A baking treatment creates minute pits on a silicon crystal substrate, which polishing reduces before epitaxial growth deposits the final layer.
A solution growth method dissolves metal precursor films to induce recrystallization into single-crystal perovskite structures.
Large grain source particles and internal autoclave chambers prevent undissolved particle deposition on seed crystals during ammonothermal growth.
A silicon single crystal pulling method maintains oxygen concentration above 9.0×10^17 atoms/cm³ to strengthen the lattice structure.
A continuous casting apparatus controls temperature and solidification to form large crystal grains in silicon substrates.