Infrared light recycling thermophotovoltaic hydrogen electrical power generator

Abstract

A power generator is described that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for reactions involving atomic hydrogen products identifiable by unique analytical and spectroscopic signatures, (ii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump such as an electromagnetic pump that provides a molten metal stream to the reaction cell and at least one reservoir that receives the molten metal stream, and (iii) an ignition system comprising an electrical power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics of the reaction and an energy gain. In some embodiments, the power generator may comprise: (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma, (vi) a molten metal recovery system, and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting the high-power light output from a blackbody radiator of the cell into electricity using concentrator thermophotovoltaic cells with light recycling or (b) converting the energetic plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.

Description

[0001] PATENT APPLICATION FOR INFRARED LIGHT RECYCLING THERMOPHOTOVOLTAIC HYDROGEN ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATOR

[0002] CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority to U.S. Serial No.63 / 158,349, filed March 8, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 167,110, filed March 28, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 176,054, filed April 16, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 214,236, filed June 23, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 233,199, filed August 13, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 236,198, filed August 23, 2021; U.S. Serial No. 63 / 246,282, filed September 20, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 254,589, filed October 12, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 270,537, filed October 21, 2021; U.S. Serial No.63 / 291,342, filed December 17, 2021; and U.S. Serial No.63 / 298,190, filed January 10, 2022; each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF DISCLOSURE The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation and, in particular, to systems, devices, and methods for the generation of power. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, which produce optical power, plasma, and thermal power and produces electrical power via a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, an optical to electric power converter, plasma to electric power converter, photon to electric power converter, or a thermal to electric power converter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use the ignition of a water or water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure. BACKGROUND Power generation can take many forms, harnessing the power from plasma. Successful commercialization of plasma may depend on power generation systems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then capturing the power of the plasma produced. Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel source. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be harnessed by an electric converter of the present disclosure. The ions and excited state atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. The optical power can be converted to electricity with photovoltaics. Leveraging plasmas for power generation is often difficult to sustain and achieve. Not only are the plasma reactions difficult to sustain, but the high energies created by plasma have profound effect on the surrounding system often causing break down of components used to create and maintain these plasmas. Furthermore, conversion of light output from plasmas is often associated with energy losses where, for example, low energy light (e.g., infrared light) is below the bandgap of photovoltaics and therefore lost, to the system. Moreover, plasma light output to photovoltaic is often impeded by a window between reaction cells and the photovoltaic that is susceptible to certain deformations and material accumulation thereon resulting in lower delivery of light to the photovoltaic and energy loss from the system. SUMMARY The present disclosure is directed to power systems that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprising: at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below atmospheric; reactants capable of undergoing a reaction that produces enough energy to form a plasma in the vessel comprising: a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; b) a molten metal; a mass flow controller to control the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump to maintain the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel; a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir that contains some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to the at least one stream of molten metal to ignite the reaction when the hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor are flowing into the vessel; a reactant supply system to replenish reactants that are consumed in the reaction; a power converter or output system to convert a portion of the energy produced from the reaction (e.g., light and / or thermal output from the plasma) to electrical power and / or thermal power. Power systems (herein referred to as “SunCells”) of the present disclosure may comprise: a) at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply an ignition current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas delivered thereto; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power adapter comprising a thermophotovoltaic converter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy; wherein energy from the second plasma is absorbed in a blackbody radiator to produce blackbody radiation and said blackbody radiation is converted in the thermophotovoltaic converter. In some embodiments, the power adapter is a plurality of thermophotovoltaic adapters. The thermophotovoltaic adapter may comprise a photovoltaic converter in a geodesic dome, wherein the photovoltaic converter may comprise a receiver array (e.g., a dense receiver array) comprised of triangular elements; and wherein each triangular element comprises a plurality of concentrator photovoltaic cells capable of converting the blackbody radiation into electricity. In some embodiments, the positively biased electrode of the two electrodes is, comprises, or is connected to the blackbody radiator. In various implementations, the photons produced from the plasma having an energy less than the bandgap of the photovoltaic cells (e.g., infrared) are reflected back towards the plasma generation cell (e.g., towards the blackbody radiator). Typically, light output from the reaction cell and / or blackbody radiator is collected in a photovoltaic for electrity generation and / or a blackbody radiator which outputs energy thermally and optically, each of which may be individually collected. In some embodiments, the system may comprise a PV window between a reaction cell comprising the second plasma and the thermophotovoltaic converter. In order to maintain energy generation, the molten metal (e.g., tin) may not wet the PV window by levarging materials, systems, and methods of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the gas may be a reaction mixture that does not oxidize tin or provides minimal oxidation to tin (e.g., less than 10% or less than 5% or less than 1% of the molten metal in the system is not oxidized with the gas provided to the system for 12 hours). In various implementations, the PV window may comprise (or predominantly comprises) flat surfaces, the power adapter comprises a photovoltaic (PV) converter, and the PV converter comprises a flat dense receiver array panel to receive the plasma emission through the PV window with a geometry matching the PV window. These configurations may minimize reflectance of low energy light not absorbed by the photovoltaic but directed back towards the reaction cell for light recycling. In some embodiments, the PV window comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, and MgF2. The high intensity environment generated by the system has profound effect on the system components. Relative dimensions, geometries, and placements of each component are all implicated in the creation of steady state plasmas. These components should be balanced in order to keep the system capable of generating the first and second plasmas. Typically, the each electrode of the two electrodes comprises a molten metal reservoir and an electrical feedthrough to supply the current only to the molten metal therein and thereby supply the ignition current. In various implementations, the system may comprise a reaction cell chamber connected to the reservoirs wherein the walls of at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are electrically isolated by at least one of a ceramic coating and a liner. In some embodiments, at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are thermally insulated by a liner. The liner may be or comprise carbon and / or tungsten optionally coated a ceramic coating. In other embodiments, the reservoirs are electrically isolated from each othr by an electrical break in at least one of the reserviors. The molten metal flowing between the two electrodes may be formed from dual molten metal injection systems independently in fluid communication with one or more molten metal reservoirs comprising the molten metal; wherein each molten metal injection system comprises an electromagnetic pump and a nozzle, wherein each electromagnetic pump flows molten metal through the nozzle to form a stream of molten metal; wherein said electrodes are in communication with the molten metal streams thereby forming dual molten metal streams of opposite polarity; and wherein said complete circuit is formed by intersection the dual molten metal streams. The reservoirs may comprise an electrical break to electrically isolate the electrodes from each other. Alignment of the molten metal stream, and in particular, alignment during operation is important to maintain plasma generation. To achieve such alignment, the system may comprise a flexible element and at least one actuator to tilt the injector electrode of the reservoir to cause alignment of the molten metal streams. In various implementations, a reservoir may comprise a baseplate supported by a plurality of supports wherein the at least one actuator to tilt the injector electrode of the reservoir lengthens or shortens at least one support. In certain aspects, the flexible element may comprise a stationary frame on one end and a moveable frame one the opposite end, and further comprises at least one actuator attached to the movable frame and the frame wherein the actuators contract on one side and expand on opposing sides of the flexible element to cause the injector to tilt. The flexible element may comprise a bellows. Plasma generation involving molten metal often results in coating the PV window (e.g., with molten metal, with an oxide of the molten metal) thereby preventing optical transmision to the photovoltaic converter. By minimizing this accumulation, the systems of the present disclosure may be used for many applications aside from photovoltaic conversion. For example, in some embodiments, the dual molten streams may intersect in a chamber comprising a window and light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation exits the window to heat a load. The load may be an oven chamber (or air / water / steam therein) heated by the light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation. In some embodiments, the second plasma reaction occurs in a reaction chamber comprising a PV window; the molten metal or oxidized molten metal is removed from the PV and: a) the PV window comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, CaF2, and MgF2; b) the PV window is heated above the melting point of an oxide of the molten metal (e.g., tin oxide); c) hydrogen reduction of the oxide of the molten metal occurs by flowing hydrogen gas into the reaction chamber at a pressure sufficient to achieve said hydrogen reduction; and / or d) the PV window has molten metal injected onto its surface during generation of the second plasma (e.g., from an electromagnetic pump). In some embodiments, the system comprises a PV window and at least one thermal absorber wherein optical power from the second plasma reaction is transferered through the PV window to the thermal absorber by radiative power transfer, and said thermal absorber transmits thermal power from said radiative power transfer. In some embodiments, the system comprises or is a water boiler heated by the thermal power from the thermal absorber. In some embodiments, the system comprises an air heat exchanger heated by the thermal power from the thermal absorber. In some embodiments, the system is surrounded by an outer chamber, which may be filled a load such as water. During operation, energy from the second plasma may be transferred to the load thermally and / or optically. Systems for removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window are also provided. These systems may comprise; a source of a deaccumulation material, wherein said deaccumulation material is directed towards said PV window; and said deaccumulation material is hydrogen gas or molten metal of the molten metal oxide. Methods are also provided. The method may, for example, generate power or produce light, or product a plasma. In some embodiments, the method comprises: a) electrically biasing a molten metal; b) directing the effluence of a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to interact with the biased molten metal and induce the formation of a plasma. In certain implementations, the effluence of the plasma generation cell is generated from a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas mixture passing through the plasma generation cell during operation. Methods are also provided. For example, the method may comprise: a) forming a first plasma in a glow discharge cell from a gas directed thereto; b) creating an electrically biased molten metal stream; c) directing the effluence from the glow discharge cell towards the electrically biased molten metal stream to form a second plasma that produces ultraviolet, visible, and / or infrared light. The light may be used to heat a load and / or in a photovoltaic converter to generate electricity. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation cell comprises a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The disclosure also embraces methods for removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window. The method may comprise, for example, directing a deaccumulation material towards said PV window; wherein said deaccumulation material is hydrogen gas or molten metal of the molten metal oxide. In some embodiments, the deaccumulation material is molten metal (e.g., tin) wherein the window is exposed a plasma and the molten metal is directed onto the window at a rate to prevent or decrease structural deformations of the window associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking, decreases in transparency) or undergoing any structural deformations associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking). In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01-50 (e.g. from 0.1-20, from 0.1-15, less than 10, less than 5, less than 2, etc.). In some embodiments, the relative flow rate of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01-50 by volume at room temperature (e.g. from 0.1-20, from 0.1-15, less than 10, less than 5, less than 2, etc.). In certain implementations, the molten metal is gallium or tin. In some embodiments, the reaction products have at least one spectroscopic signature as described herein (e.g., those described herein and in the Appendix or SubAppendix of U.S. App. No.62 / 236,198, filed August 23, 2021, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety and, in particular, the spectroscopic measurements therein such as EPR and Raman of material produced by systems of the present disclosure and collected following thereof). In various aspects, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, and the walls of said reaction cell comprise a liner having increased resistance to alloy formation with the molten metal and the liner and the walls of the reaction cell have a high permability to the reaction products (e.g. stainless-steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%)). The liner may be made of a crystalline material (e.g., SiC, BN, quartz) and / or a refractory metal such as at least one of Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, wherein the walls reaction cell chamber comprise a first and a second section, the first section composed of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)- Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%); the second section comprising a refractory metal different than the metal in the first section; wherein the union between the different metals is formed by a lamination material (e.g., a ceramic such as BN). The power system may comprise a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen and oxygen gases and / or water molecules and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a plasma cell. The plasma cell may comprise a center positive electrode and a grounded tubular body counter electrode wherein a voltage (e.g. ,a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied across the electrodes to induce the formation of a plasma from a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas mixture. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In certain implementations, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation cell to produce the first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole % O2or from 0.01% to 30%, or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2by mole percentage of the mixture) that is flowed through the plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing the reaction with sufficient exothermicity to produce the second plasma. A non- stoichiometric H2 / O2mixture may pass through the glow discharge to produce an effluence of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and with an internal energy sufficient to prevent formation of hydrogen bonds); the glow discharge effluence is directed into a reaction chamber where the ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., with a molten metal passed therebetween), and upon interaction of the effluence with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), the reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, upon the formation of arc current. The power system may comprise at least one of the reaction chamber (e.g. where the nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo the second plasma forming reaction) and / or reservoir comprising at least one refractory material liner that is resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal. The inner wall of the reaction chamber may comprise a ceramic coating, a carbon liner lined with a W, Nb, or Mo liner, lined with W plates. In some embodimens, the reservoir comprises a carbon liner and the carbon is covered by the molten metal contained therein. In various implementations, the reaction chamber wall comprises a material that is highly permeable to the reaction product gas. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall comprises at least one of stainless steel (e.g., Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten. The power system may comprise a a condenser to condense molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise a vacuum line wherein the condenser comprises a section of the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump that is vertical relative to the reaction cell chamber and comprises an inert, high-surface area filler material that condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber while permitting the vacuum pump to maintain a vacuum pressure in the reaction cell chamber. The power system may comprise a blackbody radiator and a window to output light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be used to generate light (e.g., used for lighting). In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen and oxygen gases and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. For example, the power system may comprise a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner wherein the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. The power system may be operated with parameters that maximize reactions, and specifically, reactions capable of outputting enough energy to sustain plasma generation and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the pressure of the vessel during operation is in the range of 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain implementations, the hydrogen mass flow rate exceeds that of the oxygen mass flow rate by a factor in the range of 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure may be over 50 Torr and may further comprise a gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the vessel. The inert gas may be used to prolong the lifetime of certain in situ formed reactants (such as nascent water). The power system may comprise a water micro-injector configured to inject water into the vessel such that the plasma produced from the energy output from the reaction comprises water vapor. In some embodiments, the micro-injector injects water into the vessel. In some embodiments, water is flowed towards the biased crossing molten streams as a vapor. In some embodiments, water is produced in the glow discharge cell. In some embodiments, water vapor is present in the gas mixture. In some embodiments, humid air is used in gas resulting in delivery of water to the reaction cell. In some embodiments, the H2molar percentage for generation of the second plasma is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of the water vapor (e.g., the water vapor injected by the micro-injector, the water present in the effluence of the glow discharge cell). The power system may further comprise a heater to melt a metal (e.g., tin or gallium or silver or copper or combinations thereof) to form the molten metal. The power system may further comprise a molten metal recovery system configured to recover molten metal after the reaction comprising a molten metal overflow channel which collects overflow from the non-injector molten metal reservoir. The molten metal injection system may further comprise electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injection molten metal reservoir; and the ignition system comprises a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes; wherein the source of electrical power supplies current and power flow through the stream of molten metal to cause the reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside of the vessel. The source of electrical power typically delivers a current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form the second plasma. In certain embodiments, the source of electrical power comprises at least one supercapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. Typically, the molten metal pump system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal reservoir to a non-injection reservoir, wherein a stream of molten metal is created therebetween. In some embodiments, the molten metal pump system is one or more electromagnetic pumps and each electromagnetic pump comprises one of a a) DC or AC conduction type comprising a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field, or b) induction type comprising a source of alternating magnetic field through a shorted loop of molten metal that induces an alternating current in the metal and a source of in-phase alternating vector-crossed magnetic field. In some embodiments, the circuit of the molten metal ignition system is closed by the molten metal stream to cause ignition to further cause ignition (e.g., with an ignition frequency less than 10,000 Hz). The injector reservoir may comprise an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir comprises an electrode that makes contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system. In various implementations, the non-injector reservoir is aligned above (e.g., vertically with) the injector and the injector is configured to produce the molten stream orientated towards the non-injector reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream may collect in the reservoir and the molten metal stream makes electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode; and wherein the molten metal pools on the non-injector reservoir electrode. In certain embodiments, the ignition current to the non-injector reservoir may comprise: a) a hermitically sealed, high-temperature capable feed though that penetrates the vessel; b) an electrode bus bar, and c) an electrode. The ignition current density may be related to the vessel geometry for at least the reason that the vessel geometry is related to the ultimate plasma shape. In various implementations, the vessel may comprise an hourglass geometry (e.g., a geometry wherein a middle portion of the internal surface area of the vessel has a smaller cross section than the cross section within 20% or 10% or 5% of each distal end along the major axis) and oriented in a vertical orientation (e.g., the major axis approximately parallel with the force of gravity) in cross section wherein the injector reservoir is below the waist and configured such that the level of molten metal in the reservoir is about proximal to the waist of the hourglass to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the vessel is symmetric about the major longitudinal axis. In some embodiments, the vessel may an hourglass geometry and comprise a refractory metal liner. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of the vessel having an hourglass geometry may comprise the positive electrode for the ignition current. The molten metal may comprise at least one of tin, silver, gallium, silver-copper alloy, copper, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point below 700 °C. For example, the molten metal may comprise at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Rose’s metal, Cerrosafe, Wood’s metal, Field’s metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Galinstan. In certain aspects, at least one of component of the power generation system that contacts that molten metal (e.g., reservoirs, electrodes) comprises, is clad with, or is coated with one or more alloy resistant material that resists formation of an alloy with the molten metal. Exemplary alloy resistant materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)- Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide coated, carbon, and a ceramic such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, Shapal, AlN, Sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the vessel is composed of a ceramic and / or a metal. The ceramic may comprise at least one of a metal oxide, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and a glass ceramic. In some embodiments, the metal of the vessel comprises at least one of a stainless steel and a refractory metal. In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water / hydrogen mixture to be directed towards the molten metal cell through a plasma generation cell. In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell such as a glow discharge cell induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture oxygen and hydrogen); wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir). Upon interaction of the biased molten metal with this effluence, a second plasma (more energetic than that created by the plasma generation cell) may be formed. In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell may be fed hydrogen (H2) and oxygen mixtures (O2) having a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluence comprises atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluence may be in the form of nascent water, water sufficiently energized and at a concentration such that it is not hydrogen bonded to other components in the effluence. This effluence may proceed in a second more energetic reaction involving the H and HOH that forms a plasma that intensifies upon interaction with the molten metal and a supplied external current through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma that may produce additional atomic hydrogen (from the H2in the effluence) to further propagate the second energetic reaction. In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to a wall of the vessel wall, a heat exchanger which may transfer heat to or from the molten metal or to or from the molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises one of a (i) plate, (ii) block in shell, (iii) SiC annular groove, (iv) SiC polyblock, and (v) shell and tube heat exchanger. In certain implementations, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, baffles, at least one pump to recirculate the hot molten metal from the reservoir through the heat exchanger and return the cool molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more a water pumps and water coolant or one or more air blowers and air coolant to flow cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and shell wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exists the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprise conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, and a heat exchanger outlet line comprising carbon that line and expand independently of conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, and baffles comprising stainless steel. The external coolant of the heat exchanger comprises air, and air from a microturbine compressor or a microturbine recuperator forces cool air through the external coolant inlet and shell wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exists the external coolant outlet, and the hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into a microturbine to convert thermal power to electricity. In some embodiments, the power system comprises at least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output comprises at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external-combustor type Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal-combustion type engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may comprise a light transparent photovoltaic (PV) window to transmit light from the inside of the vessel to a photovoltaic converter and at least one of a vessel geometry and at least one baffle comprising a spinning window. The spinning window comprises a system to reduce gallium or tin oxide comprising at least one of a hydrogen reduction system and an electrolysis system. In some embodiments the spinning window comprises or is composed of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, magnesium fluoride, or combinations thereof. In several implementations, the spinning window is coated with a coating that suppresses adherence of at least one of gallium or tin and gallium or tin oxide. The spinning window coating may comprise at least one of diamond like carbon, carbon, boron nitride, and an alkali hydroxide. In some embodiments, the positive ignition electrode (e.g., the top ignition electrode, the electrode displaced above the the other electrode) is closer to the window (e.g., as compared to the negative ignition electrode) and the positive electrode emits blackbody radiation through the photovoltaic to the photovoltaic converter. The power converter or output system may comprise a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a nozzle connected to the vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may comprise silver. In embodiments with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter may be delivered oxygen gas to form silver particles nanoparticles (e.g., of size in the molecular regime such as less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm) upon interaction with the silver in the molten metal stream, wherein the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through the magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power produced from the reaction. The reactant supply system may supply and control delivery of the oxygen gas to the converter. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in a magnetohydrodynamic channel. Such version of electrical energy may result in coalescence of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may coalesce as molten metal which at least partially absorbs the oxygen in a condensation section of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as an MHD condensation section) and the molten metal comprising absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen may be released from the metal by the plasma in the vessel. In some embodiments, the plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of the oxygen by the molten metal. The molten metal pump system may comprise a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, wherein the first stage comprises a pump for a metal recirculation system, and the second stage that comprises the pump of the metal injector system. The reaction induced by the reactants produces enough energy in order to initiate the formation of a plasma in the vessel. These measurable spectroscopic signatures and reaction may be used to identify the nature of the second plasma. For example, the reactions may produce a hydrogen product characterized as one or more of: a) a molecular hydrogen product H2(e.g., H2(1 / p) (p is an integer greater than 1 and less than or equal to 137) comprising an unpaired electron) which produces an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy signal; b) a molecular hydrogen product H2(e.g., H2(1 / 4)) having an EPR spectrum comprising a principal peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386 that is optionally split into a series of pairs of peaks with members separated by spin-orbital coupling energies that are a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbital coupling quantum numbers wherein (i) the unpaired electron magnetic moment induces a diamagnetic moment in the paired electron of the H2(1 / 4) molecular orbital based on the diamagnetic susceptibility of H2(1 / 4); (ii) the corresponding magnetic moments of the intrinsic paired-unpaired current interactions and those due to relative rotational motion about the internuclear axis give rise to the spin-orbital coupling energies; (iii) each spin-orbital splitting peak is further sub-split into a series of equally spaced peaks that matched integer fluxon energies that are a function of the electron fluxon quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition, and (iv) additionally, the spin-orbital splitting increases with spin-orbital coupling quantum number on the downfield side of the series of pairs of peaks due to magnetic energies that increased with accumulated magnetic flux linkage by the molecular orbital. c) for an EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz, (i) the downfield peak positions due to the combined shifts due to the magnetic energy and the spin-orbital coupling energy of H2(1 / 4) are (ii) the upfield peak positions with quantized spin-orbital splitting energies ES / Oand electron spin-orbital coupli ng quantum numbers m = 0.5,1,2,3,5.... are (iii) the separations ΔBΦof the integer series of peaks at each spin-orbital peak position are fluxon quantum numbers mΦ= 1,2,3; d) a hydride ion H- (e.g., H-(1 / p)) comprising a paired and unpaired electron in a common atomic orbital that demonstrates flux linkage in quantized units of h / 2e observed on H-(1 / 2) by high-resolution visible spectroscopy in the 400-410 nm range; e) flux linkage in quantized units of h / 2e observed when the rotational energy levels of H2(1 / 4) were excited by laser irradiation during Raman spectroscopy and by collisions of high energy electrons from an electron beam with H2(1 / 4); f) molecular hydrino (e.g., H2(1 / p)) having Raman spectral transitions of the spin-orbital coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital magnetic moment due to molecular rotation wherein (i) the energies of the rotational transitions are shifted by these spin-orbital coupling energies as a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbital coupling quantum numbers; (ii) molecular rotational peaks shifted by spin-orbital energies are further shifted by fluxon linkage energies with each energy corresponding to its electron fluxon quantum number dependent on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition, and / or (iii) the observed sub-splitting or shifting of Raman spectral peaks is due to flux linkage in units of the magnetic flux quantum h / 2e during the spin-orbital coupling between spin and molecular rotational magnetic moments while the rotational transition occurs; g) H2(1 / 4) having exemplary Raman spectral transitions comprising (i) either the pure H2( 1 / 4 ) J = 0 to J ' = 3 rotational transition with spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling: (ii) the concerted transitions comprising the J = 0 to J ' = 2,3 rotational transitions with the J = 0 to J = 1 spin rotational transition: corresponding spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling were also observed with the pure, concerted, and double transitions; h) H2(1 / 4) UV Raman peaks (e.g., as recorded on the complex GaOOH:H2(1 / 4):H2O and Ni foils exposed to the reaction plasma observed in the 12,250-15,000 cm-1region wherein the exemplary lines match the concerted pure rotational transition ΔJ = 3 and ΔJ = 1 spin transition with spin-orbital coupling and fluxon linkage splittings: i) the rotational energies of the HD(1 / 4) Raman spectrum shifted by a factor of ¾ relative to that of H2(1 / 4); j) the exemplary rotational energies of the HD(1 / 4) Raman spectrum match those of (i) either the pure HD(1 / 4) J = 0 to J ' = 3,4 rotational transition with spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling: wherein spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling are also observed with both the pure and concerted transition; k) H2(1 / 4)-noble gas mixtures irradiated with high energy electrons of an electron beam show equal, 0.25 eV spaced line emission in the ultraviolet (150-180 nm) region with a cutoff at 8.25 eV that match the H2(1 / 4) v = 1 to v = 0 vibrational transition with a series of rotational transitions corresponding to the H2(1 / 4) P-branch wherein (i) the spectral fit is a good match to wherein 0.515 eV and 0.01509 eV are the vibrational and rotational energies of ordinary molecular hydrogen, respectively, (ii) small satellite lines are observed that match the rotational spin-orbital splitting energies that are also observed by Raman spectroscopy, and (iii) the rotational spin-orbital splitting energy separations match m528 cm-1m = 1,1.5 wherein 1.5 involves the m = 0.5 and m = 1 splittings; l) the spectral emission of the H2(1 / 4) P-branch rotational transitions with the v = 1 to v = 0 vibrational transition are observed by electron beam excitation of H2(1 / 4) trapped in a KCl crystalline matrix wherein (i) the rotational peaks match that of a free rotor; (ii) the vibrational energy is shifted by the increase in the effective mass due to interaction of the vibration of H2(1 / 4) with the KCl matrix; (iii) the spectral fit is a good match to 5.8eV - 42( J +1 )0.01509; J = 0,1,2,3... comprising peaks spaced at 0.25 eV, and (iv) relative magnitude of the H2(1 / 4) vibrational energy shift match the relative effect on the ro-vibrational spectrum caused by ordinary H2being trapped in KCl; m) the Raman spectrum with a HeCd energy laser shows a series of 1000 cm-1(0.1234 eV) equal-energy spaced in the 8000 cm-1to 18,000 cm-1region wherein conversion of the Raman spectrum into the fluorescence or photoluminescence spectrum reveals a match as the second order ro-vibrational spectrum of H2(1 / 4) corresponding to the e-beam excitation emission spectrum of H2(1 / 4) in a KCl matrix given by 5.8eV - 42( J +1 )0.01509; J = 0,1,2,3... and comprising the matrix shifted v = 1 to v = 0 vibrational transition with 0.25 eV energy-spaced rotational transition peaks; n) infrared rotational transitions of H2(1 / 4) are observed in an energy region higher than 4400 cm-1wherein the intensity increases with the application of a magnetic field in addition to an intrinsic magnetic field, and rotational transitions coupling with spin-orbital transitions are also observed; o) the allowed double ionization of H2(1 / 4) by the Compton effect corresponding to the total energy of 496 eV is observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS); p) H2(1 / 4) is observed by gas chromatography that shows a faster migration rate than that of any known gas considering that hydrogen and helium have the fastest prior known migration rates and corresponding shortest retention times; q) extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy records extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation with a 10.1 nm cutoff (e.g., as corresponding to the hydrino reaction transition H to H(1 / 4) catalyzed by nascent HOH catalyst); r) proton magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MAS NMR) records an upfield matrix-water peak in the -4 ppm to -5 ppm region; s) bulk magnetism such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism and even ferromagnetism when the magnetic moments of a plurality of hydrogen product molecules interact cooperatively wherein superparamagnetism (e.g., as observed using a vibrating sample magnetometer to measure the magnetic susceptibility of compounds comprising reaction products); t) time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) and electrospray time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) recorded on K2CO3and KOH exposed to a molecular gas source from the reaction products showing complexing of reaction products (e.g., H2(1 / 4) gas) to the inorganic compounds comprising oxyanions by the unique observation of M + 2 multimer units (e.g., wherein n is an integer) and an intense H - peak due to the stability of hydride ion, and u) reaction products consisting of molecular hydrogen nuclei behaving like organic molecules as evidenced by a chromatographic peak on an organic molecular matrix column that fragments into inorganic ions. In various implementations, the reaction produces energetic signatures characterized as one or more of: (i) extraordinary Doppler line broadening of the H Balmer a line of over 100 eV in plasmas comprising H atoms and nascent HOH or H based catalyst such as argon-H2, H2, and H2O vapor plasmas, (ii) H excited state line inversion, (iii) anomalous H plasma afterglow duration, (iv) shockwave propagation velocity and the corresponding pressure equivalent to about 10 times more moles of gunpowder with only about 1% of the power coupling to the shockwave, (v) optical power of up to 20 MW from a 10μl hydrated silver shot, and (vi) calorimetry of the SunCell power system validated at a power level of 340,000 W. These reactions may produce a hydrogen product characterized as one or more of: a) a hydrogen product with a Raman peak at one or more range of 1900 to 2200 cm-1, 5500 to 6400 cm-1, and 7500 to 8500 cm-1, or an integer multiple of a range of 1900 to 2200 cm-1; b) a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.25 eV; c) a hydrogen product with an infrared peak at a range of an integer multiple of 1900 to 2000 cm-1; d) a hydrogen product with a plurality of infrared peaks spaced at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.25 eV; e) a hydrogen product with at a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.3 eV; f) a hydrogen product with a plurality of electron-beam emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of 0.2 to 0.3 eV; g) a hydrogen product with a plurality of Raman spectral peaks in the range of 5000 to 20,000 cm-1having a spacing at an integer multiple of 1000 ±200 cm-1; h) a hydrogen product with a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV; i) a hydrogen product that causes an upfield MAS NMR matrix shift; j) a hydrogen product that has an upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift of greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS; m) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; o) a hydrogen product comprising an inorganic compound MxXy and H2wherein M is a cation and X in an anion having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peaks of M(MxXyH2)n wherein n is an integer; p) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2and KOHH2having at least one of electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToF) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) peaks respectively; q) a magnetic hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal; r) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry; s) a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least one of a g factor of about 2.0046 ± 20%, a splitting of the EPR spectrum into a series of peaks with a separation of about 1 to 10 G wherein each main peak is sub-split into a series of peaks with spacing of about 0.1 to 1 G; t) a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least an electron spin-orbital coupling splitting energy of about m1 X 7.43X10-27J ± 20%, and fluxon splitting of about m2X 5.78X10-28J ± 20%, and a dimer magnetic moment interaction splitting energy of about 1.58 X10-23J ± 20%; v) a hydrogen product comprising a gas having a negative gas chromatography peak with hydrogen or helium carrier; w) a hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e of wherein p is an integer; x) a protonic hydrogen product comprising a molecular dimer having an end over end rotational energy for the integer J to J + 1 transition in the range of (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer comprising deuterium is ½ that of the dimer comprising protons; y) a hydrogen product comprising molecular dimers having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of1.028 Å ±10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 23 cm-1±10% , and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.0011 eV ±10% ; z) a hydrogen product comprising a solid having at least one parameter from the group of (i) a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of 1.028 Å ±10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 23 cm-1±10%, and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.019 eV ±10% ; aa) a hydrogen product having FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1±10 cm-1and (iii) 23 cm-1±10% and / or an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% and / or a calorimetric determination of the energy of vaporization of 0.0011 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen; bb) a solid hydrogen product having FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of (i) (J+1)44.30 cm-1±20 cm-1, (ii) (J+1)22.15 cm-1±10 cm-1and (iii) 23 cm-1±10% and / or an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ±10% and / or a calorimetric determination of the energy ofvaporization of 0.019 eV ±10% per molecular hydrogen. cc) a hydrogen product comprising a hydrogen hydride ion that is magnetic and links flux in units of the magnetic in its bound-free binding energy region, and dd) a hydrogen product wherein the high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) shows chromatographic peaks having retention times longer than that of the carrier void volume time using an organic column with a solvent comprising water wherein the detection of the peaks by mass spectroscopy such as ESI-ToF shows fragments of at least one inorganic compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product may be characterized similarly as products formed from various hydrino reactors such as those formed by wire detonation in an atmosphere comprising water vapor. Such products may: a) comprise at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W and the hydrogen comprises H; b) comprise an inorganic compound MxXy and H2wherein M is a metal cation and X is an anion and at least one of the electrospray ionization time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI-ToF) and the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) comprises peaks of M(MxXyH(1 / 4)2)n wherein n is an integer; c) be magnetic and comprise at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4), and d) comprise at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal and H is H(1 / 4) wherein the product demonstrates magnetism by magnetic susceptometry. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction comprises the hydrogen product complexed with at least one of (i) an element other than hydrogen, (ii) an ordinary hydrogen species comprising at least one of H+, ordinary H2, ordinary H-, and ordinary an organic molecular species, and (iv) an inorganic species. In some embodim ents, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product (or a recovered hydrogen product from embodiments comprising a getter) may comprise at least one compound having the formula selected from the group of: a) MH, MH2, or M2H2, wherein M is an alkali cation and H or H2is the hydrogen product; b) MHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation and H is the hydrogen product; c) MHX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as halogen atom, a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion such as halogen anion, and H is the hydrogen product; d) MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is H is the hydrogen product; e) MHX wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product; f) M2HX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product; g) MHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; h) M2Hnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least of the hydrogen products; i) M2XHnwherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; j) M2X2Hnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; k) M2X3H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product; l) M2XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; m) M2XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X’ is a double negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product; n) MM’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; o) MM’XHnwherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; p) MM’XH wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion and H is the hydrogen products; q) MM’XX’H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X and X’ are singly negatively charged anion and H is the hydrogen product; r) MXX’Hnwherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, X’ is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; s) MHnwherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; t) MXHnwherein n is an integer, M is an cation such as an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content Hnof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; u) wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; v) wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; w) wherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; x) ( MHMOH )nwherein M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; y) ( MH M ' X ) wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alk ali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; and wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are a singly or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hmof the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products. The anion of the hydrogen product formed by the reaction may be one or more singly negatively charged anions including a halide ion, a hydroxide ion, a hydrogen carbonate ion, a nitrate ion, a double negatively charged anions, a carbonate ion, an oxide, and a sulfate ion. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product is embedded in a crystalline lattice (e.g., with the use of a getter such as K2CO3located, for example, in the vessel or in an exhaust line). For example, the hydrogen product may be embedded in a salt lattice. In various implementations, the salt lattice may comprise an alkali salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, alkaline earth salt, an alkaline earth halide, an alkaline earth hydroxide, or combinations thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. In the drawings: Figure 1 is schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 2-4 are schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and a partially inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes and a tapered reaction cell chamber to suppress metallization of a PV window in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 5 is a schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes, an induction ignition system, and a PV window in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 6 is a schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a cube-shaped reaction cell chamber with a liner and a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 7A is a schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising an hour-glass-shaped reaction cell chamber liner and a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as liquid electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 7B is schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 7C is schematic drawing showing details of the SunCell® thermal power generator comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as electrodes wherein the EM pump tube comprises an assembly of a plurality of parts that are resistant to at least one of gallium or tin alloy formation and oxidation in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 7D-H are schematic drawings showing details of the SunCell® pumped- molten metal-to-air heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 8A-B are schematic drawings of a ceramic SunCell® power generator comprising dual reservoirs and DC EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes having reservoirs that join to form the reaction cell chamber in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 8C-D are schematic drawings of an inverted Y geometry SunCell® power generator comprising dual reservoirs and DC EM pump injectors. These form the liquid electrodes having reservoirs wherein the corresponding injected molten metal streams join to form a circuit in a reaction cell chamber. The chamber is connected to a PV window in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 8E is a schematic drawing of a photovoltaic converter and an inverted Y geometry SunCell® power generator comprising dual reservoirs and DC EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes having reservoirs that join to form the reaction cell chamber that is connected to a PV window in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The PV window is surrounded by a network of photovoltaic cells for collection and conversion of light from the second plasma. Figures 8F-8G are schematic drawings of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser, inner and outer PV windows, and one reservoir or two comprising an electrical break and a bellows in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 8G provides an internal cross-sectional view of thermophotovoltaic SunCell®. Figures 8H-8L are schematic drawings of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes with each showing a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having an inlet riser, an inner PV window, an outer PV window, at least one reservoir comprising an electrical break, and at least one reservoir comprising a bellows in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In Figure 8L, the intersecting trajectories of the molten metal streams, which intersect to form a closed circuit can be seen. Figures 9A-C are schematics of a SunCell® hydrino power generator comprising at least one electromagnetic pump injector and electrode in an injector reservoir electrode, at least one vertically aligned counter electrode, and a glow discharge cell connected to a top flange to form HOH catalyst and atomic H. A. Exterior view of one- electrode pair embodiment. B. Cross sectional view of one-electrode pair embodiment. C. Cross sectional view of two-electrode pair embodiment. Figures 9D-E are schematics of a SunCell® hydrino power generator and boiler in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 9F is a schematic of a SunCell® hydrino power generator and boiler for a steam and hot water to air heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 9G-H are schematics of a SunCell® hydrino power generator and direct heat pipe heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 9I is a schematic of a SunCell® hydrino power generator with at least one window that serves as a thermal radiation source of at least one absorber and air heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 9J is a schematic of a SunCell® hydrino power generator with a window that serves as a thermal radiation source of an oven in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 9K is a schematic of a SunCell® hydrino power generator with a window that serves as a thermal radiation source of a boiler in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 10 is a schematic drawing of a SunCell® power generator showing details of an optical distribution and the photovoltaic converter system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 11 is a schematic drawing of a triangular element of the geodesic dense receiver array of the photovoltaic converter or heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figures 12-13 are schematic drawings of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® power generator comprising dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser and a PV converter of increased radius to decrease the blackbody light intensity in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 14 is an emission spectrum measured on the plasma formed from interaction of glow discharge efflux produced from a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas with electrically biased dual tin molten streams. Figure 15 is an emission spectrum of the plasma formed following a decrease in nascent water and atomic hydrogen concentrations in the reaction cell. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods of power generation which convert the energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and / or thermal energy. These reactions may involve catalyst systems which release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states wherein the electron shell is at a closer position relative to the nucleus. The released power is harnessed for power generation and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition. A theory which may explain the exothermic reactions produced by the power generation systems of the present disclosure involves a nonradiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to certain catalysts (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics gives closed- form solutions of the hydrogen atom, the hydride ion, the hydrogen molecular ion, and the hydrogen molecule and predicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m · 27.2 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms,” wherein n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,…, 1 / p (p≤137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding energy rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m • 27.2 eV for another ( m +1 )th H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / (“Mills GUTCP”)]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through-space energy transfer such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands with short wavelength cutoffs and energies of m2·13.6 eV In addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts m · 27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy may also serve as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Then, by the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by a thermodynamically favorable reduction of a metal oxide is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H ( 1 / 4 ) with an energy release of 204 eV, comprising an 81.6 eV transfer to HOH and a release of continuum radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV) In the H-atom catalyst reaction involving a transition to the state, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m•27.2 eV for another (m+1)th H atom. Then, the reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms whereby m atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept m•27.2 eV from the (m+1)th hydrogen atom such that mH serves as the catalyst is given by After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate is formed having the radius of the H atom and a central field of m + 1 times the central field of a proton. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius of 1 / (m + 1) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of m2·13.6 eV of energy. The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the intermediate (e.g. Eq. (2) and Eq. (6)) is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy given by and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme- ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the H*[aH / 4] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = m2·13.6 = 9 ·13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) [where p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3 in Eq. (9)] and extending to longer wavelengths. The continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm and going to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower-energy, so called “hydrino” state H(1 / 4), was observed only arising from pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen. Another observation predicted by Eqs. (1) and (5) is the formation of fast, excited state H atoms from recombination of fast H+. The fast atoms give rise to broadened Balmer ^ emission. Greater than 50 eV Balmer α line broadening that reveals a population of extraordinarily high-kinetic-energy hydrogen atoms in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas is a well-established phenomenon wherein the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H was previously observed in continuum-emitting hydrogen pinch plasmas. Additional catalyst and reactions to form hydrino are possible. Specific species (e.g. He+, Ar+, Sr+, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n=integer)) identifiable on the basis of their known electron energy levels are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiative energy transfer followed by q ·13.6 eV continuum emission or q ·13.6 eV transfer to H to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen that corresponds to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom: where aHis the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron, and εois the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum numbers: where p ≤ 137 is an integer (12) replace the well known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states and represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atoms called “hydrinos.” The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between two nonradiative states, say n = 1 to n = 1 / 2 , is possible via a nonradiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by (13) where p = 1,2,3,.... In order to conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of an integer of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n = 1 state, and the radius transitions to Hydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of m · 27.2 eV (14) where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m · 27.2 eV . It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m · 27.2 eV are suitable for most applications. The catalyst reactions involve two steps of energy release: a nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is given by (corresponding to the 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to ( + ) times that of a proton, and is the corresponding stable state with the radius of hat of H . The catalyst product, H ( 1 / p ) , may also react with an electron to form a hydrino hydride ion H - ( 1 / p ) , or two may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2( 1 / p ) . Specifically, the catalyst product, H ( 1 / p ) , may also react with an electron to form a novel hydride ion H - ( 1 / p ) with a binding energy EB : where p = integer > 1 , s = 1 / 2 , is Planck's constant bar, ^o is the permeability of vacuum, me is the mass of the electron, μeis the reduced electron mass given by hydride ion is 0.75418 eV , and the experimental value is 6082.99 ± 0.15 cm ^1 (0.75418 eV). The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions may be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence of the existence of lower-energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to ordinary hydride ion and having an increase in diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)): where the first term applies to H with p = 1 and p = integer >1 for H - 1 / p ) and α is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary hydride ion. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H-, H, H2, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, - 22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 relative to a bare proton, may be -(p29.9 + p22.74) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be -(p29.9 + p21.59 X 10-3) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydrino atom, hydride ion, or molecule in a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. The NMR determination may comprise magic angle spinning1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS1H NMR). H ( 1 / p ) may react with a proton and two H ( 1 / p ) may react to form H2( 1 / p ) and H2( 1 / p ) , respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the constraint of nonradiation. The total energy ETof the hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass. The total energy of the hydrogen molecule having a central field of ± pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0003] The bond dissociation energy, ED, of the hydrogen molecule H2( 1 / p ) is the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms and ET where H2( 1 / p ) may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) wherein the ionization product in addition to the ionized electron may be at least one of the possibilities such as those comprising two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H2( 1 / p ) wherein the energies may be shifted by the matrix. The NMR of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2( 1 / p ) . In general, the1H NMR resonance of H2( 1 / p ) is predicted to be upfield from that of H2due to the fractional radius in elliptic coordinates wherein the electrons are significantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift for H 1 / p is given by the sum of the co 2 ( ) ntributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eqs. (11.415-11.416)): where the first term applies to H2 with p = 1 and p = integer >1 for H2( 1 / p ) . The experimental absolute H2gas-phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is in excellent agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of -28.01 ppm (Eq. (28)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary H2. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H-, H, H2, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, - 31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be -(p28.01 + p22.56) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be -(p28.01 + p21.49 X 10-3) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Ro-vibrational emission of H2( 1 / 4 ) was observed on e-beam excited molecules in gases and trapped in solid matrix. The p2dependence of the rotational energies results from an inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I . The predicted internuclear distance 2c’ for H2( 1 / p ) is At least one of the rotational and vibration energies of H2(1 / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3(M = alkali; X = halide) matrix. In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm-1. The peak is enhanced by using a conductive material comprising roughness features or particle size comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports a Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak. I. Catalysts In the present disclosure the terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction such as that of Eqs. (15-18) of a catalyst defined by Eq. (14) with atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12). The corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants for hydrino formation, reactants that produce or form lower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to the reaction mixture that performs the catalysis of H to H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12). The catalytic lower-energy hydrogen transitions of the present disclosure require a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV , that accepts the energy from atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g. m = 3 for Li → Li2+) and may further comprise the concerted reaction of a bond cleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the partners of the initial bond (e.g. m = 2 for NaH → Na2++ H ). He+fulfills the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizes at 54.417 eV , which is 2 ·27.2 eV . An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also serve as the catalyst of an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. catalyst is capable of accepting energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of one of about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV an In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M wherein the ionization of t electrons from the atom or ion M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately one of m • 27.2 eV and where m is an integer. In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH wherein the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of the bond energy and ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately one of m • 27.2 where m is an integer. In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises atoms, ions, and / or molecules chosen from molecules of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3and atoms or ions of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K+, He ,+Ti2+, Na ,+Rb , S+r , F+e3+, Mo2+, Mo4+, In3+, He+, Ar+, Xe ,+Ar2+and H ,+and Ne a+nd H .+In other embodiments, MH- type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos provided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of electron affinity (EA) of MH and A, M- H bond energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M is approximately m • 27.2 eV where m is an integer. MH- type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m•27.2 eV are OH-, SiH-, CoH-, NiH-, and SeH- In other embodiments, MH+type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos are provided by the transfer of an electron from a donor A which may be negatively charged, the breakage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of ionization energies of MH and A, bond M-H energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M is approximately m•27.2 eV where m is an integer. In an embodiment, at least one of a molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion serves as a catalyst that accepts about m•27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion by about m•27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are H2O, OH, amide group NH2, and H2S. O2may serve as a catalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV , 35.11730 eV , and 54.9355 eV , respectively. The reactions O2→ O + O2+, O2→ O + O3,+and 2O → 2O+provide a net enthalpy of about 2, 4, and 1 times Eh, respectively, and comprise catalyst reactions to form hydrino by accepting these energies from H to cause the formation of hydrinos. II. Hydrinos A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is the product of the H catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eqs. (10) and (12) is hereafter referred to as a “hydrino atom” or “hydrino.” The designation for a hydrino of where aHis the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer, is hydrogen atom with a radius aHis hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydrogen rmal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV. According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H-) having a bindingenergy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 , and less for p = 24 (H-) is provided. For p = 2 to p = 24 of Eq. (19), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided herein. Exemplary compounds are also provided comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a “hydrino hydride compound.” Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) eV (“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to forms of hydrogen, “normal” and “ordinary” are synonymous. According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of abou such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) a hydride ion ( H^ ) having a binding energy of about

[0004] binding energy of about such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of preferably an integer from 2 to 137. According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having a total energy of about integer and aois the Bohr radius. According to one embodiment of the present disclosure wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary A method is provided herein for preparing compounds comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as “hydrino hydride compounds.” The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137. A further product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion. In an embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy may be achieved by the hydrogen undergoing transitions to hydrinos of high p values in Eq. (18) in a process herein referred to as disproportionation as given in Mills GUTCP Chp.5 which is incorporated by reference. Hydrogen atoms H ( 1 / p ) p = 1,2,3,...137 can undergo further transitions to lower-energy states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m · 27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition of H ( 1 / p ) to H ( 1 / ( p + m ) ) induced by a resonance transfer of m · 27.2 eV to H ( 1 / p ' ) given by Eq. (32) is represented by The EUV light from the hydrino process may dissociate the dihydrino molecules and the resulting hydrino atoms may serve as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction comprises the catalysis H to H(1 / 17) by H(1 / 4) wherein H(1 / 4) may be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Disproportionation reactions of hydrinos are predicted to given rise to features in the X-ray region. As shown by Eqs. (5-8) the reaction product of HOH catalyst is Consider a likely transition reaction in hydrogen clouds containing H2O gas w herein the first hydrogen-type atom atom and the second acceptor hydrogen-type atom serving as a ca

[0005] and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme- ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the ntermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 eV ; 0.35625 nm and extending to longer wavelengths. A broad X-ray peak with a 3.48 keV cutoff was observed in the Perseus Cluster by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and by the XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R. K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S. W. Randall, “Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters,” The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, “An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy cluster,” (2014),arXiv:1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]] that has no match to any known atomic transition. The 3.48 keV feature assigned to dark matter of unknown identity by BulBul et al. matches th transition and further confirms hydrinos as the identity of d ark matter. The novel hydrogen compositions of matter can comprise: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is negative; and (b) at least one other element. Typically, the hydrogen products described herein are increased binding energy hydrogen species. By “other element” in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding. Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or is negative; and (b) at least one other element. The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species, such as those produced during generation of the second plasma, according to the present disclosure may have a total energy greater than the total energy of a corresponding hydrogen species that has not undergone a reaction with the nascent water as described herein. The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as an “increased binding energy hydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p = 24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of ordinary hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p = 24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion. Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure may be referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.” Various spectroscopic signatures as described herein may identify these species. The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) optionally one other element. In an embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species chosen from (a) hydride ion having a binding energy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 , and less for p = 24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or “hydrino hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or “hydrino”); (c) hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or “dihydrino”); and (d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or “dihydrino molecular ion”). In the disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds is also referred to as lower-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise an increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower- energy hydrogen species. III. Chemical Reactor The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for producing increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalysis are power and optionally plasma and light depending on the cell type. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a “hydrogen reactor” or “hydrogen cell.” The hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. In an embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of the HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a high surface area to increase at least one of the rates of the formation of HOH catalyst and H from ice and the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In an embodiment, the cell comprises an arc discharge cell and that comprises ice at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a vessel, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source of water such as a reservoir and a means to form and supply H2O droplets. The droplets may travel between the electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma comprises H and HOH that may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and the corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The source of high voltage may comprise at least one high voltage capacitor that may be charged by a high voltage power source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means such as a power converter such as one of the present invention such as at least one of a PV converter and a heat engine to convert the power from the hydrino process such as light and heat to electricity. Exemplary embodiments of the cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a liquid-fuel cell, a solid-fuel cell, a heterogeneous-fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT or SunCell® cell. Each of these cells comprises: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst chosen from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof for making hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term “hydrogen,” unless specified otherwise, includes not only proteum (1H ), but also deuterium (2H ) and tritium (3H ). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may comprise SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this Chemical Reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in the parameters such as the reactants, reactant wt%’s, H2pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactors of the present disclosure by predicted continuum radiation bands of an integer times 13.6 eV, otherwise unexplainable extraordinarily high H kinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines, inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields, and anomalously plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills Prior Publications. The data such as that regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuels has been validated independently, off site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure was also confirmed by electrical energies that were continuously output over long-duration, that were multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10 with no alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H NMR that showed a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of about -4.4 ppm, ToF-SIMS and ESI- ToFMS that showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to a getter matrix as m / e = M + n2 peaks wherein M is the mass of a parent ion and n is an integer, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy that showed the predicted rotational and vibration spectrum of H2(1 / 4) having 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the energies of H2, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy that showed the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) of 1950 cm-1, being 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the rotational energy of H2, XPS that showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) of 500 eV, and a ToF- SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m / e=1 peak that corresponded to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV that matched the predicted energy release for H to H(1 / 4) with the energy transferred to a third body H as reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell”, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014) which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure such as ones comprising a solid fuel to generate thermal power was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels that exceed the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 times. The MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of about -4.4 ppm. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm-1matched the free space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, “Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”, (2014) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. IV. SunCell and Power Converter Power systems (also referred to herein as “SunCell”) that generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy may comprise: a) at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply an ignition current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas delivered thereto; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power adapter comprising a thermophotovoltaic converter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy; wherein optical energy (e.g. one or more of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light) from the second plasma is converted in the thermophotovoltaic converter. Alternatively, energy from the second plasma is absorbed in a blackbody radiator to produce blackbody radiation and said blackbody radiation is converted in the thermophotovoltaic converter. In some embodiments, the power adapter is a plurality of thermophotovoltaic adapters. The thermophotovoltaic adapter may comprise a photovoltaic converter in a geodesic dome, wherein the photovoltaic converter may comprise a receiver array (e.g., a dense receiver array) comprised of triangular elements; and wherein each triangular element comprises a plurality of concentrator photovoltaic cells capable of converting the blackbody radiation into electricity. In some embodiments, the positively biased electrode of the two electrodes is, comprises, or is connected to the blackbody radiator. In various implementations, the photons produced from the plasma having an energy less than the bandgap of the photovoltaic cells (e.g., infrared) are reflected back towards the plasma generation cell (e.g., towards the blackbody radiator). In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence further comprises a noble gas (e.g., argon). In particularly embodiments, the gas that is sent to the glow discharge cell is a mixture of oxygen gas (O2) and hydrogen (H2) in a noble gas such as argon. The molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen may be, for example, less than (or from 0.1 to) 10, less than 5, or less than 2. The converter may be one given in Mills Prior Publications and Mills Prior Applications. The hydrino reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and SunCell® systems may comprise those of the present disclosure or in prior US Patent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, filed PCT 4 / 24 / 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, filed PCT 7 / 29 / 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT filed 3 / 18 / 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US11 / 28889, filed PCT 3 / 17 / 2011; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT / US12 / 31369 filed 3 / 30 / 2012; CIHT Power System, PCT / US13 / 041938 filed 5 / 21 / 13; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / IB2014 / 058177 filed PCT 1 / 10 / 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US14 / 32584 filed PCT 4 / 1 / 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 033165 filed PCT 5 / 29 / 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 065826 filed PCT 12 / 15 / 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US16 / 12620 filed PCT 1 / 8 / 2016; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Network, PCT / US2017 / 035025 filed PCT 12 / 7 / 2017; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972 filed PCT 1 / 18 / 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635 filed PCT 01 / 05 / 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US18 / 17765 filed PCT 2 / 12 / 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842 filed PCT 5 / 29 / 18; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2018 / 059646 filed PCT 12 / 05 / 18; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2020 / 050360 filed PCT 01 / 16 / 20; and Magnetohydrodynamic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US21 / 17148 filed February, 8, 2021 (“Mills Prior Applications”) herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. In an embodiment, the EM pump magnets 5k4 are oriented along the same axis as the injected molten metal stream that connects two electrodes that may be opposed along the same axis as shown in Figures 1-30 and 7A-C. The magnets may be located on opposite sides of the EM pump tube 5k6 with one positioned in the opposite direction as the other along the injection axis. The EM pump bus bars 5k2 may each be oriented perpendicular to the injection axis and oriented in the direction away from the side of the closest magnet. The EM pump magnets may each further comprise and L-shaped yoke to direct magnetic flux from the corresponding vertically oriented magnet in the transverse direction relative to the EM pump tube 5k6 and perpendicular to both the direction of the molten metal flow in the tube and the direction on the EM pump current. The ignition system may comprise one that has a time varying waveform comprising voltage and current such as an AC waveform such as a 60 Hz waveform. The vertical orientation of the magnets may protect them from being demagnetized by the time-varying ignition current. In an embodiment, the transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen catalyzed to a hydrino state results in the ionization of the catalyst. The electrons ionized from the catalyst may accumulate in the reaction mixture and vessel and result in space charge build up. The space charge may change the energy levels for subsequent energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst with a reduction in reaction rate. In an embodiment, the application of the high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, the current applied across the molten metal circuit such as an arc current causes the reactants such as water to be extremely elevated in temperature. The high temperature may give rise to the thermolysis of the water to at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture of the SunCell® comprises a source of H and a source of catalyst such as at least one of nH (n is an integer) and HOH. The at least one of nH and HOH may be formed by the thermolysis or thermal decomposition of at least one physical phase of water such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. The thermolysis may occur at high temperature such as a temperature in at least one range of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 to 4000K such that the mole fraction of atomic H is high as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J Villermaux [J. Lédé, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, “Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp.675–679; H. H. G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, “The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp.677–688; S. Z. Baykara, “Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp.1451–1458; S. Z. Baykara, “Experimental solar water thermolysis”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp.1459–1469 which are herein incorporated by reference]. The thermolysis may be assisted by a solid surface such as one of the cell components. The solid surface may be heated to an elevated temperature by the input power and by the plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction. The thermolysis gases such as those down stream of the ignition region may be cooled to prevent recombination or the back reaction of the products into the starting water. The reaction mixture may comprise a cooling agent such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gaseous phase that is at a lower temperature than the temperature of the product gases. The cooling of the thermolysis reaction product gases may be achieved by contacting the products with the cooling agent. The cooling agent may comprise at least one of lower temperature steam, water, and ice. In an embodiment, the reactants present in the gas may comprise at least one of a source of H, H2, a source of catalyst, a source of H2O, and H2O. Suitable reactants may comprise a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may comprise at least one of MgCl2·6H2O, BaI2·2H2O, and ZnCl2·4H2O. Alternatively, the reactants may comprise at least one of silver, tin, copper, hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, and water. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which is where the reactants may undergo the plasma forming reaction, may be operated under low pressure to achieve high gas temperature. Then the pressure may be increased by a reaction mixture gas source and controller to increase reaction rate wherein the high temperature maintains nascent HOH and atomic H by thermolysis of at least one of H bonds of water dimers and H2covalent bonds. An exemplary threshold gas temperature to achieve thermolysis is about 3300°C. A plasma having a higher temperature than about 3300°C may break H2O dimer bonds to form nascent HOH to serve as the hydrino catalyst. At least one of the reaction cell chamber H2O vapor pressure, H2pressure, and O2pressure may be in at least one range of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atm, 0.1 Torr to 10 atm, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atm. The EM pumping rate may be in at least one range of about 0.01 ml / s to 10,000 ml / s, 0.1 ml / s to 1000 ml / s, and 0.1 ml / s to 100 ml / s. In embodiment, at least one of a high ignition power and a low pressure may be maintained initially to heat the plasma and the cell to achieve thermolysis. In an embodiment, the ignition power may be at an initial power level and waveform of the disclosure and may be switched to a second power level and waveform when the reaction cell chamber achieves a desired temperature. In an embodiment, the second power level may be less than the initial. The second power level may be about zero. The condition to switch at least one of the power level and waveform is the achievement of a reaction cell chamber temperature above a threshold wherein the hydrino reaction kinetics may be maintained within 20% to 100 % of the initial rates while operating at the second power level. In an embodiment, the temperature threshold may be in at least one range of about 800 °C to 3000 °C, 900 °C to 2500 °C, and 1000 °C to 2000 °C. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber is heated to a temperature that will sustain the second plasma in the absence of ignition power. In an embodiment, the EM pumping may or may not be maintained following termination of the ignition power wherein the suppling of hydrino reactants such as at least one of H2, O2, and H2O is maintained during the ignition-off operation of the SunCell®. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® shown in Figure 1 was well insulated with silica-alumina fiber insulation, 2500 sccm H2and 250 sccm O2gases were flowed over Pt / Al2O3beads, and the SunCell® was heated to a temperature in the range of 900 °C to 1400 °C. With continued maintenance of the H2and O2flow and EM pumping, the hydrino reaction self-sustained in the absence of ignition power as evidenced by an increase in the temperature over time in the absence of the input ignition power. Ignition System In an embodiment, the ignition system comprises a switch to at least one of initiate the current and interrupt the current once ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by the contact of the molten metal streams. The switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. The current may be interrupted following ignition in order to optimize the output hydrino generated energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch to allow controllable amounts of energy to flow into the fuel to cause detonation and turn off the power during the phase wherein plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following: a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak AC current density in the range of at least one of 1 A / cm2to 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2; wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times the resistance of the solid fuel sample; the DC or peak AC voltage is in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency is in range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The system may further comprise a startup power / energy source such as a battery such as a lithium ion battery. Alternatively, external power such as grid power may be provided for startup through a connection from an external power source to the generator. The connection may comprise the power output bus bar. The startup power energy source may at least one of supply power to the heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, power the injection system, and power the ignition system. The SunCell® may comprise a high-pressure water electrolyzer such as one comprising a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer having water under high pressure to provide high-pressure hydrogen. Each of the H2and O2chambers may comprise a recombiner to eliminate contaminant O2and H2, respectively. The PEM may serve as at least one of the separator and salt bridge of the anode and cathode compartments to allow for hydrogen to be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode as separate gases. The cathode may comprise a dichalcogenide hydrogen evolution catalyst such as one comprising at least one of niobium and tantalum that may further comprise sulfur. The cathode may comprise one known in the art such as Pt or Ni. The hydrogen may be produced at high pressure and may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 directly or by permeation through a hydrogen permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise an oxygen gas line from the anode compartment to the point of delivery of the oxygen gas to a storage vessel or a vent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises sensors, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller. In another embodiment, hydrogen fuel may be obtained from electrolysis of water, reforming natural gas, at least one of the syngas reaction and the water-gas shift reaction by reaction of steam with carbon to form H2and CO and CO2, and other methods of hydrogen production known by those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis using supplied water and the heat generated by the SunCell®. The thermolysis cycle may comprise one of the disclosure or one known in the art such as one that is based on a metal and its oxide such as at least one of SnO / Sn and ZnO / Zn. In an embodiment wherein the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition systems only consume power during startup, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis such that the parasitic electrical power requirement is very low. The SunCell® may comprise batteries such as lithium ion batteries to provide power to run systems such as the gas sensors and control systems such as those for the reaction plasma gases. Molten Metal Stream Generation In an embodiment, such as one shown in Figures 8A-B, the SunCell® comprises a two reservoirs 5c, each comprising an electromagnetic (EM) pump such as a DC, AC, or another EM pump of the disclosure and injector that also serves as the ignition electrode and a reservoir inlet riser for leveling the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may comprise silver, silver-copper alloy, gallium or tin, Galinstan, or another of the disclosure. The SunCell® may further comprise a reaction cell chamber 5b31, electrically isolating flanges between the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber such as electrically isolating Conflat flanges, and a drip edge at the top of each reservoir to electrically isolate the reservoirs and EM pumps from each other wherein the ignition current flows with contact of intersecting molten metal streams of the two EM pump injectors. In an embodiment, at least one of each reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the inside of the EM pump tube 5k6 are coated with a ceramic or comprise a ceramic liner such as such as one of BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, or mixtures such as TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the SunCell® further comprises an external resistive heater such as heating coils such as Kanthal wire wrapped on the outer surface of at least one SunCell® component. In an embodiment, the outer surface of at least one component of the SunCell such as the reaction cell 5b3, reservoir 5c, and EM pump tube 5k6 is coated with a ceramic to electrically isolate the resistive heater coil such as Kanthal wire wrapped on the surface. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise at least one of a heat exchanger and thermal insulation that may be wrapped on the surface of at least one SunCell® component. At least one of the heat exchanger and heater may be encased in the thermal insulation. In an embodiment, the resistive heater may comprise a support for the heating element such as a heating wire. The support may comprise carbon that is hermetically sealed. The sealant may comprise a ceramic such as SiC. The SiC may be formed by reaction of Si with carbon at high temperature in the vacuum furnace. The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400 °C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element such as a resistive wire element may comprise a NiCr alloy that may operate in the 1100 °C to 1200 °C range such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC that is capable of operating in the 1500 °C to 1800 °C range in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with Alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an Alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at a temperature of up to 1625 °C. The electromagnetic pumps may each comprise one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals: an AC or DC conduction pump in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is fed to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube walls, respectively; and induction pumps, in which a travelling field induces the required current, as in an induction motor wherein the current may be crossed with an applied AC electromagnetic field. The induction pump may comprise three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and spiral. The pumps may comprise others know in the art such as mechanical and thermoelectric pumps. The mechanical pump may comprise a centrifugal pump with a motor driven impeller. The power to the electromagnetic pump may be constant or pulsed to cause a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of the molten metal, respectively. The pulsed injection may be driven by a program or function generator. The pulsed injection may maintain pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The EM pump may comprise a multistage pump. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 comprises a flow chopper to cause intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The chopper may comprise a valve such as an electronically controlled valve that further comprises a controller. The valve may comprise a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the chopper may comprise a rotating disc with at least one passage that rotates periodically to intersect the flow of molten metal to allow the molten metal to flow through the passage wherein the flow in blocked by sections of the rotating disc that do not comprise a passage. The molten metal pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15 wherein the heating and cooling systems may be modified to support pumping molten metal. In an embodiment, the EM pump may comprise an AC, inductive type wherein the Lorentz force on the molten metal is produced by a time-varying electric current through the molten metal and a crossed synchronized time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying electric current through the molten metal may be created by Faraday induction of a first time- varying magnetic field produced by an EM pump transformer winding circuit. The source of the first time-varying magnetic field may comprise a primary transformer winding, and the molten metal may serve as a secondary transformer winding such as a single turn shorted winding comprising an EM pump tube section of a current loop and a EM pump current loop return section. In an embodiment wherein the molten metal injector comprising at least one EM pump comprising a current source and magnets to cause a Lorentz pumping force, the EM pump magnets 5k4 may comprise permanent or electromagnets such as DC or AC electromagnets. In the case that the magnets are permanent magnets or DC electromagnets, the EM pump current source comprises a DC power source. In the case that the magnets 5k4 comprise AC electromagnets, the EM pump current source for the EM bus bars 5k2 comprises an AC power source that provides current that is in phase with AC EM pump electromagnet field applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to produce a Lorentz pumping force. In an embodiment wherein the magnet such as an electromagnet is immersed in a coolant that is corrosive such as a water bath, the magnet such as an electromagnet may be hermetically sealed in a sealant such as a thermoplastic, a coating, or a housing that may be non-magnetic such as a stainless-steel housing. In another embodiment, the ignition system comprises an induction system wherein the source of electricity applied to the conductive molten metal to cause ignition of the hydrino reaction provides an induction current, voltage, and power. The ignition system may comprise an electrode-less system wherein the ignition current is applied by induction by an induction ignition transformer assembly. The induction current may flow through the intersecting molten metal streams from the plurality of injectors maintained by the pumps such as the EM pumps. In an embodiment, the reservoirs 5c may further comprise a ceramic cross connecting channel such as a channel between the bases of the reservoirs 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly may comprise an induction ignition transformer winding and an induction ignition transformer yoke that may extend through the induction current loop formed by the reservoirs 5c, the intersecting molten metal streams from the plurality of molten metal injectors, and the cross-connecting channel. The induction ignition transformer assembly may be similar to that of the EM pump transformer winding circuit . In an embodiment, the heater to melt the molten metal comprises a resistive heater such as one comprising wire such as Kanthal or other of the disclosure. The resistive heater may comprise a refractory resistive filament or wire that may be wrapped around the components to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may comprise high temperature conductors such as carbon, Nichrome, 300 series stainless steels, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, Nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The filament or wire may be potted in a potting compound to protect it from oxidation. The heating element as filament, wire, or mesh may be operated in vacuum to protect it from oxidation. An exemplary heater comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic- chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400 °C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM that forms a non-scaling oxide coating that is resistant to oxidizing and carburizing environments and can be operated to 1475 °C. The heat loss rate at 1375 K and an emissivity of 1 is 200 kW / m2or 0.2 W / cm2. Commercially available resistive heaters that operate to 1475 K have a power of 4.6 W / cm2. The heating may be increased using insulation external to the heating element. An exemplary heater 415 comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400 °C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element such as a resistive wire element may comprise a NiCr alloy that may operate in the 1100 °C to 1200 °C range such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC that is capable of operating in the 1500 °C to 1800 °C range in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with Alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an Alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at a temperature of up to 1625 °C. The heater may comprise insulation to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may comprise a ceramic such as one known by those skilled in the art such as an insulation comprising alumina-silicate. The insulation may be at least one of removable or reversible. The insulation may be removed following startup to more effectively transfer heat to a desired receiver such as ambient surroundings or a heat exchanger. The insulation may be mechanically removed. The insulation may comprise a vacuum-capable chamber and a pump, wherein the insulation is applied by pulling a vacuum, and the insulation is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas such as helium. A vacuum chamber with a heat transfer gas such as helium that can be added or pumped off may serve as adjustable insulation. The ignition current may be time varying such as about 60 Hz AC, but may have other characteristics and waveforms such as a DC or AC waveform having a frequency in at least one range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, a peak current in at least one range of about 1 A to 100 MA, 10 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and a peak voltage in at least one range of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V wherein the waveform may comprise a sinusoid, a square wave, a triangle, or other desired waveform that may comprise a duty cycle such as one in at least one range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize the skin effect at high frequency, the windings of the ignition system may comprise at least one of braided, multiple-stranded, and Litz wire. In an embodiment, the ignition power waveform such as a periodic square wave of ignition current, as well as the frequency and duty cycle are selected to optimize at least one of the output power and power gain given by the ratio of the power output and the ignition power. An exemplary frequency square wave waveform is in the range of 1 to 500 Hz. In another exemplary embodiment, the ignition power comprises a repeated pattern of different currents over time such as square waves that alternative between a high current such as 1500A and a low current such as 500A wherein the square wave widths of high and low currents may be the same or different. Power System and Configuration In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® having a pedestal electrode shown in Figure 1 comprises (i) an injector reservoir 5c, EM pump tube 5k6 and nozzle 5q, a reservoir base plate 409a, and a spherical reaction cell chamber 5b31 dome, (ii) a non-injector reservoir comprising a sleeve reservoir 409d that may comprise SS welded to the lower hemisphere 5b41 with a sleeve reservoir flange 409e at the end of the sleeve reservoir 409d, (iii) an electrical insulator insert reservoir 409f comprising a pedestal 5c1 at the top and an insert reservoir flange 409g at the bottom that mates to the sleeve reservoir flange 409e wherein the insert reservoir 409f, pedestal 5c that may further comprise a drip edge 5c1a, and insert reservoir flange 409g may comprise a ceramic such as boron nitride, stabilized BN such as BN-CaO or BN-ZrO2, silicon carbide, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or quartz, or a refractory material such as a refractory metal, carbon, or ceramic with a protective coating such as SiC or ZrB2such as one comprising SiC or ZrB2carbon and (iv) a reservoir base plate 409a such as one comprising SS having a penetration for the ignition bus bar 10a1 and an ignition bus bar 10 wherein the baseplate bolts to the sleeve reservoir flange 409e to sandwich the insert reservoir flange 409g. In an embodiment the SunCell® may comprise a vacuum housing enclosing and hermetically sealing the joint comprising the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, the insert reservoir flange 409g, and the reservoir baseplate 409a wherein the housing is electrically isolated at the electrode bus bar 10. In an embodiment the nozzle 5q may be threaded onto a nozzle section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61. The nozzle may comprise a refractory metal such as W, Ta, Re, or Mo. The nozzle may be submerged. In an embodiment shown in Figure 1, an inverted pedestal 5c2 and ignition bus bar and electrode 10 are at least one of oriented in about the center of the cell 5b3 and aligned on the negative z-axis wherein at least one counter injector electrode 5k61 injects molten metal from its reservoir 5c in the positive z-direction against gravity where applicable. The injected molten stream may maintain a coating or pool of liquid metal in the pedestal 5c2 against gravity where applicable. The pool or coating may at least partially cover the electrode 10. The pool or coating may protect the electrode from damage such as corrosion or melting. In the latter case, the EM pumping rate may be increased to increase the electrode cooling by the flowing injected molten metal. The electrode area and thickness may also be increased to dissipate local hot spots to prevent melting. The pedestal may be positively biased and the injector electrode may be negatively biased. In another embodiment, the pedestal may be negatively biased and the injector electrode may be positively biased wherein the injector electrode may be submerged in the molten metal. The molten metal such as gallium or tin may fill a portion of the lower portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In addition to the coating or pool of injected molten metal, the electrode 10 such as a W electrode may be stabilized from corrosion by the applied negative bias. In an embodiment, the electrode 10 may comprise a coating such as an inert conductive coating such as a rhenium coating to protect the electrode from corrosion. In an embodiment the electrode may be cooled. The cooling of the electrode may reduce at least one of the electrode corrosion rate and the rate of alloy formation with the molten metal (e.g., as compared to operation without electrode cooling). The cooling may be achieved by means such as centerline water cooling. In an embodiment, the surface area of the inverted electrode is increased by increasing the size of the surface in contact with at least one of the plasma and the molten metal stream from the injector electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, a large plate or cup is attached to the end of the electrode 10. In another embodiment, the injector electrode may be submerged to increase the area of the counter electrode. Figure 1 shows an exemplary spherical reaction cell chamber. Other geometries such a rectangular, cubic, cylindrical, and conical are within the scope of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the base of the reaction cell chamber where it connects to the top of the reservoir may be sloped such as conical. Such configurations may facilitate mixing of the molten metal as it enters the inlet of the EM pump. In an embodiment, at least a portion of the external surface of the reaction cell chamber may be clad in a material with a high heat transfer coefficient such as copper to avoid hot spots on the reaction cell chamber wall. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a plurality of pumps such as EM pumps to inject molten metal on the reaction cell chamber walls to maintain molten metal walls to prevent the plasma in the reaction cell chamber from melting the walls. In another embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall comprises a liner 5b31a such as a BN, fused silica, or quartz liner to avoid hot spots. An exemplary reaction cell chamber comprises a cubic upper section lined with quartz plates and lower spherical section comprising an EM pump at the bottom wherein the spherical section promotes molten metal mixing. In an embodiment, the sleeve reservoir 409d may comprise a tight-fitting electrical insulator of the ignition bus bar and electrode 10 such that molten metal is contained about exclusively in a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted pedestal 5c2. The insert reservoir 409f having insert reservoir flange 409g may be mounted to the cell chamber 5b3 by reservoir baseplate 409a, sleeve reservoir 409d, and sleeve reservoir flange 409e. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir baseplate 409a through electrode penetration 10a1. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir baseplate 409a through electrode penetration 10a1. In an embodiment, the insert reservoir 409f may comprise a coating on the electrode bus bar 10. In an embodiment at least one SunCell® component such as the insert reservoir 409f, a reaction cell chamber liner or coating, and a bus bar liner or coating may comprise a ceramic such as BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, Mullite, or mixtures such as ZrO2-TiO2-Y2O3, TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the disclosure, or one comprising at least one of SiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, MgO, BN, BN-ZrO2, BN-B2O3, and a ceramic that serves to bind to the metal of the component and then to BN or another ceramic. Exemplary composite coatings comprising BN by Oerlikon are Ni 13Cr 8Fe 3.5Al6.5BN, ZrO29.5Dy2O30.7BN, ZrO27.5Y2O30.7BN, and Co 25Cr 5Al 0.27Y 1.75Si 15hBN.In an embodiment, a suitable metal, ceramic, or carbon coated with BN may serve as the liner or coating. A suitable metal or ceramic is capable of operating at the temperature of the SunCell® with the adherence of the BN coating. In an embodiment, binder in a SunCell® component such as the sleeve reservoir 409d, a reaction cell chamber liner or coating, or a bus bar liner or coating may be baked out by at least one of heating and running under a vacuum. Alternatively, a passivated coating may be formed or applied to the ceramic. In an exemplary embodiment, BN is oxidized to form a B2O3passivation coating. The EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin such as at least one of W, Ta, Re, Mo, BN, Alumina, Mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon may be applied by a suspension means such as a spray or liquid coating that is cured and degassed. In an exemplary embodiment, carbon suspension is poured into the pump tube to fill it, the carbon suspension is cured, and a channel is then machined through the tube to form a carbon liner on the walls. In an embodiment, the carbon coated metal such as Ni may be resistant to forming a carbide at high temperature. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metallic tube that is filled with a liner or coating material such as BN that is bored out to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may comprise an assembly comprising a plurality of parts. The parts may comprise a material or a liner or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. In an embodiment, the parts may be separately coated and assembled. The assembly may comprise at least one of a housing that contains two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet, and a liquid metal outlet, and a means to seal the housing such as Swageloks. In an embodiment, the EM pump bus bars 5k2 may comprise a conductive portion in contact with the gallium or tin inside of the EM pump tube that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. The conductive portion may comprise an alloy-resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo, or an alloy-resistant cladding or coating on another metal such as SS such as one comprising Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an inlet riser tube 5qa to prevent hot gallium or tin flow to the reservoir base 5kk1 and suppress gallium or tin or tin alloy formation. The reservoir base 5kk1 may comprise a liner, cladding, or coating to suppress gallium or tin alloy formation. In an embodiment to permit good electrical contact between the EM pump bus bars 5k2 and the molten metal in the EM pump tube 5k6, the coating is applied before the EM pump bus bars are attached by means such as welding. Alternatively, any coating may be removed from the bus bars penetrating into the molten metal before operation by means known in the art such as abrasion, ablation, or etching. In another embodiment, the insert reservoir flange 409g may be replaced with a feedthrough mounted in the reservoir baseplate 409a that electrically isolates the bus bar 10 of the feedthrough and pedestal 5c1 or insert reservoir 409f from the reservoir baseplate 409a. The feedthrough may be welded to the reservoir baseplate. An exemplary feedthrough comprising the bus bar 10 is Solid Sealing Technology, Inc. #FA10775. The bus bar 10 may be joined to the electrode 8 or the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 may comprise a single piece. The reservoir baseplate may be directly joined to the sleeve reservoir flange. The union may comprise Conflat flanges that are bolted together with an intervening gasket. The flanges may comprise knife edges to seal a soft metallic gasket such as a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring. The flanges may be coated with a coating such as Flameproof paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, Ta, or another of the disclosure that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The gasket or O-ring such as Ta ones may be alloy-formation resistant. In an embodiment, the flanges may be replaced by flat metal plates (no bolt holes) such as annuluses around the perimeter of each joined component. The plates may be welded together on the outer edges to form a seam. The seam may be cut or ground off to separate the two plates. The ceramic pedestal 5c1 comprising the insert reservoir 409f may be counter sunk into a counter bored reservoir baseplate 409a wherein the union between the pedestal and the reservoir baseplate may be sealed with a gasket such as a carbon gasket or another of the disclosure. The electrode 8 and bus bar 10 may comprise an endplate at the end where plasma discharge occurs. Pressure may be applied to the gasket to seal the union between the pedestal and the reservoir baseplate by pushing on the disc that in turn applies pressure to the gasket. The discs may be threaded on to the end of the electrode 8 such that turning the disc applies pressure to the gasket. The feedthrough may comprise an annular collar that connects to the bus bar and to the electrode. The annular collar may comprise a threshed set screw that when tightened locks the electrode into position. The position may be locked with the gasket under tension applied by the end disc pulling the pedestal upwards. The pedestal 5c1 may comprise a shaft for access to the set screw. The shaft may be threaded so that it can be sealed on the outer surface of the pedestal with a nonconductive set screw such a ceramic one such as a BN one wherein the pedestal may comprise BN such as BN-ZrO2. In another embodiment, the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 may comprise rods that may butt-end connect. In an embodiment, the pedestal 5c1 may comprise two or more threaded metal shafts each with a set screw that tightens against the bus bar 10 or electrode 8 to lock them in place under tension. The tension may provide at least one of connection of the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 and pressure on the gasket. Alternatively, the counter electrode comprises a shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 wherein at least one of the electrode 8 and bus bar 10 comprise male threads, a washer and a matching female nut such that the nut and washer tighten against the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1. Alternatively, the electrode 8 may comprise male threads on an end that threads into matching female threads at an end of the bus bar 10, and the electrode 8 further comprises a fixed washer that tightens the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 against the pedestal washer and the reservoir baseplate 409a that may be counter sunk. The counter electrode may comprise other means of fasting the pedestal, bus bar, and electrode that are known to those skilled the art. In another embodiment, at least one seal such as (i) one between the insert reservoir flange 409g and the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, and (ii) one between the reservoir baseplate 409a and the sleeve reservoir flange 409e may comprise a wet seal (Figure 1). In the latter case, the insert reservoir flange 409g may be replaced with a feedthrough mounted in the reservoir baseplate 409a that electrically isolates the bus bar 10 of the feedthrough and pedestal 5c1 from the reservoir baseplate 409a, and the wet seal may comprise one between the reservoir baseplate 409a and the feedthrough. Since gallium or tin forms an oxide with a melting point of 1900 °C, the wet seal may comprise solid gallium or tin oxide. In an embodiment, hydrogen may be supplied to the cell through a hydrogen permeable membrane such as a structurally reinforced Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. The hydrogen permeation rate through the hydrogen permeable membrane may be increased by maintaining plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise a semipermeable membrane that may comprise an electrode of a plasma cell such as a cathode of a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell). The SunCell® such as one shown in Figure 1 may further comprise an outer sealed plasma chamber comprising an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of cell 5b3 wherein a portion of the metal wall of the cell 5b3 comprises an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber may comprise a chamber around the cell 5b3 such as a housing wherein the wall of cell 5b3 may comprise a plasma cell electrode and the housing or an independent electrode in the chamber may comprise the counter electrode. The SunCell® may further comprise a plasma power source, and plasma control system, a gas source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regular, and a vacuum pump. The system may operate via the production of two plasmas. An initial reaction mixture such as a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2having less than 20% or less than 10% or less than 5% or less than 3% O2by mole percentage of the mixture) may pass through a plasma cell such as a glow discharge to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing the catalytic reactions with sufficient exothermicity to produce a plasma as described herein. For example, a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2mixture may pass through a glow discharge to produce an effluence of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and with an internal energy sufficient to prevent formation of hydrogen bonds). The glow discharge effluence may be directed into the reaction chamber where a current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., with a molten metal passed therebetween). Upon interaction of the effluence with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), the catalytic reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, upon the formation of arc current. The power system may comprise: a) a plasma cell (e.g., glow discharge cell); b) a set of electrodes in electrical contact with one another via a molten metal flowing therebetween such that an electrical bias may be applied molten metal; c) a molten metal injection system which flows the molten metal between the electrodes; wherein the effluence of the plasma cell is oriented towards the biased molten metal (e.g., the positive electrode or anode). In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one a ceramic reservoir 5c and reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as one comprising quartz. The SunCell® may comprise two cylindrical reaction cell chambers 5b31 each comprising a reservoir at a bottom section wherein the reaction cell chambers are fused at the top along a seam where the two intersect as shown in Figures 8A-B. In an embodiment, the apex formed by the intersection of the reaction cell chambers 5b31 may comprise a gasketed seal such as two flanges that bolt together with an intervening gasket such as a graphite gasket to absorb thermal expansion and other stresses. Each reservoir may comprise a means such as an inlet riser 5qa to maintain a time-averaged level of molten metal in the reservoir. The bottom of the reservoirs may each comprise a reservoir flange 5k17 that may be sealed to a baseplate 5kk1 comprising an EM pump assembly 5kk comprising an EM pump 5ka with inlet and injection tube 5k61 penetrations and further comprising the EM magnets 5k4 and EM pump tube 5k6 under each baseplate. In an embodiment, permanent EM pump magnets 5k4 (Figures 8A-B) may be replaced with electromagnets such as DC or AC electromagnets. In the case that the magnets 5k4 comprise AC electromagnets, the EM pump current source for the EM bus bars 5k2 comprises an AC power source that provides current that is in phase with AC EM pump electromagnet field applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to produce a Lorentz pumping force. Each EM pump assembly 5kk may attach to the reservoir flange at the same angle as the corresponding reservoir 5c such that the reservoir flange may be perpendicular to the slanted reservoir. The EM pump assembly 5kk may be mounted to a slide table 409c (Figures 8B-G) with supports 409k to mount and align the corresponding slanted EM pump assemblies 5kk and reservoirs 5c. In an embodiment, each EM pump assembly 5kk may comprise a plurality of EM pump stages such as two stages, each one comprising magnets 5k4 such as permanent or electromagnets and EM bus bars 5k2 that may be assembled on a common EM pump tube 5k6 of a reservoirs 5c. The EM pump stages may be in series or parallel connection between pump inlet and outlet. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pumps each comprise two stages wherein the EM bus bars 5k2 of the two stages may be wired in parallel or series, and the EM pumps may be powered by separate power supplies or by the same power supply through a series connection between the EM pumps that may each comprise a plurality of stages such as two stages. The SunCell supports 409k, may comprise turnbuckles that are adjustable to any height and may lock with locknuts. The baseplate may seal to the reservoir by a wet seal. In an embodiment, the wet seal comprises an alloy of the molten metal and at least one other metal. The alloy may have a higher melting point than the molten metal. The alloy may be formed by applying the at least one other metal to area of the desired wet seal. Alternatively, a wet seal of the disclosure may be replaced by an adhesive or glue joint such as one between quartz, carbon, or a ceramic and metal or coated metal wherein the coating may comprise one of the disclosure such as one of Flameproof paint, Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, and a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2– ZrSiO4. Exemplary adhesives are Cotronics Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2– ZrSiO4, and Durabond as such as RK454. The baseplate may further comprise penetrations each with a tube for evacuating or supplying gases to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprising the region wherein the reservoirs are fused. The reservoir may further comprise at least one of a gas injection tube 710 and a reservoir vacuum tube 711 wherein at least one tube may extend above the molten metal level. At least one of the gas injection line 710 and the vacuum line 711 may comprise a cap such as a carbon cap or a cover such as a carbon cover with side openings to allow gas flow while at least partially blocking molten metal entry into the tube. In another embodiment, at least one of the gas injection line 710 and the vacuum line 711 may comprise a U shape at the reaction cell chamber opening end and optionally a frit or packing at the opening to permit gas flow while preventing molten metal from entering. In another design, the fused reservoir section may be horizontally cutaway and a vertical cylinder may be attached at the cutaway section. The cylinder may further comprise a sealing top plate such as a quartz plate or may join to a converging diverging nozzle of the MHD converter or a cavity comprising a PV window. Alternatively, the vertical cylindrical PV window may comprise another geometry such as a rectangular or polyhedron cavity. The top plate may comprise at least one penetration for lines such as vacuum and gas supply lines. In an embodiment, the quartz may be housed in a tight-fitting casing that provides support against outward deformation of the quartz due to operation at high temperature and pressure. The casing may comprise at least one of carbon, and ceramic, and a metal that has a high melting point and resists deformation at high temperature. Exemplary casings comprise at least one of stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni, and Dy. At least one seal to a SunCell component such as one to the reservoirs 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the converging-diverging nozzle or MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD expansion or generation section 308, the MHD condensation section 309, MHD electrode penetrations, the electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2, and an ignition reservoir bus bar 5k2a1 such as a rod penetrating the reservoir baseplate or a connection to the reservoir baseplate that supplies ignition power to the molten metal of the reservoir may comprise a wet seal. In an exemplary embodiment, the reservoir flange 5k17 comprises a wet seal with the baseplate 5kk1 wherein the outer perimeter of the flange may be cooled by a cooling loop 5k18 such as a water-cooling loop. In another exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube comprises a liner such as a BN liner and at least one of the electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2 and the ignition reservoir bus bar 5k2a1 comprises a wet seal. In an embodiment such as one comprising a PV window, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material such as tantalum that resists alloy formation with the molten metal such as tin or gallium. The EM bus bar may comprise welded-in parts such as welded-in Ta bus bars 5k2. The EM pump tube 5k6 such as a Ta one may be connected to the baseplate 5kk1 by a union such as a Swagelok or bonded to the baseplate 5kk1 by a weld such as one formed by diffusion bonding. In an exemplary embodiment, the diffusion bonding between a stainless-steel baseplate and a Ta EM pump may comprise a pure metal insert such as one comprising Cu, Ni, or Fe. The diffusion bonding may be performed using an oven, a laser, or other method known in the art. The bonding area may be coated or lined to protect it against alloy formation with the molten metals. In another exemplary embodiment, the Ta EM pump tube comprising welded-in Ta EM bus bars is bonded to a Kovar tube and then bonded to a stainless-steel tube that connects with the reservoir baseplate. The connection may comprise a braze such as one with PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P. = 1135°C) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https: / / www.morganbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-alloys / precious-brazing-filler- metals / . The coating or liner may comprise one from the disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the coating may comprise carbon paste (e.g., Aramco Graphibond 551) or VHT Flameproof paint. In an embodiment shown in Figures 8F-G, at least one of the break reservoir EM pump assembly 914a comprising the reservoir 5c below the electrical break flange 914 and the corresponding electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk and the reservoir EM pump assembly 915a comprising the reservoir below the reservoir flange 915 and corresponding electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk may comprise a material or be plated or clad with a material such as W, Ta, or carbon that is resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. An exemplary carbon coating may comprise Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN. The seal of at least one of the electric break flanges 914 or reservoir flanges 915 may comprise a gasket such as Conflat flange gasket such as a copper or silver- plated copper one, a graphite gasket, a wet seal, and another seal of the disclosure. In a further embodiment, each EM pump bus bar 5k2 may comprise an electrical feedthrough such as one that may be capable of high temperature such as 450 °C to 2000 °C. An exemplary EM bus bar feedthrough is MPF A0106-5-W (https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / power- feedthroughs / watercooled / 12kv / a0106-5-w / ). The feedthrough may be cooled such as at least one of forced air, water, conduction, and convection cooled using a heat exchanger. To protect the feedthrough from thermal failure, the feedthrough may comprise a standoff between the EM pump tube 5k6 and a ceramic brazed to a feedthrough body wherein the ceramic electrically isolates a conductor that passes through the ceramic at the center of the feedthrough. The EM bus bar feedthrough conductor may comprise a metal or a coated metal such as W, Ta, or coated stainless steel such as carbide or nitride coated SS such as TiN, CrN, WC, CrC, or chromium coated stainless steel or carbon coated stainless steel that is conductive and resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal. The braze may have a high melting point such a greater than 600°C. Exemplary brazes are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P. = 1135°C) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https: / / www.morganbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing- alloys / precious-brazing-filler-metals / . In an embodiment, a ceramic SunCell® such as a quartz one is mounted on a metal baseplate 5kk1 (Figure 8B) wherein a wet seal comprises a penetration into the reservoir 5c that allows molten metal such a silver in the reservoir to contact solidified molten metal on the baseplate 5kk1 of each EM pump assembly to form the wet seal. Each baseplate may be connected to a terminal of the ignition power source such as a DC or AC power source such that the wet seal may also serve as a bus bar for the ignition power. The EM pump may comprise an induction AC type. The ceramic SunCell® may comprise a plurality of components such as the EM pumps, reservoirs, reaction cell chamber, and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) components that are sealed with flanged gasketed unions that may be bolted together. The gasket may comprise carbon or a ceramic such as Thermiculite. Rhenium (MP 3185 °C) is resistant to attack from gallium or tin, Galinstan, silver, and copper and is resistant to oxidation by oxygen and water and the hydrino reaction mixture such as one comprising oxygen and water; thus, it may serve as a coating for metal components such as those of the EM pump assembly 5kk such as the baseplate 5kk1, EM pump tube 5k6, EM pump bus bars 5k2, EM pump injectors 5k61, EM pump nozzle 5q, inlet risers 5qa, gas lines 710, and vacuum line 711. The component may be coated with rhenium by electroplating, vacuum deposition, chemical deposition, and other methods known in the art. In an embodiment, a bus bar or electrical connection at a penetration such the EM pump bus bars 5k2 or the penetrations for MHD electrodes in the MHD generator channel 308 may comprise solid rhenium sealed by a wet seal at the penetration. In an embodiment (Figures 8A-B), the heater to melt the metal to form the molten metal comprises a resistive heater such as a Kanthal wire heater around the reservoirs 5c and reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as ones comprising quartz. The EM pump 5kk may comprise heat transfer blocks to transfer heat from the reservoirs 5c to the EM pump tube 5k6. In an exemplary embodiment, the heater comprises a Kanthal wire coil wrapped about the reservoirs and reaction cell chamber wherein graphite heat transfer blocks with ceramic heat transfer paste attached to the EM pump tubes 5k6 transfer heat to the tubes to melt the metal therein. Larger diameter EM pump tubes may be used to better transfer heat to the EM pump tube to cause melting in EM pump tube. The components containing molten metal may be well thermally insulated with an insulation such as ceramic fiber or other high temperature insulation known in the art. The components may be heated slowly to avoid thermal shock. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a heater such as a resistive heater. The heater may comprise a kiln or furnace that is positioned over at least one of the reaction cell chambers, the reservoirs, and the EM pump tubes. In the embodiment wherein the EM pump tubes are inside of the kiln, the EM pump magnets and the wet seal may be selectively thermally insulated and cooled by a cooling system such as a water-cooling system. In an embodiment, each reservoir may comprise a thermal insulator at the baseplate at the base of the molten metal such as a ceramic insulator. The insulator may comprise BN or a moldable ceramic such as one comprising alumina, magnesia, silica, zirconia, or hafnia. The ceramic insulator at the base of the molten metal may comprise penetrations for the EM pump inlet and injector, gas and vacuum lines, thermocouple, and ignition bus bar that makes direct contact with the molten metal. In an embodiment, the thermal insulator permits the molten metal to melt at the base of the reservoir by reducing heat loss to the baseplate and wet seal cooling. The diameter of the EM pump inlet penetration may be enlarged to increase the heat transfer from molten metal in the reservoir to that in the EM pump tube. The EM pump tube may comprise heat transfer blocks to transfer heat from the inlet penetration to the EM pump tube. In an embodiment, the baseplate 5kk1 may comprise a refractory material or metal such as stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni, and Dy that may be coated with a liner or coating such as one of the disclosure that is resistant to at least one of corrosion with at least one of O2and H2O and alloy formation with the molten metal such as gallium, tin, or silver. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube may be lined or coated with a material that prevents corrosion or alloy formation. The EM bus bars may comprise a conductor that is resistant to at least one of corrosion or alloy formation. Exemplary EM pump bus bars wherein the molten metal is gallium or tin are Ta, W, Re, and Ir. Exemplary EM pump bus bars wherein the molten metal is silver are W, Ta, Re, Ni, Co, and Cr. In an embodiment, the EM bus bars may comprise carbon or a metal with a high melting point that may be coated with an electrically conductive coating that resists alloy formation with the molten metal such as at least one of gallium or tin and silver. Exemplary coatings comprise a carbide or diboride such as those of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium. In an embodiment wherein the molten metal such as copper, gallium, or tin may form an alloy with the baseplate such as one comprising stainless steel, the baseplate comprises a liner or is coated with an material that does not form an alloy such as Ta, W, Re, or a ceramic such as BN, Mullite, or zirconia-titania-yttria. In an embodiment of the SunCell® shown in Figures 8A-B, the molten metal comprises gallium, tin, or Galinstan, the seals at the baseplate 5kk1 comprise gaskets such as Viton O rings or carbon (Graphoil) gaskets, and the diameter of the inlet riser tubes 5qa is sufficiently large such that the levels of the molten metal in the reservoirs 5c are maintained about even with a near steady stream of injected molten metal from both reservoirs. The diameter of each inlet riser tube be larger than that of the silver molten metal embodiment, to overcome the higher viscosity of gallium, tin, and Galinstan. The inlet riser tube diameter may be in the range of about 3 mm to 2 cm. The baseplate 5kk1 may be stainless steel maintained below about 500 °C or may be ceramic coated to prevent gallium or tin alloy formation. Exemplary baseplate coatings are Mullite and ZTY. In an embodiment, the wet seal of a penetration may comprise a nipple through which the molten silver partially extends to be continuous with a solidified silver electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump bus bars 5k2 comprise a wet seal comprising an inside ceramic coated EM pump tube 5k6 having opposing nipples through which the molten silver passes to contact a solidified section that comprises the EM pump power connector, and at least one bus bar may optionally further comprise a connector to one lead of the ignition power supply. The EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium, tin, or silver such as at least one of W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, BN, Alumina, Mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon may be applied by a suspension means such as a spray or liquid coating that is cured and degassed. In an embodiment, the carbon-coated metal such as Ni may be resistant to forming a carbide at high temperature. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metallic tube that is filled with a liner or coating material such as BN that is bored out to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may be segmented or comprise an assembly comprising a plurality of parts (Figure 7C). The parts may comprise a material such as Ta or a liner or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. In an embodiment, the parts may be separately coated and assembled. The assembly may comprise at least one of a housing that contains two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet, and a liquid metal outlet, and a means to seal the housing such as Swageloks. In an embodiment, the EM pump bus bars 5k2 may comprise a conductive portion in contact with the gallium or tin inside of the EM pump tube that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. The conductive portion may comprise an alloy-resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, or Mo, or an alloy-resistant cladding or coating on another metal such as SS such as one comprising Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo. In an embodiment, the exterior or the EM pump tube such as one comprising Ta or W may be coated or clad with a coating of cladding of the disclosure to protect the exterior from oxidation. In exemplary embodiments, a Ta EM pump tube may be coated with Re, ZTY, or Mullite or clad with stainless steel (SS) wherein the cladding to the exterior of the Ta EM pump tube may comprise SS pieces adhered together using welds or an extreme-temperature- rated SS glue such as J-B Weld 37901. An embodiment, the liner may comprise a thin-wall, flexible metal that is resistant to alloying with gallium or tin such as a W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, or Ta tube liner that may be inserted into an EM pump tube 5k6 comprising another metal such as stainless steel. The liner may be inserted in a preformed EM pump tube or a straight tube that is then bent. The EM pump bus bars 5k2 may be attached by means such as welding after the liner is installed in the formed EM pump tube. The EM pump tube liner may form a tight seal with the EM pump bus bars 5k2 by a compression fitting or sealing material such as carbon or a ceramic sealant. In an embodiment wherein at least one of the molten metal and any alloy formed from the molten metal may off gas to produce a gas boundary layer that interferes with EM pumping by at least partially blocking the Lorentz current, the EM pump tube 5k6 at the position of the magnets 5k4 may be vertical to break up the gas boundary layer. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an interference eliminator comprising a means to mitigate or eliminate any interference between the source of electrical power to the ignition circuit and the source of electrical power to the EM pump 5kk. The interference eliminator may comprise at least one of, one or more circuit elements and one or more controllers to regulate the relative voltage, current, polarity, waveform, and duty cycle of the ignition and EM pump currents to prevent interference between the two corresponding supplies. The SunCell® may further comprise a photovoltaic (PV) converter and a window to transmit light to the PV converter. In an embodiment shown in Figures 2-3, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 with a tapering cross section along the vertical axis and a PV window 5b4 at the apex of the taper. The window with a mating taper may comprise any desired geometry that accommodates the PV array 26a such as circular (Figure 2) or square or rectangular (Figure 3). The taper may suppress metallization of the PV window 5b4 to permit efficient light to electricity conversion by the photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a. The PV converter 26a may comprise a dense receiver array of concentrator PV cells such as PV cells of the disclosure and may further comprise a cooling system such as one comprising microchannel plates. The PV window 5b4 may comprise a coating that suppresses metallization. The PV window may be cooled to prevent thermal degradation of the PV window coating. The SunCell® may comprise at least one partially inverted pedestal 5c2 having a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted pedestal 5c2 similar to one shown in Figure 1 except that the vertical axis of each pedestal and electrode 10 may be oriented at an angle with respect to the vertical or z-axis. The angle may be in the range of 1° to 90°. In an embodiment, at least one counter injector electrode 5k61 injects molten metal from its reservoir 5c obliquely in the positive z-direction against gravity where applicable. The injection pumping may be provided by EM pump assembly 5kk mounted on EM pump assembly slide table 409c. In exemplary embodiments, the partially inverted pedestal 5c2 and the counter injector electrode 5k61 are aligned on an axis at 135° to the horizontal or x- axis as shown in Figure 2 or aligned on an axis at 45° to the horizontal or x-axis as shown in Figure 3. The insert reservoir 409f having insert reservoir flange 409g may be mounted to the cell chamber 5b3 by reservoir baseplate 409a, sleeve reservoir 409d, and sleeve reservoir flange 409e. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir baseplate 409a through electrode penetration 10a1. The nozzle 5q of the injector electrode may be submerged in the liquid metal such as liquid gallium or tin contained in the bottom of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c. Gases may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31, or the chamber may be evacuated through gas ports such as 409h. In an alternative embodiment shown in Figure 4, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 with a tapering cross section along the negative vertical axis and a PV window 5b4 at the larger diameter-end of the taper comprising the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the opposite taper of the embodiment shown in Figures 2-3. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprising a right cylinder geometry. The injector nozzle and the pedestal counter electrode may be aligned on the vertical axis at opposite ends of the cylinder or along a line at a slant to the vertical axis. In an embodiment shown in Figures 2 and 3, the electrode 10 and PV panel 26a may interchange locations and orientations such that the molten metal injector 5k6 and nozzle 5q inject molten metal vertically to the counter electrode 10, and the PV panel 26a receives light from the plasma side-on. The SunCell may comprise a transparent window to serve as a light source of wavelengths transparent to the window. The SunCell may comprise a blackbody radiator 5b4c that may serve as a blackbody light source. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a light source (e.g., the plasma from the reaction) wherein the hydrino plasma light emitted through the window is utilized in a desired lighting application such as room, street, commercial, or industrial lighting or for heating or processing such as chemical treatment or lithography. In an embodiment the top electrode comprises the positive electrode. The SunCell may comprise an optical window and a photovoltaic (PV) panel behind the positive electrode. The positive electrode may serve as a blackbody radiator to provide at least one of heat, light, and illumination of a PV panel. In the latter case, the illumination of the PV panel generates electricity from the incident light. In an embodiment, the optical window may comprise a vacuum-tight outer window and an inner spinning window to prevent molten metal from adhering to the inner window and opacifying the window. In an embodiment, the positive electrode may heat a blackbody radiator which emits light through the PV window to the PV panel. The blackbody radiator may connect to the positive electrode to receive heat from it by conduction as well as radiation. The blackbody radiation may comprise a refractory metal such as a refractory metal such as tungsten (M.P. = 3422 °C) or tantalum (M.P. = 3020 °C), or a ceramic such as one of the disclosure such as one or more of the group of graphite (sublimation point = 3642 °C), borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides such as a metal oxide such as alumina, zirconia, yttria stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, or thorium dioxide (ThO2); transition metals diborides such as hafnium boride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), or niobium boride (NbB2); a metal nitride such as hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium nitride (TiN), and a carbide such as tungsten carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), zirconium carbide, or tantalum carbide (TaC) and their associated composites. Exemplary ceramics having a desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (M.P. = 2852 °C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (M.P. = 2715 °C), boron nitride (BN) (M.P. = 2973 °C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (M.P. = 2715 °C), hafnium boride (HfB2) (M.P. = 3380 °C), tungsten carbide (WC) (M.P. = 2785 °C-2830 °C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (M.P. = 3900 °C), Ta4HfC5(M.P. = 4000 °C), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5(4215 °C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (M.P. = 3385 °C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (M.P. = 3246 °C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (M.P. = 3400 °C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (M.P. = 2950 °C), titanium boride (TiB2) (M.P. = 3225 °C), titanium carbide (TiC) (M.P. = 3100 °C), titanium nitride (TiN) (M.P. = 2950 °C), silicon carbide (SiC) (M.P. = 2820 °C), tantalum boride (TaB2) (M.P. = 3040 °C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (M.P. = 3800 °C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (M.P. = 2700 °C), niobium carbide (NbC) (M.P. = 3490 °C), niobium nitride (NbN) (M.P. = 2573 °C), vanadium carbide (VC) (M.P. = 2810 °C), and vanadium nitride (VN) (M.P. = 2050 °C). The electrode emitter may have a diameter less than that of the reaction chamber wall or liner to prevent electrical shorting to the wall. The reaction cell chamber wall or liner may comprise a non-conducting annulus such as a quartz or ceramic annulus behind the electrode emitter to block molten metal from the window while allowing light to pass to the window through at least one of the annulus and the open center of the annulus. In the former case, the annulus may be transparent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an induction ignition system with a cross connecting channel of reservoirs 414, a pump such as an induction EM pump, a conduction EM pump, or a mechanical pump in an injector reservoir, and a non-injector reservoir that serves as the counter electrode. The cross-connecting channel of reservoirs 414 may comprise restricted flow means such that the non-injector reservoir may be maintained about filled. In an embodiment, the cross-connecting channel of reservoirs 414 may contain a conductor that does not flow such as a solid conductor such as solid silver. In an embodiment (Figure 5), the SunCell® comprises a current connector or reservoir jumper cable 414a between the cathode and anode bus bars or current connectors. The cell body 5b3 may comprise a non-conductor, or the cell body 5b3 may comprise a conductor such as stainless steel wherein at least one electrode is electrically isolated from the cell body 5b3 such that induction current is forced to flow between the electrodes. The current connector or jumper cable may connect at least one of the pedestal electrode 8 and at least one of the electrical connectors to the EM pump and the bus bar in contact with the metal in the reservoir 5c of the EM pump. The cathode and anode of the SunCell® such as ones shown in Figures 1-4 comprising a pedestal electrode such as an inverted pedestal 5c2 or a pedestal 5c2 at an angle to the z-axis may comprise an electrical connector between the anode and cathode that form a closed current loop by the molten metal stream injected by the at least one EM pump 5kk. The metal stream may close an electrically conductive loop by contacting at least one of the molten metal EM pump injector 5k61 and 5q or metal in the reservoir 5c and the electrode of the pedestal. The SunCell® may further comprise an ignition transformer 401 having its yoke 402 in the closed conductive loop to induce a current in the molten metal of the loop that serves as a single loop shorted secondary. The transformer 401 and 402 may induce an ignition current in the closed current loop. In an exemplary embodiment, the primary may operate in at least one frequency range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 60 Hz to 2000 Hz, the input voltage may operate in at least one range of about 10 V to 10 MV, 50 V to 1 MV, 50 V to 100 kV, 50 V to 10 kV, 50 V to 1 kV, and 100 V to 480 V, the input current may operate in at least one range of about 1 A to 1 MA, 10 A to 100 kA, 10 A to 10 kA, 10 A to 1 kA, and 30 A to 200 A, the ignition voltage may operate in at least one range of about 0.1 V to 100 kV, 1 V to 10 kV, 1 V to 1 kV, and 1 V to 50 V, and the ignition current may be in the range of about 10 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. In an embodiment, the plasma gas may comprise any gas such as at least one of a noble gas, hydrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and air. The gas pressure may be in at least one range of about 1 microTorr to 100 atm, 1 milliTorr to 10 atm, 100 milliTorr to 5 atm, and 1 Torr to 1 atm. The transformer was powered by a 1000 Hz AC power supply. In an embodiment, the ignition transformer may be powered by a variable frequency drive such as a single-phase variable frequency drive (VFD). In an embodiment, the VFD input power is matched to provide the output voltage and current that further provides the desired ignition voltage and current wherein the number of turns and wire gauge are selected for the corresponding output voltage and current of the VFD. The induction ignition current may be in at least one range of about 10 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. The induction ignition voltage may be in at least one range of 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. The frequency may be in at least one range of about 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. An exemplary VFD is the ATO 7.5 kW, 220 V to 240 V output single phase 500 Hz VFD. Another exemplary tested embodiment comprised a Pyrex SunCell® with one EM pump injector electrode and a pedestal counter electrode with a connecting jumper cable 414a between them such as the SunCell® shown in Figure 5. The molten metal injector comprising an DC-type electromagnetic pump, pumped a Galinstan stream that connected with the pedestal counter electrode to close a current loop comprising the stream, the EM pump reservoir, and the jumper cable connected at each end to the corresponding electrode bus bar and passing through a 60 Hz transformer primary. The loop served as a shorted secondary to the 60 Hz transformer primary. The induced current in the secondary maintained a plasma in atmospheric air at low power consumption. The induction ignition system is enabling of a silver, gallium, or tin-based-molten-metal SunCell® power generator of the disclosure wherein hydrino reactants are supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the disclosure. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer operated at 60 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 300 V peak, and (iii) the input current was 29 A peak. The maximum induction plasma ignition current was 1.38 kA. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power or ignition power source comprises a non-direct current (DC) source such as a time dependent current source such as a pulsed or alternating current (AC) source. The peak current may be in at least one range such as 10 A to 100 MA, 100 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 1 kA. The peak voltage may be in at least one range of 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. In an embodiment, the EM pump power source and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inference that would result in at least one of ineffective EM pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to supply the ignition current or ignition power source may comprise at least one of a DC, AC, and DC and AC power supply such as one that is powered by at least one of AC, DC, and DC and AC electricity such as a switching power supply, a variable frequency drive (VFD), an AC to AC converter, a DC to DC converter, and AC to DC converter, a DC to AC converter, a rectifier, a full wave rectifier, an inverter, a photovoltaic array generator, magnetohydrodynamic generator, and a conventional power generator such as a Rankine or Brayton-cycle-powered generator, a thermionic generator, and a thermoelectric generator. The ignition power source may comprise at least one circuit element such as a transition, IGBT, inductor, transformer, capacitor, rectifier, bridge such as an H-bridge, resistor, operation amplifier, or another circuit element or power conditioning device known in the art to produce the desired ignition current. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition power source may comprise a full wave rectified high frequency source such as one that supplies positive square wave pulses at about 50% duty cycle or greater. The frequency may be in the range of about 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary supply provides about 30-40 V and 3000-5000 A at a frequency in the range of about 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In an embodiment, the electrical power to supply the ignition current may comprise a capacitor bank charged to an initial offset voltage such as one in the range of 1 V to 100 V that may be in series with an AC transformer or power supply wherein the resulting voltage may comprise DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component may decay at a rate dependent on its normal discharge time constant, or the discharge time may be increased or eliminated wherein the ignition power source further comprises a DC power supply that recharges the capacitor bank. The DV voltage component may assist to initiate the plasma wherein the plasma may thereafter be maintained with a lower voltage. The ignition power supply such as a capacitor bank may comprise a fast switch such as one controlled by a servomotor or solenoid to connect and disconnect ignition power to electrodes. The hydrino reaction rate may increase with current; however sustained current and power may thermally damage the SunCell. The SunCell ignition power source may comprise a charging power supply, a capacitor bank such as one comprised of a plurality of supercapacitors, a voltage sensor, a controller, and an ignition switch. To avoid the thermal damage while achieving high hydrino reaction kinetics, high current may be applied intermittently. This intermittent application of ignition current may be achieved by continuously charging a capacitor bank with a power supply such as a DC power supply. Activation of the ignition switch may discharge the and then discharging the capacitor bank by activating the ignition switch to discharge from a first voltage set point to a second lower voltage set point controlled by the controller in response to the voltage sensor. For example, the first and second voltage setpoints may be chosen such that wherein the peak ignition current during capacitor discharge is greater than the charging current provided by the DC power supply. In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrino plasma and ignition current may comprise an arc current. An arc current may have the characteristic that the higher the current, the lower the voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber walls and the electrodes are selected to form and support at least one of a hydrino plasma current and an ignition current that comprises an arc current, one with a very low voltage at very high current. The current density may be in at least one range of about 1 A / cm2to 100 MA / cm2, 10 A / cm2to 10 MA / cm2, 100 A / cm2to 10 MA / cm2, and 1 kA / cm2to 1 MA / cm2. In an embodiment, the ignition system may apply a high starting power to the plasma and then decrease the ignition power after the resistance drops. The resistance may drop due to at least one of an increase in conductivity due to reduction of any oxide in the ignition circuit such as on the electrodes or the molten metal stream, and formation of a plasma. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition system comprises a capacitor bank in series with AC to produce AC modulation of high-power DC wherein the DC voltage decays with discharge of the capacitors and only lower AC or DC power remains. In an embodiment, the pedestal electrode 8 may be recessed in the insert reservoir 409f wherein the pumped molten metal fills a pocket such as 5c1a to dynamically form a pool of molten metal in contact with the pedestal electrode 8. The pedestal electrode 8 may comprise a conductor that does not form an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin at the operating temperature of the SunCell®. An exemplary pedestal electrode 8 comprises tungsten, tantalum, stainless steel, or molybdenum wherein Mo does not form an alloy such as Mo3Ga with gallium below an operating temperature of 600 °C. In an embodiment, the inlet of the EM pump may comprise a filter 5qa1 such as a screen or mesh that blocks alloy particles while permitting gallium or tin to enter. To increase the surface area, the filter may extend at least one of vertically and horizontally and connect to the inlet. The filter may comprise a material that resists forming an alloy with gallium or tin such as stainless steel (SS), tantalum, or tungsten. An exemplary inlet filter comprises a SS cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the inlet but vertically elevated. The filter many be cleaned periodically as part of routine maintenance. In an embodiment, the non-injector elector electrode may be intermittently submerged in the molten metal in order to cool it. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an injector EM pump and its reservoir 5c and at least one additional EM pump and may comprise another reservoir for the additional EM pump. Using the additional reservoir, the additional EM pump may at least one of (i) reversibly pump molten metal into the reaction cell chamber to intermittently submerge the non-injector electrode in order to cool it and (ii) pump molten metal onto the non-injector electrode in order to cool it. The SunCell® may comprise a coolant tank with coolant, a coolant pump to circulate coolant through the non- injector electrode, and a heat exchanger to reject heat from the coolant. In an embodiment, the non-injector electrode may comprise at a channel or cannula for coolant such as water, molten salt, molten metal, or another coolant known in the art to cool the non-injector electrode. In an inverted embodiment shown in Figure 1, the SunCell® is rotated by 180° such that the non-injector electrode is at the bottom of the cell and the injector electrode is at the top of the reaction cell chamber such that the molten metal injection is along the negative z- axis. At least one of the noninjector electrode and injector electrode may be mounted in a corresponding plate and may be connected to the reaction cell chamber by a corresponding flange seal. The seal may comprise a gasket that comprises a material that does not form an alloy with gallium or tin such as Ta, W, or a ceramic such as one of the disclosure or known in the art. The reaction cell chamber section at the bottom may serve as the reservoir, the former reservoir may be eliminated, and the EM pump may comprise an inlet riser in the new bottom reservoir that may penetrate the bottom base plate, connect to an EM pump tube, and provide molten metal flow to the EM pump wherein an outlet portion of the EM pump tube penetrates the top plate and connects to the nozzle inside of the reaction cell chamber. During operation, the EM pump may pump molten metal from the bottom reservoir and inject it into the non-injector electrode 8 at the bottom of the reaction cell chamber. The inverted SunCell® may be cooled by a high flow of gallium or tin injected by the injector electrode for the top of the cell. The non-injector electrode 8 may comprise a concave cavity to pool the gallium or tin to better cool the electrode. In an embodiment, the non-injector electrode may serve as the positive electrode; however, the opposite polarity is also an embodiment of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the electrode 8 may be cooled by emitting radiation. To increase the heat transfer, the radiative surface area may be increased. In an embodiment, the bus bar 10 may comprise attached radiators such as vane radiators such as planar plates. The plates may be attached by fasting the face of an edge along the axis of the bus bar 10. The vanes may comprise a paddle wheel pattern. The vanes may be heated by conductive heat transfer from the bus bar 10 that may be heated by at least one of resistively by the ignition current and heated by the hydrino reaction. The radiators such as vanes may comprise a refractory metal such as Ta, Re, or W. In an embodiment, the PV window may comprise an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) in front of the PV window to block oxide particles such as metal oxide. The ESP may comprise a tube with a central coronal discharge electrode such as a central wire, and a high voltage power supply to cause a discharge such as a coronal discharge at the wire. The discharge may charge the oxide particles which may be attracted by and migrate to the wall of the ESP tube where they may be at least one of collected and removed. The ESP tube wall may be highly polished to reflect light from the reaction cell chamber to the PV window and a PV converter such as a dense receiver array of concentrator PV cells. In an embodiment, a PV window system comprises at least one of a transparent rotating baffle in front of a stationary sealed window, both in the xy-plane for light propagating along the z-axis and a window that may rotate in the xy-plane for light propagating along the z-axis. An exemplary embodiment comprises a spinning transparent disc such as a clear view screen https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / Clear_view_screen) that may comprise at least one of the baffle and the window. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a corona discharge system comprising a negative electrode, a counter electrode, and a discharge power source. In an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode may comprise a pin, needle, or wire that may be in proximity of the PV baffle or widow such as a spinning one. The cell body may comprise the counter electrode. A coronal discharge may be maintained near the PV window to charge at least one of particles formed during power generation operation such as metal oxide and the PV baffle or window negatively such that the particles are repelled by the PV baffle or window. Maintaining Plasma Generation In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a vacuum system comprising an inlet to a vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may comprise one with a high pumping speed such as a root pump, scroll, or multi-lobe pump and may further comprise a trap for water vapor that may be in series or parallel connection with the vacuum pump such as in series connection preceding the vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the vacuum pump such as a multi-lobe pump, or a scroll or root pump comprising stainless steel pumping components may be resistant to damage by gallium or tin alloy formation. The water trap may comprise a water absorbing material such as a solid desiccant or a cryotrap. In an embodiment, the pump may comprise at least one of a cryopump, cryofilter, or cooler to at least one of cool the gases before entering the pump and condense at least one gas such as water vapor. To increase the pumping capacity and rate, the pumping system may comprise a plurality of vacuum lines connected to the reaction cell chamber and a vacuum manifold connected to the vacuum lines wherein the manifold is connected to the vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the inlet to vacuum line comprises a shield for stopping molten metal particles in the reaction cell chamber from entering the vacuum line. An exemplary shield may comprise a metal plate or dome over the inlet but raised from the surface of the inlet to provide a selective gap for gas flow from the reaction cell chamber into the vacuum line. The vacuum system that may further comprise a particle flow restrictor to the vacuum line inlet such as a set of baffles to allow gas flow while blocking particle flow. The vacuum system may be capable of at least one of ultrahigh vacuum and maintaining a reaction cell chamber operating pressure in at least one low range such as about 0.01 Torr to 500 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 Torr to 10 Torr, and 1 Torr to 5 Torr. The pressure may be maintained low in the case of at least one of (i) H2addition with trace HOH catalyst supplied as trace water or as O2that reacts with H2to form HOH and (ii) H2O addition. In the case that noble gas such as argon is also supplied to the reaction mixture, the pressure may be maintained in at least one high operating pressure range such as about 100 Torr to 100 atm, 500 Torr to 10 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm wherein the argon may be in excess compared to other reaction cell chamber gases. The argon pressure may increase the lifetime of at least one of HOH catalyst and atomic H and may prevent the plasma formed at the electrodes from rapidly dispersing so that the plasma intensity is increased. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprises a means to control the reaction cell chamber pressure within a desired range by changing the volume in response to pressure changes in the reaction cell chamber. The means may comprise a pressure sensor, a mechanical expandable section, an actuator to expand and contract the expandable section, and a controller to control the differential volume created by the expansion and contraction of the expandable section. The expandable section may comprise a bellows. The actuator may comprise a mechanical, pneumatic, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and other actuators known in the art. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a (i) gas recirculation system with a gas inlet and an outlet, (ii) a gas separation system such as one capable of separating at least two gases of a mixture of at least two of a noble gas such as argon, O2, H2, H2O, air, a volatile species of the reaction mixture such as GaX3(X = halide) or NxOy(x, y = integers), and hydrino gas, (iii) at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors, (iv) flow controllers, (v) at least one injector such as a microinjector such as one that injects water, (vi) at least one valve, (vii) a pump, (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller, and (ix) a computer to maintain at least one of the noble gas, argon, O2, H2, H2O, and hydrino gas pressures. The recirculation system may comprise a semipermeable membrane to allow at least one gas such as molecular hydrino gas to be removed from the recirculated gases. In an embodiment, at least one gas such as the noble gas may be selectively recirculated while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow out of the outlet and may be exhausted through an exhaust. The noble gas may at least one of increase the hydrino reaction rate and increase the rate of the transport of at least one species in the reaction cell chamber out the exhaust. The noble gas may increase the rate of exhaust of excess water to maintain a desired pressure. The noble gas may increase the rate that hydrinos are exhausted. In an embodiment, a noble gas such as argon may be replaced by a noble-like gas that is at least one of readily available from the ambient atmosphere and readily exhausted into the ambient atmosphere. The noble-like gas may have a low reactivity with the reaction mixture. The noble-like gas may be acquired from the atmosphere and exhausted rather than be recirculated by the recirculation system. The noble-like gas may be formed from a gas that is readily available from the atmosphere and may be exhausted to the atmosphere. The noble gas may comprise nitrogen that may be separated from oxygen before being flowed into the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, air may be used as a source of noble gas wherein oxygen may be reacted with carbon from a source to form carbon dioxide. At least one of the nitrogen and carbon dioxide may serve as the noble-like gas. Alternatively, the oxygen may be removed by reaction with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The resulting gallium or tin oxide may be regenerated in a gallium or tin regeneration system such as one that forms sodium gallate by reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide with gallium oxide and electrolyzes sodium gallate to gallium metal and oxygen that is exhausted. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may be operated prominently closed with addition of at least one of the reactants H2, O2, and H2O wherein the reaction cell chamber atmosphere comprises the reactants as well as a noble gas such as argon. The noble gas may be maintained at an elevated pressure such as in the range of 10 Torr to 100 atm. The atmosphere may be at least one of continuously and periodically or intermittently exhausted or recirculated by the recirculation system. The exhausting may remove excess oxygen. The addition of reactant O2with H2may be such that O2is a minor species and essentially forms HOH catalyst as it is injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H2. A torch may inject the H2and O2mixture that immediately reacts to form HOH catalyst and excess H2reactant. In an embodiment, the excess oxygen may be at least partially released from gallium or tin oxide by at least one of hydrogen reduction, electrolytic reduction, thermal decomposition, and at least one of vaporization and sublimation due to the volatility of Ga2O. In an embodiment, at least one of the oxygen inventory may be controlled and the oxygen inventory may be at least partially permitted to form HOH catalyst by intermittently flowing oxygen into the reaction cell chamber in the presence of hydrogen. In an embodiment, the oxygen inventory may be recirculated as H2O by reaction with the added H2. In another embodiment, excess oxygen inventor may be removed as Ga2O3and regenerated by means of the disclosure such as by at least one of the skimmer and electrolysis system of the disclosure. The source of the excess oxygen may be at least one of O2addition and H2O addition. In an embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction cell chamber may be at least partially controlled by controlling at least one of the pumping rate and the recirculation rate. At least one of these rates may be controlled by a valve controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller. Exemplary valves to control gas flow are solenoid valves that are opened and closed in response to an upper and a lower target pressure and variable flow restriction vales such as butterfly and throttle valves that are controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller to maintain a desired gas pressure range. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a means to vent or remove molecular hydrino gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell liner and walls of the reaction cell chamber have a high permeation rate for molecular hydrino such as H2(1 / 4). To increase the permeation rate, at least one of the wall thickness may be minimized and the wall operating temperature maximized. In an embodiment, the thickness of at least one of the reservoir 5c wall and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall may be in the range of 0.05 mm to 5 mm thick. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall is thinner in at least one region relative to another region to increase the diffusion or permeation rate of molecular hydrino product from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the upper side wall section of the reaction cell chamber wall such as the one just below the sleeve reservoir flange 409e of Figure 7A-C, and 7F-H is thinned. The thinning may also be desirable to decrease heat conduction to the sleeve reservoir flange 409e. The degree of thinning relative to other wall regions may be in the range of 5% to 90% (e.g., the thinned area has a cross sectional width that is from 5% to 90% of the cross sectional width of non-thinned sections such as the lower side wall section of the reaction chamber proximal to and below electrode 8). The SunCell® may comprise temperature sensors, a temperature controller, and a heat exchanger such as water jets to controllably maintain the reaction cell chamber walls at a desired temperature such as in the range of 300 °C to 1000 ° ·C to provide a desired high molecular hydrino permeation rate. At least one of the wall and liner material may be selected to increase the permeation rate. Various liners and liner thicknesses may be chosen in order to maintain certain operating temperatures in order to match the blackbody emission with the energy collection mechanism such as a dense receiver array of concentrated photovoltaic cells. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a plurality of materials such as one or more that contact gallium or tin and one or more that is separated from gallium or tin by a liner, coating, or cladding such as a liner, coating, or cladding of the disclosure. At least one of the separated or protected materials may comprise one that has increased permeability to molecular hydrino relative to a material that is not separated or protected from gallium or tin contact. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may comprise one or more of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)- Zr(0.81 wt%). Crystalline material such as SiC may be more permeable to hydrinos than amorphous materials such as Sialon or quartz such that crystalline material are exemplary liners. A different reaction cell chamber wall such as one that is highly permeable to hydrinos may replace the reaction cell chamber wall of a SunCell® (Figure 7B) comprising another metal that is less permeable such one comprising 347 or 304 SS. The wall section may be a tubular one. The replacement section may be welded, soldered, or brazed to the balance of the SunCell® by methods known in the art such as ones involving the use of metals of different coefficients of thermal expansion to match expansion rates of joined materials. In an embodiment, the replacement section comprising a refractory metal such as Ta, W, Nb, or Mo may be bonded to a different metal such as stainless steel by an adhesive such as one by Coltronics such as Resbond or Durabond 954. In an embodiment, the union between the different metals may comprise a lamination material such as a ceramic lamination between the bonded metals wherein each metal is bonded to one face of the lamination. The ceramic may comprise one of the disclosure such as BN, quartz, alumina, hafnia, or zirconia. An exemplary union is Ta / Durabond 954 / BN / Durabond 954 / SS. In an embodiment, the flange 409e and baseplate 409a may be sealed with a gasket or welded. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprising a carbon liner comprises at least one of walls that have a high heat transfer capability, a large diameter, and a highly capable cooling system wherein the heat transfer capability, the large diameter, and the cooling system are sufficient to maintain the temperature of the carbon liner below a temperature at which it would react with at least one component of the hydrino reaction mixture such as water or hydrogen. An exemplary heat transfer capability may be in the range of about 10 W / cm2to 10 kW / cm2wall area; an exemplary diameter may be in the range of about 2 cm to 100 cm, an exemplary cooling system is an external water bath; an exemplary desired liner temperature may be about below 700-750 °C. The reaction cell chamber wall may further be highly permeable to molecular hydrino. The liner may be in contact with the wall to improve heat transfer from the liner to the cooling system to maintain the desired temperature. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a gap between the liner and at least one reaction cell chamber wall and a vacuum pump wherein the gap comprises a chamber that is evacuated by the vacuum pump to remove molecular hydrino. The liner may be porous. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner comprises porous ceramic such as porous BN, SiC- coated carbon, or quartz to increase the permeation rate. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise insulation. The insulation may be highly permeable for hydrino. In another embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a molecular hydrino getter such as iron nanoparticles at least one internal and external to the reaction cell chamber wherein the getter binds molecular hydrino to remove it from the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino gas may be pumped out of the reaction cell chamber. The reaction mixture gas such as one comprising H2O and hydrogen or another of the disclosure may comprise a flushing gas such as a noble gas to assist in removing molecular hydrino gas by evacuation. The flushing gas may be vented to atmosphere or circulated by a recirculator of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a hydrogen dissociator such as niobium. The liner may comprise a plurality of materials such as a material the resists gallium or tin alloy formation in the hottest zones of the reaction cell chamber and another material such as a hydrogen dissociator in at least one zone that operates at a temperature below the gallium or tin alloy formation temperature of the another material. The electrostatic precipitator (ESP) may further comprise a means to precipitate at least one desired species from the gas stream from the reaction cell chamber and return it to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may comprise a transport mean such as an auger, conveyor belt, pneumatic, electromechanical, or other transport means of the disclosure or known in the art to transport particles collected by the precipitator back to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may be mounted in a portion of the vacuum line that comprises a refluxer that returns desired particles to the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow wherein the particles may be precipitated and flow back to the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow such as flow in the vacuum line. The vacuum line may be oriented vertically in at least one portion that allows the desired particles to undergo gravity return flow. In an embodiment, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) system comprises an ESP and a source of trace oxygen such as air to form an oxide coat on molten metal particles such as gallium or tin or tin particles such that the particles can be removed by the ESP. The source may comprise a flow regulator that may supply the oxygen to at least one of the ESP system and a vacuum line to a vacuum pump that evacuates the reaction cell chamber. The source may comprise air that may also serve as a purge gas to improve the evacuation of the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the reaction chamber and at least one component in direct contact with the reaction cell chamber such as a vacuum line to a vacuum pump are at a positive electrical polarity relative to the top electrode that is negative. The vacuum line may comprise a filter or trap to catch metal and metal oxide particles. The filter may serve as a positive electrode of an ESP. The filter may further comprise a gas jet to at least intermittently backflow a reactant gas such as hydrogen, oxygen, or steam or an inert gas such as argon to remove collected particles from the filter. The reactant gas may flow through the discharge cell 900 of the disclosure before flowing through the gas jet. In an exemplary embodiment, the filter comprises a W or Ta mesh at the input to the vacuum line that protrudes into the reaction cell chamber. The filter may further comprise a gas jet. The tungsten or tantalum mesh filter that may avoid melting and avoid alloy formation and wetting by the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The filter mesh size may be selected such that the particles will not go through or that a majority of particles are prevented from passing through the mesh, but gasses will. The vacuum line may be electrically connected to the positive reaction cell chamber such that metal oxide particle may stick by an electrostatic precipitation effect. The particles may fall back into the reaction cell chamber. The filter may be periodically or continuously back flushed with an H2or argon gas jet stream to force the particles off the mesh and into the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the SunCell may comprise an electrostatic precipitation system (ESP) system shown in Figure 9K. The ESP system may comprise two separated electrical breaks 945 in the vacuum line 711 close to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to electrically isolate a positive vacuum line section 944 that is positively polarized. The positive section may comprise positive lead on the vacuum line, and a component of the SunCell such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a negative lead. The leads may be connected to a high voltage power supply such that the positive section is positively biased and the SunCell component is negatively bias or at ground. The voltage applied to the positive section may be in at least one range of about 10 V to 10 MV, 50 V to 1 MV, and 100 V to 100 kV with a corresponding positive section diameter in at least one range about 0.1 mm to 1 m, 1 mm to 10 cm, and 1 mm to 5 cm. The tube may be flattened such that the cross-sectional area for vacuum pumping remains similar to that of connected sections of vacuum line such as those of the electrical breaks 945. The corresponding electric field may be in the range of about 1000 V / m to 108V / m wherein the gas pressure in the tube may be in the range of about 0.1 milliTorr to 10 atm. The plasma in the reaction cell chamber may charge oxide particles such as gallium or tin oxide particles negatively, and such particles that flow through the vacuum line may be electrostatically attracted to the positively changed walls of the isolated positively polarized vacuum line section. The vacuum line to the positive section may at least one of comprise an electrical insulator or be lined with an electrical insulator to prevent the charged particles from losing charge before entering the positive vacuum line section. ESP accumulated particles may fall back into the reaction cell chamber by gravity or be forced back by means such as a gas jet such as a hydrogen or argon gas jet. In an exemplary tested embodiment, the reaction cell chamber was maintained at a pressure range of about 1 to 2 atm with 4 ml / min H2O injection. The DC voltage was about 30 V and the DC current was about 1.5 kA. The reaction cell chamber was a 6-inch diameter stainless steel sphere such as one shown in Figure 1 that contained 3.6 kg of molten gallium. The electrodes comprised a 1-inch submerged SS nozzle of a DC EM pump and a counter electrode comprising a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disc with a 1 cm diameter lead covered by a BN pedestal. The EM pump rate was about 30-40 ml / s. The gallium was polarized positive with a submerged nozzle, and the W pedestal electrode was polarized negative. The gallium was well mixed by the EM pump injector. The SunCell® output power was about 85 kW measured using the product of the mass, specific heat, and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactor. In another tested embodiment, 2500 sccm of H2and 25 sccm O2was flowed through about 2g of 10%Pt / Al2O3beads held in an external chamber in line with the H2and O2gas inlets and the reaction cell chamber. Additionally, argon was flowed into the reaction cell chamber at a rate to maintain 50 Torr chamber pressure while applying active vacuum pumping. The DC voltage was about 20 V and the DC current was about 1.25 kA. The SunCell® output power was about 120 kW measured using the product of the mass, specific heat, and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactor. In an embodiment, the recirculation system or recirculator such as the noble gas recirculatory system capable of operating at one or more of under atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure may comprise (i) a gas mover such as at least one of a vacuum pump, a compressor, and a blower to recirculate at least one gas from the reaction cell chamber, (ii) recirculation gas lines, (iii) a separation system to remove exhaust gases such as hydrino and oxygen, and (iv) a reactant supply system. In an embodiment, the gas mover is capable of pumping gas from the reaction cell chamber, pushing it through the separation system to remove exhaust gases, and returning the regenerated gas to the reaction cell chamber. The gas mover may comprise at least two of the pump, the compressor, and the blower as the same unit. In an embodiment, the pump, compressor, blower or combination thereof may comprise at least one of a cryopump, cryofilter, or cooler to at least one of cool the gases before entering the gas mover and condense at least one gas such as water vapor. The recirculation gas lines may comprise a line from the vacuum pump to the gas mover, a line from the gas mover to the separation system to remove exhaust gases, and line from the separation system to remove exhaust gases to the reaction cell chamber that may connect with the reactant supply system. An exemplary reactant supply system comprises at least one union with the line to the reaction cell chamber with at least one reaction mixture gas make-up line for at least one of the noble gas such as argon, oxygen, hydrogen, and water. The addition of reactant O2with H2may be such that O2is a minor species and essentially forms HOH catalyst as it is injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H2. A torch may inject the H2and O2mixture that immediately reacts to form HOH catalyst and excess H2reactant. The reactant supply system may comprise a gas manifold connected to the reaction mixture gas supply lines and an outflow line to the reaction cell chamber. The separation system to remove exhaust gases may comprise a cryofilter or cryotrap. The separation system to remove hydrino product gas from the recirculating gas may comprise a semipermeable membrane to selectively exhaust hydrino by diffusion across the membrane from the recirculating gas to atmosphere or to an exhaust chamber or stream. The separation system of the recirculator may comprise an oxygen scrubber system that removes oxygen from the recirculating gas. The scrubber system may comprise at least one of a vessel and a getter or absorbent in the vessel that reacts with oxygen such as a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or iron. Alternatively, the absorbent such as activated charcoal or another oxygen absorber known in the art may absorb oxygen. The charcoal absorbent may comprise a charcoal filter that may be sealed in a gas permeable cartridge such as one that is commercially available. The cartridge may be removable. The oxygen absorbent of the scrubber system may be periodically replaced or regenerated by methods known in the art. A scrubber regeneration system of the recirculation system may comprise at least one of one or more absorbent heaters and one or more vacuum pumps. In an exemplary embodiment, the charcoal absorbent is at least one of heated by the heater and subjected to an applied vacuum by the vacuum pump to release oxygen that is exhausted or collected, and the resulting regenerated charcoal is reused. The heat from the SunCell® may be used to regenerate the absorbent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one heat exchanger, a coolant pump, and a coolant flow loop that serves as a scrubber heater to regenerate the absorbent such as charcoal. The scrubber may comprise a large volume and area to effectively scrub while not significantly increasing the gas flow resistance. The flow may be maintained by the gas mover that is connected to the recirculation lines. The charcoal may be cooled to more effectively absorb species to be scrubbed from the recirculating gas such as a mixture comprising the noble gas such as argon. The oxygen absorbent such as charcoal may also scrub or absorb hydrino gas. The separation system may comprise a plurality of scrubber systems each comprising (i) a chamber capable of maintaining a gas seal, (ii) an absorbent to remove exhaust gases such as oxygen, (iii) inlet and outlet valves that may isolate the chamber from the recirculation gas lines and isolate the recirculation gas lines from the chamber, (iv) a means such as a robotic mechanism controlled by a controller to connect and disconnect the chamber from the recirculation lines, (v) a means to regenerate the absorbent such as a heater and a vacuum pump wherein the heater and vacuum pump may be common to regenerate at least one other scrubber system during its regeneration, (v) a controller to control the disconnection of the nth scrubber system, connection of the n +1th scrubber system, and regeneration of the nth scrubber system while the n + 1th scrubber system serves as an active scrubber system wherein at least one of the plurality of scrubber systems may be regenerated while at least one other may be actively scrubbing or absorbing the desired gases. The scrubber system may permit the SunCell® to be operated under closed exhaust conditions with periodic controlled exhaust or gas recovery. In an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen may be separately collected from the absorbent such as activated carbon by heating to different temperatures at which the corresponding gases are about separately released. In an embodiment comprising a reaction cell chamber gas mixture of a noble gas, hydrogen (H2), and oxygen (O2) wherein the partial pressure of the noble gas of the reaction cell chamber gas exceeds that of hydrogen, the oxygen partial pressure may be increased to compensate for the reduced reaction rate between hydrogen and oxygen to form HOH catalyst due to the reactant concentration dilution effect of the noble gas such as argon. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst may be formed in advance of combining with the noble gas such as argon. The hydrogen and oxygen may be caused to react by a recombiner or combustor such as a recombiner catalyst, a plasma source, or a hot surface such as a filament. The recombiner catalyst may comprise a noble metal supported on a ceramic support such as Pt, Pd, or Ir on alumina, zirconia, hafnia, silica, or zeolite power or beads, another supported recombiner catalyst of the disclosure, or a dissociator such as Raney Ni, Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociator metal of the disclosure or one known in the art in a form to provide a high surface area such as powder, mat, weave, or cloth. An exemplary recombiner comprises 10 wt% Pt on Al2O3beads. The plasma source may comprise a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell of the disclosure or known in the art. The hot filament may comprise a hot tungsten filament, a Pt or Pd black on Pt filament, or another catalytic filament known in the art. The inlet flow of reaction mixture species such as at least one of water, hydrogen, oxygen, air, and a noble gas may be continuous or intermittent. The inlet flow rates and an exhaust or vacuum flow rate may be controlled to achieve a desired pressure range. The inlet flow may be intermittent wherein the flow may be stopped at the maximum pressure of a desired range and commenced at a minimum of the desire range. In a case that reaction mixture gases comprise high pressure noble gas such as argon, the reaction cell chamber may be evacuated, filled with the reaction mixture, and run under about static exhaust flow conditions wherein the inlet flows of reactants such as at least one of water, hydrogen, and oxygen are maintained under continuous or intermittent flow conditions to maintain the pressure in the desired range. Additionally, the noble gas may be flowed at an economically practical flow rate with a corresponding exhaust pumping rate, or the noble gas may be regenerated or scrubbed and recirculated by the recirculation system or recirculator. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture gases may be forced into the cell by an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the reactant flow rate through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure in a desired range. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber reaction cell mixture is controlled by controlling the reaction cell chamber pressure by at least one means of controlling the injection rate of the reactants and controlling the rate that excess reactants of the reaction mixture and products are exhausted from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a pressure sensor, a vacuum pump, a vacuum line, a valve controller, and a valve such as a pressure-activated valve such as a solenoid valve or a throttle valve that opens and closes to the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump in response to the controller that processes the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve may control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve may remain closed until the cell pressure reaches a first high setpoint, then the value may be activated to be open until the pressure is dropped by the vacuum pump to a second low setpoint which may cause the activation of the valve to close. In an embodiment, the controller may control at least one reaction parameter such as the reaction cell chamber pressure, reactant injection rate, voltage, current, and molten metal injection rate to maintain a non-pulsing or about steady or continuous plasma. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a pressure sensor, a source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture such as a source of H2O, H2, O2, air, and noble gas such a argon, a reactant line, a valve controller, and a valve such as a pressure-activated valve such as a solenoid valve or a throttle valve that opens and closes to the reactant line from the source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture and the reaction cell chamber in response to the controller that processes the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve may control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve may remain open until the cell pressure reaches a first high setpoint, then the value may be activated to be close until the pressure is dropped by the vacuum pump to a second low setpoint which may cause the activation of the valve to open. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise an injector such as a micropump. The micropump may comprise a mechanical or non-mechanical device. Exemplary mechanical devices comprise moving parts which may comprise actuation and microvalve membranes and flaps. The driving force of the micropump mat be generated by utilizing at least one effect form the group of piezoelectric, electrostatic, thermos-pneumatic, pneumatic, and magnetic effects. Non-mechanical pumps may be unction with at least one of electro- hydrodynamic, electro-osmotic, electrochemical, ultrasonic, capillary, chemical, and another flow generation mechanism known in the art. The micropump may comprise at least one of a piezoelectric, electroosmotic, diaphragm, peristaltic, syringe, and valveless micropump and a capillary and a chemically powered pump, and another micropump known in the art. The injector such as a micropump may continuously supply reactants such as water, or it may supply reactants intermittently such as in a pulsed mode. In an embodiment, a water injector comprises at least one of a pump such as a micropump, at least one valve, and a water reservoir, and may further comprise a cooler or an extension conduit to remove the water reservoir and valve for the reaction cell chamber by a sufficient distance, either to avoid over heating or boiling of the preinjected water. The SunCell® may comprise an injection controller and at least one sensor such as one that records pressure, temperature, plasma conductivity, or other reaction gas or plasma parameter. The injection sequence may be controlled by the controller that uses input from the at least one sensor to deliver the desired power while avoiding damage to the SunCell® due to overpowering. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a plurality of injectors such as water injectors to inject into different regions within the reaction cell chamber wherein the injectors are activated by the controller to alternate the location of plasma hot spots in time to avoid damage to the SunCell®. The injection may be intermittent, periodic intermittent, continuous, or comprise any other injection pattern that achieves the desired power, gain, and performance optimization. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of hydrogen such as hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen such as oxygen gas. The source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen sources comprises at least one or more gas tanks, flow regulators, pressure gauges, valves, and gas lines to the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst is generated from combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen gases may be flowed into the reaction cell chamber. The inlet flow of reactants such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be continuous or intermittent. The flow rates and an exhaust or vacuum flow rate may be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The inlet flow may be intermittent wherein the flow may be stopped at the maximum pressure of a desired range and commenced at a minimum of the desire range. At least one of the H2pressure and flow rate and O2pressure and flow rate may be controlled to maintain at least one of the HOH and H2concentrations or partial pressures in a desired range to control and optimize the power from the hydrino reaction. In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrogen inventory and flow many be significantly greater than the oxygen inventory and flow. The ratio of at least one of the partial pressure of H2to O2and the flow rate of H2to O2may be in at least one range of about 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50 and 2 to 10. In an embodiment, the total pressure may be maintained in a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H such as in at least one pressure range of about 1 mTorr to 500 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 100 Torr. In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber may be maintained at an operating temperature that is greater than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium or tin oxyhydroxide and gallium or tin hydroxide. The operating temperature may be in at least one range of about 200 °C to 2000 °C, 200 °C to 1000 °C, and 200 °C to 700 °C. The water inventory may be controlled in the gaseous state in the case that gallium or tin oxyhydroxide and gallium or tin hydroxide formation is suppressed. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a gas mixer to mix at least two gases such as hydrogen and oxygen that are flowed into the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the micro-injector for water comprises the mixer that mixes hydrogen and oxygen wherein the mixture forms HOH as it enters the reaction cell chamber. The mixer may further comprise at least one mass flow controller, such as one for each gas or a gas mixture such as a premixed gas. The premixed gas may comprise each gas in its desired molar ratio such as a mixture comprising hydrogen and oxygen. The H2molar percent of a H2-O2mixture may be in significant excess such as in a molar ratio range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of O2. The mass flow controller may control the hydrogen and oxygen flow and subsequent combustion to form HOH catalyst such that the resulting gas flow into the reaction cell chamber comprises hydrogen in excess and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, the H2molar percentage is in the range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of HOH. The mixer may comprise a hydrogen-oxygen torch. The torch may comprise a design known in the art such as a commercial hydrogen-oxygen torch. In exemplary embodiments, O2with H2are mixed by the torch injector to cause O2to react to form HOH within the H2stream to avoid oxygen reacting with the molten metal such as gallium, tin, or cell components. Alternatively, a H2-O2mixture comprising hydrogen in at least ten times molar excess is flowed into the reaction cell chamber by a single flow controller versus two supplying the torch. The reaction of the O2with excess H2may form about 100% nascent water as an initial product compared to bulk water and steam that comprise a plurality of hydrogen- bonded water molecules. In an embodiment, the tin in the presence of hydrogen is maintained at a temperature of greater than 300°C such that the tin may have a low reactivity to consume the HOH catalyst by forming tin oxide. Gallium may be maintained below 100°C such that the gallium may have a low reactivity to consume the HOH catalyst by forming gallium oxide. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® is operated under the conditions of high flow rate H2with trace O2flow such as more than 99% H2 / 1% O2wherein the reaction cell chamber pressure may be maintained low such as in the pressure range of about 1 to 30 Torr, and the flow rate may be controlled to produce the desired power wherein the theoretical maximum power by forming H2(1 / 4) may be about 1 kW / 30 sccm. Any resulting metal oxide (e.g., gallium or tin oxide) may be reduced by in situ hydrogen plasma and electrolytically reduction. In an exemplary embodiment capable of generating a maximum excess power of 75 kW wherein the vacuum system is capable of achieving ultrahigh vacuum, the operating conditions comprise a low operating pressure such as about 1-5 Torr, and high H2flow such as about 2000 sccm with trace HOH catalyst supplied as about 10-20 sccm oxygen through a torch injector. In an embodiment, the SunCell® components or surfaces of components that contact the metal such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber walls, the top of the reaction cell chamber, inside walls of the reservoir, and inside walls of the EM pump tube may be coated with a coating that does not form an alloy readily with gallium or tin such as a ceramic such as Mullite, BN, or another of the disclosure, or a metal such as W, Ta, Re, Nb, Zr, Mo, TZM, or another of the disclosure. In another embodiment, the surfaces may be clad with a material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin such as carbon, a ceramic such as BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another of the disclosure, or a metal such as W, Ta, Re, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber, reservoir, and EM pump tube may comprise Nb, Zr, W, Ta, Re, Mo, or TZM. In an embodiment, SunCell® components or portions of the components such as the reaction cell chamber, reservoir, and EM pump tube may comprise a material that does not form an alloy except when the temperature of contacting gallium or tin exceeds an extreme such as at least one extreme of over about 400 °C, 500 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C, 900 °C, and 1000 °C. The SunCell® may be operated at a temperature wherein portions of components do not reach a temperature at which gallium or tin alloy formation occurs. The SunCell® operating temperature may be controlled with cooling by cooling means such as a heat exchanger or water bath. The water bath may comprise impinging water jets such as jets off of a water manifold wherein at least one of the number of jets incident on the reaction chamber and the flow rate or each jet are controlled by a controller to maintain the reaction chamber within a desired operating temperature range. In an embodiment such as one comprising water jet cooling of at least one surface, the exterior surface of at least one component of the SunCell® may be clad with insulation such as carbon to maintain an elevated internal temperature while permitting operational cooling. In an embodiment wherein the SunCell® is cooled by means such as at least one of suspension in a coolant such as water or subjected to impinging coolant jets, the EM pump tube is thermally insulated to prevent the injection of cold liquid metal into the plasma to avoid decreasing the hydrino reaction rate. In an exemplary thermal insulation embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may be cast in cement-type material that is a very good thermal insulator (e.g., the cement-type material may have a thermal conductivity of less than 1 W / mK or less than 0.5 W / mK or less than 0.1 W / mK). The surfaces that form a gallium or tin alloy above a temperature extreme achieved during SunCell® operation may be selectively coated or clad with a material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin. The portions of the SunCell® components that both contact gallium or tin and exceed the alloy temperature for the component’s material such as stainless steel may be clad with the material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber walls may be clad with W, Ta, Re, Mo, TZM, niobium, vanadium, or zirconium plate, or a ceramic such as quartz, especially at the region near the electrodes wherein the reaction cell chamber temperature is the greatest. The cladding may comprise a reaction cell chamber liner 5b31a. The liner may comprise a gasket or other gallium or tin impervious material such as a ceramic paste positioned between the liner and the walls of the reaction cell chamber to prevent gallium or tin from seeping behind the liner. The liner may be attached to the wall by at least one of welds, bolts, or another fastener or adhesive known in the art. In an embodiment, the bus bas such as at least one of 10, 5k2, and the corresponding electrical leads from the bus bars to at least one of the ignition and EM pump power supplies may serve as a means to remove heat from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 for applications. The SunCell® may comprise a heat exchanger to remove heat from at least one of the bus bars and corresponding leads. In a SunCell® embodiment comprising a MHD converter, heat lost on the bus bars and their leads may be returned to the reaction cell chamber by a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the bus bars to the molten silver that is returned to the reaction cell chamber from the MHD converter by the EM pump. In an embodiment, the side walls of the reaction cell chamber such as the four vertical sides of a cubic reaction cell chamber or walls of a cylindrical cell may be coated or clad in a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re, or covered by a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re liner. The metal may be resistant to alloy formation with gallium or tin. The top of the reaction cell chamber may be clad or coated with an electrical insulator or comprise an electrically insulating liner such as a ceramic. Exemplary cladding, coating, and liner materials are at least one of BN, gorilla glass (e.g., https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / Gorilla_Glass-aluminosilicate sheet glass available from Corning), quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, graphite such as pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide coated graphite, or mixtures such as TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3. The top liner may have a penetration for the pedestal 5c1 (Figure 1). The top liner may prevent the top electrode 8 from electrically shorting to the top of the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the top flange 409a (Figures 7A-C) may comprise a liner such as one of the disclosure or coating such as a ceramic coating such as Mullite, ZTY, Resbond, or another of the disclosure or a paint such as VHT FlameproofTM. In an embodiment shown in Figures 7F-H, the SunCell comprises a top flange baseplate 409a sealed with a gasket such as a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring to a mating flange 409e such as a Conflat flange. The flanges may be coated with a coating such as Flameproof paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, Ta, or another of the disclosure that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The gasket or O-ring such as Ta ones may be alloy-formation resistant. The top flange baseplate 409a may further comprise a top liner. The top liner may comprise a thermal insulation puck such as a Macor, quartz, or Flameproof-painted carbon puck on the top flange to protect the top flange from failing due to thermal damage. The puck may be sufficiently thick such as in the range of 0.1 cm to 10 cm thick to prevent the thermal damage. The gasket may be coated with a coating such as Flameproof paint or another of the disclosure to protect the gasket from alloy formation with the molten metal. In an embodiment, the flanges may be replaced by flat metal plates (no bolt holes) such as annuluses around the perimeter of each joined component. The plates may be welded together on the outer edges to form a seam. The seam may be cut or ground off to separate the two plates. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a baseplate 409a heat sensor, an ignition power source controller, an ignition power source, and a shut off switch which may be connected, directly, or indirectly to at least one of the ignition power source controller and the ignition power source to terminate ignition when a short occurs at the baseplate 409a and it overheats. In an embodiment, the ceramic liner comprises a plurality of sections wherein the sections provide at least one of expansion gaps or joints between sections and limit heat gradients along the length of the plurality of the sections of the liner. In an embodiment, the liner may be suspended above the liquid metal level to avoid a steep thermal gradient formed in the case that a portion of the liner is submerged in the gallium or tin. The liner sections may comprise different combinations of materials for different regions or zones having different temperature ranges during operation. In an exemplary embodiment of a liner comprising a plurality of ceramic sections of at least two types of ceramic, the section in the hottest zone such as the zone in proximity to the positive electrode may comprise SiC or BN, and at least one other section may comprise quartz. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprises internal thermal insulation (also referred to herein as a liner) such as at least one ceramic or carbon liner, such as a quartz, BN, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or another liner of the disclosure. In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber does not comprise a liner such as a ceramic liner. In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber walls may comprise a metal that is maintained at a temperature below that for which alloy with the molten metal occurs such as below about 400 °C to 500 °C in the case of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS or W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, or silicide coated Mo. In an embodiment such as one wherein the reaction cell chamber is immersed in a coolant such as water, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall thickness may be thin such that the internal wall temperature is below the temperature at which the wall material such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS, Cr-Mo SS, or Nb-Mo(5wt%)-Zr(1 wt%) forms an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The reaction cell chamber wall thickness may be at least one of about less than 5 mm, less than 4 mm, less than 3 mm, less than 2 mm, and less than 1 mm. The temperature inside of the liner may be much higher such as in at least one range of about 500°C to 6000°C, 500 °C to 3400 °C, 500 °C to 2500 °C, 500 °C to 1000 °C, and 500 °C to 1500 °C. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber and reservoir comprise a plurality of liners such as a BN inner most liner that may comprise a W, Ta, or Re inlay and may be segmented, and one or more concentric outer quartz liners. The baseplate liner may comprise an inner BN plate and at least one other ceramic plate, each with perforations for penetrations. In an embodiment, penetrations may be sealed with a cement such as a ceramic one such as Resbond or a refractory powder that is resistant to molten metal alloy formation such as W powder in the case of molten gallium or tin. An exemplary baseplate liner is a moldable ceramic insulation disc. In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a refractory or ceramic inlay such as a W or Ta inlay. The ceramic inlay may comprise ceramic tiles such as ones comprising small-height semicircular rings stacked into a cylinder. Exemplary ceramics are zirconia, yttria-stabilized-zirconia, hafnia, alumina, and magnesia. The height of the rings may be in the range of about 1 mm to 5 cm. In another embodiment, the inlay may comprise tiles or beads that may be held in place by a high temperature binding material or cement. Alternatively, the tiles or beads may be embedded in a refractory matrix such as carbon, a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Mo, or a refractory diboride or carbide such as those of Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr, or Hf such as ZrB2, TaC, HfC, and WC or another of the disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner may comprise segmented rings with quartz at the molten metal surface level, and the balance of the rings may comprise SiC. The quartz segment may comprise beveled quartz plates that form a ring such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring. In another exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall may be painted, carbon coated, or ceramic coated, and the liner may comprise carbon with an inner refractory metal liner such as one comprising Nb, Mo, Ta, or W. A further inner liner may comprise a refractory metal ring such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring at the gallium or tin surface such as one comprising beveled refractory metal plates such as one comprising Nb, Mo, Ta, or W plates. Thermal insulation may comprise a vacuum gap. The vacuum gap may comprise a space between a liner with smaller diameter than that of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber wall wherein reaction cell chamber pressure is low such as about below 50 Torr. To prevent plasma from contacting the reaction cell chamber wall, the reaction cell chamber may comprise a cap or lid such as a ceramic plug such as a BN plug. The hydrino reaction mixture gas lines may supply the reaction cell chamber, and a vacuum line may provide gas evacuation. The vacuum gap may be evacuated by a separate vacuum line connection or by a connection to the vacuum provided by the reaction cell chamber or its vacuum line. To prevent hot gallium or tin from contacting the reservoir wall the reservoir wall may comprise a liner such as at least one quartz liner that has a height from the base of the reservoir to just above the gallium or tin level wherein the liner displaces the molten gallium or tin to provide thermal insulation from contact of hot gallium or tin with the wall. The cell wall may be thin to enhance the permeation of molecular hydrino product to avoid product inhibition. The liner may comprise a porous material such as BN, porous quartz, porous SiC, or a gas gap to facilitate the diffusion and permeation of the hydrino product from the reaction cell chamber. The reaction cell chamber wall may comprise a material that is highly permeable to molecular hydrino such as Cr-Mo SS such as 4130 alloy SS. In an embodiment, at least one SunCell® component such as the walls the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the walls of the reservoir 5c, the walls of the EM pump tube 5k6, the baseplate 5kk1, and the top flange 409a may be coated with a coating such one of the disclosure such as a ceramic that at least one of resists alloy formation with the molten metal and resists corrosion with at least one of O2and H2O. The thermal expansion coefficient of the coating and the coated component may be about matched such as in at least one range of a factor of about 0.1 to 10, 0.1 to 5, and 0.1 to 2. In the case of a ceramic coating that has a low thermal expansion coefficient, a coated metal such as Kovar or Invar having a similar thermal expansion coefficient is selected for the coated component. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 and EM bus bars 5k2 that are attached to the EM pump tube 5k6 have about a match in thermal coefficient of expansion. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube sections connected to the EM pump bus bars 5k2 comprise Invar or Kovar to match the low coefficient of thermal expansion of W bus bars. In an embodiment, at least one component comprising a liner may be cooled by a cooling system. The cooling system may maintain a component temperature below that at which an alloy forms with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The cooling system may comprise a water bath into which the component is immersed. The cooling system may further comprise water jets that impinge on the cooled component. In an exemplary embodiment, the component comprises the EM pump tube, and the water bath immersion and water jet cooling of the EM pump tube can be implemented with minimum cooling of the hot gallium or tin pumped by the EM pump by using an EM pump tube liner having a very low thermal conductivity such as one comprising quartz. Formation of Nascent Water and Atomic Hydrogen In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber further comprises a dissociator chamber that houses a hydrogen dissociator such as Pt, Pd, Ir, Re, or other dissociator metal on a support such as carbon, or ceramic beads such as Al2O3, silica, or zeolite beads, Raney Ni, or Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociator metal of the disclosure in a form to provide a high surface area such as powder, mat, weave, or cloth. In an embodiment the SunCell® comprises a recombiner to catalytically react supplied H2and O2to HOH and H that flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The recombiner may further comprise a controller comprising at least one of a temperature sensor, a heater, and a cooling system such a as heat exchanger that senses the recombiner temperature and controls at least one of the cooling system such as a water jet and the heater to maintain the recombiner catalyst in a desire operating temperature range such as one in the range of about 60 °C to 600 °C. The upper temperature is limited by that at which the recombiner catalyst sinters and loses effective catalyst surface area. The H2O yield of the H2 / O2recombination reaction may not be 100%, especially under flow conditions. Removing the oxygen to prevent an oxide coat from forming may permit the reduction of the ignition power by a range of about 10% to 100%. The recombiner may comprise a means to remove about all of the oxygen that flows into the cell by converting it to H2O. The recombiner may further serve as a dissociator to form H atoms and HOH catalyst that flow through a gas line to the reaction cell chamber. A longer flow path of the gas in the recombiner may increase the dwell time in the recombiner and allow the O2to H2reaction to go more to completion. However, the longer path in the recombiner and the gas line may allow more undesirable H recombination and HOH dimerization. So, a balance of the competing effects of flow path length is optimized in the recombiner, and the length of the gas line from the recombiner / dissociator to the reaction cell chamber may be minimized. In an embodiment, the supply of a source of oxygen such as O2, air, or H2O to the reaction cell chamber results in the increase in the oxygen inventory of the reaction cell chamber. In the case that gallium or tin is the molten metal, the oxygen inventory may comprise at least one of gallium or tin oxide, H2O, and O2. The oxygen inventory may be essential for the formation of the HOH catalyst for the hydrino reaction. However, an oxide coat on the molten metal such as gallium or tin oxide on liquid gallium or tin may result in the suppression of the hydrino reaction and the increase in the ignition voltage at a fixed ignition current. In an embodiment, the oxygen inventory is optimized. The optimization may be achieved by flowing oxygen intermittently with a controller. Alternatively, oxygen may be flowed at a high rate until an optimal inventory is accumulated, and then the flow rate may be decreased to maintain the desired optimal inventory at a lower flow rate that balances the rate that the oxygen inventory is depleted by removal from the reaction cell chamber and reservoir by means such as evacuation by a vacuum pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the gas flow rates are about 2500 sccm H2 / 250 sccm O2for about 1 minute to load an about 100- cc reaction cell chamber and an about 1 kg gallium or tin reservoir inventory, then and about 2500 sccm H2 / 5 sccm O2thereafter. An indication that an oxide layer is not forming or is being consumed is a decrease in ignition voltage with time at constant ignition current wherein the voltage may be monitored by a voltage sensor, and the oxygen flow rate may be controlled by a controller. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an ignition power parameter sensor and an oxygen source flow rate controller that senses at least one of the ignition voltage at a fixed current, the ignition current at a fixed voltage, and the ignition power and changes the oxygen source flow rate in response to the power parameter. The oxygen source may comprise at least one of oxygen and water. In an exemplary embodiment, the oxygen source controller may control the oxygen flow into the reaction cell chamber based on the ignition voltage wherein the oxygen inventory in the reaction cell chamber is increased in response to the voltage sensed by the ignition power parameter sensor below a threshold voltage and decreased in response to the voltage sensed above a threshold voltage. To increase the recombiner yield, the recombiner dwell time, surface area, and catalytic activity may be increased. A catalyst with higher kinetics may be selected. The operating temperature may be increased. In another embodiment, the recombiner comprise as hot filament such as a noble metal-black coated Pt filament such as Pt-black-Pt filament. The filament may be maintained at a sufficiently elevated temperature to maintain the desired rate of recombination by resistive heating maintained by a power supply, temperature sensor, and controller. In an embodiment, the H2 / O2recombiner comprises a plasma source such as a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively-coupled RF plasma. The discharge cell to sever as the recombiner may be high vacuum capable. An exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in Figures 9A-C and 8C-8L comprises a stainless-steel vessel or glow discharge plasma chamber 901 with a Conflat flange 902 on the top with a mating top plate 903 sealed with a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring. The flanges may be coated with a coating such as Flameproof paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, Ta, or another of the disclosure that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The gasket or O-ring such as Ta ones may be alloy-formation resistant. In an embodiment, the flanges may be replaced by flat metal plates (no bolt holes) such as annuluses around the perimeter of each joined component. The plates may be welded together on the outer edges to form a seam. The seam may be cut or ground off to separate the two plates. The top plate may have a high voltage feedthrough 904 to an inner tungsten rod electrode 905. The cell body may be grounded to serve as the counter electrode. The top flange may further comprise at least one gas inlet 906 for hydrino reaction mixture gases such as at least one of H2, O2, air, H2O, and a noble gas (e.g., Ar), or mixtures thereof (e.g., H2 / O2, H2 / air, H2 / H2O, H2 / noble gas, O2 / noble gas, H2 / O2 / H2O, H2 / O2 / noble gas, H2 / H2O / noble gas, O2 / H2O / noble gas, H2 / O2 / H2O / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air, H2 / air / H2O, H2 / air / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air / H2O, H2 / O2 / air / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air / H2O / noble gas). To increase the desired yield of HOH catalyst production while adding argon to the hydrino reaction mixture, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas may be flowed through the discharge cell, and argon may be flowed through a separate gas inlet into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The bottom plate 907 of the stainless-steel vessel may comprise a gas outlet to the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell further comprises a power source such as a DC power source with a voltage in the range of about 10 V to 5kV and a current in the range of about 0.01 A to 100 A. The glow discharge breakdown and maintenance voltages for a desired gas pressure, electrode separation, and discharge current may be selected according to Paschen’s law. The glow discharge cell may further comprise a means such as a spark plug ignition system to cause gas breakdown to start the discharge plasma wherein the glow discharge plasma power operates at a lower maintenance voltage which sustains the glow discharge. The breakdown voltage may be in the range of about 50 V to 5 kV, and the maintenance voltage may be in the range of about 10 V to 1 kV. The glow discharge cell may be electrically isolated from the other SunCell® components such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c to prevent shorting of the ignition power. Pressure waves may cause glow discharge instabilities that create variations in the reactants flowing into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and may damage the glow discharge power supply. To prevent back pressure waves due to the hydrino reaction from propagating into the glow discharge plasma chamber, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a baffle such as one threaded into a BN sleeve on the electrode bus bar where the gas line from the glow discharge cell enters the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge power supply may comprise at least one surge protector element such as a capacitor. The length of the discharge cell and the reaction cell chamber height may be minimized to reduce the distance from the glow discharge plasma to the positive surface of the gallium or tin, to increase the concentration of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst by reducing the distance for possible recombination. The glow discharge cell may be replaced by other sources of atomic hydrogen such as one that works by thermally dissociating hydrogen in an electron bombardment heated fine tungsten capillary (thermal hydrogen cracker) wherein by bouncing along the hot walls, the molecular hydrogen is cracked to atomic hydrogen. The atomic hydrogen source may be one know in the art such as the exemplary commercial atomic hydrogen source of H-flux Atomic Hydrogen Source by Tec Tra (https: / / tectra.de / sample-preparation / atomic-hydrogen- source / #:~:text=H%2Dflux%20Atomic%20Hydrogen%20Source,is%20cracked%20to%20at omic%20hydrogen). In an embodiment, the area of the connection between the source of at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst such as a plasma cell and reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be minimized to avoid atomic H wall recombination and HOH dimerization. The plasma cell such as the glow discharge cell may connect directly to an electrical isolator such as a ceramic one such as one from Solid Seal Technologies, Inc. that connects directly to the top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber. The electrical isolator may be connected to the discharge cell and the flange by welds, flange joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the electrical isolator may be large such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm. In another embodiment wherein the SunCell® and the body of the discharge cell are maintained at the same voltage such as at ground level, the discharge cell may be directly connected to the reaction cell chamber such as at top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber. The connection may comprise a weld, flange joint, or other fastener known in the art. The inner diameter of the connection may be large such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm. The output power level can be controlled by the hydrogen and oxygen flow rate, the discharge current, the ignition current and voltage, and the EM pump current, and the molten metal temperature. The SunCell® may comprise corresponding sensors and controllers for each of these and other parameters to control the output power. The molten metal such as gallium or tin may be maintained in the temperature range of about 200°C to 2200°C. In an exemplary embodiment comprising an 8 inch diameter 4130 Cr-Mo SS cell with a Mo liner along the reaction cell chamber wall, a glow discharge hydrogen dissociator and recombiner connected directly the flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber by a 0.75 inch OD set of Conflat flanges, the glow discharge voltage was 260 V; the glow discharge current was 2 A; the hydrogen flow rate was 2000 sccm; the oxygen flow rate was 1 sccm; the operating pressure was 5.9 Torr; the gallium or tin temperature was maintained at 400°C with water bath cooling; the ignition current and voltage were 1300A and 26-27V; the EM pump rate was 100 g / s, and the output power was over 300 kW for an input ignition power of 29 kW corresponding to a gain of at least 10 times. In an embodiment, the recombiner such as a glow discharge cell recombiner may be cooled by a coolant such as water. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrical feedthrough of the recombiner may be water cooled. The recombiner may be submerged in an agitated water bath for cooling. The recombiner may comprise a safety kill switch that senses a stray voltage and terminates the plasma power supply when the voltage goes above a threshold such as one in the range of about 0V to 20V (e.g., 0.1V to 20V). In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises as a driven plasma cell such as a discharge cell such as a glow discharge, microwave discharge, or inductively or capacitively coupled discharge cell wherein the hydrino reaction mixture comprises the hydrino reaction mixture of the disclosure such as hydrogen in excess of oxygen relative to a stoichiometric mixture of H2(66.6%) to O2(33.3%) mole percent. The driven plasma cell may comprise a vessel capable of vacuum, a reaction mixture supply, a vacuum pump, a pressure gauge, a flow meter, a plasma generator, a plasma power supply, and a controller. Plasma sources to maintain the hydrino reaction are given in Mills Prior Applications which are incorporated by reference. The plasma source may maintain a plasma in a hydrino reaction mixture comprising a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen having a deficit of oxygen compared to a stoichiometric mixture of H2(66.6%) to O2(33.3%) mole percent. The oxygen deficit of the hydrogen-oxygen mixture may be in the range of about 5% to 99% from that of a stoichiometric mixture. The mixture may comprise mole percentages of about 99.66% to 68.33% H2and about 0.333% to 31.66% O2. These mixtures may produce a reaction mixture upon passage through the plasma cell such as the glow discharge sufficient to induce the catalytic reaction as described herein upon interaction with a biased molten metal in the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture gases formed at the outflow of the plasma cell may be forced into the reaction cell by velocity gas stream means such as an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the reactant flow rate through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure in a desired range. High velocity gas may pass through the recombiner plasma source before being injected into the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the plasma recombiner / dissociator maintains a high concentration of at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst in the reaction cell chamber by direct injection of the atomic H and HOH catalyst into the reaction cell chamber from the external plasma recombiner / dissociator. The corresponding reaction conditions may be similar to those produced by very high temperature in the reaction cell chamber that produce very high kinetic and power effects. An exemplary high temperature range is about 2000 °C-3400 °C. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a plurality of recombiner / dissociators such as plasma discharge cell recombiner / dissociators that inject at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst wherein the injection into the reaction cell chamber may be by flow. In another embodiment, the hydrogen source such as a H2tank may be connected to a manifold that may be connected to at least two mass flow controllers (MFC). The first MFC may supply H2gas to a second manifold that accepts the H2line and a noble gas line from a noble gas source such as an argon tank. The second manifold may output to a line connected to a dissociator such as a catalyst such as Pt / Al2O3, Pt / C, or another of the disclosure in a housing wherein the output of the dissociator may be a line to the reaction cell chamber. The second MFC may supply H2gas to a third manifold that accepts the H2line and an oxygen line from an oxygen source such as an O2tank. The third manifold may output to a line to a recombiner such as a catalyst such as Pt / Al2O3, Pt / C, or another of the disclosure in a housing wherein the output of the recombiner may be a line to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the second MFC may be connected to the second manifold supplied by the first MFC. In another embodiment, the first MFC may flow the hydrogen directly to the recombiner or to the recombiner and the second MFC. Argon may be supplied by a third MFC that receives gas from a supply such as an argon tank and outputs the argon directly into the reaction cell chamber. In another embodiment, H2may flow from its supply such as a H2tank to a first MFC that outputs to a first manifold. O2may flow from its supply such as an O2tank to a second MFC that outputs to the first manifold. The first manifold may output to recombiner / dissociator that outputs to a second manifold. A noble gas such as argon may flow from its supply such as an argon tank to the second manifold that outputs to the reaction cell chamber. Other flow schemes are within the scope of the disclosure wherein the flows deliver the reactant gases in the possible ordered permutations by gas supplies, MFCs, manifolds, and connections known in the art. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one of a source of hydrogen such as water or hydrogen gas such as a hydrogen tank, a means to control the flow from the source such as a hydrogen mass flow controller, a pressure regulator, a line such as a hydrogen gas line from the hydrogen source to at least one of the reservoir or reaction cell chamber below the molten metal level in the chamber, and a controller. A source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas may be introduced directly into the molten metal wherein the concentration or pressure may be greater than that achieved by introduction outside of the metal. The higher concentration or pressure may increase the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. The hydrogen may dissolve as atomic hydrogen wherein the molten metal such as gallium or tin or Galinstan may serve as a dissociator. In another embodiment, the hydrogen gas line may comprise a hydrogen dissociator such as a noble metal on a support such as Pt on Al2O3support. The atomic hydrogen may be released from the surface of the molten metal in the reaction cell chamber to support the hydrino reaction. The gas line may have an inlet from the hydrogen source that is at a higher elevation than the outlet into the molten metal to prevent the molten metal from back flowing into the mass flow controller. The hydrogen gas line may extend into the molten metal and may further comprise a hydrogen diffuser at the end to distribute the hydrogen gas. The line such as the hydrogen gas line may comprise a U section or trap. The line may enter the reaction cell chamber above the molten metal and comprise a section that bends below the molten metal surface. At least one of the hydrogen source such as a hydrogen tank, the regulator, and the mass flow controller may provide sufficient pressure of the source of hydrogen or hydrogen to overcome the head pressure of the molten metal at the outlet of the line such as a hydrogen gas line to permit the desired source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas flow. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of hydrogen such as a tank, a valve, a regulator, a pressure gauge, a vacuum pump, and a controller, and may further comprise at least one means to form atomic hydrogen from the source of hydrogen such as at least one of a hydrogen dissociator such as one of the disclosure such as Re / C or Pt / C and a source of plasma such as the hydrino reaction plasma, a high voltage power source that may be applied to the SunCell® electrodes to maintain a glow discharge plasma, an RF plasma source, a microwave plasma source, or another plasma source of the disclosure to maintain a hydrogen plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The source of hydrogen may supply pressurized hydrogen. The source of pressurized hydrogen may at least one of reversibly and intermittently pressurize the reaction cell chamber with hydrogen. The pressurized hydrogen may dissolve into the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The means to form atomic hydrogen may increase the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. The reaction cell chamber hydrogen pressure may be in at least one range of about 0.01 atm to 1000 atm, 0.1 atm to 500 atm, and 0.1 atm to 100 atm. The hydrogen may be removed by evacuation after a dwell time that allows for absorption. The dwell time may be in at least one range of about 0.1 s to 60 minutes, 1 s to 30 minutes, and 1 s to 1 minute. The SunCell® may comprise a plurality of reaction cell chambers and a controller that may be at least one of intermittently supplied with atomic hydrogen and pressured and depressurized with hydrogen in a coordinated manner wherein each reaction cell chamber may be absorbing hydrogen while another is being pressurized or supplied atomic hydrogen, evacuated, or in operation maintaining a hydrino reaction. Exemplary systems and conditions for causing hydrogen to absorb into molten gallium or tin are given by Carreon [M. L. Carreon, “Synergistic interactions of H2and N2with molten gallium or tin in the presence of plasma”, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A, Vol.36, Issue 2, (2018), 021303 pp.1-8; https: / / doi.org / 10.1116 / 1.5004540] which is herein incorporated by reference. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® is operated at high hydrogen pressure such as 0.5 to 10 atm wherein the plasma displays pulsed behavior with much lower input power than with continuous plasma and ignition current. Then, the pressure is maintained at about 1 Torr to 5 Torr with 1500 sccm H2+ 15 sccm O2flow through 1 g of Pt / Al2O3at greater than 90 °C and then into the reaction cell chamber wherein high output power develops with additional H2outgassing from the gallium or tin with increasing gallium or tin temperature. The corresponding H2loading (gallium or tin absorption) and unloading (H2off gassing from gallium or tin) or may be repeated. In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas may be injected directly into molten metal in a direction that propels the molten metal to the opposing electrode of a pair of electrodes wherein the molten metal bath serves as an electrode. The gas line may serve as an injector wherein the source of hydrogen or hydrogen injection such as H2gas injection may at least partially serve as a molten metal injector. An EM pump injector may serve as an additional molten metal injector of the ignition system comprising at least two electrodes and a source of electrical power. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a molecular hydrogen dissociator. The dissociator may be housed in the reaction cell chamber or in a separate chamber in gaseous communication with the reaction cell chamber. The separate housing may prevent the dissociator from failing due to being exposed to the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The dissociator may comprise a dissociating material such as supported Pt such as Pt on alumina beads or another of the disclosure or known in the art. Alternatively, the dissociator may comprise a hot filament or plasma discharge source such as a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell of the disclosure or known in the art. The hot filament may be heated resistively by a power source that flows current through electrically isolated feedthrough the penetrate the reaction cell chamber wall and then through the filament. In another embodiment, the ignition current may be increased to increase at least one of the hydrogen dissociation rate and the plasma ion-electron recombination rate. In an embodiment, the ignition waveform may comprise a DC offset such as one in the voltage range of about 1 V to 100 V with a superimposed AC voltage in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. The DC voltage may increase the AC voltage sufficiently to form a plasma in the hydrino reaction mixture, and the AC component may comprise a high current in the presence of plasma such as in a range of about 100 A to 100,000A. The DC current with the AC modulation may cause the ignition current to be pulsed at the corresponding AC frequency such as one in at least one range of about 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 kHz, and 1 Hz to 100 Hz. In an embodiment, the EM pumping is increased to decrease the resistance and increase the current and the stability of the ignition power. In an embodiment, a high-pressure glow discharge may be maintained by means of a microhollow cathode discharge. The microhollow cathode discharge may be sustained between two closely spaced electrodes with openings of approximately 100 micron diameter. Exemplary direct current discharges may be maintained up to about atmospheric pressure. In an embodiment, large volume plasmas at high gas pressure may be maintained through superposition of individual glow discharges operating in parallel. The plasma current may be at least one of DC or AC. In an embodiment, the atomic hydrogen concentration is increased by supplying a source of hydrogen that is easier to dissociate than H2O or H2. Exemplary sources are those having at least one of lower enthalpies and lower free energies of formation per H atom such as methane, a hydrocarbon, methanol, an alcohol, another organic molecule comprising H. In an embodiment, the dissociator may comprise the electrode 8 such as the one shown in Figure 1. The electrode 8 may comprise a dissociator capable of operating at high temperature such as one up to 3200 °C and may further comprise a material that is resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. Exemplary electrodes comprise at least one of W and Ta. In an embodiment, the bus bar 10 may comprise attached dissociators such as vane dissociators such as planar plates. The plates may be attached by fasting the face of an edge along the axis of the bus bar 10. The vanes may comprise a paddle wheel pattern. The vanes may be heated by conductive heat transfer from the bus bar 10 which may be heated by at least one of resistively by the ignition current and heated by the hydrino reaction. The dissociators such as vanes may comprise a refractory metal such as Hf, Ta, W, Nb, or Ti. Molten Metal In an alternative embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a coolant flow heat exchanger comprising the pumping system whereby the reaction cell chamber is cooled by a flowing coolant wherein the flow rate may be varied to control the reaction cell chamber to operate within a desired temperature range. The heat exchanger may comprise plates with channels such as microchannel plates. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a cell comprising the reaction cell chamber 531, reservoir 5c, pedestal 5c1, and all components in contact with the hydrino reaction plasma wherein one or more components may comprise a cell zone. In an embodiment, the heat exchanger such as one comprising a flowing coolant may comprise a plurality of heat exchangers organized in cell zones to maintain the corresponding cell zone at an independent desired temperature. In an embodiment such as one shown in Figure 6, the SunCell® comprises thermal insulation or a liner 5b31a fastened on the inside of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 at the molten gallium or tin level to prevent the hot gallium or tin from directly contacting the chamber wall. The thermal insulation may comprise at least one of a thermal insulator, an electrical insulator, and a material that is resistant to wetting by the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The insulation may at least one of allow the surface temperature of the gallium or tin to increase and reduce the formation of localized hot spots on the wall of the reaction cell chamber that may melt the wall. In addition, a hydrogen dissociator such as one of the disclosure may be clad on the surface of the liner. In another embodiment, at least one of the wall thickness is increased and heat diffusers such a copper blocks are clad on the external surface of the wall to spread the thermal power within the wall to prevent localized wall melting. The thermal insulation may comprise a ceramic such as BN, SiC, carbon, Mullite, quartz, fused silica, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, others of the disclosure, and ones known to those skilled in the art. The thickness of the insulation may be selected to achieve a desired area of the molten metal and gallium or tin oxide surface coating wherein a smaller area may increase temperature by concentration of the hydrino reaction plasma. Since a smaller area may reduce the electron-ion recombination rate, the area may be optimized to favor elimination of the gallium or tin oxide film while optimizing the hydrino reaction power. In an exemplary embodiment comprising a rectangular reaction cell chamber, rectangular BN blocks are bolted onto to threaded studs that are welded to the inside walls of the reaction cell chamber at the level of the surface of the molten gallium or tin. The BN blocks form a continuous raised surface at this position on the inside of the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment (Figure 1 and Figure 6), the SunCell® comprises a bus bar 5k2ka1 through a baseplate of the EM pump at the bottom of the reservoir 5c. The bus bar may be connected to the ignition current power supply. The bus bar may extend above the molten metal level. The bus bar may serve as the positive electrode in addition to the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The molten metal may heat sink the bus bar to cool it. The bus bar may comprise a refractory metal that does not form an alloy with the molten metal such as W, Ta, or Re in the case that the molten metal comprises gallium or tin. The bus bar such as a W rod protruding from the gallium or tin surface may concentrate the plasma at the gallium or tin surface. The injector nozzle such as one comprising W may be submerged in the molten metal in the reservoir to protect it from thermal damage. In an embodiment (Figure 1), such as one wherein the molten metal serves as an electrode, the cross-sectional area that serves as the molten electrode may be minimized to increase the current density. The molten metal electrode may comprise the injector electrode. The injection nozzle may be submerged. The molten metal electrode may be positive polarity. The area of the molten metal electrode may be about the area of the counter electrode. The area of the molten metal surface may be minimized to serve as an electrode with high current density. The area may be in at least one range of about 1 cm2to 100 cm2, 1 cm2to 50 cm2, and 1 cm2to 20 cm2. At least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir may be tapered to a smaller cross section area at the molten metal level. At least a portion of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir may comprise a refractory material such as tungsten, tantalum, or a ceramic such as BN at the level of the molten metal. In an exemplary embodiment, the area of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir at the molten metal level may be minimized to serve as the positive electrode with high current density. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may be cylindrical and may further comprise a reducer, conical section, or transition to the reservoir wherein the molten metal such as gallium or tin fills the reservoir to a level such that the gallium or tin cross sectional area at the corresponding molten metal surface is small to concentrate the current and increase the current density. In an exemplary embodiment (Figure 7A), at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir may comprise an hourglass shape or a hyperboloid of one sheet wherein the molten metal level is at about the level of the smallest cross-sectional area. This area may comprise a refectory material or comprise a liner 5b31a of a refractory material such as carbon, a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re, or a ceramic such as BN, SiC, or quartz. In exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may comprise stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS and liner may comprise W or BN. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprises at least one plasma confinement structure such as an annular ring centered on the axis between the electrodes to confine plasma inside of the ring. The rings may be at least one of shorted with the molten metal and walls of the reaction cell chamber and electrically isolated by at least one electrically insulating support. Reaction Cell or Chamber Configurations In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may comprise a tube reactor (Figures 7B-C) such as one comprising a stainless-steel tube vessel 5b3 that is vacuum or high- pressure capable. The pressure and reaction mixture inside if the vessel may be controlled by flowing gases through gas inlet 710 and evacuating gases through vacuum line 711. The reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a liner 5b31a such as a refractory liner such as a ceramic liner such as one comprising BN, quartz, pyrolytic carbon, or SiC that may electrically isolate the reaction cell chamber 5b31 from the vessel 5b3 wall and may further prevent gallium or tin alloy formation. Alternatively, a refractory metal liner such as W, Ta, or Re may reduce gallium or tin alloy formation. The EM bus bars 5k2 may comprise a material, coating, or cladding that is electrically conductive and resists formation of a gallium or tin alloy. Exemplary materials are Ta, Re, Mo, W, and Ir. Each bus bar 5k2 may be fastened to the EM pump tube by a weld or fastener such as a Swagelok that may comprise a coating comprising a ceramic or a gallium or tin alloy-resistant metal such as at least one of Ta, Re, Mo, W, and Ir. In an embodiment, the liner (e.g., the liner of the EM pump, the reaction cell liner) comprises a hybrid of a plurality of materials such as a plurality of ceramics or a ceramic and a refractory metal. The ceramic may be one of the disclosure such as BN, quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnia ,or a diboride or carbide such as those of Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr, or Hf such as ZrB2, TaC, HfC, and WC. The refractory metal may be one of the disclosure such as W, Ta, Re, Ir, or Mo. In an exemplary embodiment of a tubular cell (Figures 7B-C), the liner comprises a BN tube with a recessed band at the region where the plasma is most intense wherein a W tube section with a slightly larger diameter than the diameter of the BN tube liner is held in the recessed band of the BN liner. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner of a refractory metal tube-shaped reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as one comprising niobium or vanadium and coated with a ceramic such as zirconia-titania-yttria (ZTY) to prevent oxidation comprises an inner BN tube with at least one refractory metal or ceramic inlay such as a W inlay at a desired position such as at the position of where the plasma due to the hydrino reaction is most intense. In an embodiment, the ceramic liner, coating, or cladding of at least one SunCell® component such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, ignition feedthrough, and EM pump tube may comprise at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, yttria stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride (Si3N4), a glass ceramic such as Li2O × Al2O3× nSiO2system (LAS system), the MgO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (MAS system), the ZnO × Al2O3× nSiO2system (ZAS system). At least one SunCell® component such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, EM pump tube, liner, cladding, or coating may comprise a refractory material such as at least one of graphite (sublimation point = 3642 °C), a refractory metal such as tungsten (M.P. = 3422 °C) or tantalum (M.P. = 3020 °C), niobium, niobium alloy, vanadium, a ceramic, a ultra-high- temperature ceramic, and a ceramic matrix composite such as at least one of borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides such as those of early transition metals such as hafnium boride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO2), niobium boride (NbB2), and tantalum carbide (TaC) and their associated composites. Exemplary ceramics having a desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (M.P. = 2852 °C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (M.P. = 2715 °C), boron nitride (BN) (M.P. = 2973 °C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (M.P. = 2715 °C), hafnium boride (HfB2) (M.P. = 3380 °C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (M.P. = 3900 °C), Ta4HfC5 (M.P. = 4000 °C), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5 (4215 °C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (M.P. = 3385 °C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (M.P. = 3246 °C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (M.P. = 3400 °C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (M.P. = 2950 °C), titanium boride (TiB2) (M.P. = 3225 °C), titanium carbide (TiC) (M.P. = 3100 °C), titanium nitride (TiN) (M.P. = 2950 °C), silicon carbide (SiC) (M.P. = 2820 °C), tantalum boride (TaB2) (M.P. = 3040 °C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (M.P. = 3800 °C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (M.P. = 2700 °C), niobium carbide (NbC) (M.P. = 3490 °C), niobium nitride (NbN) (M.P. = 2573 °C), vanadium carbide (VC) (M.P. = 2810 °C), and vanadium nitride (VN) (M.P. = 2050 °C), and a turbine blade material such as one or more from the group of a superalloy, nickel-based superalloy comprising chromium, cobalt, and rhenium, one comprising ceramic matrix composites, U-500, Rene 77, Rene N5, Rene N6, PWA 1484, CMSX-4, CMSX-10, Inconel, IN-738, GTD-111, EPM-102, and PWA 1497. The ceramic such as MgO and ZrO may be resistant to reaction with H2. In an embodiment, at least one of each reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the inside of the EM pump tube 5k6 are coated with a ceramic or comprise a ceramic liner such as such as one of BN, quartz, carbon, pyrolytic carbon, silicon carbide, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, or mixtures such as TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the disclosure. An exemplary carbon coating comprises Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN and an exemplary alumina coating comprises Cotronics Resbond 989. In an embodiment, the liner comprises at least two concentric clam shells such as two BN clam shell liners. The vertical seams of the clam shell (parallel with the reservoir) may be offset or staggered by a relative rotational angle to avoid a direct electrical path from the plasma or molten metal inside of the reaction cell chamber to the reaction cell chamber walls. In an exemplary embodiment, the offset is 90° at the vertical seams wherein the two sections of the clam shell permit the liners to thermally expand without cracking, and the overlapping inner and outer liners block plasma from electrically shorting to the reaction chamber wall due to relative offset of the sets of seams of the concentric clam shell liners. Another exemplary embodiment comprises a clam shell inner liner and a full outer liner such as a BN clam shell inner and a carbon or ceramic tube outer liner. In a further embodiment of the plurality of concentric liners, at least the inner liner comprises vertically stack sections. The horizontal seams of the inner liner may be covered by the outer liner wherein the seams of the inner liner are at different vertical heights from those of the outer, in the case that the outer liner also comprises vertically stacked sections. The resulting offsetting of the seams prevents electrical shorting between at least one of the molten metal and plasma inside of the reaction cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber walls. The liner comprises an electrical insulator that is capable of high temperature operation and has good thermal shock resistance. Machinability, the ability to provide thermal insulation, and resistance to reactivity with the hydrino reactants and the molten metal are also desirable. Exemplary liner materials are at least one of BN, AlN, Sialon, and Shapal. Silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide, Sialon, Mullite, and Macor may serve a thermal insulation circumferential to the BN inner liner. The liner may comprise a porous type of the liner material such as porous Sialon. Further exemplary liners comprise at least one of SiC-carbon glazed graphite with a Ta or W inlay or inner BN liner to protect it from the hydrino plasma, pyrolytic-coated carbon, SiC-C composite, silicon nitride bonded silicon carbide, yttria stabilized zirconia, SiC with a Ta or W inlay. The liner may be at least one of horizontally and vertically segmented to reduce thermal shock. The lined component such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c may be ramped in temperature at a rate that avoids liner thermal shock (e.g. the shock produced by the plasma heating too rapidly to produce thermal gradients and differential expansion-based stresses in the liner that leads to failure) of the liner such as a SiC liner. The temperature ramp rate may be in the range of about 1 °C / minute to 200 °C / s. The segmented sections may interlock by a structural feature on juxtaposed sections such as ship lapping or tongue and groove. In an embodiment, the interlocking of the segments, each comprising an electrical insulator, prevents the plasma from electrically shorting to reaction cell chamber wall 5b31. In another embodiment, the liner may comprise a porous ceramic such a sporous SiC, MgO, fire brick, ZrO2, HfO2, and Al2O3to avoid thermal shock. The liner may comprise a plurality or stack of concentric liner materials which in combination provide the desired properties of the liner. The inner most layer may possess chemical inertness at high temperature, high thermal shock resistance and high temperature operational capability. The outer layers may provide electrical and thermal insulation and resistance to reactivity at their operating temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, quartz is operated below about 700°C to avoid reaction with gallium or tin to gallium or tin oxide. Exemplary concentric liner stacks to test are from inside to outside: BN-SiC-Si3N4 wherein quartz, SiC, SiC-coated graphite, or SiC-C composite may replace Si3N4 and AlN, Sialon, or Shapal may replace BN or SiC. In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a housing that is circumferential to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The walls of the housing may comprise a ceramic or coated or clad metal of the disclosure. The housing may be filled with a thermally stable thermal insulator. In an exemplary embodiment, the housing comprises a double-walled BN tube liner comprising an inner and outer BN tube with a gap between the two tubes and BN end- plate seals at the top and bottom of the gap to form a cavity wherein the cavity may be filled with silica gel or other high-temperature-capable thermal insulator such as an inner quartz tube. In an embodiment comprising a plurality of concentric liners, at least one outer concentric liner may at least one of (i) serve as a heat sink and (ii) remove heat from the juxtaposed inner liner. The outer liner may comprise a material with a high heat transfer coefficient such as BN or SiC. In an exemplary embodiment, the inner most liner may comprise BN that may be segmented and the corresponding outer liner may comprise SiC that may be segmented and stacked such that the seams of the inner most and outer liner segments are offset or staggered. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber plasma may short to the reaction cell chamber wall rather then connect to the reservoir gallium or tin surface due to gallium or tin boiling that increases the total pressure between the reservoir gallium or tin and the electrode 8 to a point that a plasma cannot form. The ignition voltage may increase as the pressure increases until the resistance is lower through the lower-pressure bulk gas to the reaction chamber wall. In an embodiment, the gallium or tin vaporization can be sensed by a rise in ignition voltage at constant ignition current. A controller can reduce the ignition power, change the gas pressure, decrease the recombiner plasma power, or increase the EM pumping and gallium or tin mixing in response to the voltage rise to decrease the vaporization. In another embodiment, the controller may at least one of apply the ignition current intermittently to suppress the gallium or tin boiling wherein the hydrino reaction plasma may sustain during a portion of the duty cycle with the ignition off and cause argon to flow into the reaction cell chamber from a source to suppress gallium or tin boiling by increasing the pressure while avoiding reduction in H atom concentration. In an embodiment such as that shown in Figures 9A-B, the EM pump 5kk comprises a plurality of stages or pumps to increase the molten metal agitation to prevent the formation of a local hot spot that could boil. In an embodiment shown in Figure 9C, the SunCell® may comprise a plurality of EM pump assemblies 5kk with a plurality of molten metal injectors 5k61, each with a corresponding counter electrode 8. In an embodiment, an EM pump may inject molten gallium or tin to at least one counter electrode 8 through a plurality of injection electrodes 5k61. The plurality of electrode pairs may increase the current while reducing the plasma resistance to increase the hydrino reaction power and gain. Elevated pressure due to gallium or tin boiling from excessive local gallium or tin surface heating may also be reduced. In an embodiment shown in Figures 9A-C further comprising a plurality EM pump injectors 5k61 and counter electrodes 8, each EM pump injector electrode and counter electrode may comprise an independently controlled corresponding EM pump power supply and ignition power supply. In an embodiment, the plurality of electrode pairs comprises a refractory metal plate electrode such as a W plate electrode such as a W disc for a cylindrical reaction cell chamber with multiple injectors or multiple injector nozzles per injector pump tube to inject molten metal at a plurality of separated contact positions on the plate wherein the contact positions serve as a corresponding plurality of separated electrodes. In an embodiment, the feedthrough 10a1 may comprise the electrode bus bar 10 potted with a potting compound or adhesive capable of binding metals and operating at high temperature such as 300 °C to 2000 °C. Exemplary potting adhesives are Cotronics Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2– ZrSiO4, and Durabond as such as RK454. In an embodiment, the conductor of the feedthrough 10a1, the electrode bus bar 10, and the electrode 8 may comprise the same conductor such as tungsten or tantalum. The feedthrough 10a1 may comprise a ceramic isolator brazed to the center conductor and a housing by a high temperature braze such as one of the disclosure wherein the housing is fastened to the flange plate 409a (Figures 7A-7C and 7F-7H) by means such as an adhesive or weld. The braze may have a high melting point such a greater than 600°C. Exemplary brazes are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P. = 1135°C) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https: / / www.morganbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-alloys / precious-brazing-filler- metals / . In another embodiment, at least one of the conductor of the feedthrough 10a1, the electrode bus bar 10, and the electrode 8 may comprise different conductors such as copper and W ones where the connections between these components may comprise at least one of threads, welds, and braze. An exemplary braze between copper and W is silver solder. The vacuum line 711 may comprise a section containing a material such as metal wool such as SS wool or a ceramic fiber such as one comprising at least one of Alumina, silicate, zirconia, magnesia, and hafnia that has a large surface area; yet is highly diffusible for gases. The condensation material may condense gallium or tin and gallium or tin oxide which may be refluxed back into the reaction cell chamber while allowing gases such as H2, O2, argon, and H2O to be removed by evacuation. The vacuum line 711 may comprise a vertical section to enhance the reflux of gallium or tin and gallium or tin products to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment,...

Claims

CLAIMS What Is Claimed Is:

1. A power generation system comprising: a) at least one vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply an ignition current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas delivered thereto; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power adapter comprising a thermophotovoltaic converter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy; wherein energy from the second plasma is absorbed in a blackbody radiator to produce blackbody radiation and said blackbody radiation is converted in the thermophotovoltaic converter.

2. The power generation system according to claim 1, wherein said gas in the plasma generation cell comprises a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

3. The power generation system according to claim 2, wherein the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01-50 (e.g. from 0.1-20, from 0.1-15, etc.).

4. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-3, wherein said molten metal is tin.

5. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-4, wherein the power adapter is a thermophotovoltaic adapter.

6. The power generation system according to claim 5, wherein the thermophotovoltaic adapter comprises a photovoltaic converter in a geodesic dome (see, e.g., Figure 12), wherein the photovoltaic converter may comprise a receiver array (e.g., a dense receiver array) comprised of triangular elements; and wherein each triangular element comprises a plurality of concentrator photovoltaic cells capable of converting the blackbody radiation into electricity.

7. The power system according to any one of claims 1-6, wherein the positively biased electrode of the two electrodes is, comprises, or is connected to the blackbody radiator.

8. The power system according to any one of claims 6-7, wherein the photons having an energy less than the bandgap of the photovoltaic cells are reflected back towards the plasma generation cell.

9. The power system according to any one of claims 1-8, further comprising a PV window between a reaction cell comprising the second plasma and the thermophotovoltaic converter.

10. The power system according to claim 9, wherein tin does not wet the PV window.

11. The power system according to any one of claims 1-10, wherein the gas comprises a reaction mixture that does not oxidize tin.

12. The power system according to any one of claims 9-11, wherein the PV window comprises (or predominantly comprises) flat surfaces, the power adapter comprises a photovoltaic (PV) converter, and the PV converter comprises a flat dense receiver array panel to receive the plasma emission through the PV window with a geometry matching the PV window.

13. The power system according to any one of claims 9-12, wherein the PV window comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, CaF2, and MgF2.

14. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the reaction products do not wet the PV window (e.g., when the molten metal comprises or is tin).

15. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-14, wherein each electrode of the two electrodes comprises a molten metal reservoir and an electrical feedthrough to supply the current only to the molten metal therein and thereby supply the ignition current.

16. The power generation system of claim 15, further comprising a reaction cell chamber connected to the reservoirs wherein the walls of at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are electrically isolated by at least one of a ceramic coating and a liner.

17. The power generation system of claim 16, wherein at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are thermally insulated by a liner.

18. The power generation system of claim 17, wherein the liner comprises at least one of carbon and tungsten.

19. The power generation system of claim 18, wherein the liner is coated with a ceramic coating.

20. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the molten metal flowing between the two electrodes is formed from dual molten metal injection systems independently in fluid communication with one or more molten metal reservoirs comprising the molten metal; wherein each molten metal injection system comprises an electromagnetic pump and a nozzle, wherein each electromagnetic pump flows molten metal through the nozzle to form a stream of molten metal; wherein said electrodes are in communication with the molten metal streams thereby forming dual molten metal streams of opposite polarity; and wherein said complete circuit is formed by intersection the dual molten metal streams.

21. The power generation system of claim 20, wherein at least one reservoir comprises an electrical break to electrically isolate the electrodes from each other.

22. The power generation system of claim 20 or 21 further comprsing a flexible element and at least one actuator to tilt the injector electrode of the reservoir to cause alignment of the molten metal streams.

23. The power generation system of claim 22, wherein the reservoir comprises a baseplate supported by a plurality of supports wherein the at least one actuator to tilt the injector electrode of the reservoir lengthens or shortens at least one support.

24. The power generation system of claim 22, wherein the flexible element comprises a stationary frame on one end and a moveable frame one the opposite end, and further comprises at least one actuator attached to the movable frame and the frame wherein the actuators contract on one side and expand on opposing sides of the flexible element to cause the injector to tilt.

25. The power generation system of claim 22, wherein the flexible element comprises a bellows.

26. The power generation system of any one of claims 20-25, wherein the dual molten streams intersect in a chamber comprising a window and light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation exits the window to heat a load.

27. The power generation system of claim 26, wherein the load is an oven chamber (or air / water / steam therein) heated by the light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation.

28. The power generation system of claim of any of claims 1-27, wherein said the second plasma reaction occurs in a reaction chamber comprising a PV window; and wherein the molten metal or oxidized molten metal is removed from the PV and: a) the PV window comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, CaF2, and MgF2; b) the PV window is heated above the melting point of an oxide of the molten metal (e.g., tin oxide); c) hydrogen reduction of the oxide of the molten metal occurs by flowing hydrogen gas into the reaction chamber at a pressure sufficient to achieve said hydrogen reduction; and / or d) the PV window has molten metal injected onto its surface during generation of the second plasma (e.g., from an electromagnetic pump).

29. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-28, comprising at least one PV window and at least one thermal absorber wherein optical power from the second plasma reaction is transferered through the PV window to the thermal absorber by radiative power transfer, and said thermal absorber transmits thermal power from said radiative power transfer.

30. The power generation system of claim 29, further comprising a water boiler heated by the thermal power from the thermal absorber.

30. The power generation system of claim 29, further comprising an air heat exchanger heated by the thermal power from the thermal absorber.

31. A system for removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window comprising; a source of a deaccumulation material, wherein said deaccumulation material is directed towards said PV window; and said deaccumulation material is hydrogen gas or molten metal of the molten metal oxide.

32. A method of forming a plasma producing ultraviolet light comprising: a) forming a first plasma in a glow discharge cell from a gas directed thereto; b) creating an electrically biased molten metal stream;c) directing the effluence from the glow discharge cell towards the electrically biased molten metal stream to form a second plasma that produces ultraviolet light.

33. The method according to claim 32, wherein said gas in the plasma generation cell comprises a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

34. A method of removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window comprising directing a deaccumulation material towards said PV window; wherein said deaccumulation material is hydrogen gas or molten metal of the molten metal oxide.

35. The method according to claim 34, wherein said deaccumulation material is molten metal (e.g., tin) wherein the window is exposed a plasma and the molten metal is directed onto the window at a rate to prevent or decrease structural deformations of the window associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking, decreases in transparency) or undergoing any structural deformations associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking).