Carbon capture and carbon dioxide production

Abstract

NOT VISIBLE DUE TO STATUS OF PATENT

Description

Docket No. 119042-0045 CARBON CAPTURE AND CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION CROSS-REFERENCE OF RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 598,524 filed on November 13, 2023, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 574,617 filed on April 4, 2024, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 655,908 filed on June 4, 2024, which are incorporated herein in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to apparatus and methods of producing carbon dioxide using a halogen gas and capturing carbon dioxide from air and converting it into efuels. BACKGROUND

[0003] The combined production of cement and steel accounts for ~15% of global anthropogenic CO2emissions. The cement industry releases more than 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the air each year to make its ubiquitous building material.

[0004] Accordingly, there is a need to find solutions for decarbonizing the cement and recycling carbon dioxide.

[0005] Carbon dioxide (CO2) stands as the primary greenhouse gas (GHG), significantly contributing to global warming, which emphasizes the urgent need for coordinated global efforts to mitigate climate change.

[0006] Accordingly, there is a need to find solutions for recycling CO2from the atmosphere or industrial flue gases and producing more environmentally friendly efuels such as eMethanol, eGasoline, and eDiesel.

[0007] Moreover, there is a need to include variable renewable energy sources (VREs) to effectively diminish GHG emissions and offset the continued depletion of fossil fuels. However, to unlock the full potential of VREs, it is essential to resolve prevalent challenges associated with electric grid management and energy storage. -1-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 SUMMARY

[0008] A reactor comprises a first vessel filled with water and a metal carbonate; a first inlet fluidly connected to a body of the vessel, wherein the first inlet provides a halogen gas; a first outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the first vessel; a second vessel fluidly connected to the first outlet, wherein the second vessel receives a first gas mixture from the first outlet and the second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate; a second outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the second vessel; and a third vessel fluidly connected to the second outlet, wherein the third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst and the third vessel receives a second gas mixture from the second outlet and releases carbon dioxide.

[0009] A reactor comprises a first vessel filled with water and MgCO3; a first inlet fluidly connected to a body of the vessel, wherein the first inlet provides a halogen gas; a first outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the first vessel; a fourth vessel fluidly connected to the first outlet, wherein the fourth vessel receives a first gas mixture from the first outlet and the fourth vessel comprises CaMg(CO3)2; a fourth outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the fourth vessel; a fifth vessel fluidly connected to the fourth outlet, wherein the fifth vessel receives a fourth gas mixture from the fourth outlet and the fifth vessel comprises CaCO3; a fifth outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the fifth vessel; a second vessel fluidly connected to the fifth outlet, wherein the second vessel receives a fifth gas mixture from the fifth outlet and the second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate; a second outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the second vessel; and a third vessel fluidly connected to the second outlet, wherein the third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst and the third vessel receives a second gas mixture from the second outlet and releases carbon dioxide.

[0010] A method producing carbon dioxide comprises providing a first reactant comprising a metal carbonate; providing a second solution comprising an acid gas; providing the second solution into a first vessel comprising the first reactant to form a first gas mixture; providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture; providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst; and contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.5% halogen gas. -2-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0011] A method of producing carbon dioxide comprises providing a first solution comprising a metal carbonate; providing a chlorine gas into a first vessel comprising the first solution to form a first gas mixture; providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising aqueous sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture; providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst; and contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture.

[0012] A method of producing carbon dioxide comprises providing a first solution comprising MgCO3; providing a halogen gas into a first vessel comprising the first solution to form a first gas mixture; providing the first gas mixture into a fourth vessel comprising CaMg(CO3)2 to form a fourth gas mixture; providing the fourth gas mixture into a fifth vessel comprising CaCO3 to form a fifth gas mixture; providing the fifth gas mixture into a second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture; and providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst to form carbon dioxide.

[0013] A method of forming a hydrocarbon is disclosed. The method comprises providing electricity and a salt solution to an interruptible cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein hypochlorite, metal chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid may be formed; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form oxygen or a second carbon dioxide; and providing the second carbon dioxide from the first vessel and second vessel and the hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel, wherein an efuel is formed.

[0014] A method of forming chemical products is disclosed. The method comprises providing electrical current and one or more electrolytes in a cell, which may be interruptible, wherein a faradaic current process takes place within the cell to form reducing products, bases, oxidizers, and acids; providing an acid gas to a first vessel comprising a buffer system (such as, but not limited to systems or ores of carbonates, oxides, hydroxides, sulphates, and silicates), wherein the acid gas may react with the buffer or selectively alter or remove the buffer from a matrix, the acid gas may be an oxidizing acid resulting in a multitude of reactions (such as disproportionation) yielding a plurality of direct buffering products, a first conjugate acid and conjugate base -3-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 (derived from the buffer, such as in one embodiment magnesium chloride-and-carbon dioxide or in another embodiment aluminium dihydroxybromide-and-water), and optionally an oxidized conjugate acid-conjugate base pair with disproportionation (as in the carbon dioxide-calcium bromide-calcium-hypobromite system) are formed in the first group of vessels; which may in some embodiments isolate the oxidizing acid (for example, hypobromous acid) and may providing the oxidizing acid to a second group of vessels to form additional conjugate acid-conjugate base pairs (such as calcium hypobromite-and-silica when derived from calcium silicates previously extracted from the first buffer group, such as limestone, or from new buffers such as larnite); and either isolating or providing any of the acids, bases, optionally disproportionated conjugate acids, optionally disproportionated conjugate bases, oxidizing agents or reducing agents from the first vessels and second vessels, or any of the acids, bases, optionally disproportionated conjugate acids, optionally disproportionated conjugate bases, oxidizing agents or reducing agents may be added to an additional feedstock (for example, N2) to a third group of vessels, wherein a product is formed (for instance, in some embodiments, hydrogen from a chloralkali electrolyzer may be combined with nitrogen from air to form ammonia, or the hydrogen may be combined with chlorine to give hydrogen chloride, or lithium from a molten lithium chloride electrolyzer may be combined with nitrogen to give lithium nitride). In some embodiments the release of carbon dioxide from the carbonate may be accelerated by catalysts, such as in the presence of high salinity, and / or in the presence of zinc-II or cobalt-II. Zinc may be preferred in some cases, but other divalent cations may be employed under certain circumstances: Fe2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+. The metal may be immobilized on a surface. That surface may be a fluorinated polymer.

[0015] A method of neutralizing a produced water is disclosed. The method comprises providing a produced water; providing an oxidizer from the electrolyzer; and reacting the produced water with the oxidizer to form carbon dioxide. In one embodiment an example of the oxidizer may be a hypohalite such as hypobromous acid or a hypochlorite salt. In another embodiment the oxidizer may be perchloric acid. In another embodiment the oxidizer may be ozone or singlet oxygen from a nickel oxide surface, copper-II oxide, zinc oxide, or mixed metal oxide surface. -4-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0016] A method of capturing and mineralizing carbon dioxide from air is disclosed. The method comprises providing a mineral or ore (for instance, a sedimentary rock); reacting the mineral or ore with hydroxide to extract a product into or react with the base; exposing to or capturing carbon dioxide from air; reacting the carbon dioxide with the base to form a carbonate or bicarbonate; providing calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the carbonate or bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate and release air captured carbon dioxide. In some embodiments magnesium chloride may be used. In some embodiments alkaline earth salts may be used. In some embodiments, mixed mineral salts may be used. In some embodiments, the mineral may be derived from the same used to neutralize the acid gas, such as dolomite. In some embodiments the ores may be distinct as in limestone and bauxite, in which case the bauxite may give up the first product alumina as sodium aluminate, neutralize to aluminium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate, and then precipitate as purified alumina. In some embodiments the absorption and or release of carbon dioxide from the carbonate may be accelerated by catalysts, such as the presence of high salinity, or the presence of zinc-II or cobalt-II. Zinc may be preferred in some cases, but other divalent cations may be employed under certain circumstances: Fe2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+. The metal may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, Zinc may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, that surface may be an alkali-resistant polymer.

[0017] A method of capturing and mineralizing carbon dioxide from air is disclosed. The method comprises providing a first mineral or ore (for instance, a sedimentary rock); reacting the first mineral or ore with hydroxide to extract a product; exposing to or capturing carbon dioxide from air to form a carbonate or bicarbonate; providing a second mineral or ore (for example, limestone); reacting the second mineral or ore with an acid gas to form a calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the carbonate or bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate and release air captured carbon dioxide. In some embodiments magnesium chloride may be used. In some embodiments alkaline earth salts may be used. In some embodiments, mixed mineral salts may be used. In some embodiments, the mineral may be derived from the same used to neutralize the acid gas, such as dolomite. In some embodiments the ores may be distinct as in limestone and bauxite, in which case the bauxite may give up the first product alumina as sodium aluminate, neutralize to aluminium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate, and then precipitate as purified alumina. In some embodiments the -5-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 absorption and or release of carbon dioxide from the carbonate may be accelerated by catalysts, such as the presence of high salinity, or the presence of zinc-II or cobalt-II. Zinc may be preferred in some cases, but other divalent cations may be employed under certain circumstances: Fe2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+. The metal may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, the metal may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, that surface may be an alkali-resistant polymer. An electricity and metal halide solution is provided to an electrolysis cell, which may be interruptible, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate (PCC) and air- captured carbon dioxide. Magnesium ore and magnesium chloride may also be used. In some embodiments, other alkaline earth metals and other transition metal ores and other metals may be used. In some embodiments, the chloride or bromide salt may be formed with no oxidizing acid. In some embodiments, all of any one or none of any one or more product listed may be formed, provided that the final carbonate or bicarbonate formed is stable enough to be isolated. In some embodiments there will be an excess of hydroxides. In some embodiments, there will be no gaseous air-captured carbon dioxide released. In some embodiments there will be residual, unreacted base in the isolated carbonate or bicarbonate. In some embodiments, that base will continue to absorb carbon dioxide from the air.

[0018] A particular method of capturing carbon dioxide from air is disclosed. In some embodiments the method comprises providing bauxite; reacting the bauxite with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; providing carbon dioxide from air; reacting the carbon dioxide with the sodium aluminate to form sodium bicarbonate and aluminium hydroxide; providing an electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, which may be interruptible, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a carbonate mineral, ore or other buffer containing calcium, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with -6-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate (PCC) and air-captured carbon dioxide.

[0019] A method of forming a carbon negative efuel from air is disclosed. The method comprises providing a first mineral or ore (for instance a sedimentary rock); reacting the first mineral or ore with hydroxide to extract a product ; exposing to or capturing carbon dioxide from air to form a carbonate or bicarbonate; providing a second mineral or ore (for example, limestone); reacting the second mineral or ore with an acid gas to form a calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the carbonate or bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate and release air captured carbon dioxide. In some embodiments magnesium chloride may be used. In some embodiments alkaline earth salts may be used. In some embodiments, mixed mineral salts may be used. In some embodiments, the mineral may be derived from the same used to neutralize the acid gas, such as dolomite. In some embodiments the ores may be distinct as in limestone and bauxite, in which case the bauxite may give up the first product alumina as sodium aluminate, neutralize to aluminium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate, and then precipitate as purified alumina. In some embodiments the absorption and or release of carbon dioxide from the carbonate may be accelerated by catalysts, such as the presence of high salinity, or the presence of zinc-II or cobalt-II. Zinc may be preferred in some cases, but other divalent cations may be employed under certain circumstances: Fe2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+. The metal may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, the metal may be immobilized on a surface. In some embodiments, that surface may be an alkali-resistant polymer. An electricity and metal halide solution is provided to an electrolysis cell, which may be interruptible, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate (PCC) and air-captured carbon dioxide. Magnesium ore and magnesium chloride may also be used. In some embodiments, other alkaline earth metals and other transition ores and metals may be used. In some embodiments, the chloride or bromide salt may be formed with no oxidizing acid. In some embodiments, all of any one or none of any one or more product listed may be formed, provided that the final carbonate or bicarbonate formed is stable enough to be -7-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 isolated. In some embodiments there will be an excess of hydroxides. In some embodiments there will be residual, unreacted base in the isolated carbonate or bicarbonate. In some embodiments, that base will continue to absorb carbon dioxide from the air. The air-captured carbon dioxide so released is dried and provided along with dried hydrogen gas from the cell to a group of vessels, wherein an efuel is formed. In some embodiments, an oxygen gas formed from a previous vessel is provided; reacting the oxygen gas and a hydrocarbon to in the process of making liquid or solid hydrocarbons. In some embodiments providing oxygen from air. In some embodiments providing steam from process heat. In some embodiments providing steam. Produced water from the efuels is removed from the mixture of efuels.

[0020] A particular method of forming an efuel is disclosed. The method comprises providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; capturing carbon dioxide from air; reacting the carbon dioxide with the sodium aluminate to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing an electricity and sodium chloride solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a carbonate ore containing calcium, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate in a fifth vessel to form a calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide gas; providing this carbon dioxide gas and the hydrogen gas from the cell to a group of vessels, wherein an efuel is formed; providing an oxygen gas formed from the hypochlorous acid and / or from air; reacting the oxygen gas to reform into syngas; the syngas may then be converted into liquid and solid hydrocarbons; and removing water from the liquid hydrocarbons to form a mixture of efuels. In some embodiments the oxygen may be replaced with steam and the first hydrocarbon may undergo steam reformation to produce a syngas.

[0021] A particular method of forming an e-methanol is disclosed. The method comprises providing an electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a carbonate containing calcium, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon -8-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form water and a second carbon dioxide; providing the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel and the hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel to form a crude methanol; distilling the crude methanol to form a methanol and a produced water; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel to form a clean chemical water. In some embodiments the first carbon dioxide and the second carbon dioxide are sequestered into non-fuel products; air-captured carbon dioxide and the hydrogen gas from the cell are provided to a third vessel to form a crude methanol; distilling the crude methanol to form a methanol and a produced water; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel to form a clean chemical water which may be recycled to the electrolyzer.

[0022] Various aspects and embodiments now will be described more fully hereinafter. Such aspects and embodiments make take many different forms and the exemplary ones disclosed herein should not be construed as limiting; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey its scope to those skilled in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023] The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide further understanding and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate disclosed embodiments and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the disclosed embodiments.

[0024] FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a reactor for producing carbon dioxide, according to some embodiments.

[0025] FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a reactor for producing carbon dioxide, according to some embodiments.

[0026] FIG. 3 is a simplified flowchart illustrating carbon dioxide production method of some embodiments.

[0027] FIG. 4 is a simplified flowchart illustrating carbon dioxide production method of some embodiments. -9-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0028] FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0029] FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0030] FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0031] FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a crude chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0032] FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a crude chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0033] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a methanol chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0034] FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a methanol chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0035] FIG. 12 illustrates a configuration of a benchmark production system, according to some embodiments.

[0036] FIG. 13 illustrates a block diagram of a process chain for the ABT eFuel production system, according to some embodiments.

[0037] FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic diagram of an air contactor, according to some embodiments.

[0038] FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic representation of direct air capture (DAC) system, according to some embodiments.

[0039] FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic representation of an alkaline water electrolyzer, according to some embodiments.

[0040] FIG. 17 illustrates a simulation of eMethanol production, according to some embodiments. -10-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0041] FIG. 18 illustrates the effect of H2 and CO2 molar feed ratio on the eFuel production rate and energy consumption by the catalytic reactor, according to some embodiments.

[0042] FIG. 19 illustrates a block diagram of the air contactor and DAC hierarchy, according to some embodiments.

[0043] FIG. 20 illustrates a block diagram modelling of the Chlor-alkali electrolyzer hierarchy, according to some embodiments.

[0044] FIG. 21 illustrates a block diagram modelling the neutralizer hierarchy, according to some embodiments.

[0045] FIG. 22 demonstrates the effect of varying the calciner temperature on the heat duty at varying mass flow rates of CaCO3, according to some embodiments.

[0046] FIG. 23 shows the heat exchanger network of the Benchmark system, according to some embodiments.

[0047] FIG. 24 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components.

[0048] FIG. 25 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by utility types.

[0049] FIG. 26 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the carbon neutral benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components.

[0050] FIG. 27 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the carbon neutral benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by utility types.

[0051] FIG. 28 illustrates the heat exchanger network of the modelled ABT eFuel system, according to some embodiments. -11-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0052] FIG. 29 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the chlor-alkali based eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components.

[0053] FIG. 30 demonstrates the total energy consumption within the chlor-alkali based eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by utility types.

[0054] FIG. 31 illustrates the yield in some embodiments of the products of chlor- alkali electrolysis at varying feed salt concentrations (steady state).

[0055] FIG. 32 illustrates yields of eFuel production and CO2 capture mass efficiency at varying feed brine concentrations, according to some embodiments.

[0056] FIG. 33 illustrates a side-by-side comparison of the ABT eFuel and the Benchmark eFuel system based on energy consumption, according to some embodiments.

[0057] FIG. 34 illustrates a project capital cost of benchmark technology, according to some embodiments.

[0058] FIG. 35 illustrates a project capital cost of ABT eFuel technology, according to some embodiments.

[0059] In one or more implementations, not all of the depicted components in each figure may be required, and one or more implementations may include additional components not shown in a figure. Variations in the arrangement and type of the components may be made without departing from the scope of the subject disclosure. Additional components, different components, or fewer components may be utilized within the scope of the subject disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0060] In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a full understanding of the present disclosure. It will be apparent, however, to one ordinarily skilled in the art, that the embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced without some of these specific details. In other instances, -12-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 well-known structures and techniques have not been shown in detail so as not to obscure the disclosure.

[0061] All references cited anywhere in this specification, including the Background and Detailed Description sections, are incorporated by reference as if each had been individually incorporated.

[0062] The term “Portland cement,” as used herein, refers to a mixture of lime clinker with small amounts of gypsum that is ground into a powder, as is an industry- standard for cement. Portland cement goes on to get blended with water, sand, and gravel to form concrete, the rocky material used to make building foundations, roads, dams, and most modern infrastructure.

[0063] The term “acid gas” is referred to a gas that forms an acid on contact with water. For example, the acid gas may include halogen gas (e.g., Cl2 and Br2), H2S, HCl, SO2, or SO3.

[0064] The term “about”, particularly in reference to a given quantity, is meant to encompass deviations of plus or minus ten percent.

[0065] The term “produced water” refers to water that comes out of the well with the crude oil during crude oil production. The produced water contains water and organic molecules such as hydrocarbons and alcohols. Produced water may also come from other fossil fuel production, mining, and efuel syntheses and be similarly or distinctly contaminated with reducing agents.

[0066] The term “variable renewable energy” or “VRE” refers to renewable energy sources that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. It may also refer to any unschedulable mismatch between undispatchable renewable (or “alternative”) energy supply and demand, such as run-of- the-river hydroelectric vs grid demand or nuclear vs grid fluctuations. Since there is no electrical property of VRE that could not be provided by dispatchable, schedulable energy (electricity), supply of “VRE” should not be considered restrictive to variable sources, but should be considered to include both dispatchable, schedulable energy and variable energy (inclusive). -13-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0067] The term “mechanical vapor recompression” or “mechanical vapor recovery” or “MVR” refers to a desalination (including “up-concentration” or “esalination”, or any partial vacuum distillation type separation of a mixture) which includes an energy recovery process that can be used to recycle waste heat to improve efficiency.

[0068] The term “salt” refers to a chemical compound having an ionic assembly of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions, which results in a compound with no net electric charge.

[0069] The term “efuel product basket” refers to a variety of synthetic fuels manufactured using captured carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide, together with hydrogen obtained from sustainable electricity sources such as wind, solar and nuclear power, minerals, salts, bleaches, and / or other products which may be coproduced with the hydrogen.

[0070] Production of Carbon Dioxide from Metal Carbonates

[0071] In certain embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method and an apparatus for forming carbon dioxide. In particular, the carbon dioxide formed from the present disclosure is free from chlorine gas.

[0072] In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is formed from a metal carbonate using an acid. In certain embodiments, the metal carbonate is Li2CO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, FeCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In certain particular embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some other certain embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2.

[0073] In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is released from the carbonate by reaction with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid suitable for release of carbon dioxide is a stronger acid than carbonic acid. For example, the acid which has pKa less than 6.35 in water at 25OC is used. In certain embodiments, the acid is derived from an acid gas. In some embodiments, the acid gas is a halogen. In certain embodiments, the halogen is chlorine or bromine. In certain particular embodiments, the acid is derived from Cl2. In certain particular embodiments, the acid is derived from a reaction of Cl2 with water. In some embodiments, the acid gas may include H2S, HCl, SO2, or SO3. -14-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0074] In certain embodiments, the process for forming carbon dioxide begins by saturating water with a halogen gas. For clarity and illustration purposes, the embodiments of the present disclosure will be described herein using chlorine Cl2as a halogen; however, as would be readily understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art, other halogen gases, including bromine, can also be used in the systems disclosed herein and the reactions would proceed by analogous mechanisms. For instance, but not by way of limitation, when the halogen gas is chlorine, the method includes forming chlorine water. If a halogen of choice is fluorine, bromine, or iodine, fluorine water, bromine water, or iodine water would form. The halogen water may be a saturated halogen water. In some embodiments, chlorine water can be generated on contact with an aqueous solution containing metal carbonate such as calcium carbonate CaCO3. The following chemical reactions occur when a chlorine gas (Cl2) or chlorine water react with as calcium carbonate CaCO3in a first vessel in FIG. 1.

[0075] Chlorine water has a pH of ~1.6. Cl2 can then oxidize water as shown by equation (1): Cl2+ H2O → HCl + HOCl (1)

[0076] The Ka of HCl is 106. Although the Ka of HOCl is small (10-8), the disproportionation product HClO3 has a large pKa above 109. Protons of the halogen water can further react with metal carbonate. In certain embodiments, when the metal carbonate is calcium carbonate, CaCO3, calcium bicarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) can be formed first, which is then turned into Ca2+(aq) and carbonic acid, H2CO3. Carbonic acid then readily decomposes into water and carbon dioxide. Each step of the reaction between the acid (HCl) and calcium carbonate CaCO3is described below in equations (2A)-(2C). 2 CaCO3 + 2HCl → Ca(HCO3)2 + CaCl2 (2A) Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2+ H2CO3(2B) H2CO3+ 2HCl → 2H2O + CO2(2C)

[0077] This reaction is summarized in the equation (3) below. CaCO3 + 2HCl →CaCl2(s) + H2O + CO2(g) (3) -15-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0078] Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is insoluble in water and can be collected via a filtration method. The carbon dioxide leaves the solution as a gas and can be further purified or collected.

[0079] HOCl generated via a chlorine gas (Cl2) and water (H2O) reacts with calcium carbonate to form calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). The reaction is summarized in the equation (4) below. 2HOCl + CaCO3→ Ca(OCl)2+ CO2(g) + H2O (4)

[0080] The carbon dioxide leaves the solution as a gas and can be further purified or collected. At this stage, the carbon dioxide may have some chlorine gas impurity (a first gas mixture) and requires further purification to remove the residual chlorine gas. Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is soluble in water. After the filtration of calcium chloride (CaCl2), the aqueous solution contains calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2).

[0081] In some embodiments, calcium carbonate CaCO3is limestone. In some other embodiments, dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 is used in place of calcium carbonate CaCO3. A chlorine gas reacts with MgCO3 followed the reaction between CaCO3 and HOCl. The reaction of the dolomite is described in the equations (5A) and (5B) below. MgCO3+ 2Cl2+ 2H2O → MgCl2+ 2HOCl + H2O + CO2(5A) CaCO3 + 2HOCl → Ca(OCl)2 + CO2 + H2O (5B)

[0082] The first gas mixture formed between the chlorine water and as calcium carbonate CaCO3include carbon dioxide (CO2) and residual chlorine gas (Cl2). In one embodiment, the first gas mixture is removed from the first vessel 102 and transferred to a second vessel 103 which contains sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). This process can be repeated (e.g., 103A and 103B) and such embodiment is described in FIG. 2. A reaction between the first gas mixture and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is described in the equation (6) below. Cl2+Na2CO3→ NaOCl + NaCl + CO2(6)

[0083] The carbon dioxide leaves the solution as a gas and can be further purified or collected. At this stage, the carbon dioxide has minor impurity with chlorine gas (a -16-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 second gas mixture) and requires further purification to remove the residual chlorine gas. Sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) are soluble in water. In some embodiments, the second gas mixture is reacted with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) to further purify the second gas mixture to remove residual chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the process of reacting the second gas mixture with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is repeated once, twice, or three times.

[0084] The second gas mixture formed within the second vessel 103 is transferred to a third vessel 104 containing a metal catalyst. In one embodiment, the metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2. The metal catalyst removes the residual chlorine gas (Cl2) from the second gas mixture to form a third gas mixture 105. In one embodiment, the third gas mixture 105 comprised less than 0.001 % of chlorine gas (Cl2). A reaction between the second gas mixture and the metal catalyst is described in the equation (7) below. Cl2+ CO2+ metal catalyst → CO2(g) + metal catalyst-Cl (7)

[0085] In one embodiment, a reactor is disclosed. The reactor comprises a first vessel filled with water and a metal carbonate; a first inlet fluidly connected to a body of the vessel, wherein the first inlet provides a halogen gas; a first outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the first vessel; a second vessel fluidly connected to the first outlet, wherein the second vessel receives a first gas mixture from the first outlet and the second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate; a second outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the second vessel; and a third vessel fluidly connected to the second outlet, wherein the third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst and the third vessel receives a second gas mixture from the second outlet and releases carbon dioxide.

[0086] In one embodiment, a reactor is disclosed. The reactor comprises a first vessel filled with water and CaMg(CO3)2; a first inlet fluidly connected to a body of the vessel, wherein the first inlet provides a halogen gas; a first outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the first vessel; a second vessel fluidly connected to the first outlet, wherein the second vessel receives a first gas mixture from the first outlet and the second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate; a second outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the second vessel; and a third vessel fluidly connected to the second outlet, wherein the third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst and the third vessel receives a second gas mixture from the second outlet and releases carbon dioxide. -17-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0087] In one embodiment, the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3or CaMg(CO3)2. In some certain embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some other embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2.

[0088] In one embodiment, the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In one embodiment, the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In one embodiment, the fourth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In one embodiment, the fifth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In one embodiment, the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO2.

[0089] In one embodiment, the carbon dioxide formed in the third vessel is halogen gas free. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide formed in the third vessel comprises less than 0.1% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide formed in the third vessel comprises less than 0.01% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide formed in the third vessel comprises less than 0.001% chlorine gas.

[0090] In one embodiment, the halogen gas is chlorine or bromine. In some embodiments, the halogen gas is chlorine. In some embodiments, the halogen gas is bromine. In some other embodiments, an acid gas such as H2S, HCl, SO2, or SO3 can be used instead of the halogen gas.

[0091] Processing of Metal Halides

[0092] In certain embodiments, after removing carbon dioxide, the reaction mixture has an aqueous metal salt. In certain embodiments, a base can be added to the aqueous metal salt to produce a different compound of interest. In certain embodiments, the resulting compound has low solubility in water and can be therefore removed from the reaction mixture by filtration. -18-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0093] The resulting compound can be a metal base with low water solubility in certain embodiments. In certain embodiments, the resulting compound is Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2or Sr(OH)2. In such embodiments, the aqueous metal salt can be mixed with a water-soluble base. For example, the water-soluble base includes a water-soluble metal IA or metal IIA base.

[0094] In certain embodiments, the apparatus shown in FIGs. 1-2 can be modified by adding additional compartment 106 fluidly connected to the first vessel 102. In certain embodiments, the aqueous metal salt produced in the first vessel 102 can be moved into the additional compartment 106 that includes a water-soluble base such as a water-soluble metal IA or metal IIA base.

[0095] In certain particular embodiments, if the starting materials are calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, and chlorine gas, the reaction produces calcium chloride, CaCl2. In certain embodiments, the calcium chloride solution can be mixed with a sodium hydroxide solution. This can be done with a low-grade, straight-run, unrefined chloralkali catholyte with high salt content. The result is the rapid precipitation of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which is three orders of magnitude less soluble than calcium chloride, sodium chloride, and sodium hydroxide, as shown by equation (8): CaCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) (8)

[0096] Calcium hydroxide provided from the reaction between CaCl2 and NaOH can subsequently be removed by a filtration. The calcium hydroxide may be used for making Portland Cement. In certain embodiments, the resulting calcium hydroxide can be mixed with salts, clays, sand, and / or gravel to make cement. In certain embodiments, the resulting cement can absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, making the process carbon negative.

[0097] Methods for production of Carbon Dioxide from Metal Carbonates

[0098] FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a reactor 100 for producing carbon dioxide, according to some embodiments. While FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment where Cl2 is the halogen gas, a person of ordinary skill in the art would readily recognize that the system would work analogously for other halogen gas discussed in the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 1, the reactor 100 includes a first vessel 102. A halide gas -19-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 101 is fluidly connected to the first vessel 102 via a first inlet 107. The first vessel 102 is fluidly connected to a second vessel 103 via a first outlet 108, which is further fluidly connected to a third vessel 104 via a second outlet 109. The third vessel 104 produces and release carbon dioxide (e.g., the third gas mixture 105).

[0099] In one embodiment, in the first step, a solution of metal carbonate such as calcium carbonate is added to the first vessel 102. In certain embodiments, a halide gas 101, such as chlorine, is added to the first vessel 102 through a first inlet 107 forming saturated chlorine water within the first vessel 102. In some embodiments, a saturated chlorine water where a halide gas and water are reacted in advance is added to the first vessel 102 through a first inlet 107. In this regard, saturated chlorine water can be prepared separately and directly added into the first vessel 102. The following reactions occur in the first vessel 102. CaCO3+ 2HCl → CaCl2(s) + H2O + CO2(g) (9) 2HOCl + CaCO3 → Ca(OCl)2 + CO2(g) + H2O (10)

[0100] As shown in FIG. 1, calcium chloride (CaCl2) is insoluble in water and can be collected via a filtration method. The aqueous solution contains calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) within the first vessel 102 can be transferred to a sixth vessel (e.g., additional compartment 106) via a sixth outlet 110.

[0101] In some embodiments, a first gas mixture comprising carbon dioxide gas and residual chlorine gas is now transferred to a second vessel 103 via a first outlet 108. The second vessel 103 contains sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). A reaction between the first gas mixture and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is described in the equation (11) below. Cl2+ Na2CO3→ NaOCl + CO2(g) + NaCl (11)

[0102] The second gas mixture formed within the second vessel 103 is transferred to a third vessel 104 via a second outlet 109 containing a metal catalyst. In one embodiment, the metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2. The metal catalyst removes the residual chlorine gas (Cl2) from the second gas mixture to form a third gas mixture 105. In one embodiment, the third gas mixture 105 comprised less than 0.001 % of chlorine -20-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 gas (Cl2). A reaction between the second gas mixture and the metal catalyst is described in the equation (12) below. Cl2+CO2+ metal catalyst → CO2(g) + metal catalyst-Cl (12)

[0103] FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram 150 showing a reactor for producing carbon dioxide, according to some embodiments.

[0104] Now referring to FIG. 2, the first gas mixture formed within the first vessel 102 can be treated with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) twice in a third and additional vessels 103A and 104B to remove the chlorine gas. It is noted that while FIG. 2 shows two vessels containing sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), embodiments of the present disclosure may be configured to have two or more vessels containing sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).

[0105] FIG. 3 is a simplified flowchart 300 illustrating carbon dioxide production method of some embodiments.

[0106] Now referring to FIG. 3, in one embodiment, a method of producing carbon dioxide is disclosed. The method comprises a step of providing a first reactant comprising a metal carbonate (301). The method further comprises a step of providing a second solution comprising an acid gas (302). The method further comprises a step of providing the second solution into a first vessel comprising the first reactant to form a first gas mixture (303). The method further comprises a step of providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture (304). The method further comprises a step of providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst (305). The method further comprises a step of contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.5% halogen gas (306).

[0107] In some embodiments, the acid gas is chlorine or bromine. In some embodiments, the acid gas is chlorine. In some embodiments, the acid gas is bromine.

[0108] In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.1% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.01% -21-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.001% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture is halogen gas free.

[0109] In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is MgCO3.

[0110] In some embodiments, the second solution has pKa of less than that of carbonic acid. In some embodiments, the second solution has pKa of less than 6.35.

[0111] In some embodiments, the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the fourth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the fifth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

[0112] In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO2.

[0113] FIG. 4 is a simplified flowchart 400 illustrating carbon dioxide production method of some embodiments.

[0114] Now referring to FIG. 4, in one embodiment, a method of producing carbon dioxide is disclosed. The method comprises a step of providing a first solution comprising a metal carbonate (401). The method further comprises a step of providing a chlorine gas into a first vessel comprising the first solution to form a first gas mixture (402). The method further comprises a step of providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising aqueous sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture (403). The method further comprises a step of providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst (404). The method further comprises a step of contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture (405). -22-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0115] In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.1% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.01% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.001% chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the third gas mixture is halogen gas free.

[0116] In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3or CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is MgCO3.

[0117] In some embodiments, the second solution has pKa of less than that of carbonic acid. In some embodiments, the second solution has pKa of less than 6.35.

[0118] In some embodiments, the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the fourth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. In some embodiments, the fifth gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

[0119] In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO. In some embodiments, the activated metal catalyst is MnO2.

[0120] Process for producing hydrocarbons

[0121] FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic diagram 500 showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments. FIG. 5 explains schematically how the present disclosure converts inexpensive and readily available starting materials such as dirt, saltwater, and electricity (variable renewable energy, VRE) into more valuable materials such as distilled water, mineralized carbon dioxide, bleaches, metals, e-fuel, hydrogen gas, or plastics.

[0122] FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic diagram 600 showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments. -23-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0123] Now referring to FIG. 6, wind and saltwater provide VRE and sodium chloride solution (NaCl (aq)) to a reactor. The reactor receives sedimentary rock, CO2 from air, and optionally produced water, which are converted into mineralized carbon dioxide, bleaches, metals, and plastics. VRE, CO2, and H2 generated from the reactor will be further processed to form crude chemicals such as e-gasoline, e-diesel, e-SAF, e- methanol, e-olefins, and e-Fischer Tropsch (FT) wax.

[0124] FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic diagram 700 showing a simplified chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments. FIG. 7 is a more detailed version of FIG. 6 in that the reactor comprises an electrolyzer, neutralizer, stripper, and delayed carbon capture systems.

[0125] FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic diagram 800 showing a crude chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0126] FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic diagram 900 showing a crude chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0127] FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 describe crude chemical production. First, an electrical current is obtained from turbine via wind energy. Although not shown in FIGs. 8 and 9, photovoltaic panels, concentrated solar, tidal, nuclear or other VRE can provide the electrical current. The electrical current is used to perform mechanical vapor recompression with seawater to separate into sodium chloride solution NaCl (aq) and water vapor as shown by the equation (13) below. The water vapor is condensed to form distilled H2O. NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (g) (13)

[0128] The sodium chloride solution is supplied to an electrolyzer (i.e., a cell). The electrolyzer is powered by the turbine energy to form a chlorine gas and the chemical reaction is shown below in the equation (14). 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g) (14)

[0129] Aqueous chlorine is used in a neutralizer (i.e., a first vessel) with limestone (CaCO3) to form calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) as shown in the equation (15). -24-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 2CaCO3 (s) + 2Cl2 (aq) → CaCl2 (s) + Ca(OCl)2 (s) + 2CO2 (g) (15)

[0130] Carbon dioxide may contain residual chlorine, which can be further removed by a reaction with sodium bicarbonate in water, and finally by gas scrubbing with a wet transition metal oxide or transition metal halide. The catalyst may be supported on carbon (for example. biochar). The transition metal oxide may include manganese (I) oxide, manganese (II) oxide, manganese (III) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (V) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (VII) oxide, nickel (II) oxide, nickel (III) oxide, copper (I) oxide, copper (II) oxide, copper (III) oxide, copper (IV) oxide, or zinc oxide. The transition metal halide may include copper (I) chloride or copper (II) chloride. During the reaction, the transition metal oxide or transition metal halide may react with hypochlorite (OCl-) to generate oxygen gas (O2).

[0131] Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is at least partly dissociated in water into calcium ion (Ca2+) and hypochlorite (OCl-). Low concentration hypochlorite is also produced from fugitive emissions and gas scrubbing in the balance of plant for the chloralkali subunit. Hypochlorite (OCl-) reacts with a produced water to form carbon dioxide and water as shown by the equation (16A) in a second vessel. Some hypochlorite (OCl-) may form oxygen gas (O2) under heating or catalysis. Common catalysts are mixed metal oxides, especially those of nickel, copper, zinc, and manganese. The produced water is formed during water separations process described below. 3nOCl- + CnH2n+1OH → nCO2 + 3nCl- + (n+1)H2O (16A) 2OCl- → O2 + 2Cl- (16B) 3OCl- → 2Cl- + ClO3- (16C)

[0132] Carbon dioxide generated by the stripper and hydrogen generated in the electrolyzer undergo Sabatier reaction in a third vessel to form methane (CH4). eMethane is then easily stored by conventional means. CO2+ 4H2→ CH4+ 2H2O (17) -25-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0133] Oxygen gas (O2) generated from the equation (16B), the reaction with the transition metal oxide or halide, or air reacts with methane (CH4) to undergo Fischer Tropsch process to form mixed hydrocarbons as shown by the equation (18). 2nCH4 + nO2 → 2CnH2n + 2nH2O (18)

[0134] The liquid hydrocarbon CnH2n (sl) undergoes water-hydrocarbon separation to form water-free or low-water hydrocarbons CnH2n and a produced water (H2O). CnH2n (sl)+ H2O (l) → CnH2n (l)+ H2O (l) (19)

[0135] All organic molecules may be more general and variable in practice. Isolated hydrocarbons can further be processed for e-natural gas, e-jet fuel, e-gasoline, or e-diesel. The produced water generated from the water-hydrocarbon separation contains residual alcohol and other organic molecules. The produced water is supplied to the stripper where the produced water reacts with hypochlorite (OCl-).

[0136] In one embodiment, a method of forming a hydrocarbon is disclosed. The method comprises providing electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form water and a second carbon dioxide; and providing the second carbon dioxide from the first vessel and second vessel and the hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel, wherein a hydrocarbon is formed.

[0137] In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is Li2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is NaHCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is Na2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is K2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is MgCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is SrCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is BaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate -26-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 is CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate in the first vessel is CaCO3. In some certain embodiments, the metal carbonate in the first vessel is a calcium carbonate solution.

[0138] In some embodiments, the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a methane (CH4).

[0139] In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is potassium chloride. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium bromide. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is potassium bromide. In some certain embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride.

[0140] In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fiber, porous barriers, or salt bridge. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by a cation or anion conducting membrane. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by glass fiber. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by porous barriers. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by salt bridge. An example of the chloralkali process with sodium chloride is summarized by the equation (20) below. 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) (20)

[0141] In some embodiments, the oxygen formed from the first vessel is obtained from a reaction between a metal catalyst and a hypochlorite.

[0142] In some embodiments, the metal catalyst is a transition metal oxide or transition metal halide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (I) oxide, manganese (II) oxide, manganese (III) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (V) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (VII) oxide, nickel (II) oxide, nickel (III) oxide, copper k(I) oxide, copper (II) oxide, copper (III) oxide, copper (IV) oxide, or zinc oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (I) -27-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (II) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (III) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (VI) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (V) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (VI) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is manganese (VII) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is nickel (II) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is nickel (III) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is copper (I) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is copper (II) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is copper (III) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is copper (IV) oxide. In some embodiments, the transition metal oxide is zinc oxide. In some certain embodiments, the transition metal halide is copper (I) chloride or copper (II) chloride.

[0143] In some embodiments, the oxygen formed from the second vessel is obtained from heating the hypochlorous acid.

[0144] In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing an oxygen gas formed from the second vessel and the first vessel to a fourth vessel; reacting the oxygen gas and the hydrocarbon to form liquid hydrocarbons; and removing water from the liquid hydrocarbons to form a mixture of fuel gas. The processes are described in the equations 21-23 below. CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O (21) 2nCH4 + nO2 → 2CnH2n + 2nH2O (22) CnH2n (sl)+ H2O (l) → CnH2n (l)+ H2O (l) (23)

[0145] In some embodiments, the mixture of fuel gas comprises natural gas, jet fuel, gasoline, or diesel.

[0146] In one embodiment, a method of neutralizing a produced water is disclosed. The method comprises providing a produced water; providing a hypochlorous acid; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid to form water and carbon dioxide. -28-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0147] In some embodiments, the produced water is a mixture of water and an alcohol. For example, the alcohol in the produced water is methanol or ethanol. In certain embodiments, the alcohol in the produced water is methanol. In some embodiments, the water formed is a clean water. In some embodiments, the produced water is formed by a water splitting process. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide is used for a gas to liquid process.

[0148] In one embodiment, the method for forming an efuel is disclosed. The method comprises providing electricity and an electrolyte to an electrochemical cell, wherein a faradaic process takes place within the cell to form a base, an acid, an oxidizing agent, and a reducing agent; and providing the acid to a first vessel comprising a buffer, wherein a conjugate acid, a conjugate base, and disproportionation products are formed.

[0149] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell is interruptible. In some embodiments, the acid and the oxidizing agent are the same chemical. In some embodiments, the reducing agent and the base are the same chemical. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an aqueous metal halide. In some embodiments, the faradaic process is an electrolysis. In some embodiments, the base is an aqueous hydroxide. In some embodiments, the acid is derived from an acid gas. In some certain embodiments, the acid gas is chlorine or bromine.

[0150] In some embodiments, the reducing agent is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Li. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Na. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is K. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Rb. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Cs. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Mg. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Ca. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Sr. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is Ba. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is sodium (Na) or potassium (K). In some embodiments, the reducing agent is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.

[0151] In some embodiments, the buffer is a metal carbonate. In some embodiments, the buffer is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, KHCO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some -29-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 embodiments, the buffer is Li2CO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is NaHCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is Na2CO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is K2CO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is KHCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is MgCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is CaCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is SrCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is BaCO3. In some embodiments, the buffer is CaMg(CO3)2.

[0152] In some embodiments, the reducing agent is hydrogen. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is selected from the group lanthanides. In some embodiments, the conjugate base is a metal chloride. In some embodiments, the conjugate acid is carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, the conjugate base is calcium chloride or magnesium chloride. In some embodiments, the conjugate base disproportionates into calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite. In some embodiments, the conjugate base disproportionates into calcium chloride and hypochlorous acid.

[0153] Process for producing methanol

[0154] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic diagram 1000 showing a methanol chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0155] FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic diagram 1100 showing a methanol chemical flow chart, according to some embodiments.

[0156] Referring to FIGs. 10-11, carbon dioxide generated by, or captured in, the system and hydrogen generated in the electrolyzer are reacted to form aqueous methanol (CH3OH) in a fourth vessel. CO2(g)+ 3H2(g→ CH3OH (g)+ H2O (g) (24)

[0157] The aqueous methanol is distilled to form pure methanol CH3OH (aq)+ H2O (l) → CH3OH (l) + H2O (l) (25)

[0158] The produced water generated from the distillation of the methanol contains residual alcohol. The produced water is supplied to the stripper where the produced water reacts with hypochlorite (OCl-). -30-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0159] In one embodiment, the method for forming a methanol is disclosed. The method comprises providing an electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form water and a second carbon dioxide; providing the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel and the hydrogen gas from the cell to a fourth vessel to form a crude methanol; distilling the crude methanol to form a methanol and a produced water; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel to form a clean.

[0160] In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is Li2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is NaHCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is Na2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is K2CO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is MgCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is SrCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is BaCO3. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate is CaCO3or CaMg(CO3)2. In some embodiments, the metal carbonate in the first vessel is CaCO3. In some certain embodiments, the metal carbonate in the first vessel is a calcium carbonate solution. In some embodiments, the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell.

[0161] In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is potassium chloride. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium bromide. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is potassium bromide. In some certain embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride. -31-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0162] In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fiber, porous barriers, or salt bridge. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by a cation or anion conducting membrane. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by glass fiber. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by porous barriers. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by salt bridge. The chloralkali process is summarized by the equation below. 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g) (26)

[0163] Process for byproducts

[0164] During the process of producing hydrocarbons, byproducts are formed. Such byproducts include aqueous sodium hydroxide NaOH from the electrolyzer and calcium chloride from the neutralizer. Sodium hydroxide and calcium chloride are further processed to form valuable chemicals such as alumina Al2O3, red brick, and calcium carbonate.

[0165] A sedimentary rock such as bauxite may be reacted with aqueous sodium hydroxide NaOH from the electrolyzer to form NaAl(OH)4 which absorbs carbon dioxide from the air to form Al(OH)3 and NaHCO3. Al(OH)3 decomposes to alumina Al2O3 as follows: 2NaOH + Al2O3 + 3H2O → 2NaAl(OH)4 (27) 2NaAl(OH)4 + 2CO2 → 2Al(OH)3 + 2NaHCO3 (28) 2Al(OH)3→ Al2O3+ 3H2O (29)

[0166] Aqueous sodium bicarbonate will react with calcium chloride (CaCl2) from the neutralizer to form calcium carbonate and liberate air-captured carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water and quickly forms precipitates, which is filtered or settles and removed from the solution: -32-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 CaCl2 (aq)+ 2NaHCO3 (aq) → CaCO3 (s) + 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) (30)

[0167] Aqueous sodium chloride generated in the equation (30) can be recycled and used in the electrolyzer. Carbon dioxide generated in the equation (30) can be recycled and used for Fischer Tropsch process.

[0168] In one embodiment, a method of capturing carbon dioxide from air is disclosed. The method comprises providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; capturing carbon dioxide from air; reacting the carbon dioxide with the sodium aluminate to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate.

[0169] In some embodiments, the sedimentary rock is bauxite. In some certain embodiments, the sedimentary rock has a chemical formula of Al2O3. In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxide is an aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the sodium aluminate is NaAl(OH)4. In some embodiments, the sodium bicarbonate is an aqueous solution.

[0170] In one embodiment, a method of capturing carbon dioxide from air is disclosed. The method comprises providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; capturing carbon dioxide from air; reacting the carbon dioxide with the sodium aluminate to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing an electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas; providing the chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed; providing the calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate.

[0171] In some embodiments, the sedimentary rock is bauxite. In certain embodiments, the sedimentary rock has a chemical formula of Al2O3. In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxide is an aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the sodium aluminate is NaAl(OH)4. In some embodiments, the sodium bicarbonate is an -33-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide. In some embodiments, the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride. In some embodiments, the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fiber, porous barriers, or salt bridge.

[0172] Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBOs, a.ka. “eFuels”) are drop-in replacements for fossil fuels in the “hard-to-abate” sectors, and utilise existing distribution and storage infrastructure, but suffer from low synthetic efficiency. In particular, the low efficiency and high energy consumption of hydrogen synthesis by freshwater electrolysis remains a problem to be addressed. In the current study, we explore the potential of saltwater electrolysis (chloralkali) for the synthesis of eFuels generally, and specifically eMethanol. The study explores the use of chlorinated water in carbonate-loop pH-swing “cold capture” of carbon dioxide, and the resulting synergetic integration of the chloralkali process in eFuel syntheses. Doing so eliminates the high energy consumption of the calciner and the slaker of the benchmarked carbonate-loop thermal-swing method. It is replaced with a spontaneous chemical process in which chlorine is neutralized in the presence of carbonates. This allows the simultaneous solution of “The Chlorine Problem” of saltwater electrolysis, and a lower overall energy consumption of direct air capture when combined with green hydrogen synthesis. The only limitation on the comparison is that a large amount of carbon dioxide is over-captured when using chloralkali. That is, the ratio of hydrogen generated to carbon dioxide captured is fixed by the stoichiometry of chloralkali and not that of the eFuel. This results in an excess of carbon captured and thus a carbon-negative eFuel. We examine one configuration of secondary revenue and use it to inform the marginal cost of CO2 capture. In the system of some embodiments, carbon dioxide is absorbed into caustic according to the standard method. Hydrogen gas is produced in a standard chloralkali electrolyzer, along with caustic for the contactor, and chlorine. Water oxidation by chlorine gives the strong acid, hydrochloric acid, and the weak acid, hypochlorous acid, which react directly with wet carbonate to release CO2. H2 and CO2 react in a methanol reactor to produce eFuel. H2is the limiting reagent for eFuel synthesis, giving an excess of cold captured CO2. Thus, the current study underscores significant advancements in renewable fuel synthesis, particularly eMethanol, and evaluates the carbon capture and energy efficiency of a novel method. The simulation -34-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 indicates that the marginal energy cost for a tonne of CO2 is~184kWh. This gives ~76% theoretical carbon capture efficiency and an overall process efficiency of 79.5% (approximately a threefold improvement over the benchmark). The overall system yields a tonne of carbon-neutral e-methanol (eMeOH) while capturing an additional 3 tonnes of carbon dioxide, which means the modelled process captures over 300% more carbon dioxide than is released upon combustion of the eFuel.

[0173] The benchmark model of some embodiments utilizes freshwater electrolysis combined with carbonate-loop thermal-swing direct air capture. In some embodiments, the model was optimized to reproduce widely published efficiencies (~28%). Other embodiments utilize the same functions and operations except for using saltwater electrolysis and “cold capture” of carbon dioxide.

[0174] Some embodiments provide an ambient temperature, pH-swing, “cold capture” method using chloralkali (saltwater) electrolysis to reduce energy consumption in CO2 capture and demonstrate an energy-efficient eFuel system (referred to hereafter as “ABT eFuel system,” “ABT system,” or “eFuel system”). The ABT eFuel system differs from benchmark systems by replacing alkaline water electrolysis with chloralkali electrolysis. This novelty is a significant added value to the literature in the field, which is completely silent on chloralkali and direct chlorination to boost eFuel efficiency and carbon capture. This electrolysis process yields not only hydrogen (H2) but also sodium hydroxide (NaOH), desalinated water, and chlorine gas (Cl2) as valuable outputs. What sets this approach apart is the integration of a neutralizer, eliminating the need for a calciner. Through an acid-base reaction between wet buffer CaCO3 and acids from water oxidation by chlorine, we neutralize chlorine while simultaneously capturing CO2from the air in a cold state. Moreover, the ABT system introduces a regeneration process where calcium hydroxide is produced via metathesis reaction with sodium hydroxide, yielding lime milk as a wet slurry, and completing the cycle. Thus, this research provides a more energy-efficient CO2capture and presents a holistic eFuel system that may revolutionize sustainable energy production.

[0175] Modelling Methodology -35-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0176] This section delves into a detailed overview of the process modelling and simulations carried out to evaluate and compare the energy performance of a Benchmark production model and the eFuel production system of some embodiments.

[0177] Modelling approach and assumptions

[0178] Both the benchmark and eFuel productions are modelled and simulated using a steady-state simulation, mainly focused on energy and mass transport phenomena. To simulate the non-ideal thermodynamic behaviour of brine and the relevant electrolyte system, the unsymmetrical electrolyte Non-Random Two-Liquid (NRTL) property method with Redlich-Kwong equations of state for the gas phase (i.e. ENRTL-RK) is utilized to determine the binary interaction parameters, electrolyte pair parameters, and equilibrium constants governing the precipitation reaction. The following assumptions are made during the modelling:

[0179] Each stream is ideally mixed without generating pressure, temperature, or concentration gradients.

[0180] The chemical equilibria for aqueous phase reactions, including electrolyte dissociations and salt precipitations, are achieved within each stream. These equilibria are predicted using information on thermodynamic properties, phase equilibria, and chemical reactions obtained from various databases.

[0181] Overall process chain

[0182] The eFuel production by means of the coupling of Direct Air Capture (DAC) and Green Hydrogen Production embodies a state-of-the-art strategy aimed at fulfilling the requisites for sustainable and carbon-neutral energy reservoirs. The following sections discuss the modelling and thermal energy analysis of both production systems, i.e. the Benchmark system and the AEB eFuel system.

[0183] FIG. 12 illustrates a configuration of a benchmark production system 1200, according to some embodiments. The Benchmark production system comprises several components, including the Air Contactor 1210, the Direct Air Capture System 1215, Green Hydrogen Production unit 1220 (i.e. alkaline electrolysis), eFuel Production module 1225, and eFuel Separation subsystem 1230. Initially, atmospheric air is drawn -36-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 into the air contactor, where the CO2 of air is absorbed by potassium hydroxide (KOH) to form potassium carbonate (K2CO3). The K2CO3 is then sent to the DAC hierarchy where it reacts with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and KOH. KOH is returned to the air contactor and CaCO3 is sent to the calciner for drying and regeneration of CaCO3 into CO2 and calcium oxide (CaO). The CO2 is cooled and compressed for further processing. Simultaneously, the (freshwater) electrolysis process is carried out in an alkaline electrolyzer to produce green hydrogen. The CO2 captured from the DAC and the H2 produced from the freshwater electrolyzer are then mixed to yield “renewable syngas”, which is used in the synthesis of eFuel.

[0184] FIG. 13 illustrates a block diagram of a process chain for the ABT eFuel production system 1300, according to some embodiments. Similar components of these embodiments have similar reference numerals. The ABT eFuel production system is based on chlor-alkali electrolysis and a CO2neutralization process. The CO2capture process in the ABT model shares certain components of the Benchmark up to the point of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) generation in the pellet reactor 1332. The remaining energy intensive processes of the Benchmark system (i.e. calcination and slaking) are replaced by the spontaneous pH-swing “cold-capture” neutralization process. In the ABT system, CaCO3 obtained from the pellet reactor is sent to the neutralizer 1335. Separately, the chlor-alkali electrolytic electron exchange is driven by the power circuit (in chlor-alkali reactor 1340) to produce hydrogen gas (H2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), desalinated water, and chlorine gas (Cl2). In the neutralizer 1335, wet CaCO3 reacts with Cl2 gas to produce CO2 gas, calcium chloride (CaCl2), and hypochlorous acid via direct water oxidation by chlorine. Further reaction gives calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2). Hypochlorite ion may be decomposed to oxygen and chloride under catalysis by divalent transition metals, and in particular by mixed metal oxides containing nickel, copper, and zinc oxide (NCZO). The hydrogen produced from chlor-alkali electrolysis and CO2released from the neutralizer is sent to the eFuel production hierarchy 1350 for eFuel production. Also, the CaCl2 and NaOH by-products released from the neutralizer 1335 and chlor-alkali reactor 1340, respectively, react via metathesis to produce a slurry of Ca(OH)2which is recycled back to the DAC, and sodium chloride (saltwater) which can be discharged or recycled. -37-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0185] FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic diagram of an air contactor 1400, according to some embodiments. The air contactor 1400 is the primary component of any DAC system It facilitates the interaction between the atmospheric air containing CO2and the solvent that captures and separates CO2. The primary function of the air contactor is to provide a mechanism for CO2 molecules in the incoming air to contact and adhere to the capture medium. This allows for the selective separation and removal of CO2from the atmospheric air. The remaining air, now with reduced CO2concentration, is released back into the atmosphere.

[0186] In some embodiments, the absorption process within the air contactor unit involves complex thermodynamics due to the presence of both physical and chemical equilibria within an electrolyte system. Thus, the unsymmetrical electrolyte Non- Random Two-Liquid (NRTL) property method (ENRTL-RK) is utilized to determine the binary interaction parameters, electrolyte pair parameters, and equilibrium constants governing the precipitation reaction. The air contactor system of some embodiments includes four cross-flow absorption columns 1410a, 1410b, 1410c, 1410d arranged in parallel. A rate-based model is selected to determine the mathematical correlation for non-ideal thermodynamics, interphase component transfer and chemical reactions. In addition to the ENRTL-RK property method, to simulate the rate-based model other parameters like reaction conditions factor, film discretization ratio, liquid film discretization points and interfacial area factors are required. Atmospheric air at a flow rate of 1x106 kg / hr, and having 0.06% mass fraction of CO2 (in agreement with established benchmarks) is drawn at the bottom of the packed-based absorption column, while 1x104 kg / hr of 30% potassium hydroxide (i.e. KOH) solvent is supplied from the top of the column at standard ambient conditions (i.e. 1 bar pressure and 25°C temperature).

[0187] FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic representation of direct air capture (DAC) system 1500, according to some embodiments. The DAC system 1500 includes four different blocks, i.e. the air contactor (e.g., air contactor 1400, not shown in FIG. 15), pellet reactor 1520, slaker 1530, and calciner 1540. The unsymmetrical electrolyte Non- Random Two-Liquid (NRTL) property method (ENRTL-RK) is utilized to determine the binary interaction parameters, electrolyte pair parameters, and equilibrium constants governing the precipitation reaction. The CO2-rich solution in the form of potassium -38-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 ions (K+) and carbonate ions (CO32-) received from the air contactor block is sent to the Pellet reactor block. In this block potassium ion (K+) and carbonate ions (CO32-) react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and recycle the KOH solution. Depending upon the air quality, some amount of CaCO3 is replaced with fresh feedstock to compensate for the deterioration of the chemical properties. The CaCO3is washed with water to remove impurities and sent to the calciner. The Calciner block requires a large amount of heat energy for the regeneration of CaCO3into calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide. The CO2 released from the calciner is compressed and stored for further use. The calciner is the most energy-intensive part of the DAC system, which requires approximately 50% of the total energy required for the DAC system. The CaO is hydrated with water in the slaker to form the Ca(OH)2 solution and recycled back to the pellet reactor. The main reactions involved in the DAC system are given below. Also, an electrolyte Wizard tool with an unsymmetrical reference of ionic state components along with the ENRTL-RK property method is used to identify the salts and precipitates generated during the process.

[0188] Air Contactor: 2KOH^^^^ + CO^^ → K^CO^^^ + H^O^^^∆H° = −95.8^^^ (31)

[0189] Pellet Reactor:

[0190] Calciner∆H° = 178.3 ^^^^^ (33)

[0191] Slaker -39-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 CaO^^^ + H^O^^^ → Ca^OH^^^^^∆H° = −63.9^^^ (34)

[0192] FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic representation of an alkaline water electrolyzer 1600, according to some embodiments. To generate the essential H2 gas required for the CO2 hydrogenation process, the benchmark system employs alkaline water electrolysis. An alkaline water electrolyzer 1600 has typically been chosen due to being a mature technology; offering reasonable efficiency and cost-effectiveness compared to other emerging water electrolysis techniques. This system includes several electrolytic cells arranged in a stack 1610, allowing for the desired gas production capacity. Each cell is comprised of an anode and a cathode immersed in an aqueous electrolyte solution containing either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. During operation, a direct current is applied to the cell, initiating the reduction of protons in water at the cathode. This process leads to the formation of H2gas as electrons from the external circuit combine with the protons in the aqueous solution.

[0193] Cathode: 2$% + 2&' → $^ (35)

[0194] Anode:

[0195] Overall process: $^) → $^ + ^^ )^ (37)

[0196] eFuel synthesis

[0197] The CO2 hydrogenation process for efficient eFuel (i.e. eMethanol) production requires an efficient chemical process as well as inexpensive raw materials. The current section develops a simulation of eFuel production. The RK-Soave property method along NRTL models is used to evaluate the binary interaction parameters. The -40-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 eFuel production pathway through CO2 hydrogenation primarily involves following three equilibrium reactions.

[0198] From the above equations, it can be seen that although the conversion of CO2 to CO is an endothermic reaction (absorbs heat energy during the process), the conversions of CO and CO2 to methanol (Reactions A and C) are exothermic, releasing heat. A number called the Stoichiometric Number is a useful tool to determine the acceptable mixtures for the methanol process. The calculation for SN is as follows: 23 = 456'4786478'478 (41)6

[0199] Where YH2is the molar flow rate of hydrogen, YCO2is the molar flow rate of CO2, YCO is the molar flow rate of CO. When only CO2 and H2 are present in the feed, maintaining a H2:CO2 ratio of 3:1 ensures that SN equals to 2. When all three components (CO2, CO, and H2) are present in the feed, the mole fractions must be adjusted to achieve an SN equal to 2. If SN is greater than 2, it means there is an excess of H2 in the feed gas, while an SN less than 2 indicates an excess of carbon. Several Catalysts are available in the market for the CO2hydrogenation process. However, the current study used Cu / ZnO / Al2O3 catalyst.

[0200] FIG. 17 illustrates a simulation 1700 of eMethanol production, according to some embodiments. The CO2and H2received from the DAC and alkaline electrolyzer flowrates (resp.) matching with the stoichiometric number (SN = 2) are fed into the catalytic reactor 1710 operating at 70 bar pressure and 270°C temperature. Due to limitations imposed by chemical equilibrium, the conversion process does not reach completion. As a result, the reactor’s output includes products (methanol and water) as well as unreacted starting materials (COx and hydrogen), which are separated in the flash separator. -41-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0201] FIG. 18 illustrates the effect of H2 and CO2 molar feed ratio on the eFuel production rate and energy consumption by the catalytic reactor, according to some embodiments. It is apparent from equation (11) that to maintain an SN of 2 for the maximum eFuel production rate, the molar ratio of inputs to the catalytic reactor (i.e. H2:CO2) must be 3:1. A molar ratio less than 3 represents a CO2 rich feed, and a molar ratio greater than 3 represents a H2rich feed. Thus, the eFuel production rate increases as the molar ratio approaches 3, reaching a peak near 3. However, beyond this point, a further increase in the molar ratio leads to a significant decrease in eFuel production rate. The eFuel production from the catalytic CO2 hydrogenation process is an exothermic process (refer to eq (10)), which means heat is released during eFuel synthesis. FIG. 18 demonstrates that eFuel synthesis is exothermic near the molar ratio of 3 and it becomes endothermic beyond the molar ratio 3. This is because of incomplete utilization of one of the reactants. This imbalance alters the reaction pathways and potentially favouring the formation of intermediate products or side reactions that require more energy input, thereby making the overall process less efficient.

[0202] In some embodiments, the Benchmark eFuel system is designed to produce approximately 1 ton / hr of methanol. In this system, the fresh CO2 and H2 streams are compressed and fed to the reactor along with mixing of the recycled unreacted oxycarbon stream. The reactor in the simulation is a plug flow reactor (RPlug) having 6 meter length and 0.06 meter diameter, with 100 tubes loaded with 300 kg of catalyst and operated at 270°C temperature and 70 bar pressure. The outlet stream at the reactor contains eMethanol and water, as well as unreacted COx. A heat exchanger (HX-3) is introduced between the inlet and outlet stream of the reactor to transfer the excess heat of the outlet stream. The outlet stream is further cooled down in a cooler (Cooler-1) and is flashed in a separator (Sep-6) to separate the methanol and water from the unreacted COxand H2, which are compressed and recycled back to the inlet. The eMethanol-water stream is further supplied to a distillation column to obtain purified eFuel.

[0203] Process parameters and performance

[0204] In some embodiments, the integration of Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology with Green Hydrogen Generation presents a promising avenue for efficient eFuel production. Thus, this section delves into the system specifications as well as the -42-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 process parameters and performance metrics that underpin this approach. These parameters include energy consumption by the air contactor fan, carbon capture yield, methanol production yield, and overall energy efficiency.

[0205] In a DAC system of some embodiments, atmospheric air is initially drawn into the air contactor through fans, which require a large amount of electrical energy. To calculate the energy consumption by the fan to draw atmospheric air into the DAC system, Keith et al. presented an air contactor model where energy consumption by the fan of the air contactor can be calculated using the following equation. I^^^ J^^K L^MN ^J ^OL PQR TU VLN^^WLN XL^V Y nergy consumption by Fan = S^^ E^^^M^L NJJOZON[Z\(42)

[0206] The pressure drop may be calculated as: Pressure drop ^Pa^ = Packing depth x 7.4 x air velocity^.^d (43)

[0207] The carbon capture yield of the system can be calculated as: Carbon capture yield

[0208] The eFuel production yield is calculated by using: eFuel yield = ^^^^L J^^K L^MN ^J NiWN^I^^^L J^^K L^MN ^J ef6 x 100 (45)

[0209] The energy efficiency of the overall system can be calculated as: Energy efficiency100 (46)

[0210] Where the total energy content from eMethanol produced = Mass flow rate of eFuel produced × calorific value of eFuel.

[0211] Modelling of ABT eFuel production system

[0212] FIG. 19 illustrates a block diagram of the air contactor and DAC hierarchy 1900, according to some embodiments. The ABT eFuel production system is based on chlor-alkali electrolysis and ABT’s CO2 neutralization process. The difference between the air contactor model for the modelled ABT system and the Benchmark lies in the CO2 -43-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 release process. In the ABT model, The CO2 capture process is equivalent to the Benchmark up to the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) generation in the pellet reactor. However, the remaining energy intensive processes of the Benchmark system (i.e. calciner and slaker) are replaced by the spontaneous pH- swing “cold-capture” ABT neutralization process. In the ABT system, CaCO3 obtained from the pellet reactor is sent to the neutralizer. With fans modelled as a compressor open to atmosphere with ~25 Torr pressure drop, atmospheric air at a flow rate of 9900 tonnes / hr, and having 0.06% mass fraction of CO2 is drawn at the bottom of the packed-bed absorption column, while 100 tonnes / hr of 30% potassium hydroxide (KOH(aq)) solvent is supplied from the top of the column under standard ambient conditions (i.e. 1 bar pressure and 25°C temperature). In the absorption column, the CO2 present in atmospheric air reacts with KOH to form a mixture of KHCO3 and K2CO3 after Keith et al. The CO2 rich solvent (i.e. K2CO3) received from the air contactors is sent to the pellet reactor where it reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form CaCO3. The following chemical reactions take place in these subsystems:

[0213] Air Contactor: 2KOH^^^^ + CO^^^^ → K^CO^^lm^ + H^O^^^∆H° = −95.8 ^^^^^ (47)

[0214] Pellet Reactor: K^CO^^^^^ + Ca^OH^^^n^ → 2KOH^^^^ + CaCO^^n^

[0215] Modelling of Chlor-alkali reactor

[0216] FIG. 20 illustrates a block diagram modelling of the Chlor-alkali electrolyzer hierarchy 2000, according to some embodiments. The chloralkali electrolysis process generates chlorine gas (Cl2), hydrogen gas (H2), desalinated water, and caustic soda (NaOH) from NaCl brine and electricity (q.v. eq. 21). Generally, the chlor-alkali process has a higher operating voltage (i.e. 2.23V) compared to fresh water electrolysis (1.23V), but due to the overpotential of the oxygen evolution reaction -44-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 (OER), the chlorine evolution reaction (CER) is kinetically favoured and enjoys the advantages of higher theoretical and real operating efficiencies than freshwater electrolysis. In the current eFuel model of the chloralkali electrolysis system, 26 wt.% NaCl brine at 30°C and 1.2 bar pressure is sent to the electrolyzer 2005. Initially, at the anode, the NaCl brine dissociates into Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions, then the chloride (Cl-) ions are oxidized into chlorine by following eq. 19 (the chlorine evolution reaction, “CER”). A barrier of some kind impedes the mixing of the anolyte and the catholyte. Sodium charge balances the electron exchange by migrating across the barrier to the catholyte. Simultaneously, in the catholyte, the water is reduced into hydrogen (H2) and hydroxide (OH-) ions by following eq. 20 (the hydrogen evolution reaction, “HER”), which is charge balanced by the sodium ion. In this way, the anolyte is depleted of salt while the catholyte becomes a solution of caustic soda. Mixing of the electrolytes leads to side reactions which reduce the energy efficiency. Chlorine tolerant cation exchange membranes allow for high efficiency but are expensive and very sensitive to hard cations such as calcium and magnesium, both of which are present throughout the ABT system as described. Barriers such as glass fibres are cheap and robust, and less sensitive to calcium ions, but this comes at an efficiency penalty versus membranes.

[0217] Cathode: 2H^O + 2e' → H^ + 2OH', E° = −0.83 V (49)

[0218] Anode: 2Cl' → Cl '^ + 2e , E° = 1.36 V (50)

[0219] Overall process: q^NZML^^\^O^2NaCl + 2H^O r¾¾¾¾¾¾¾t 2NaOH + H^ + Cl^ (51)

[0220] FIG. 21 illustrates a block diagram modelling the neutralizer hierarchy 2100, according to some embodiments. The neutralizer 2105 is a vital, novel component of the ABT eFuel model, which neutralizes Cl2with wet CaCO3into CO2and CaCl2. In the neutralizer 2105, the Cl2 released from the chlor-alkali reactor is saturated with water (H2O) to produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). The HCl and -45-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 HOCl acids are further utilized to neutralize the CaCO3 to remove CO2 and produce calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), respectively. Although calcium hypochlorite is a valuable, saleable product, we here consider the case of decomposing the hypochlorite to the chloride and oxygen. This allows us to make an apples-to-apples comparison with the benchmark production system 1200. It decomposes rapidly over mixed metal oxides (MMO), and over Nickel-Copper-Zinc particular: Cl^ + H^O → HCl + HClO (52)CaCO^ + 2HCl → CaCl^ + H^O + CO^ (53)CaCO^ + 2HClO → Ca^OC〖l^〗^ + H^O + CO^ (54)Ca^OC〖l^〗^ + CaCl^ + O^ (55)

[0221] Process parameters and performance

[0222] In some embodiments, to evaluate the performance of the ABT eFuel production system, there are various parameters. These include an optimal molar ratio of hydrogen to CO2for achieving maximum methanol yield, carbon capture yield, methanol production yield, and the efficiency of the chlor-alkali electrolyzer considering all the non-waste heat products. The detailed specification of the main components used in ABT’s eFuel production system are provided in supplementary Tables 1 & 2. In a DAC system, atmospheric air is initially drawn into the air contactor through fans, which require a large amount of electrical energy.

[0223] Further, the energy efficiency of the chloralkali electrolyzer can be calculated as:

[0224] Where, ηcae represents the energy efficiency of the chloralkali electrolyzer. The theoretical minimum energy input is calculated by finding the Gibbs free energy using the Nernst equation, which is used in electrochemistry to relate the cell potential (Ecell) to the standard electrode potential (E°cell), temperature, and concentrations of the -46-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 chemical reactants and products involved in the redox reactions at the electrodes. The Nernst equation is given by:

[0225] Where, Ecell is the cell potential under non-standard conditions, E° is the standard cell potential, R is the ideal gas constant (8314 J / mol-K), T is temperature in Kelvins, n is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the balanced redox reaction, F is the Faraday constant (96,485 C / mol) and Q is the reaction quotient.

[0226] The redox cell potential (Ecell) for a chlor-alkali electrolyzer is the difference of the half-cell potential for the chlorine evolution reaction (ECER) and the half-cell potential for hydrogen evolution (EHER). The Nernst potentials for chlorine production at the anode and hydrogen production at cathode are 1.36 V and -0.83 V, respectively. The half-cell potential for hydrogen is negative due to the fact that a product of its reduction, OH-, is built up in the catholyte, which resists the further formation of H2. z{|}} = z^^~ − z^^~ (58)z^^~ = z°^^~ − ~^^^ ^^^ (59)

[0227] To check the spontaneity of the chemical reaction, the Gibbs free energy change (ΔG°), enthalpy change (ΔH°) and entropy change (ΔS°) play crucial roles. At different temperatures, the Gibbs free energy change can shift a reaction from being spontaneous to non-spontaneous or vice versa. Thus, the general formula connecting these thermodynamic quantities is: ∆^° = ∆$° − ^∆2° (61)Table 2: Thermodynamic conditions of components S. No. Compound ΔG° (kJ / mol) ΔH° (kJ / mol) ΔS° (kJ / mol-K) -47-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 1 H2O (l) -237.2 -285.8 0.0699 2 NaCl (s) -384.0 -410.9 0.0723 3 NaOH (aq) -419.2 -469.6 0.049 4 H2 (g) 0 0 0.0131 5 O2 (g) 0 0 0.0205 6 Cl2 (g) 0 0 0.2296 7 HCl (aq) -131.2 -167.2 0.056 8 HClO (aq) -79.9 -26.2 0.0360 9 CaCO3 (s) -1128.7 -1207.1 0.09288 10 CaCl2 (aq) -748.1 -795.8 0.1046 11 CO2 (g) -394.4 -393.5 0.2136 12 Ca(OCl)2 (aq) -578.5 -491.5 0.2917 13 Ca(OH)2 -898.5 -986.2 0.0834

[0228] Where the standard Gibbs free energy (ΔG°), enthalpy (ΔH°) and entropy (ΔS°) for a reaction can be calculated by using the following equation: ∆G = ∑ ∆G° products − ∑ ∆G° reactants (62)∆H = ∑ ∆H° products − ∑ ∆H° reactants (63)∆S = ∑ ∆S° products − ∑ ∆S° reactants (64)-48-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0229] Further, in some embodiments, to determine spontaneity using these values follow the following conditions:

[0230] If ΔG <0 and ΔH> 0 (endothermic) while ΔS> 0, the reaction will be spontaneous at high temperatures and non-spontaneous at low temperatures.

[0231] If ΔG> 0 and ΔH> 0 (endothermic) while ΔS <0, the reaction will not be spontaneous at any temperature.

[0232] If ΔG <0 and ΔH <0 (exothermic) while ΔS <0, the reaction will be spontaneous at low temperatures and non-spontaneous at high temperatures.

[0233] If ΔG> 0 and ΔH <0 (exothermic) while ΔS> 0, the reaction will be spontaneous at any temperature. S. No. Chemical Reaction Spontaneity at Low Temp 1q^NZML^^\^O^2NaCl + 2H^O r¾¾¾¾¾¾¾t 2NAOH + H^ + Cl^ Not Spontaneous2 Cl^ + H^O → HCl + HClO Spontaneous3 CaCO^ + 2HCl → CaCl^ + H^O + CO^ Spontaneous4 CaCO^ + 2HClO → Ca^OC〖l^〗^ + H^O + CO^ Spontaneous5 Ca^OCl^^ → CaCl^ + O^ Spontaneous6 2NaOH + CaCl^ → Ca^OH^^ + NaCl Spontaneous

[0234] Result and Discussion

[0235] In some embodiments, both the eFuel systems are designed for the same input and output values (i.e. to produce ~1ton / hr of eMethanol and ~3 ton / hr of over captured carbon) to compare their thermal performance. A sensitivity analysis is carried out to evaluate the effect of different input parameters on the performance of the system. -49-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 Based on the sensitivity analysis results, the optimum parameters are calculated for every described component of the system and its optimized performance.

[0236] Benchmark eFuel production system with over captured CO2

[0237] Overall Productivity

[0238] In some embodiments, Atmospheric air having a CO2 concentration of 0.06 awt.% with a mass flow rate of 9900 tons / hr (i.e.5.94 tons / hr of CO2) is drawn into the DAC system, which is absorbed by 100 tons / hr of 30 wt.% KOH solution. Simultaneously, ~0.214 ton / hr of H2 (equivalent to 96 kmol / hr of H2) is produced through alkaline freshwater electrolysis. The molar ratio of hydrogen (H2) to carbon dioxide (CO2) is set at 3:1, operating at a reactor temperature of 270°C and a pressure of 70 bar. The total utilities required include 27.18 MWh for heating, 14.61 MWh for cooling, and 7.91 MWh for electrical utilities, summing up to 49.7 MWh. The system exhibits an overall energy efficiency of ~27%, producing 1.05 ton / hr of eFuel with a calorific value of 22.7 MJ / kg. The carbon capture yield reaches ~76%, capturing 4.63 ton / hr of CO2 out of 5.94 ton / hr from the inlet air containing 0.06% CO2. To calculate the energy input lost as heat, we add up the total enthalpy into each component and the total enthalpy out of each component. The difference is the heat lost to the system. Table 3: Results output from the optimized benchmark system-50-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0239] FIG. 22 demonstrates the effect of varying the calciner temperature on the heat duty at varying mass flow rates of CaCO3, according to some embodiments. Increasing the calciner temperature generally leads to a higher heat duty requirement. This is because raising the temperature requires more energy input to reach and sustain the desired operating temperature within the calciner. At higher temperatures, the endothermic reaction of decomposing CaCO3into CaO and CO2becomes more favourable. Consequently, a higher temperature would drive the equilibrium towards the product formation, accelerating the process but demanding more heat energy to maintain the elevated temperature.

[0240] In some embodiments, the mass flow rate of CaCO3affects the heat duty of the calciner. A higher mass flow rate of CaCO3 requires more energy for the calcination process. When the mass flow rate is CaCO3increases, more reactant is introduced into the calciner. To maintain the desired temperature for the calcination reaction, additional energy is needed to provide the heat required to raise the temperature -51-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 of the incoming material and facilitate the decomposition process. Consequently, an increase in the mass flow rate of CaCO3 will lead to a rise in the heat duty of the calciner due to the higher amount of material that needs to be processed and heated.

[0241] Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Increasing the catalyst loading typically enhances the rate of the chemical reactions involved in eFuel production. In some embodiments, this can lead to a higher production rate of eFuels per unit time. The catalysts lower the activation energy required for reactions to occur. As catalyst loading increases, the barrier to chemical reactions decreases. This means that at higher catalyst loadings, a large number of reactant molecules can overcome the activation energy barrier, resulting in faster eFuel production rates. However, there is often an optimal catalyst loading level. Beyond this point, further increases in catalyst loading will not lead to a proportionate increase in eFuel production rate. This is because a saturation effect can occur, where a sufficient number of active sites on the catalyst are already engaged in the reaction, and additional catalyst active sites may not contribute significantly.

[0242] Energy Analysis

[0243] This section focuses on the total energy consumption of the current benchmark eFuel production model and introduces the concept of heat integration through Pinch technology. The goal of heat integration is to optimize energy usage and reduce utility costs within the system. Pinch technology achieves this by designing heat exchangers that efficiently transfer heat from hot streams with surplus energy to cold streams requiring heating. While the implementation of Pinch technology typically leads to reduced utility expenses, it involves the installation of additional heat exchangers within the production process.

[0244] FIG. 23 shows the heat exchanger network of the Benchmark system, according to some embodiments. The blue streams at the top represent the cold utility, followed by red streams that represent the heat released from the system, after that the next blue streams represent the blocks that require heat energy for their operations, and finally, the red stream at the end represents the heating utilities. The vertical lines represent the transfer of energy between two streams. FIG. 12 further shows the -52-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 requirement of 25.72 MWh of heat energy in the calciner block, while 13.02 MWh of heat energy at 30°C is rejected from the slaker block.

[0245] In some embodiments, a heat exchanger (i.e. HX-11550 in FIG. 15) may be integrated into the system between the stream coming from the washer block and the stream coming from the calciner block, where 4.621 MWh of excess heat from the calciner is transferred to the stream before reaching the slaker. The catalytic reactor is the main component of the eFuel system, where the water gas shift reaction takes place at 270°C temperature and 70 bar pressure, which is an exothermic process and releases 0.022 MWh as heat at the given production rates. To enhance overall energy efficiency in eFuel production, a heat exchanger (i.e. HX-31715 in FIG. 17) may be integrated into the system, which plays a vital role in capturing and harnessing the heat energy generated within the catalytic reactor. Its purpose is to transfer this heat from the outlet stream of the catalytic reactor to the incoming stream destined for the reactor’s inlet. This design ensures that the energy released during the exothermic reaction is not wasted but rather is utilized to preheat the incoming reactant stream, contributing to process efficiency.

[0246] FIG. 24 and FIG. 25 demonstrate the total energy consumption within the benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components and utility types, respectively. FIG. 24 demonstrates that the production of 1.05 ton / hr of eFuel via the benchmark model required a total energy of 49.7 MWh. In the pursuit of CO2 capture, a substantial proportion of energy within the benchmark eFuel production model is absorbed by the calciner (52%) and slaker (26%) to capture 4.63 ton / hr of CO2. These components demand heat energy at elevated temperatures of 900°C and 300°C, respectively. Additionally, the freshwater electrolyzer consumes 7.73 MWh (16%) of the overall system’s energy in the form of electrical energy to produce 0.214 ton / hr of H2.

[0247] Carbon Neutral Benchmark eFuel production system

[0248] In some embodiments, the system analyzes the energy requirements of a carbon-neutral eFuel production system, where only the necessary amount of CO2 is captured (i.e. 1.56 ton / hr) and utilized in the eFuel production process. In this system, Atmospheric air having a CO2 concentration of 0.06 wt.% with a mass flow rate of 3300 -53-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 tons / hr (i.e.1.98 tons / hr of CO2) is drawn into the DAC system, which is absorbed by ~32 tons / hr of 30 wt.% KOH solution. Simultaneously, ~0.214 ton / hr of H2 (equivalent to 96 kmol / hr of H2) is produced through alkaline freshwater electrolysis. The molar ratio of hydrogen (H2) to carbon dioxide (CO2) is set at 3:1, operating at a reactor temperature of 270°C and a pressure of 70 bar. The total utilities required include 11.12 MWh for heating, 4.42 MWh for cooling, and 7.74 MWh for electrical utilities, summing up to 23.28 MWh.

[0249] FIG. 26 and FIG. 27 demonstrate the total energy consumption within the carbon neutral benchmark eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components and utility types, respectively. FIG. 26 demonstrates that the production of 1.04 tons / hr of eFuel via the benchmark model required a total energy of 23.28 MWh. In the pursuit of CO2 capture, a substantial proportion of energy within the benchmark eFuel production model is absorbed by the calciner (42%) and slaker (13%) to capture 1.558 tons / hr of CO2. These components demand heat energy at elevated temperatures of 900°C and 300°C, respectively. Additionally, the freshwater electrolyzer consumes 33% of the overall system’s energy in the form of electrical energy to produce 0.214 tons / hr of H2.

[0250] ABT eFuel production system

[0251] Overall Productivity

[0252] In some embodiments, , atmospheric air having a CO2concentration of 0.06 wt.% with a mass flow rate of 9900 tons / hr (i.e.5.94 tons / hr of CO2) is drawn into the DAC system, which is absorbed by 100 tons / hr of 30 wt.% KOH solution. Simultaneously, in a chloralkali electrolyzer, a brine solution at 26 wt.% and flowing at 50 tons / hr undergoes electrolysis, yielding 0.215 tons / hr of hydrogen (with an energy consumption of 66.40 kWh per kg of H2), 7.53 tons / hr of Cl2 (requiring an additional 1.89 kWh per kg of Cl2), and 8.50 tons / hr of NaOH (with an additional energy expenditure of 1.67 kWh per kg of NaOH). The overall energy efficiency of this electrolyzer stands at 75.70%, considering the theoretical minimum of 2.23V for Ecell, using the following equation: ∆^ = ^^z{|}} (65)-54-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0253] and the model’s duty cycle for the subprocess. Chlorine from the chlor- alkali electrolyzer reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to separate CO2. This results in capturing 4.63 tons / hr of CO2from the neutralizer, achieving a carbon capture yield of 76%. The hydrogen produced from the chloralkali electrolyzer, combined with the captured CO2 from the neutralizer, undergoes reaction within the catalytic reactor, resulting in the production of 1.05 tons / hr of eFuel, which is 37% of the overall energy consumption of the system.

[0254] Energy Consumption

[0255] This section discusses the energy consumption of individual components of the modified eFuel system. ABT eFuel production has a total utility consumption of 17.9 MWh to produce 1.05 tons / hr of eFuel along with 3.07 tons / hr of over captured CO2. Fig. 17 shows the fractional energy consumption by various components. The chlor-alkali electrolyzer consumes 14.21 MWh of energy to produce 0.214 tons / hr of H2, 7.53 tons / hr of Cl2 and 8.50 tons / hr of NaOH.

[0256] Pinch technology optimizes heat integration by designing heat exchangers that pair hot streams with surplus energy to cold streams in need of heating. FIG. 28 illustrates the heat exchanger network of the modelled ABT eFuel system, according to some embodiments. The same order and colour code applies as with the Benchmark model described previously in FIG. 23.

[0257] FIG. 29 and FIG. 30 demonstrate the total energy consumption within the chlor-alkali based eFuel production model of some embodiments, showcasing the breakdown by components and utility types, respectively. It is shown in FIG. 29 that the chlor-alkali based eFuel production system requires much less energy (17.9 MWh) to produce 1.05 tons / hr of eFuel along with 3.07 tons / hr of over captured CO2. In this system, highly energy intensive components (i.e. the calciner and slaker) from the benchmark model are replaced by the neutralizer performing spontaneous chemical reactions. As compared to the benchmark model with equivalent input and output (i.e. benchmark model with over-captured CO2), the chlor-alkali based eFuel production system consumes 64% less energy.

[0258] Sensitivity Analysis -55-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0259] This section explores the influence in some embodiments of varying key parameters on the overall performance of the system. This sensitivity analysis not only provides valuable insights into the process optimization but also aids in identifying optimal operating conditions required to achieve higher methanol yields while considering energy efficiency.

[0260] In some embodiments, the production of the chloralkali electrolyzer changes at varying extents of single-pass NaCl electrolysis (“conversion”). The electrolysis of NaCl produces chlorine gas (Cl2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), hydrogen gas (H2), and desalinated water, where feed brine is broken down into Cl2 at the anode and H2at the cathode. Simultaneously, NaOH is formed as a by-product in the aqueous solution. The extent of single-pass conversion in the reactor contributes to the efficiency of production. Higher conversion rates lead to greater eddy currents and edge effects, heat loading and bubble occlusion. However, this leads to higher equipment capital efficiency.

[0261] FIG. 31 illustrates the yield in some embodiments of the products of chlor- alkali electrolysis at varying feed salt concentrations (steady state). FIG. 32 illustrates yields of eFuel production (kg / hr) and CO2capture mass efficiency (from air, %) at varying feed brine concentrations, according to some embodiments.

[0262] In some embodiments, in a real chlor-alkali reactor, the concentration of NaCl in the brine solution affects the kinetics of the electrolysis process and consequently impacts the yield of Cl2 and NaOH. Higher NaCl mass fractions generally result in higher efficiency due to lower cell resistance up to a certain point, after which there are diminishing returns due to factors such as increased solution viscosity. Also, an increased concentration of NaCl in the feed brine results in a higher quantity of Na+ ions in the electrolyte solution. These Na+ ions are strongly attracted to the electrode, leading to their accumulation on or near the cathode surface. This accumulation can impede the ability of H+ ions to access active sites on the cathode, hindering their participation in the electrochemical processes (as shown in FIG. 32). Higher concentrations of NaCl mean there are more ions available in the solution for electrolysis, potentially leading to higher currents and more efficient electrolysis, which results in increased production rates of Cl2 at the anode and NaOH at the cathode, however, extremely high concentrations pose challenges such as increased energy -56-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 consumption, higher heat generation due to increased resistance, and potential scaling or crystallization issues within the system, which could reduce the efficiency of the process. Lower NaCl concentrations lead to reduced production rates of Cl2and NaOH due to fewer ions being available for electrolysis per unit time, and therefore higher resistance.

[0263] Energy Consumption Comparison

[0264] In this section, the ABT eFuel production model of some embodiments is compared to the benchmark. The ABT eFuel production system aims to enhance energy efficiency in CO2 capture by employing chlor-alkali electrolysis and leveraging chlorine- saturated water to neutralize CaCO3 instead of the energy-intensive calciner, thus presenting a significant improvement over the benchmark model in terms of energy consumption and chemical product diversification. Table 4 Comparison between benchmark eFuel and chlor-alkali based eFuel system.-57-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0265] FIG. 33 illustrates a side-by-side comparison of the ABT eFuel and the Benchmark eFuel system based on energy consumption, according to some embodiments. For this, both the systems have been considered for equivalent input and output conditions to evaluate energy consumption.

[0266] We wished to calculate the energy input lost as heat. To do this, it was necessary to add up the total enthalpy into each component and the total enthalpy out of each component. The difference is the heat lost to the system. The value obtained for the benchmark agreed with the previous calculations within error: 27.34%. The value obtained for ABT eFuel was 79.53%. This suggests an efficiency gain of over 52% (almost three-fold).

[0267] In order to calculate the total cost of energy to capture carbon dioxide in the systems of some embodiments, add up the DAC subprocesses and divide by the overall amount of carbon captured (4.415t in this case). In the case of the benchmark model this gives us 8.8MWh / tCO2. In the case of the ABT eFuel model, the energy consumption to produce hydrogen is co-mingled with the energy to capture carbon. We include the electricity consumption of the chloralkali electrolyzer, since a large part of its energy consumption goes into the cold capture process, and then subtract the energy consumption of a freshwater electrolyzer, in order to remove the energy cost of hydrogen. Doing so gives an energy cost of total carbon capture for ABT eFuel of 1.67MWh / tCO2. Note, however, in this report we have neutralized all of the coproducts we could’ve made. That skews the power consumption very high. Nonetheless, it is over five times improved over the Benchmark.

[0268] We then explore the cost of capturing the last unit of carbon dioxide (the marginal unit). In order to do this, we alter the ABT system so as not to neutralize the -58-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 hypochlorous acid with calcium carbonate. Since the Kas are different by ~14 orders of magnitude, these reactions are trivial to isolate. This allows us to retain hypochlorous acid as a viable revenue stream, and allows us to reduce the carbon dioxide capture amount by close to half, as an exchange with an alternate product. By doing so, we can compare the energy cost of capturing 4.45 tCO2 versus capturing only 2.31 tCO2. Doing this gives us an energy difference of 390kWh. That is, capturing the last 2.135 tCO2costs 390kWh, which gives ~183kWh / t. This provides us with a carbon capture efficiency of the marginal unit that is 76% of the theoretical minimum (~140kWh / tCO2).

[0269] FIG. 34 illustrates a project capital cost of benchmark technology, according to some embodiments. FIG. 35 illustrates a project capital cost of ABT eFuel technology, according to some embodiments. For a comprehensive economic assessment of methanol production, accurately sizing unit operations is essential. The simulation directly sizes compressors, pumps, and heat exchangers based on calculated power requirements in MW, while heat exchangers and distillation trays are sized by their calculated areas in square meters. The reactor, flash drum, distillation column, reboiler, and condenser are sized based on their volumes in cubic meters. Furthermore, estimated various crucial cost components include maintenance costs for equipment, utilities encompassing energy expenses, operating charges, and plant overhead covering indirect operational costs. The subtotal operating costs, incorporating these expenses, along with general and administrative costs, are comprehensively evaluated. This integrated approach accounts for equipment sizing and operational expenses, facilitating a thorough economic evaluation of the methanol production process.

[0270] In some embodiments, determining the production cost of eMethanol involves a comprehensive evaluation that encompasses various aspects, including equipment sizing and operational expenses. By considering factors such as equipment dimensions, maintenance costs, utilities, operating charges, plant overhead, and general administrative expenses, a holistic approach is taken to calculate the cost per unit. The production cost of eMethanol in USD per kilogram can be estimated using the following formula:-59-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0271] Where, the total annual cost is calculated using following eq. (32). In the current report, the total operating hours per year are 8766 with a debt payback period of 5 years. Total annual cost+ Utility cost (67)

[0272] In the current report, renewable electricity is required to operate pumps, compressors, and electrolyzers. The cost of renewable electricity from solar is approximately 0.08 $ / kWh, while other utility costs involve the cost of steam production and cooling water supply. Herein, the total capital cost for the Benchmark technology is calculated as $69,001,612 (as shown in Fig. 23), while the total cost of utilities is 516,144 $ / year. Therefore, the production cost of eMethanol (only) from the Benchmark in the above analysis comes out to be 1.60 $ / kg, which aligns well with the estimated range of 1.2 – 2.4 $ / kg according to International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), whereas the total capital cost estimated for the modelled ABT eFuel system is calculated as $62,981,587, with a total cost of utilities of 371,484 $ / year. Therefore, the production cost of a kilogram of eMethanol, plus an additional three kilograms of air-captured carbon dioxide from the ABT system comes out to be 1.40 $ / kg. If we assume that IRENA is correct with a lower bound of 1.2$ / kg-eMeOH, we are left with 0.065$ / kg- CO2overcaptured by this system.

[0273] The use of cold capture via chloralkali technology of some embodiments provides a promising solution for energy efficient eFuel production through synergetic integration of a chloralkali electrolyzer and ABT’s Cold Capture. The current model resolved the high-energy consumption problem associated with DAC during CO2 capture by replacing the calciner and slaker processes with a neutralization process in the neutralizer and regenerating slaked lime from metathesis with caustic soda. Our investigation further explores the potential of this integrated approach to addressing the pressing challenges of renewable energy storage and sustainable eMethanol production to decarbonising sectors where electrification is impossible (such as shipping, heavy transport, and aviation).

[0274] The current study demonstrates a comparative analysis of benchmark and ABT eFuel system focusing solely on the eMethanol (eMeOH) production from eSyngas. The study finds that the benchmark system produces one tonne of eMethanol and three -60-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 tonnes of air-captured carbon dioxide at an energy cost of ~50 MWh, which is consistent with literature at ~27% efficiency. The technology of some embodiments combines a system augmented with cold capture to produce one ton of eMethanol and three tons of air-captured carbon dioxide at an energy cost of ~18 MWh, and at ~80% total efficiency based on “enthalpy in minus out”. This is ~2.8 times more eFuel and direct air capture for the same primary energy when compared to the benchmark. The ABT eFuel process gives a marginal unit of carbon capture efficiency of up to 85% of theoretical, where the benchmark efficiency is 26%. The economic analysis demonstrates the production cost of 1.40 $ / kg for ABT eFuel compared to 1.60 $ / kg for the benchmark, which aligns well with the estimated range of 1.2 – 2.4 $ / kg according to International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).

[0275] The demonstrated advantages of the cold capture technology of some embodiments, including enhanced energy efficiency, reduced production costs, and higher carbon capture efficiency underscore its potential as a promising solution for sustainable eFuel production. This strategic investment not only promotes economic viability but also supports global efforts to mitigate climate change and transition towards a low-carbon economy, ensuring a more sustainable energy future.

[0276] While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of particular implementations of the subject matter. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

[0277] Those of skill in the art would appreciate that the various illustrative blocks, modules, elements, components, methods, and algorithms described herein may be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, or combinations of both. To illustrate this interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative blocks, -61-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 modules, elements, components, methods, and algorithms have been described above generally in terms of their functionality. Whether such functionality is implemented as hardware or software depends upon the particular application and design constraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled artisans may implement the described functionality in varying ways for each particular application. Various components and blocks may be arranged differently (e.g., arranged in a different order, or partitioned in a different way), all without departing from the scope of the subject technology.

[0278] It is understood that any specific order or hierarchy of blocks in the processes disclosed is an illustration of example approaches. Based upon implementation preferences, it is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of blocks in the processes may be rearranged, or that not all illustrated blocks be performed. Any of the blocks may be performed simultaneously. In one or more embodiments, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products.

[0279] The subject technology is illustrated, for example, according to various aspects described above. The present disclosure is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the various aspects described herein. The disclosure provides various examples of the subject technology, and the subject technology is not limited to these examples. Various modifications to these aspects will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied to other aspects.

[0280] A reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless specifically stated, but rather “one or more.” Unless specifically stated otherwise, the term “some” refers to one or more. Pronouns in the masculine (e.g., his) include the feminine and neuter gender (e.g., her and its) and vice versa. Headings and subheadings, if any, are used for convenience only and do not limit the disclosure.

[0281] To the extent that the terms “include,” “have,” or the like is used in the description or the claims, such term is intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the -62-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 term “comprise” as “comprise” is interpreted when employed as a transitional word in a claim.

[0282] The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration.” Any embodiment described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments. In one aspect, various alternative configurations and operations described herein may be considered to be at least equivalent.

[0283] As used herein, the phrase “at least one of” preceding a series of items, with the terms “and” or “or” to separate any of the items, modifies the list as a whole, rather than each member of the list (i.e., each item). The phrase “at least one of” does not require selection of at least one item; rather, the phrase allows a meaning that includes at least one of any one of the items, and / or at least one of any combination of the items, and / or at least one of each of the items. By way of example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C” or “at least one of A, B, or C” each refer to only A, only B, or only C; any combination of A, B, and C; and / or at least one of each of A, B, and C.

[0284] A phrase such as an “aspect” does not imply that such aspect is essential to the subject technology or that such aspect applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to an aspect may apply to all configurations, or one or more configurations. An aspect may provide one or more examples. A phrase such as an aspect may refer to one or more aspects and vice versa. A phrase such as an “embodiment” does not imply that such embodiment is essential to the subject technology or that such embodiment applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to an embodiment may apply to all embodiments, or one or more embodiments. An embodiment may provide one or more examples. A phrase such as an embodiment may refer to one or more embodiments and vice versa. A phrase such as a “configuration” does not imply that such configuration is essential to the subject technology or that such configuration applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to a configuration may apply to all configurations, or one or more configurations. A configuration may provide one or more examples. A phrase such as a configuration may refer to one or more configurations and vice versa. -63-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045

[0285] In one aspect, unless otherwise stated, all measurements, values, ratings, positions, magnitudes, sizes, and other specifications that are set forth in this specification, including in the claims that follow, are approximate, not exact. In one aspect, they are intended to have a reasonable range that is consistent with the functions to which they relate and with what is customary in the art to which they pertain. It is understood that some or all steps, operations, or processes may be performed automatically, without the intervention of a user.

[0286] Method claims may be provided to present elements of the various steps, operations, or processes in a sample order, and are not meant to be limited to the specific order or hierarchy presented.

[0287] In one aspect, a method may be an operation, an instruction, or a function and vice versa. In one aspect, a claim may be amended to include some or all of the words (e.g., instructions, operations, functions, or components) recited in other one or more claims, one or more words, one or more sentences, one or more phrases, one or more paragraphs, and / or one or more claims.

[0288] All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the various configurations described throughout this disclosure that are known or later come to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and intended to be encompassed by the subject technology. Moreover, nothing disclosed herein is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether such disclosure is explicitly recited in the above description. No claim element is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. §112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for” or, in the case of a method claim, the element is recited using the phrase “step for.”

[0289] The Title, Background, and Brief Description of the Drawings of the disclosure are hereby incorporated into the disclosure and are provided as illustrative examples of the disclosure, not as restrictive descriptions. It is submitted with the understanding that they will not be used to limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the Detailed Description, it can be seen that the description provides illustrative examples, and the various features are grouped together in various embodiments for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is -64-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the included subject matter requires more features than are expressly recited in any claim. Rather, as the claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed configuration or operation. The claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own to represent separately patentable subject matter.

[0290] The claims are not intended to be limited to the aspects described herein but are to be accorded the full scope consistent with the language of the claims and to encompass all legal equivalents. Notwithstanding, none of the claims are intended to embrace subject matter that fails to satisfy the requirement of 35 U.S.C. § 101, 102, or 103, nor should they be interpreted in such a way.

[0291] Embodiments consistent with the present disclosure may be combined with any combination of features or aspects of embodiments described herein. -65-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045

Claims

Docket No. 119042-0045 CLAIMS 1. A method of forming a hydrocarbon comprising: providing electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, a chlorine gas, and a hydrogen gas therein; providing the chlorine gas from the cell to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed in the first vessel from a first reaction therein between the chlorine gas and the metal carbonate; providing the hypochlorous acid from the first vessel to a second vessel to form, in the second vessel, water and a second carbon dioxide; and providing (i) the first carbon dioxide from the first vessel, (ii) the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel, and (iii) the hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel, wherein a hydrocarbon is formed in the third vessel from a second reaction therein between the first carbon dioxide, the second carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen gas.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

5. The method of any one of claim 1, wherein the metal carbonate is a calcium carbonate solution.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell.

7. The method of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the hydrocarbon is a methane.

8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide. -66-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 9. The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride.

10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments of the cell by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fibre, porous barriers, or a salt bridge.

11. The method of any one of claims 1-10, wherein oxygen is formed from a reaction in the first vessel between a metal catalyst and a hypochlorite.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the metal catalyst is a transition metal oxide or a transition metal halide.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein the transition metal oxide is manganese (I) oxide, manganese (II) oxide, manganese (III) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (V) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (VII) oxide, nickel (II) oxide, nickel (III) oxide, copper (I) oxide, copper (II) oxide, copper (III) oxide, copper (IV) oxide, or zinc oxide.

14. The method of any one of claim 12, wherein the transition metal halide is copper (I) chloride or copper (II) chloride.

15. The method of any one of claims 1-14, further comprising heating the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel, wherein an oxygen gas is formed in the second vessel from heating the hypochlorous acid therein.

16. The method of any one of claims 1-15, further comprising: providing to a fourth vessel an oxygen gas obtained from the second vessel and from the first vessel; reacting the oxygen gas and the hydrocarbon to form liquid hydrocarbons in the fourth vessel; and removing water from the liquid hydrocarbons to form a mixture of fuel gas in the fourth vessel.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein the mixture of fuel gas comprises natural gas, jet fuel, gasoline, or diesel.

18. A method of forming chemical products comprising: -67-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 providing an electrical current and one or more electrolytes in a cell, wherein a faradaic current process takes place within the cell to form reducing products, bases, oxidizers, and acids; providing a chlorine gas to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed in the first vessel; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form water and a second carbon dioxide therein; and providing (i) the first carbon dioxide from the first vessel, (ii) the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel, and (iii) a hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel, wherein a hydrocarbon is formed in the third vessel from a second reaction therein between the first carbon dioxide, the second carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen gas.

19. The method of claim 18, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

20. The method of claim 18, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3or CaMg(CO3)2.

21. The method of claim 18, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

22. The method claim 18, wherein the metal carbonate is a calcium carbonate solution.

23. The method of any one of claims 18-22, wherein the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell.

24. The method of any one of claims 18-23, wherein the hydrocarbon is a methane.

25. The method of any one of claims 18-24, wherein the one or more electrolytes are metal halide solutions.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the metal halide solutions are sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, potassium bromide, or mixture thereof. -68-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 27. The method of any one of claims 18-26, wherein oxygen is formed from a reaction in the first vessel between a metal catalyst and a hypochlorite.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein the metal catalyst is a transition metal oxide or transition metal halide.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein the transition metal oxide is manganese (I) oxide, manganese (II) oxide, manganese (III) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (V) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (VII) oxide, nickel (II) oxide, nickel (III) oxide, copper (I) oxide, copper (II) oxide, copper (III) oxide, copper (IV) oxide, or zinc oxide.

30. The method claim 28, wherein the transition metal halide is copper (I) chloride or copper (II) chloride.

31. The method of any one of claims 18-30, further comprising heating the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel, wherein oxygen is formed in the second vessel from heating the hypochlorous acid therein.

32. The method of any one of claims 18-31, further comprising: providing to a fourth vessel an oxygen gas obtained from the second vessel and from the first vessel; reacting the oxygen gas and the hydrocarbon to form liquid hydrocarbons in the fourth vessel; and removing water from the liquid hydrocarbons to form a mixture of fuel gas in the fourth vessel.

33. The method of claim 32, wherein the mixture of fuel gas comprises natural gas, jet fuel, gasoline, or diesel.

34. A method of neutralizing a produced water comprising: providing the produced water; providing a hypochlorous acid; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid to form water and carbon dioxide.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the produced water is a mixture of water and an alcohol. -69-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the alcohol in the produced water is methanol or ethanol.

37. The method of any one of claims 34-35, wherein the alcohol in the produced water is methanol.

38. The method of any one of claims 34-37, wherein the water formed is a clean water.

39. The method of any one of claims 34-38, wherein the produced water is formed by a water splitting process.

40. The method of any one of claims 34-39, wherein the carbon dioxide is used for a gas to liquid process.

41. A method of capturing carbon dioxide from air comprising: providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; reacting the sodium aluminate with carbon dioxide from the air to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate.

42. The method of claim 41, wherein the sedimentary rock is bauxite.

43. The method of claim 41 or 42, wherein the sedimentary rock has a chemical formula of Al2O3.

44. The method of any one of claims 41-43, wherein the sodium hydroxide is an aqueous solution.

45. The method of any one of claims 41-44, wherein the sodium aluminate is NaAl(OH)4.

46. The method of any one of claims 41-45, wherein the sodium bicarbonate is an aqueous solution. -70-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 47. A method of capturing carbon dioxide from air comprising: providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; reacting the sodium aluminate with carbon dioxide from the air to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, a chlorine gas, and a hydrogen gas therein; providing the chlorine gas from the cell to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed in the first vessel from a first reaction therein between the chlorine gas and the metal carbonate; from the first vessel, providing the calcium chloride; and reacting the calcium chloride with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein the sedimentary rock is bauxite.

49. The method of claim 47 or 48, wherein the sedimentary rock has a chemical formula of Al2O3.

50. The method of any one of claims 47-49, wherein the sodium hydroxide is an aqueous solution.

51. The method of any one of claims 47-50, wherein the sodium aluminate is NaAl(OH)4.

52. The method of any one of claims 47-51, wherein the sodium bicarbonate is an aqueous solution.

53. The method of any one of claims 47-52, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide.

54. The method of any one of claims 47-52, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride. -71-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 55. The method of any one of claims 47-54, wherein the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments of the cell by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fibre, porous barriers, or a salt bridge.

56. A method of forming a hydrocarbon comprising: providing a sedimentary rock; reacting the sedimentary rock with a sodium hydroxide to form a sodium aluminate; reacting the sodium aluminate with carbon dioxide from the air to form a sodium bicarbonate; providing electricity and sodium chloride solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, a chlorine gas, and a hydrogen gas therein; providing the chlorine gas from the cell to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed in the first vessel from a first reaction therein between the chlorine gas and the metal carbonate; in a fifth vessel, reacting the calcium chloride from the first vessel with the sodium bicarbonate to form a calcium carbonate from a reaction therein between the calcium chloride and the sodium chloride; providing the hypochlorous acid to a second vessel to form water and a second carbon dioxide therein; providing (i) the first carbon dioxide from the first vessel, (ii) the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel and (iii) a hydrogen gas from the cell to a third vessel, wherein a hydrocarbon is formed in the third vessel from a second reaction therein between the first carbon dioxide, the second carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen gas; providing to a fourth vessel an oxygen gas obtained from the second vessel and from the first vessel; reacting the oxygen gas and the hydrocarbon to form liquid hydrocarbons in the fourth vessel; and removing water from the liquid hydrocarbons to form a mixture of fuel gas in the fourth vessel. -72-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 57. The method of claim 56, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

58. The method of claim 56, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

59. The method of claim 56, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

60. The method of claim 56, wherein the metal carbonate is a calcium carbonate solution.

61. The method of any one of claims 56-60, wherein the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell.

62. The method of any one of claims 56-61, wherein the hydrocarbon is a methane.

63. The method of any one of claims 56-62, wherein the mixture of fuel gas comprises natural gas, jet fuel, gasoline, or diesel.

64. The method of any one of claims 56-63, wherein oxygen is formed from a reaction in the first vessel between a metal catalyst and a hypochlorite.

65. The method of claim 64, wherein the metal catalyst is a transition metal oxide or transition metal halide.

66. The method of claim 65, wherein the transition metal oxide is manganese (I) oxide, manganese (II) oxide, manganese (III) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (V) oxide, manganese (VI) oxide, manganese (VII) oxide, nickel (II) oxide, nickel (III) oxide, copper (I) oxide, copper (II) oxide, copper (III) oxide, copper (IV) oxide, or zinc oxide.

67. The method of claim 65, wherein the transition metal halide is copper (I) chloride or copper (II) chloride.

68. The method of any one of claims 56-67, further comprising heating the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel, wherein oxygen formed in the second vessel is obtained from heating the hypochlorous acid therein. -73-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 69. The method of any one of claims 56-68, wherein the sedimentary rock is bauxite.

70. The method of any one of claims 56-69, wherein the sedimentary rock has a chemical formula of Al2O3.

71. The method of any one of claims 56-70, wherein the sodium hydroxide is an aqueous solution.

72. The method of any one of claims 56-71, wherein the sodium aluminate is NaAl(OH)4.

73. The method of any one of claims 56-72, wherein the sodium bicarbonate is an aqueous solution.

74. The method of any one of claims 56-73, wherein the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments of the cell by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fibre, porous barriers, or a salt bridge.

75. A method of forming a methanol comprising: providing electricity and a metal halide solution to a cell, wherein a chloralkali process takes place within the cell to form sodium hydroxide, a chlorine gas, and a hydrogen gas therein; providing the chlorine gas from the cell to a first vessel comprising a metal carbonate, wherein calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, a first carbon dioxide, and hypochlorous acid are formed in the first vessel from a first reaction therein between the chlorine gas and the metal carbonate; providing the hypochlorous acid from the first vessel to a second vessel to form, in the second vessel, water and a second carbon dioxide; providing (i) the second carbon dioxide from the second vessel and (ii) the hydrogen gas from the cell to a fourth vessel to form a crude methanol; distilling the crude methanol to form a methanol and a produced water; and reacting the produced water with the hypochlorous acid in the second vessel to form a clean water. -74-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 76. The method of claim 75, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

77. The method of claim 75, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

78. The method of claim 75, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

79. The method of claim 75, wherein the metal carbonate is a calcium carbonate solution.

80. The method of any one of claims 75-79, wherein the water formed in the second vessel is recycled and used in the cell.

81. The method of any one of claims 75-80, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide, or potassium bromide.

82. The method of any one of claims 75-80, wherein the metal halide solution is sodium chloride or potassium chloride.

83. The method of any one of claims 75-82, wherein the chloralkali process is separated into multiple compartments of the cell by a cation or anion conducting membrane, glass fibre, porous barriers, or salt bridge.

84. A method of forming an efuel comprising: providing electricity and an electrolyte to an electrochemical cell, wherein a faradaic process takes place within the electrochemical cell to form a base, an acid, an oxidizing agent, and a reducing agent; and providing the acid to a first vessel comprising a buffer, wherein a conjugate acid, a conjugate base, and disproportionation products are formed from a reaction therein.

85. The method of claim 84, wherein the electrochemical cell is interruptible.

86. The method of claim 84 or 85, wherein the acid and the oxidizing agent are the same chemical. -75-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 87. The method of any one of claims 84-86, wherein the reducing agent and the base are the same chemical.

88. The method of any one of claims 84-87, wherein the electrolyte is an aqueous metal halide.

89. The method of any one of claims 84-88, wherein the faradaic process is an electrolysis.

90. The method of any one of claims 84-89, wherein the base is an aqueous hydroxide.

91. The method of any one of claims 84-90, wherein the acid is an acid gas.

92. The method of any one of claims 84-91, wherein the reducing agent is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba.

93. The method of any one of claims 84-91, wherein the reducing agent is sodium or potassium.

94. The method of any one of claims 84-91, wherein the reducing agent is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.

95. The method of claim 91, wherein the acid gas is chlorine or bromine.

96. The method of any one of claims 84-95, wherein the buffer is a metal carbonate.

97. The method of any one of claims 84-95, wherein the buffer is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, KHCO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

98. The method of any one of claims 84-97, wherein the reducing agent is hydrogen.

99. The method of any one of claims 84-97, wherein the reducing agent is selected from group lanthanides. -76-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 100. The method of any one of claims 84-99, wherein the conjugate base is a metal chloride.

101. The method of any one of claims 84-100, wherein the conjugate acid is carbon dioxide.

102. The method of any one of claims 84-101, wherein the conjugate base is calcium chloride or magnesium chloride.

103. The method of any one of claims 84-102, wherein the conjugate base disproportionates into calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite.

104. The method of any one of claims 84-103, wherein the conjugate base disproportionates into calcium chloride and hypochlorous acid.

105. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 1 to 17.

106. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 1 to 17.

107. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 18 to 33.

108. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 18 to 33.

109. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 34 to 40.

110. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 34 to 40. -77-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 111. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 34 to 46.

112. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 34 to 46.

113. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 47 to 55.

114. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 47 to 55.

115. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 56 to 74.

116. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 56 to 74.

117. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 75 to 83.

118. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 75 to 83.

119. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 84 to 104. -78-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 120. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 84 to 104.

121. A reactor, comprising: a first vessel filled with water and a metal carbonate; a first inlet fluidly connected to a body of the first vessel, wherein the first inlet provides a halogen gas; a first outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the first vessel; a second vessel fluidly connected to the first outlet, wherein the second vessel receives a first gas mixture from the first outlet and the second vessel comprises aqueous sodium carbonate; a second outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the second vessel; and a third vessel fluidly connected to the second outlet, wherein the third vessel comprises an activated metal catalyst and the third vessel receives a second gas mixture from the second outlet; and a third outlet fluidly connected to a portion of the third vessel, wherein the third vessel releases carbon dioxide therefrom.

122. The reactor of claim 121, wherein the metal carbonate is MgCO3.

123. The reactor of claim 121, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2.

124. The reactor of claim 121, wherein the metal carbonate is one of CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

125. The reactor of claim 124, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

126. The reactor of claim 124, wherein the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2.

127. The reactor of any one of claims 121-126, wherein the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

128. The reactor of any one of claims 121-127, wherein the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas. -79-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 129. The reactor of any one of claims 121-128, wherein the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon.

130. The reactor of any one of claims 121-129, wherein the activated metal catalyst is MnO or MnO2.

131. The reactor of any one of claims 121-130, wherein the carbon dioxide formed in the third vessel is free of halogen gas.

132. The reactor of any one of claims 121-131, wherein the halogen gas is one of chlorine or bromine.

133. A method of producing carbon dioxide comprising: providing a second solution into a first vessel comprising a reactant to form a first gas mixture, the reactant comprising a metal carbonate, the solution comprising an acid gas; providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture; providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst; and contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.5% halogen gas.

134. The method of claim 133, wherein the acid gas is one of chlorine or bromine.

135. The method of claim 134, wherein the acid gas is chlorine.

136. The method of any one of claims 133-135, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.1% chlorine gas.

137. The method of any one of claims 133-135, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.01% chlorine gas.

138. The method of any one of claims 133-135, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.001% chlorine gas.

139. The method of any one of claims 133-138, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. -80-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 140. The method of any one of claims 133-139, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

141. The method of claim 140, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

142. The method of claim 140, wherein the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2.

143. The method of any one of claims 133-142, wherein the second solution has a pKa value of less than 6.

35.

144. The method of any one of claims 133-143, wherein the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

145. The method of any one of claims 133-144, wherein the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

146. The method of any one of claims 133-145, wherein the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon.

147. The method of any one of claims 133-146, wherein the activated metal catalyst is one of MnO or MnO2.

148. The method of any one of claims 133-147, wherein the third gas mixture is free of halogen gas.

149. A method of producing carbon dioxide comprising: providing a chlorine gas into a first vessel comprising a first solution to form a first gas mixture, the first solution comprising a metal carbonate; providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising aqueous sodium carbonate to form a second gas mixture; providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst; and contacting the second gas mixture with the activated metal catalyst to form a third gas mixture, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.5% halogen gas.

150. The method of claim 149, wherein the metal carbonate is selected from the group consisting of Li2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3, and CaMg(CO3)2. -81-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 151. The method of claim 150, wherein the metal carbonate is one of CaCO3 or CaMg(CO3)2.

152. The method of claim 151, wherein the metal carbonate is CaCO3.

153. The method of claim 151, wherein the metal carbonate is CaMg(CO3)2.

154. The method of any one of claims 149-153, wherein the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

155. The method of any one of claims 149-154, wherein the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

156. The method of any one of claims 149-155, wherein the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon.

157. The method of any one of claims 149-156, wherein the activated metal catalyst is one of MnO or MnO2.

158. The method of any one of claims 149-157, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.1% chlorine gas.

159. The method of any one of claims 149-158, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.01% chlorine gas.

160. The method of any one of claims 149-159, wherein the third gas mixture comprises less than 0.001% chlorine gas.

161. The method of any one of claims 149-160, wherein the third gas mixture is free of chlorine gas.

162. A method of producing carbon dioxide comprising: providing a halogen gas into a first vessel comprising a first solution to form a first gas mixture, the first solution comprising MgCO3; providing the first gas mixture into a first vessel comprising CaMg(CO3)2 to form a first gas mixture; providing the first gas mixture into a second vessel comprising CaCO3to form a second gas mixture; -82-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 providing the second gas mixture into a third vessel comprising aqueous sodium carbonate to form a third gas mixture; and providing the third gas mixture into a fourth vessel comprising an activated metal catalyst to form carbon dioxide.

163. The method of claim 162, wherein the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

164. The method of claim 162 or 163, wherein the third gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

165. The method of any one of claims 162-164, wherein the first gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

166. The method of any one of claims 162-165, wherein the second gas mixture comprises carbon dioxide and chlorine gas.

167. The method of any one of claims 162-166, wherein the activated metal catalyst is supported on carbon.

168. The method of any one of claims 162-167, wherein the activated metal catalyst is one of MnO or MnO2.

169. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 121 to 132.

170. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 121 to 132.

171. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 133 to 148.

172. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 133 to 148. -83-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 173. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 149 to 161.

174. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 149 to 161.

175. A system comprising a processor, and a storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by the processor, causes the system to perform the method of any one of claims 162 to 168.

176. A non-transitory machine-readable medium storing a program, which when executed by a processor of a computer, causes the computer to perform the method of any one of claims 162 to 168.

177. A reactor system, comprising: an air contactor comprising an aqueous base and configured to contact the aqueous base with atmospheric air to form a first carbonate; a first mixing vessel comprising a mixture of the first carbonate, calcium hydroxide, and calcium carbonate an electrolysis unit comprising brine; a neutralizer comprising chlorine, calcium carbonate, calcium hypochlorite, and calcium chloride; a first catalytic reactor comprising a mixed metal oxide catalyst and calcium hypochlorite; a second catalytic reactor comprising carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, and a CO2hydrogenation catalyst; and a second mixing vessel comprising a mixture of sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, calcium hydroxide, and sodium chloride, -84-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045Docket No. 119042-0045 wherein the first mixing vessel is fluidly connected to the air contactor and the neutralizer, wherein the electrolysis unit is fluidly connected to a liquid inlet, a gas outlet, the neutralizer, and the first catalytic reactor, wherein the neutralizer is fluidly connected to the first mixing vessel, the electrolysis unit, and the second catalytic reactor, wherein the first catalytic reactor is fluidly connected to the neutralizer, wherein the second catalytic reactor is fluidly connected to the neutralizer, and wherein the second mixing vessel is fluidly connected to the neutralizer and the first catalytic reactor.

178. The reactor system of Claim 177 wherein the aqueous base is potassium hydroxide and the first carbonate is potassium carbonate.

179. The reactor system of Claim 177 wherein the mixed metal oxide catalyst is nickel-copper-zinc oxide.

180. The reactor system of Claim 177 wherein the CO2 hydrogenation catalyst is Cu / ZnO / Al2O3.

181. The reactor system of Claim 177 wherein the ratio of hydrogen gas to carbon dioxide in the second catalytic reactor is between 2.9 and 3.

1.

182. The reactor system of Claim 177 wherein the hydrogen gas and the carbon dioxide in the second catalytic reactor are compressed to 70 bar. -85-DM_US 208985222-2.119042.0045