An ion-permeable membrane and deliquescent electrolyte turn daily humidity changes into stable, reversible electromotive force.
A conductive flat-plate terminal and sealed frame member spread current evenly, limiting zinc dendrites and electrolyte leakage.
Aliovalent cation substitution in ZnPS3 creates vacancies that enable room-temperature divalent ion transport while keeping the electrolyte insulating.
A conductive flat-plate perimeter and insulating tape distribute current evenly to reduce zinc dendrites and stabilize zinc-halide battery cycling.
An embedded passivating cell applies a keeping potential to slow electrochemical rundown and extend primary, secondary, and reserve cell life.