment, from the reconstruction image, ductal tissue from glandular tissue to generate a ductal image, the ductal image providing a 2D manifold representation; andevaluate the ductal image based on algebraic topology.

38. The computing system of claim 37, wherein the instructions to evaluate the ductal image based on algebraic topology direct the computing system to apply a Morse function toQT-121CIP1XPCTthe ductal image, obtain Betti numbers from the ductal image, determine homology groups, determine a cohomology ring, determine homotopy, or a combination thereof.

39. The computing system of claim 33, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image direct the computing system to:calculate a surface area and a volume of breast fibroglandular tissue.

40. The computing system of claim 39, wherein the instructions to calculate the surface area and the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue directs the computing system to evaluate glandular tissue, ductal tissue, or a combination of glandular and ductal tissue.

41. The computing system of claim 39, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image including determining topological complexity of the breast from the reconstruction image further direct the computing system to:generate a complexity value by calculating a ratio of the surface area to the volume of the breast fibroglandular tissue, calculating Betti numbers, calculating surface area and / or volume of glandular or ductal tissue separately or in combination, calculating a Morse Index, or a combination thereof.

42. The computing system of claim 33, wherein the instructions to obtain reconstruction information from the reconstruction image include instructions to:quantitatively determine a spectral behavior of speed of sound and attenuation images of the reconstruction image to identify tissue types based on a power law correlation of linear coefficients associated with attenuation, speed of sound or other tissue characteristic to a tissue type and / or abnormality.

Images