Quantum Network Scalability: Comparing With Fiber Optics
APR 21, 20269 MIN READ
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Quantum Network Evolution and Scalability Objectives
Quantum networking represents a paradigm shift from classical communication systems, fundamentally altering how information is transmitted, secured, and processed across distributed networks. The evolution of quantum networks traces back to the theoretical foundations laid in the 1980s with quantum key distribution protocols, progressing through laboratory demonstrations in the 1990s to today's emerging quantum internet infrastructure. This technological trajectory demonstrates a clear progression from point-to-point quantum communication links to complex multi-node quantum networks capable of supporting diverse quantum applications.
The historical development reveals distinct phases of quantum network evolution. Early implementations focused on establishing secure quantum channels over short distances, primarily addressing cryptographic applications through quantum key distribution. Subsequent developments expanded to metropolitan-area quantum networks, integrating quantum repeaters and memory systems to extend transmission ranges. Current research emphasizes the transition toward wide-area quantum networks, incorporating satellite-based quantum communication and terrestrial fiber infrastructure to achieve global connectivity.
Contemporary quantum network architectures face fundamental scalability challenges that distinguish them from classical fiber optic systems. While fiber optic networks achieve scalability through signal amplification and regeneration, quantum networks must preserve quantum states' fragile properties, prohibiting direct amplification of quantum signals. This constraint necessitates alternative approaches including quantum repeaters, error correction protocols, and entanglement distribution mechanisms to maintain network performance across extended distances and multiple nodes.
The primary technical objectives driving quantum network scalability focus on achieving three critical benchmarks. First, extending transmission distances beyond current limitations of several hundred kilometers to enable continental and intercontinental quantum communication. Second, increasing network throughput to support practical applications requiring high-rate quantum information exchange. Third, developing robust network topologies capable of supporting hundreds to thousands of quantum nodes while maintaining coherence and fidelity standards.
Future scalability targets envision quantum networks supporting distributed quantum computing applications, where quantum processors across different geographical locations collaborate on complex computational tasks. This vision requires achieving entanglement distribution rates and fidelities that significantly exceed current capabilities, while simultaneously reducing the cost and complexity of quantum network infrastructure to enable widespread deployment comparable to today's internet infrastructure.
The historical development reveals distinct phases of quantum network evolution. Early implementations focused on establishing secure quantum channels over short distances, primarily addressing cryptographic applications through quantum key distribution. Subsequent developments expanded to metropolitan-area quantum networks, integrating quantum repeaters and memory systems to extend transmission ranges. Current research emphasizes the transition toward wide-area quantum networks, incorporating satellite-based quantum communication and terrestrial fiber infrastructure to achieve global connectivity.
Contemporary quantum network architectures face fundamental scalability challenges that distinguish them from classical fiber optic systems. While fiber optic networks achieve scalability through signal amplification and regeneration, quantum networks must preserve quantum states' fragile properties, prohibiting direct amplification of quantum signals. This constraint necessitates alternative approaches including quantum repeaters, error correction protocols, and entanglement distribution mechanisms to maintain network performance across extended distances and multiple nodes.
The primary technical objectives driving quantum network scalability focus on achieving three critical benchmarks. First, extending transmission distances beyond current limitations of several hundred kilometers to enable continental and intercontinental quantum communication. Second, increasing network throughput to support practical applications requiring high-rate quantum information exchange. Third, developing robust network topologies capable of supporting hundreds to thousands of quantum nodes while maintaining coherence and fidelity standards.
Future scalability targets envision quantum networks supporting distributed quantum computing applications, where quantum processors across different geographical locations collaborate on complex computational tasks. This vision requires achieving entanglement distribution rates and fidelities that significantly exceed current capabilities, while simultaneously reducing the cost and complexity of quantum network infrastructure to enable widespread deployment comparable to today's internet infrastructure.
Market Demand for Scalable Quantum Communication Networks
The global quantum communication market is experiencing unprecedented growth driven by escalating cybersecurity threats and the urgent need for unconditionally secure communication channels. Government agencies, financial institutions, and critical infrastructure operators are increasingly recognizing quantum key distribution as the ultimate solution for protecting sensitive data against both current and future quantum computing attacks. This demand is particularly acute in sectors handling classified information, where traditional encryption methods face potential obsolescence.
Enterprise adoption is accelerating as organizations seek quantum-safe communication networks to protect intellectual property, financial transactions, and strategic communications. The banking sector leads this adoption, with major financial institutions investing heavily in quantum communication infrastructure to secure high-value transactions and maintain competitive advantages. Healthcare organizations are also emerging as significant adopters, driven by stringent data protection regulations and the need to secure patient information across distributed networks.
Telecommunications providers are positioning themselves as key enablers of scalable quantum networks, recognizing the opportunity to offer quantum communication services alongside traditional fiber optic infrastructure. The integration potential between quantum and classical networks creates compelling value propositions for service providers seeking to differentiate their offerings and capture premium market segments.
Government initiatives worldwide are substantially driving market demand through national quantum strategies and significant funding commitments. Countries including the United States, China, and European Union members are investing billions in quantum communication infrastructure development, creating substantial market opportunities for technology providers and system integrators.
The scalability challenge represents both a market barrier and opportunity. Current quantum networks face distance limitations and complex infrastructure requirements that restrict widespread deployment. However, organizations requiring secure communications across metropolitan and regional distances are willing to invest in current-generation quantum networks while anticipating future scalability improvements.
Market demand is further intensified by the approaching threat of cryptographically relevant quantum computers, creating urgency for quantum-safe communication solutions. This timeline pressure is driving accelerated procurement cycles and increased willingness to invest in emerging quantum communication technologies despite current scalability constraints.
Enterprise adoption is accelerating as organizations seek quantum-safe communication networks to protect intellectual property, financial transactions, and strategic communications. The banking sector leads this adoption, with major financial institutions investing heavily in quantum communication infrastructure to secure high-value transactions and maintain competitive advantages. Healthcare organizations are also emerging as significant adopters, driven by stringent data protection regulations and the need to secure patient information across distributed networks.
Telecommunications providers are positioning themselves as key enablers of scalable quantum networks, recognizing the opportunity to offer quantum communication services alongside traditional fiber optic infrastructure. The integration potential between quantum and classical networks creates compelling value propositions for service providers seeking to differentiate their offerings and capture premium market segments.
Government initiatives worldwide are substantially driving market demand through national quantum strategies and significant funding commitments. Countries including the United States, China, and European Union members are investing billions in quantum communication infrastructure development, creating substantial market opportunities for technology providers and system integrators.
The scalability challenge represents both a market barrier and opportunity. Current quantum networks face distance limitations and complex infrastructure requirements that restrict widespread deployment. However, organizations requiring secure communications across metropolitan and regional distances are willing to invest in current-generation quantum networks while anticipating future scalability improvements.
Market demand is further intensified by the approaching threat of cryptographically relevant quantum computers, creating urgency for quantum-safe communication solutions. This timeline pressure is driving accelerated procurement cycles and increased willingness to invest in emerging quantum communication technologies despite current scalability constraints.
Current Quantum Network Limitations vs Fiber Optics
Quantum networks face fundamental scalability constraints that distinguish them from classical fiber optic systems. The primary limitation stems from quantum decoherence, where quantum states deteriorate over distance due to environmental interference. While fiber optic signals can be amplified repeatedly without information loss, quantum information cannot be copied or amplified directly due to the no-cloning theorem, restricting transmission distances to approximately 100-200 kilometers without quantum repeaters.
Photon loss represents another critical bottleneck in quantum network scalability. Current quantum communication systems experience exponential signal decay, with transmission success rates dropping dramatically over extended distances. Fiber optic networks, conversely, maintain reliable signal integrity through optical amplifiers and regenerators, enabling global-scale connectivity with minimal latency penalties.
The infrastructure requirements for quantum networks impose significant scalability challenges compared to fiber optics. Quantum systems demand ultra-low temperature environments, precise timing synchronization, and specialized hardware components that are exponentially more complex and costly than conventional optical equipment. This complexity translates to higher maintenance requirements and reduced network reliability as system scale increases.
Quantum repeater technology, essential for long-distance quantum communication, remains in early developmental stages. Current quantum repeater implementations suffer from low success rates and require sophisticated error correction protocols. In contrast, fiber optic repeaters are mature, standardized technologies that enable seamless network expansion across continents with established protocols and infrastructure.
Network topology limitations further constrain quantum network scalability. Quantum networks typically operate in point-to-point or simple star configurations, lacking the mesh topology flexibility that enables fiber optic networks to support millions of simultaneous connections. The quantum measurement process fundamentally alters transmitted states, preventing the broadcast capabilities that make fiber optic networks highly scalable.
Error rates in quantum networks increase significantly with network size and complexity. While fiber optic systems achieve bit error rates below 10^-12, quantum networks currently operate with substantially higher error rates that compound as network scale expands. This necessitates extensive quantum error correction overhead, further limiting practical scalability compared to the robust error management capabilities of mature fiber optic infrastructure.
Photon loss represents another critical bottleneck in quantum network scalability. Current quantum communication systems experience exponential signal decay, with transmission success rates dropping dramatically over extended distances. Fiber optic networks, conversely, maintain reliable signal integrity through optical amplifiers and regenerators, enabling global-scale connectivity with minimal latency penalties.
The infrastructure requirements for quantum networks impose significant scalability challenges compared to fiber optics. Quantum systems demand ultra-low temperature environments, precise timing synchronization, and specialized hardware components that are exponentially more complex and costly than conventional optical equipment. This complexity translates to higher maintenance requirements and reduced network reliability as system scale increases.
Quantum repeater technology, essential for long-distance quantum communication, remains in early developmental stages. Current quantum repeater implementations suffer from low success rates and require sophisticated error correction protocols. In contrast, fiber optic repeaters are mature, standardized technologies that enable seamless network expansion across continents with established protocols and infrastructure.
Network topology limitations further constrain quantum network scalability. Quantum networks typically operate in point-to-point or simple star configurations, lacking the mesh topology flexibility that enables fiber optic networks to support millions of simultaneous connections. The quantum measurement process fundamentally alters transmitted states, preventing the broadcast capabilities that make fiber optic networks highly scalable.
Error rates in quantum networks increase significantly with network size and complexity. While fiber optic systems achieve bit error rates below 10^-12, quantum networks currently operate with substantially higher error rates that compound as network scale expands. This necessitates extensive quantum error correction overhead, further limiting practical scalability compared to the robust error management capabilities of mature fiber optic infrastructure.
Existing Quantum Network Scaling Solutions and Approaches
01 Quantum repeater architectures for extended network range
Quantum repeaters serve as critical infrastructure components for extending the range of quantum networks beyond direct transmission limits. These systems utilize entanglement swapping and quantum memory to overcome photon loss in long-distance quantum communication channels. Advanced repeater designs incorporate error correction protocols and purification techniques to maintain quantum state fidelity across multiple network nodes, enabling scalable quantum network deployment over metropolitan and intercontinental distances.- Quantum repeater architectures for extended network range: Quantum repeaters serve as critical infrastructure components for extending the range of quantum networks beyond direct transmission limits. These systems utilize entanglement swapping and quantum memory to overcome photon loss in optical fibers, enabling long-distance quantum communication. Advanced repeater designs incorporate error correction protocols and purification techniques to maintain quantum state fidelity across multiple network nodes, thereby supporting scalable quantum network deployment.
- Multiplexing techniques for quantum channel capacity enhancement: Multiplexing approaches enable multiple quantum communication channels to operate simultaneously over shared infrastructure, significantly improving network throughput and scalability. These techniques include wavelength division multiplexing, time-bin encoding, and spatial mode multiplexing to maximize the utilization of quantum resources. Implementation of these methods allows for parallel quantum information transmission while maintaining entanglement quality and reducing resource overhead per communication session.
- Quantum network topology optimization and routing protocols: Efficient network topologies and routing protocols are essential for managing quantum resource allocation and optimizing entanglement distribution across large-scale quantum networks. These solutions address the unique challenges of quantum communication, including no-cloning theorem constraints and decoherence effects. Advanced routing algorithms dynamically adapt to network conditions, prioritizing paths based on fidelity requirements and available quantum memory, enabling flexible and scalable network architectures.
- Quantum memory systems for network synchronization: Quantum memory devices provide essential buffering and synchronization capabilities for scalable quantum networks by storing quantum states with high fidelity for extended periods. These systems enable asynchronous quantum communication protocols and facilitate entanglement distribution across networks with varying node capabilities. Advanced quantum memory implementations support multiple storage modes and retrieval on-demand functionality, which are critical for coordinating complex multi-node quantum operations and building hierarchical network structures.
- Quantum network management and control plane architectures: Comprehensive management frameworks and control plane architectures are necessary for orchestrating resources, monitoring performance, and maintaining operational stability in large-scale quantum networks. These systems integrate classical and quantum network layers, providing interfaces for resource reservation, quality of service guarantees, and network state monitoring. Automated management protocols handle dynamic reconfiguration, fault detection, and recovery procedures while accounting for the probabilistic nature of quantum operations and the need for real-time adaptation to changing network conditions.
02 Quantum network topology and routing protocols
Scalable quantum networks require sophisticated topology designs and routing mechanisms to efficiently distribute entanglement and quantum information across multiple nodes. Network architectures employ hierarchical structures, mesh configurations, and hybrid classical-quantum routing protocols to optimize resource allocation and minimize latency. Dynamic routing algorithms adapt to network conditions, node availability, and entanglement quality to ensure reliable quantum communication pathways in large-scale deployments.Expand Specific Solutions03 Quantum memory systems for network synchronization
Quantum memory technologies enable temporal synchronization and buffering of quantum states within network nodes, which is essential for coordinating operations across distributed quantum systems. These memory systems store quantum information with high fidelity for extended periods, allowing asynchronous network operations and facilitating entanglement distribution protocols. Advanced memory implementations utilize atomic ensembles, rare-earth-doped crystals, or trapped ions to achieve the storage times and retrieval efficiencies necessary for practical network scalability.Expand Specific Solutions04 Multiplexing techniques for increased quantum channel capacity
Multiplexing approaches enhance quantum network scalability by enabling multiple quantum channels to operate simultaneously over shared physical infrastructure. Wavelength-division multiplexing, time-bin encoding, and spatial mode multiplexing increase the effective bandwidth of quantum communication links. These techniques allow parallel transmission of entangled photon pairs and quantum states, significantly improving network throughput and supporting larger numbers of concurrent users without proportional increases in physical resources.Expand Specific Solutions05 Quantum network management and control systems
Comprehensive management frameworks coordinate the operation of distributed quantum network components, including resource allocation, quality-of-service monitoring, and network reconfiguration. Control systems implement automated protocols for entanglement generation scheduling, error detection and correction, and network state verification. Software-defined quantum networking approaches provide flexible management interfaces that enable dynamic network optimization and facilitate integration with classical communication infrastructure for hybrid network operations.Expand Specific Solutions
Leading Companies in Quantum Networks and Fiber Optics
The quantum network scalability landscape represents an emerging technology sector in its early developmental phase, with significant potential to revolutionize secure communications beyond traditional fiber optics capabilities. The market remains nascent with limited commercial deployment, though substantial research investments indicate growing recognition of quantum networking's strategic importance. Technology maturity varies considerably across players, with established telecommunications companies like Deutsche Telekom AG, Huawei Technologies, and Cisco Technology leveraging existing fiber infrastructure expertise, while specialized quantum firms such as IonQ Quantum, Qunnect, and evolutionQ focus on pure quantum solutions. Academic institutions including MIT, University of Science & Technology of China, and California Institute of Technology drive fundamental research breakthroughs. Chinese companies like CAS Quantum Network and Anhui Asky Quantum demonstrate significant national investment in quantum infrastructure development, while traditional optical leaders such as Corning and Prysmian explore quantum-enhanced fiber technologies for next-generation scalable networks.
Corning, Inc.
Technical Solution: Corning addresses quantum network scalability through specialized optical fiber designs optimized for quantum communication applications. Their approach involves developing low-loss, low-noise optical fibers that can support both quantum and classical signals simultaneously, enabling cost-effective scaling of quantum networks using shared infrastructure. Corning's quantum-optimized fibers feature enhanced polarization stability and reduced photon loss rates, critical for maintaining quantum coherence over extended distances. Their scalability solution includes fiber designs that support wavelength division multiplexing for quantum channels, allowing multiple quantum communication links to operate over single fiber strands. The company's manufacturing capabilities enable large-scale production of quantum-grade optical components, addressing the infrastructure requirements for widespread quantum network deployment.
Strengths: World-leading optical fiber manufacturing expertise, specialized quantum-optimized fiber designs, large-scale production capabilities for network infrastructure. Weaknesses: Limited involvement in quantum communication protocols and network management systems, focus primarily on physical layer components rather than complete quantum networking solutions.
Cisco Technology, Inc.
Technical Solution: Cisco's quantum network scalability strategy focuses on developing quantum-safe networking equipment that can seamlessly integrate quantum key distribution with traditional fiber optic networks. Their approach includes quantum-enabled routers and switches that support both classical and quantum traffic management, utilizing existing fiber infrastructure to minimize deployment complexity. Cisco's solution employs software-defined networking (SDN) principles to create scalable quantum network architectures that can dynamically allocate bandwidth between quantum and classical communications. Their quantum network management platform provides centralized control over hybrid networks, enabling operators to scale quantum services incrementally while maintaining compatibility with existing fiber optic infrastructure and achieving network utilization efficiencies comparable to classical networks.
Strengths: Extensive networking equipment expertise, strong SDN integration capabilities, proven scalability in classical networks. Weaknesses: Limited quantum hardware development capabilities, dependence on third-party quantum communication technologies, focus primarily on network management rather than quantum transmission innovation.
Key Patents in Quantum Repeaters and Network Architecture
Backbone networks for hybrid quantum data transmission
PatentPendingUS20250309998A1
Innovation
- A quantum backbone network integrating satellite and direct fiber links, using entanglement-based quantum teleportation and hybrid classical-quantum data frames to establish seamless communication across subnetworks, enabling continuous and robust entanglement service.
Scalable multi-party networks for high-rate entanglement distribution and quantum communications
PatentPendingUS20250119281A1
Innovation
- A wavelength-multiplexed quantum network system that employs high-dimensional entanglement on an energy-time basis to encode multiple bits of information per entangled photon pair, using wavelength and time-multiplexing to distribute entanglement among multiple users, and incorporating dispersion compensation modules for noise resilience.
Quantum Communication Security Standards and Regulations
The establishment of comprehensive security standards and regulations for quantum communication networks represents a critical foundation for the scalable deployment of quantum networking infrastructure. Unlike traditional fiber optic communications that rely on established protocols such as ITU-T recommendations and IEEE standards, quantum networks require entirely new regulatory frameworks to address the unique characteristics of quantum information transmission and the unprecedented security guarantees they provide.
Current international standardization efforts are being led by organizations including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These bodies are developing quantum key distribution (QKD) standards that define security parameters, authentication protocols, and interoperability requirements essential for large-scale quantum network deployment. The ITU-T Study Group 17 has published several recommendations including Y.3800 series standards that establish the architectural framework for quantum communication networks.
Regulatory challenges specific to quantum networks include the certification of quantum random number generators, validation of quantum channel security, and establishment of trust models for quantum repeaters and nodes. Unlike fiber optic networks where security relies primarily on encryption algorithms, quantum networks derive security from fundamental physics principles, requiring new approaches to security assessment and compliance verification.
Cross-border quantum communication faces additional regulatory complexity as quantum cryptographic keys cannot be copied or intercepted without detection, creating new paradigms for international data protection and privacy laws. National security considerations have led to export control regulations on quantum technologies in major economies, potentially impacting the global scalability of quantum networks compared to the relatively unrestricted deployment of fiber optic infrastructure.
The development of quantum-safe cryptography standards is proceeding in parallel, as post-quantum cryptographic algorithms must be integrated with quantum communication protocols to ensure end-to-end security. This dual-layer approach requires coordination between quantum communication standards and classical cryptographic regulations, adding complexity to the regulatory landscape that does not exist in conventional fiber optic network governance.
Current international standardization efforts are being led by organizations including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These bodies are developing quantum key distribution (QKD) standards that define security parameters, authentication protocols, and interoperability requirements essential for large-scale quantum network deployment. The ITU-T Study Group 17 has published several recommendations including Y.3800 series standards that establish the architectural framework for quantum communication networks.
Regulatory challenges specific to quantum networks include the certification of quantum random number generators, validation of quantum channel security, and establishment of trust models for quantum repeaters and nodes. Unlike fiber optic networks where security relies primarily on encryption algorithms, quantum networks derive security from fundamental physics principles, requiring new approaches to security assessment and compliance verification.
Cross-border quantum communication faces additional regulatory complexity as quantum cryptographic keys cannot be copied or intercepted without detection, creating new paradigms for international data protection and privacy laws. National security considerations have led to export control regulations on quantum technologies in major economies, potentially impacting the global scalability of quantum networks compared to the relatively unrestricted deployment of fiber optic infrastructure.
The development of quantum-safe cryptography standards is proceeding in parallel, as post-quantum cryptographic algorithms must be integrated with quantum communication protocols to ensure end-to-end security. This dual-layer approach requires coordination between quantum communication standards and classical cryptographic regulations, adding complexity to the regulatory landscape that does not exist in conventional fiber optic network governance.
Infrastructure Investment Requirements for Quantum Networks
The infrastructure investment requirements for quantum networks represent a fundamental departure from traditional telecommunications infrastructure, demanding substantially higher capital expenditures and specialized components. Unlike conventional fiber optic networks that leverage decades of manufacturing scale and standardization, quantum networks require entirely new categories of equipment including quantum repeaters, single-photon sources, quantum memories, and cryogenic cooling systems. These components currently operate at laboratory-grade specifications with costs orders of magnitude higher than their classical counterparts.
Initial deployment costs for quantum networks are estimated to be 50-100 times higher per kilometer compared to fiber optic infrastructure. The primary cost drivers include quantum hardware components such as superconducting qubits, trapped ion systems, and photonic quantum processors, each requiring precision manufacturing and quality control processes that have not yet achieved economies of scale. Additionally, the environmental requirements for quantum systems necessitate sophisticated isolation from electromagnetic interference, vibration control, and temperature regulation to millikelvin levels.
The supporting infrastructure presents another significant investment category. Quantum networks require dedicated control systems, classical communication channels for synchronization, and redundant power supplies with uninterruptible backup systems. The integration complexity demands specialized installation teams and ongoing maintenance by quantum-trained technicians, creating additional operational expenditure streams that exceed traditional network maintenance costs by factors of 10-20.
However, the investment landscape shows promising trends toward cost reduction. Government initiatives worldwide have allocated over $25 billion in quantum technology funding, with significant portions directed toward infrastructure development. Private sector investments from telecommunications giants and technology companies are accelerating component standardization and manufacturing scale-up processes.
The phased deployment approach offers a pathway to manage investment risks while building toward full-scale quantum networks. Initial implementations focus on high-value applications such as financial trading networks and government communications, where security premiums justify the elevated infrastructure costs. As component costs decrease through technological maturation and manufacturing scale, broader commercial deployment becomes economically viable, potentially achieving cost parity with specialized fiber optic systems within the next decade.
Initial deployment costs for quantum networks are estimated to be 50-100 times higher per kilometer compared to fiber optic infrastructure. The primary cost drivers include quantum hardware components such as superconducting qubits, trapped ion systems, and photonic quantum processors, each requiring precision manufacturing and quality control processes that have not yet achieved economies of scale. Additionally, the environmental requirements for quantum systems necessitate sophisticated isolation from electromagnetic interference, vibration control, and temperature regulation to millikelvin levels.
The supporting infrastructure presents another significant investment category. Quantum networks require dedicated control systems, classical communication channels for synchronization, and redundant power supplies with uninterruptible backup systems. The integration complexity demands specialized installation teams and ongoing maintenance by quantum-trained technicians, creating additional operational expenditure streams that exceed traditional network maintenance costs by factors of 10-20.
However, the investment landscape shows promising trends toward cost reduction. Government initiatives worldwide have allocated over $25 billion in quantum technology funding, with significant portions directed toward infrastructure development. Private sector investments from telecommunications giants and technology companies are accelerating component standardization and manufacturing scale-up processes.
The phased deployment approach offers a pathway to manage investment risks while building toward full-scale quantum networks. Initial implementations focus on high-value applications such as financial trading networks and government communications, where security premiums justify the elevated infrastructure costs. As component costs decrease through technological maturation and manufacturing scale, broader commercial deployment becomes economically viable, potentially achieving cost parity with specialized fiber optic systems within the next decade.
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