Variable Stiffness Actuators vs Smart Hydrogels: Shape Adaptability
APR 22, 20268 MIN READ
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Variable Stiffness and Smart Hydrogel Technology Background
Variable stiffness actuators represent a paradigm shift in robotics and automation, emerging from the fundamental need to create mechanical systems that can dynamically adjust their rigidity properties. This technology originated in the early 2000s as researchers recognized the limitations of traditional rigid actuators in applications requiring both precision and adaptability. The core principle involves mechanisms that can modulate their stiffness characteristics in real-time, enabling robots to perform delicate manipulation tasks while maintaining structural integrity under varying load conditions.
The evolution of variable stiffness actuators has been driven by biomimetic inspiration, particularly studying how biological systems achieve remarkable adaptability through muscle tension control. Early implementations focused on mechanical approaches using antagonistic arrangements, lever mechanisms, and controlled friction systems. These foundational concepts established the groundwork for more sophisticated electromagnetic, pneumatic, and hybrid actuation systems that characterize modern variable stiffness technologies.
Smart hydrogels emerged from materials science research in the 1960s, initially developed for biomedical applications such as contact lenses and drug delivery systems. These three-dimensional polymer networks possess the unique ability to undergo significant volume changes in response to environmental stimuli including temperature, pH, electric fields, and chemical concentrations. The "smart" designation reflects their capacity for autonomous response to external conditions without requiring complex control systems.
The technological trajectory of smart hydrogels has progressed from simple temperature-responsive materials to sophisticated multi-responsive systems capable of complex shape transformations. Recent advances have incorporated conductive polymers, magnetic nanoparticles, and photo-responsive molecules, expanding their functionality beyond passive response to active shape control. This evolution has positioned hydrogels as promising candidates for soft robotics applications where traditional actuators prove inadequate.
The convergence of these technologies addresses the critical challenge of shape adaptability in modern engineering applications. Variable stiffness actuators excel in applications requiring rapid, precise stiffness modulation with high force output, while smart hydrogels offer seamless shape transformation capabilities with inherent compliance. Both technologies target the growing demand for adaptive systems in robotics, prosthetics, and autonomous devices, representing complementary approaches to achieving mechanical intelligence and environmental responsiveness in engineered systems.
The evolution of variable stiffness actuators has been driven by biomimetic inspiration, particularly studying how biological systems achieve remarkable adaptability through muscle tension control. Early implementations focused on mechanical approaches using antagonistic arrangements, lever mechanisms, and controlled friction systems. These foundational concepts established the groundwork for more sophisticated electromagnetic, pneumatic, and hybrid actuation systems that characterize modern variable stiffness technologies.
Smart hydrogels emerged from materials science research in the 1960s, initially developed for biomedical applications such as contact lenses and drug delivery systems. These three-dimensional polymer networks possess the unique ability to undergo significant volume changes in response to environmental stimuli including temperature, pH, electric fields, and chemical concentrations. The "smart" designation reflects their capacity for autonomous response to external conditions without requiring complex control systems.
The technological trajectory of smart hydrogels has progressed from simple temperature-responsive materials to sophisticated multi-responsive systems capable of complex shape transformations. Recent advances have incorporated conductive polymers, magnetic nanoparticles, and photo-responsive molecules, expanding their functionality beyond passive response to active shape control. This evolution has positioned hydrogels as promising candidates for soft robotics applications where traditional actuators prove inadequate.
The convergence of these technologies addresses the critical challenge of shape adaptability in modern engineering applications. Variable stiffness actuators excel in applications requiring rapid, precise stiffness modulation with high force output, while smart hydrogels offer seamless shape transformation capabilities with inherent compliance. Both technologies target the growing demand for adaptive systems in robotics, prosthetics, and autonomous devices, representing complementary approaches to achieving mechanical intelligence and environmental responsiveness in engineered systems.
Market Demand for Adaptive Shape-Changing Materials
The global market for adaptive shape-changing materials is experiencing unprecedented growth driven by diverse industrial applications requiring dynamic mechanical properties. Healthcare sectors demonstrate substantial demand for materials that can transition between rigid and flexible states, particularly in surgical instruments, prosthetics, and minimally invasive medical devices. The ability to achieve precise shape control while maintaining biocompatibility positions both variable stiffness actuators and smart hydrogels as critical technologies for next-generation medical solutions.
Robotics and automation industries represent another significant demand driver, where adaptive materials enable robots to interact safely with humans and navigate complex environments. Soft robotics applications specifically require materials capable of rapid stiffness modulation to perform delicate manipulation tasks while providing structural support when needed. This dual functionality addresses longstanding challenges in human-robot collaboration and autonomous system deployment.
Aerospace and automotive sectors increasingly seek lightweight materials with tunable mechanical properties to optimize performance across varying operational conditions. Shape-adaptive materials offer potential solutions for morphing wing structures, adaptive suspension systems, and impact-absorbing components that respond dynamically to environmental changes. The demand extends beyond traditional applications to include smart textiles and wearable technologies requiring comfort and protection.
Construction and infrastructure markets show growing interest in adaptive materials for earthquake-resistant structures and self-healing building components. The ability to modify stiffness in response to external loads presents opportunities for revolutionary architectural designs and enhanced structural safety systems.
Consumer electronics manufacturers pursue shape-changing materials for flexible displays, adaptive interfaces, and protective casings that adjust properties based on usage patterns. The convergence of Internet of Things technologies with adaptive materials creates new market opportunities for responsive consumer products.
Market growth is further accelerated by increasing investment in research and development, with government initiatives supporting advanced materials research and private sector funding flowing toward innovative material solutions. The expanding understanding of material science principles and manufacturing capabilities continues to broaden potential applications across multiple industries.
Robotics and automation industries represent another significant demand driver, where adaptive materials enable robots to interact safely with humans and navigate complex environments. Soft robotics applications specifically require materials capable of rapid stiffness modulation to perform delicate manipulation tasks while providing structural support when needed. This dual functionality addresses longstanding challenges in human-robot collaboration and autonomous system deployment.
Aerospace and automotive sectors increasingly seek lightweight materials with tunable mechanical properties to optimize performance across varying operational conditions. Shape-adaptive materials offer potential solutions for morphing wing structures, adaptive suspension systems, and impact-absorbing components that respond dynamically to environmental changes. The demand extends beyond traditional applications to include smart textiles and wearable technologies requiring comfort and protection.
Construction and infrastructure markets show growing interest in adaptive materials for earthquake-resistant structures and self-healing building components. The ability to modify stiffness in response to external loads presents opportunities for revolutionary architectural designs and enhanced structural safety systems.
Consumer electronics manufacturers pursue shape-changing materials for flexible displays, adaptive interfaces, and protective casings that adjust properties based on usage patterns. The convergence of Internet of Things technologies with adaptive materials creates new market opportunities for responsive consumer products.
Market growth is further accelerated by increasing investment in research and development, with government initiatives supporting advanced materials research and private sector funding flowing toward innovative material solutions. The expanding understanding of material science principles and manufacturing capabilities continues to broaden potential applications across multiple industries.
Current State of VSA and Hydrogel Shape Control Technologies
Variable Stiffness Actuators have evolved significantly over the past decade, with current implementations primarily focusing on mechanical and pneumatic approaches. Leading VSA designs include antagonistic configurations using series elastic elements, where stiffness modulation is achieved through co-contraction of opposing actuators. The DLR Hand Arm System represents a benchmark in this field, utilizing pneumatic muscle actuators with variable recruitment strategies to achieve stiffness ranges from 0.1 to 10 N·m/rad.
Contemporary VSA technologies face substantial challenges in achieving rapid stiffness transitions while maintaining precise position control. Current systems typically require 200-500 milliseconds for complete stiffness modulation, limiting their applicability in dynamic environments. Power consumption remains problematic, with most VSA systems consuming 15-25% additional energy compared to rigid counterparts during stiffness adjustment phases.
Smart hydrogel technologies have demonstrated remarkable progress in shape control mechanisms, particularly in temperature-responsive and pH-sensitive formulations. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) based hydrogels currently dominate commercial applications, exhibiting volume changes up to 90% within temperature ranges of 25-40°C. Recent developments in multi-responsive hydrogels incorporate magnetic nanoparticles and conductive polymers, enabling electrical and magnetic field activation with response times reduced to 10-30 seconds.
The primary limitation constraining hydrogel shape control lies in response speed and force generation capacity. Current hydrogel actuators generate maximum forces of 0.1-1.0 N/cm², significantly lower than VSA systems which achieve 10-100 N/cm². However, hydrogels excel in biocompatibility and energy efficiency, consuming minimal power during shape maintenance phases compared to VSAs' continuous energy requirements.
Integration challenges persist in both technologies regarding scalability and manufacturing consistency. VSA systems struggle with component miniaturization below 10mm dimensions, while hydrogel fabrication faces reproducibility issues in large-scale production. Cross-linking density variations result in 15-25% performance deviation across batches, hampering commercial viability.
Recent hybrid approaches combining VSA mechanical frameworks with hydrogel interface layers show promising preliminary results, potentially addressing individual technology limitations while leveraging complementary advantages in shape adaptability applications.
Contemporary VSA technologies face substantial challenges in achieving rapid stiffness transitions while maintaining precise position control. Current systems typically require 200-500 milliseconds for complete stiffness modulation, limiting their applicability in dynamic environments. Power consumption remains problematic, with most VSA systems consuming 15-25% additional energy compared to rigid counterparts during stiffness adjustment phases.
Smart hydrogel technologies have demonstrated remarkable progress in shape control mechanisms, particularly in temperature-responsive and pH-sensitive formulations. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) based hydrogels currently dominate commercial applications, exhibiting volume changes up to 90% within temperature ranges of 25-40°C. Recent developments in multi-responsive hydrogels incorporate magnetic nanoparticles and conductive polymers, enabling electrical and magnetic field activation with response times reduced to 10-30 seconds.
The primary limitation constraining hydrogel shape control lies in response speed and force generation capacity. Current hydrogel actuators generate maximum forces of 0.1-1.0 N/cm², significantly lower than VSA systems which achieve 10-100 N/cm². However, hydrogels excel in biocompatibility and energy efficiency, consuming minimal power during shape maintenance phases compared to VSAs' continuous energy requirements.
Integration challenges persist in both technologies regarding scalability and manufacturing consistency. VSA systems struggle with component miniaturization below 10mm dimensions, while hydrogel fabrication faces reproducibility issues in large-scale production. Cross-linking density variations result in 15-25% performance deviation across batches, hampering commercial viability.
Recent hybrid approaches combining VSA mechanical frameworks with hydrogel interface layers show promising preliminary results, potentially addressing individual technology limitations while leveraging complementary advantages in shape adaptability applications.
Existing Shape Adaptability Solutions and Mechanisms
01 Variable stiffness actuators with controllable rigidity mechanisms
Actuators designed with mechanisms that allow dynamic adjustment of stiffness through mechanical, pneumatic, or hydraulic means. These systems enable real-time modulation of structural rigidity to adapt to varying load conditions and operational requirements. The stiffness control can be achieved through adjustable springs, variable transmission ratios, or controllable damping elements that provide precise control over the actuator's compliance characteristics.- Variable stiffness actuators with controllable mechanical properties: Actuators designed with variable stiffness capabilities allow for dynamic adjustment of mechanical properties during operation. These systems utilize mechanisms such as adjustable springs, pneumatic controls, or electromagnetic systems to modify stiffness levels in real-time. The technology enables precise control over force transmission and compliance, making them suitable for applications requiring adaptable mechanical responses. Implementation methods include layered structures, modular components, and integrated sensing systems that monitor and adjust stiffness based on operational requirements.
- Smart hydrogels with stimuli-responsive behavior: Hydrogel materials that exhibit responsive behavior to external stimuli such as temperature, pH, electric fields, or chemical agents. These materials undergo reversible changes in volume, shape, or mechanical properties when exposed to specific environmental conditions. The responsive nature is achieved through polymer networks that contain functional groups sensitive to particular stimuli. Applications include soft robotics, biomedical devices, and adaptive structures where shape-changing capabilities are essential. The materials can be engineered to have specific response thresholds and kinetics.
- Integration of actuators with flexible and compliant structures: Systems that combine actuating elements with flexible structural components to achieve shape adaptability. These designs incorporate soft materials, articulated joints, or compliant mechanisms that work in conjunction with actuators to produce controlled deformation. The integration allows for complex motion patterns and adaptive conformability to various surfaces or objects. Design approaches include embedding actuators within flexible matrices, using cable-driven systems, or employing distributed actuation networks. Such systems are particularly useful in applications requiring safe human interaction or navigation in constrained environments.
- Composite materials combining rigid and soft components for adaptive stiffness: Material systems that integrate both rigid and soft elements to create structures with tunable stiffness characteristics. These composites utilize phase-changing materials, particle jamming, or layer lamination techniques to achieve variable mechanical properties. The combination allows for switching between compliant and rigid states, providing adaptability for different operational modes. Manufacturing methods include multi-material printing, selective reinforcement, and modular assembly. The technology enables creation of structures that can be soft for safe interaction and rigid for load-bearing tasks.
- Control systems and sensing mechanisms for adaptive shape control: Advanced control architectures and sensing technologies that enable precise management of shape-adaptive systems. These systems incorporate feedback loops, predictive algorithms, and sensor networks to monitor and adjust actuator behavior and material properties. Control strategies include model-based approaches, machine learning algorithms, and distributed control schemes. Sensing modalities may include strain gauges, pressure sensors, position encoders, and vision systems. The integration of sensing and control enables autonomous adaptation to changing conditions and requirements, improving system performance and reliability.
02 Smart hydrogels with stimuli-responsive shape change properties
Hydrogel materials that exhibit reversible shape transformation in response to external stimuli such as temperature, pH, light, or electric fields. These materials demonstrate significant volume changes and mechanical property variations when exposed to environmental triggers. The responsive behavior enables applications requiring adaptive geometry and tunable mechanical characteristics without external mechanical actuators.Expand Specific Solutions03 Soft robotic systems integrating flexible actuators and adaptive materials
Robotic platforms that combine compliant actuators with shape-adaptive materials to achieve biomimetic motion and interaction capabilities. These systems utilize soft materials and structures that can deform continuously, enabling safe human-robot interaction and navigation in constrained environments. The integration of flexible components allows for distributed actuation and conformal contact with irregular surfaces.Expand Specific Solutions04 Electroactive and magnetoactive polymer-based actuators
Actuator systems utilizing polymeric materials that respond to electrical or magnetic fields to generate mechanical deformation and force output. These materials can undergo significant strain when subjected to external field stimulation, enabling compact actuator designs with distributed actuation capabilities. The field-responsive polymers provide direct energy conversion from electrical or magnetic input to mechanical work without traditional motor mechanisms.Expand Specific Solutions05 Composite structures with tunable mechanical properties for shape adaptation
Structural systems incorporating multiple materials or phases that enable controlled variation of mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, damping, and shape memory. These composites can be designed with embedded actuating elements, phase-change materials, or architectured geometries that respond to external control signals. The multi-material approach allows for spatial distribution of mechanical properties and programmable deformation patterns.Expand Specific Solutions
Key Players in VSA and Smart Hydrogel Industries
The shape adaptability competition between Variable Stiffness Actuators and Smart Hydrogels represents an emerging technological battleground in the early development stage. The market shows significant growth potential, particularly in biomedical applications, with companies like Koninklijke Philips NV and Olympus Corp. driving medical device integration. Technology maturity varies considerably across players: established corporations like The General Hospital Corp. and research institutions including Harvard College, University of California, and National University of Singapore are advancing fundamental research, while specialized companies such as AesculaTech, Smarter Alloys, and Biogelx are commercializing specific applications. Asian universities like Tongji, Sichuan, and Southeast University contribute substantial research output. The competitive landscape indicates VSAs have reached higher commercial maturity in robotics and prosthetics, while smart hydrogels show promising potential in drug delivery and tissue engineering applications.
Koninklijke Philips NV
Technical Solution: Philips has integrated variable stiffness actuators into medical imaging and therapeutic devices, focusing on patient comfort and precision positioning. Their actuator systems use pneumatic chambers with variable pressure control to achieve different stiffness levels during medical procedures. The technology enables adaptive patient interfaces that can conform to body contours while providing necessary support. Philips has also developed smart hydrogel-based drug delivery systems that respond to physiological conditions. These hydrogels can release therapeutic agents in controlled manner based on local pH or temperature changes. The company's approach emphasizes clinical safety and regulatory compliance, with extensive biocompatibility testing and quality control measures integrated throughout the development process.
Strengths: Strong clinical validation and regulatory expertise, established manufacturing infrastructure. Weaknesses: Conservative approach may limit innovation speed, focus primarily on medical applications restricts broader market potential.
The Regents of the University of California
Technical Solution: UC system has developed hybrid variable stiffness actuators combining electromagnetic and pneumatic control mechanisms for robotic applications. Their approach utilizes magnetorheological fluids that can alter viscosity under magnetic fields, enabling rapid stiffness modulation. The technology includes advanced control algorithms that optimize shape adaptability based on task requirements. In parallel, UC researchers have created thermally-responsive smart hydrogels with programmable shape memory capabilities. These materials can undergo complex 3D transformations when exposed to specific temperature ranges, making them suitable for biomedical devices and adaptive structures. The hydrogel systems demonstrate excellent biocompatibility and can be engineered with varying response times.
Strengths: Strong interdisciplinary research capabilities, proven track record in technology transfer. Weaknesses: Complex control systems require sophisticated electronics, material fatigue issues in long-term applications.
Core Patents in Variable Stiffness and Hydrogel Innovation
Variable stiffness actuator with electrically modulated stiffness
PatentActiveUS11407105B2
Innovation
- A dielectric elastomer system (DES) VSA with a mechanically simple variable stiffness mechanism that softens when energized and stiffens when unpowered, allowing independent control of stiffness and equilibrium position, using a compliant membrane or elastomer sheets with electrically controlled stiffness and a ball screw mechanism for actuation.
Variable stiffness actuator
PatentWO2018083762A1
Innovation
- A variable stiffness actuator incorporating a shape memory member that can change phases between a low-rigidity and high-rigidity state, connected via an inducing member and an electrically conductive connecting member, allowing for controlled stiffness changes through phase transitions induced by heat generated by the inducing member.
Biocompatibility Standards for Smart Material Applications
Biocompatibility standards for smart materials represent a critical regulatory framework that governs the safe integration of variable stiffness actuators and smart hydrogels in biological environments. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 10993 series serves as the primary guideline, establishing comprehensive testing protocols for biological evaluation of medical devices incorporating adaptive materials.
For variable stiffness actuators intended for biomedical applications, ISO 10993-5 cytotoxicity testing becomes paramount, particularly when these devices utilize shape memory alloys or electroactive polymers. The standard requires in vitro assessment using established cell lines to evaluate potential toxic effects from material leachates or degradation products during stiffness modulation cycles.
Smart hydrogels face unique biocompatibility challenges due to their dynamic swelling behavior and potential for controlled drug release. ISO 10993-3 addresses genotoxicity concerns, while ISO 10993-11 focuses on systemic toxicity evaluation. These standards are particularly relevant for hydrogels that undergo repeated volume changes, as mechanical stress can alter their molecular structure and potentially generate harmful byproducts.
The FDA's guidance documents complement ISO standards by providing specific pathways for smart material approval. The 510(k) premarket notification process often applies to devices incorporating established biocompatible polymers, while novel smart materials may require more extensive De Novo classification or Premarket Approval (PMA) pathways.
European regulations under the Medical Device Regulation (MDR 2017/745) impose additional requirements for smart materials, particularly regarding long-term biocompatibility assessment. The regulation emphasizes post-market surveillance for devices with adaptive properties, recognizing that material behavior may evolve over extended implantation periods.
Emerging standards specifically address smart material applications, including ASTM F2900 for shape memory alloys and ISO/TS 20477 for hydrogel characterization. These specialized guidelines acknowledge the unique properties of adaptive materials and establish testing protocols that account for their dynamic behavior in biological environments.
For variable stiffness actuators intended for biomedical applications, ISO 10993-5 cytotoxicity testing becomes paramount, particularly when these devices utilize shape memory alloys or electroactive polymers. The standard requires in vitro assessment using established cell lines to evaluate potential toxic effects from material leachates or degradation products during stiffness modulation cycles.
Smart hydrogels face unique biocompatibility challenges due to their dynamic swelling behavior and potential for controlled drug release. ISO 10993-3 addresses genotoxicity concerns, while ISO 10993-11 focuses on systemic toxicity evaluation. These standards are particularly relevant for hydrogels that undergo repeated volume changes, as mechanical stress can alter their molecular structure and potentially generate harmful byproducts.
The FDA's guidance documents complement ISO standards by providing specific pathways for smart material approval. The 510(k) premarket notification process often applies to devices incorporating established biocompatible polymers, while novel smart materials may require more extensive De Novo classification or Premarket Approval (PMA) pathways.
European regulations under the Medical Device Regulation (MDR 2017/745) impose additional requirements for smart materials, particularly regarding long-term biocompatibility assessment. The regulation emphasizes post-market surveillance for devices with adaptive properties, recognizing that material behavior may evolve over extended implantation periods.
Emerging standards specifically address smart material applications, including ASTM F2900 for shape memory alloys and ISO/TS 20477 for hydrogel characterization. These specialized guidelines acknowledge the unique properties of adaptive materials and establish testing protocols that account for their dynamic behavior in biological environments.
Energy Efficiency Comparison in Adaptive Systems
Energy consumption patterns between Variable Stiffness Actuators (VSAs) and Smart Hydrogels reveal fundamental differences in their operational mechanisms and efficiency profiles. VSAs typically require continuous power input to maintain their variable stiffness states, with energy consumption directly correlating to the frequency and magnitude of stiffness modulation. The electromagnetic or pneumatic systems driving VSAs consume substantial power during active reconfiguration phases, often ranging from 10-50 watts depending on load requirements and response speed.
Smart hydrogels demonstrate significantly different energy consumption characteristics, primarily requiring energy only during phase transitions or environmental stimuli responses. These materials exhibit passive energy storage capabilities through their molecular structure changes, allowing them to maintain adapted shapes without continuous power input. The energy requirements for hydrogel activation typically range from 0.1-5 watts, representing a substantial reduction compared to traditional actuator systems.
Comparative analysis reveals that VSAs excel in applications requiring rapid, precise stiffness control but at the cost of higher baseline energy consumption. Their efficiency decreases significantly during frequent switching operations, with power losses occurring through heat dissipation in control circuits and mechanical friction. However, VSAs offer superior energy recovery potential through regenerative mechanisms during load release phases.
Smart hydrogels demonstrate exceptional energy efficiency in quasi-static applications where shape adaptation occurs gradually. Their thermodynamically driven responses utilize ambient energy sources, including temperature fluctuations and chemical gradients, reducing external power requirements. The energy efficiency of hydrogel systems improves dramatically in applications with longer adaptation cycles, where the initial activation energy is amortized over extended operational periods.
System-level energy analysis indicates that hybrid approaches combining both technologies can optimize overall efficiency. VSAs provide rapid initial positioning with high energy input, while hydrogels maintain adapted configurations with minimal ongoing power consumption. This complementary relationship suggests optimal energy utilization strategies depend heavily on specific application requirements, duty cycles, and environmental conditions.
Smart hydrogels demonstrate significantly different energy consumption characteristics, primarily requiring energy only during phase transitions or environmental stimuli responses. These materials exhibit passive energy storage capabilities through their molecular structure changes, allowing them to maintain adapted shapes without continuous power input. The energy requirements for hydrogel activation typically range from 0.1-5 watts, representing a substantial reduction compared to traditional actuator systems.
Comparative analysis reveals that VSAs excel in applications requiring rapid, precise stiffness control but at the cost of higher baseline energy consumption. Their efficiency decreases significantly during frequent switching operations, with power losses occurring through heat dissipation in control circuits and mechanical friction. However, VSAs offer superior energy recovery potential through regenerative mechanisms during load release phases.
Smart hydrogels demonstrate exceptional energy efficiency in quasi-static applications where shape adaptation occurs gradually. Their thermodynamically driven responses utilize ambient energy sources, including temperature fluctuations and chemical gradients, reducing external power requirements. The energy efficiency of hydrogel systems improves dramatically in applications with longer adaptation cycles, where the initial activation energy is amortized over extended operational periods.
System-level energy analysis indicates that hybrid approaches combining both technologies can optimize overall efficiency. VSAs provide rapid initial positioning with high energy input, while hydrogels maintain adapted configurations with minimal ongoing power consumption. This complementary relationship suggests optimal energy utilization strategies depend heavily on specific application requirements, duty cycles, and environmental conditions.
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