Advanced battery charging at the module level in energy storage systems

Abstract

Embodiments are disclosed that provide advanced charging of an array of energy sources for energy storage applications. The embodiments can be used in an energy storage system having a cascaded array of converter modules. The embodiments can include applying a pulse to the energy source of each module of the system. The pulse can be applied for a duration sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction. Feedback-based pulse control embodiments are also disclosed.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] (Cross-reference of related applications) This application claims the benefit and priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 854,861, filed on 30 May 2019, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for any purpose.

[0002] The subject matter described herein generally relates to advanced charging of energy sources in energy storage systems used in both mobile and stationary applications. [Background technology]

[0003] Several shortcomings and problems associated with existing charging methods have been identified, including heat loss, degradation, and slow rates of change. For example, the long charging times for electric vehicles are well known to be a major factor limiting their widespread adoption. For these and other reasons, there is a need for improved systems, devices, and methods. Through applied efforts, ingenuity, and innovation, many of these identified problems have been solved by developing solutions included in the embodiments of this disclosure, many of which are described in detail herein. [Overview of the project] [Means for solving the problem]

[0004] Exemplary embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are described herein with respect to advanced charging of energy sources (e.g., batteries, capacitors, fuel cells) within cascaded modular energy storage systems. Cascaded modular systems, combined with high-bandwidth charging algorithms, enable improved control over the electrochemical reactions of electrochemical charging storage devices. The embodiments described herein can be applied in either adaptive or non-adaptive modes, for example, with or without the use of measured responses to the application of a stimulating charging signal. The embodiments described herein may involve the application of a charging pulse of sufficient duration to initiate the electrochemical reaction. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reaction is initiated, and the pulse is terminated prior to the initiation and / or driving of harmful side reactions. Aspects of the embodiments can achieve extremely uniform charge transfer across the electrode area, even in non-uniform charge transfer resistance or electrolyte resistance, and thus current focusing and concentration gradients across the electrode area can be avoided. Embodiments of the present disclosure enable accelerated charging with less or less thermal loss and degradation compared to charging methods known in the art. Numerous other embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are also disclosed.

[0005] Other systems, devices, methods, features, and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be or will become apparent to those skilled in the art in consideration of the following figures and detailed description. All such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages are included in this description, within the scope of the subject matter described herein, and are intended to be protected by the accompanying claims. Features of exemplary embodiments should not be construed as limiting the accompanying claims in any way unless those features are explicitly described in the claims. [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0006] Details of the subject matter described herein, both in terms of its structure and operation, may be evident from the accompanying drawings, where similar reference numbers refer to similar parts. Components in the drawings are not necessarily to a fixed scale, but rather the emphasis is on illustrating the principles of the subject matter. Furthermore, all explanatory drawings are intended to convey concepts, where relative sizes, shapes, and other detailed attributes may be illustrated graphically, rather than literally or precisely.

[0007] [Figure 1A] Figure 1A-1C is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment of a modular energy storage system with various control configurations. [Figure 1B] Figure 1A-1C is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment of a modular energy storage system with various control configurations. [Figure 1C] Figure 1A-1C is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment of a modular energy storage system with various control configurations.

[0008] [Figure 2] Figure 2 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment of the converter module.

[0009] [Figure 3] Figure 3-5 is a block diagram illustrating an additional exemplary embodiment of a converter module within an energy storage system. [Figure 4] Figure 3-5 is a block diagram illustrating an additional exemplary embodiment of a converter module within an energy storage system. [Figure 5] Figure 3-5 is a block diagram illustrating an additional exemplary embodiment of a converter module within an energy storage system.

[0010] [Figure 6] Figures 6A-6B are schematic diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of the converter circuit.

[0011] [Figure 7] Figures 7A-7C are block diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of an energy source.

[0012] [Figure 8] Figures 8A-8C are schematic diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of an energy buffer.

[0013] [Figure 9] Figures 9A-9F are block diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of a secondary energy source that may be included within a converter module.

[0014] [Figure 10A] Figure 10A is a schematic diagram depicting an additional exemplary embodiment of a converter source module within an energy storage system.

[0015] [Figure 10B] Figure 10B is a schematic diagram depicting an additional exemplary embodiment of a converter source module within an energy storage system coupled to a source and / or a sink.

[0016] [Figure 11-1] Figures 11A-11B are graphs of exemplary output waveforms.

[0017] [Figure 11-2] Figures 11C-11F are graphs of exemplary waveforms used in pulse width modulation.

[0018] [Figure 12A] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of an energy storage system configuration. [Figure 12B] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of an energy storage system configuration. [Figure 12C]Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations. [Figure 12D] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations. [Figure 12E] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations. [Figure 12F] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations. [Figure 12G] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations. [Figure 12H] Figures 12A-12H are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of energy storage system configurations.

[0019] [Figure 13A] Figures 13A-13C are block diagrams illustrating exemplary enclosure configurations for converter modules. [Figure 13B] Figures 13A-13C are block diagrams illustrating exemplary enclosure configurations for converter modules. [Figure 13C] Figures 13A-13C are block diagrams illustrating exemplary enclosure configurations for converter modules.

[0020] [Figure 14] Figures 14A-14B are block diagrams illustrating exemplary embodiments of a board layout for a converter module.

[0021] [Figure 15] Figures 15A and 15B are graphs illustrating the stimulus signal and response signal, respectively.

[0022] [Figure 16] Figure 16 is a schematic diagram illustrating the relaxation and diffusion mechanisms that occur at the electrochemical interface during high-bandwidth stimulation.

[0023] [Figure 17A] Figures 17A and 17B are graphs illustrating the stimulus and response under different embodiments of the charging system. [Figure 17B] Figures 17A and 17B are graphs illustrating the stimulus and response under different embodiments of the charging system.

[0024] [Figure 18-1] Figures 18A and 18B are graphs illustrating current and voltage signals for illustrative comparisons between constant current and high-bandwidth stimulation to promote electrochemical reactions.

[0025] [Figure 18-2] Figure 18C schematically illustrates cross-sectional views of an electrochemical electrode with active electrochemical species at different time points in a sequence receiving constant current and high-bandwidth simulation signals.

[0026] [Figure 19A] Figures 19A and 19B are flowcharts illustrating exemplary embodiments of methods for charging a modular energy storage system. [Figure 19B] Figures 19A and 19B are flowcharts illustrating exemplary embodiments of methods for charging a modular energy storage system. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0027] Before the subject matter is described in detail, it should be understood that this disclosure is not limited to the specific embodiments described and is therefore naturally subject to change. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing only specific embodiments and is not intended to be restrictive, as the scope of this disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.

[0028] This technology relates to advanced charging of batteries or multiple battery arrays for mobility applications such as EVs, autonomous vehicles, and car-sharing applications, as well as for steady-state storage applications such as grid stabilization, microgrids, and bridge energy storage, for supplying power to critical infrastructure such as data centers, cloud computing, and security lighting, although these applications are not limited to these.

[0029] The modular energy topology described comprises modules that can be interconnected with a power bus system and a communication bus system. In embodiments, the communication bus system is combined with the power bus system to reduce wiring. In embodiments, the communication bus system is wireless. In embodiments, the energy module comprises an energy unit, one or more microcontrollers, a memory system, an inverter circuit, a switch unit, and a voltage regulator with embedded software algorithms. This embodiment enables fundamentally improved battery management in combination with fault, degradation, and adaptive charge and discharge routines incorporated at the module level.

[0030] Embodiments of this disclosure may offer new capabilities. For example, the system design establishes adaptive charging and discharging methods based on failure and degradation modes of energy storage units at the module level.

[0031] This specification describes exemplary embodiments of modular energy systems, such as exemplary embodiments of devices, circuits, software, and components within such systems; exemplary embodiments of methods for operating and using such systems; and exemplary embodiments of applications (e.g., equipment, machinery, grids, locations, structures, environments, etc.) in which such systems are implemented, may be incorporated, or may be utilized together. Often, these applications can be classified as mobile or stationary applications.

[0032] Examples of applications Mobility applications generally involve a modular energy system located on or within an entity that stores and provides electrical energy for conversion into motor-driven power, thereby moving or assisting in the movement of that entity. Embodiments of mobile entities in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, electric and / or hybrid entities that move across or underground on land, across or in the sea, above land or sea without contact with it (e.g., flying or hovering in the air), or through outer space. Embodiments of mobile entities in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, vehicles, trains, ships, vessels, aircraft, and spacecraft. Embodiments of mobile vehicles in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, those having only one wheel or track, only two wheels or tracks, only three wheels or tracks, only four wheels or tracks, and five or more wheels or tracks. Examples of mobile entities that may be used in combination with the embodiments disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles, scooters, industrial vehicles, mining vehicles, aircraft (e.g., airplanes, helicopters, drones, etc.), vessels (e.g., commercial transport ships, ships, yachts, boats, or other watercraft), submarines, locomotives or rail-based vehicles (e.g., trains, etc.), military vehicles, spacecraft, and satellites.

[0033] Steady-state applications are generally those other than mobile applications. Generally, in steady-state applications, module-based energy systems reside in a static location while providing electrical energy for consumption by one or more other entities. Examples of steady-state applications in which embodiments disclosed herein may be used or used in combination include, but are not limited to, energy systems for use by or within one or more residential structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more industrial structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more commercial structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more government structures or locations (including both military and non-military uses), and systems that convert solar, wind, geothermal, fossil fuel, or nuclear reactions into electricity for storage. Examples of steady-state applications in which embodiments disclosed herein may be used or used in combination include, but are not limited to, energy systems for charging mobile applications as described above (e.g., charging stations). Other examples of steady-state applications in which embodiments disclosed herein may be used or used in combination include, but are not limited to, data center storage systems, power grids, or microgrids. A steady-state energy system can be used for either storage or non-storage roles.

[0034] In describing embodiments herein, specific mobile applications (e.g., electric vehicles (EVs)) or stationary applications (e.g., grids) may be referenced. Such references are made for the sake of clarity and do not imply that a particular embodiment is limited to that specific mobile or stationary application for use only. Embodiments of systems that provide power to motors can be used in both mobile and stationary applications. While some configurations may be more suitable for certain applications than others, all exemplary embodiments disclosed herein are suitable for both mobile and stationary applications unless otherwise described.

[0035] Exemplary Embodiments of Modular Energy Systems Figure 1A depicts an exemplary embodiment of a module-based energy system 100. Here, system 100 includes a control circuit 102, each of which is communicatively coupled to N converter source modules 108-1 through 108-N via a communication path or links 106-1 through 106-N. In these embodiments, any number of two or more converter source modules can be used (for example, N is greater than or equal to 2). The converter source modules 108 can be interconnected in various ways, as will be described in more detail with respect to Figures 12A-12H. For ease of illustration, in Figures 1A-1C, the modules 108 are shown connected in series or as a one-dimensional array, with the Nth module coupled to a load 101. The load 101 is an electrical load that outputs power when system 100 is used to provide power. The load 101 can be any type of load, including, but not limited to, a motor or a grid. For charging, the module can be coupled with a charging source (not shown) in addition to or instead of the load 101. As will be described in more detail herein, the system 100 can be configured to supply a plurality of loads 101, including both primary and auxiliary loads.

[0036] In the embodiment shown in Figure 1A, the control circuit 102 is configured to control one or more modules 108 based on status information received from one or more identical or different modules. The control may also be based on one or more other factors, such as the requirements of the load 101. In many embodiments, the aspect controlled is the output power of each module over time, however, other aspects may also be controlled as an alternative to or in addition to output power.

[0037] In many embodiments, status information of all modules in system 100 is communicated to control circuit 102, from which control circuit 102 will independently control all modules 108-1...108-N. Other variations are also possible. For example, control of a particular module (or subset of modules) may be based on the status information of that particular module (or subset of modules), on the status information of a different module that is not that particular module (or subset of modules), on the status information of all modules other than that particular module (or subset of modules), on the status information of that particular module (or subset of modules) and at least one other module that is not that particular module (or subset of modules), or on the status information of all modules in system 100.

[0038] As will be described herein, status information may be information about one or more aspects of each module. Status information may be operating characteristics or other parameters. The types of status information may include, but are not limited to, the following aspects of the module or its components, namely, state of charge (SOC) (e.g., the level of charge of the energy source relative to its capacity, such as a fraction or percentage), state of health (SOH) (e.g., the figure of performance of the energy source conditions compared to its ideal conditions), capacity, temperature, voltage, current, or the presence or absence of faults. Each module 108-1…108-N includes one or more sensors or other measuring elements for collecting sensing or measuring signals or data that constitute or can be converted into status information. Since more than one type of status information can be sensed or measured using a single sensor or determined by an algorithm without the need for additional sensors, separate sensors are not required to collect each type of status information.

[0039] Figure 1B depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 100. Here, control circuit 102 is implemented as a master control device 112, each communicatively coupled to N different local control devices 114-1 to 114-N via a communication path or links 115-1 to 115-N. Each local control device 114-1 to 114-N is communicatively coupled to one converter source module 108-1 to 108-N via a communication path or links 116-1 to 116-N, such that a one-to-one relationship exists between local control device 114 and converter source module 108.

[0040] Figure 1C depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 100. Here, the master control device 112 is communicably coupled to M different local control devices 114-1 to 114-M, each via a communication path or link 115-1 to 115-M. The local control devices 114 can be coupled to and control two or more converter source modules 108. In the embodiment shown herein, each local control device 114 is communicably coupled to two converter source modules 108, such that the M local control devices 114-1 to 114-M are each coupled to 2M converter source modules 108-1 to 108-2M, each via a communication path or link 116-1 to 116-2M.

[0041] Communication paths or links 106, 115, and 116 may each be wired or wireless communication paths or links that communicate data or information bidirectionally in parallel or series. Data may be communicated in standard or custom formats. In automotive applications, communication path or link 115 may be configured to communicate data according to the FlexRay or CAN protocol.

[0042] In embodiments described with reference to Figures 1B and 1C, the local control device 114 receives status information from each module, or determines status information from sensing or measured signals or data received from each module, and communicates this information to the master control device 112. In some embodiments, the local control device 114 communicates measured or sensed data to the control device 112, which then algorithmically determines status information based on the raw data. The master control device 112 can then use the status information of module 108 to make control decisions accordingly. The control decisions may take the form of instructions, commands, or other information (such as modulation indices, as described below) that can be interpreted or used by the local control device 114 to either maintain or adjust the operation or contribution of the module.

[0043] For example, the master control device 112 may receive status information indicating that a particular module (or component thereof) is operating relative to one or more other modules in the system 100 under one or more of the following conditions: namely, with a relatively lower SOC, with a relatively lower SOH, with a relatively lower capacitance, with a relatively lower voltage, with a relatively lower current, with a relatively higher temperature, or with a fault. In such embodiments, the master control device 112 may output control information that reduces (or, in some cases, increases depending on the conditions) the power output of the particular module. Thus, for example, the power output of a module operating at a higher temperature can be reduced so that the temperature of that module converges toward the temperature of one or more other modules.

[0044] In other embodiments, the decision of whether to adjust the operation of a particular module may be made by comparing the status information to predetermined thresholds, limits, or conditions, rather than necessarily by comparing it to the status of other modules. These predetermined thresholds, limits, or conditions may be static thresholds, limits, or conditions, such as those set by the manufacturer and not changing during use. They may also be dynamic thresholds, limits, or conditions, which are permitted to change or change during use. For example, the master control device 112 may adjust the operation of a module if the status information for that module indicates that it is violating a predetermined threshold or limit (e.g., above or below it) or operating outside a predetermined range of acceptable operating conditions. Similarly, the master control device 112 may adjust the operation of a module if the status information for that module indicates the presence of an actual or potential fault (e.g., an alarm or warning), or the absence or elimination of an actual or potential fault. Examples of failures include, but are not limited to, actual failure of a component, potential failure of a component, short circuits or other overcurrent conditions, open circuits, overvoltage conditions, inability to receive communications, reception of corrupted data, and equivalents.

[0045] The local control device 114 can receive, process, and transmit signals from various sensors of the converter source module (e.g., temperature, voltage, and current sensors), to and from semiconductor switches (e.g., triggers), fault signals, the voltage of the basic battery of the energy storage and buffering elements, and other signals. The local control device can communicate with the master control device 112 and transmit corresponding control signals to and from it.

[0046] Thus, the master control device 112 can control the modules 108 within the system 100 to achieve or converge toward a desired target. The target may be, for example, the operation of all modules at the same or similar level relative to one another, or within a predetermined threshold, limitation, or condition. This process is also referred to as maintaining or striving to achieve equilibrium in the operation or operating characteristics of the modules. The term “equilibrium” as used herein is used broadly to convey to those skilled in the art that the operation of the system 100 may be used to actively reduce differences in operation between modules that may otherwise exist.

[0047] Referring back to Figure 1A, the control circuit 102 can be configured to operate and perform control using software (instructions stored in memory that can be executed by the processing circuit), hardware, or a combination thereof. The control circuit 102 may include a processing circuit and memory, as shown here. Exemplary implementations of the processing circuit and memory are described further below. The communication path or link 106 may also include wired power to supply operating power for the control circuit 102 directly from one or more converter source modules 108. In some embodiments, power for the control circuit 102 is supplied from only one or more converter source modules 108.

[0048] Referring to Figure 1B-1C, the master control device 112 and the local control device 114 can similarly be configured to operate and perform control using software (instructions stored in memory that can be executed by the processing circuit), hardware, or a combination thereof, each of which may include a processing circuit and memory, as shown herein. Exemplary implementations of the processing circuit 120 and memory 122 are described further below. The communication path or link 116 may also include wired power to supply operating power for the local control device 114 directly from one or more converter source modules 108. In one embodiment, the operating power for each local control device 114 is supplied by only one or more converter source modules 108 to which that local control device 114 is connected by path 116. The operating power for the master control device 112 can be supplied indirectly from one or more of the converter source modules 108 (e.g., through the vehicle's power network).

[0049] In some embodiments, the control circuit 102 may include a single control device for the entire system 100. In other embodiments, the control circuit may be distributed among local control devices 114 associated with module 108, so that a separate master control device 112 is not required and can be omitted from system 100.

[0050] In some embodiments, control of system 100 can be distributed between a control circuit 102 dedicated to or local to system 100 and a control circuit shared with other components of the application. For example, in an automotive application, the master control device 112 may be implemented as part of another control device of the vehicle (e.g., an electronic control unit (ECU)) that is responsible for one or more other automotive functions (e.g., motor control, driver interface control, traction control, etc.).

[0051] The control circuit 102 may have a communication interface for communicating with other control devices for the application. For example, in an automotive application, the control circuit 102 (e.g., a master control device 112) may output data or information about the system 100 to another control device in the vehicle (e.g., an ECU).

[0052] Exemplary Embodiments of Modules in a Cascade Energy Storage System A block diagram of an exemplary embodiment of module 108 is shown in Figure 2. Module 108 can include any number of one or more energy sources 202. In this embodiment, module 108 includes one energy source 202, which may be one of the types described herein or a combination thereof. Module 108 can also include a power electronics converter circuit 206 or 308 (e.g., a controllable switch circuit), a voltage, current, and / or temperature measuring circuit 201, and a local control device (LCD) 114 or other control circuit that is communicatively coupled to (or includes) a memory capable of storing adaptive control algorithms or executable software steps. The converter circuits 206, 308 can receive and / or output power via a power connection 110. The local control device can be communicatively coupled to other local control devices 114 and / or a master control device 112 via a communication bus 116.

[0053] The power connection 110 is a connection for transmitting energy or power to, from, and through module 108. Module 108 can output energy or power from energy source 202 to power connection 110, where it can be transmitted to other modules or loads in the system. Module 108 can also receive energy or power from other modules 108 or charging sources (DC chargers, single-phase chargers, multi-phase chargers). Signals can also pass through module 108, bypassing energy source 202. Routing of energy or power in and out of module 108 is carried out by power electronics converters 206, 308 under the control of a control circuit such as LCD 114.

[0054] Module 108, in particular LCD 114, can communicate (receive and / or transmit) information via communication bus 116. The information may be measurements or data about the operating characteristics of the module and its components, transmitted by LCD 114 to other control circuits, such as a master control device (MCD) 112. The information may also be control information, such as a voltage reference signal and / or modulation index, received by LCD 114 and used to generate one or more control signals for power electronics converters 206, 308. Communication bus 116 can enable LCD 114 to communicate with other control circuits of other modules 108, a master control circuit such as an MCD, or other devices.

[0055] The measurement circuit 201 is configured to measure one or more voltages, temperatures, and / or currents of one or more components of module 108, such as energy sources. In some embodiments, the measurement circuit 201 can measure aspects of energy source 202, such as charge state, temperature, current, and voltage. This information can be used by a control circuit within the monitoring module 108 and transferred to the LCD 114 within module 108 to control the energy output from and / or input to one or more other modules in the system. This ensures that the relative measured aspects of the modules in the system are balanced with respect to each other.

[0056] Figure 3-5 depicts an exemplary embodiment of a converter source module 108 in a system 100, as depicted in Figure 1B, with one local control device 114 per module. The embodiment in Figure 2-5 and any other embodiments described herein can be implemented according to the configuration in Figures 1A-1C unless otherwise described.

[0057] Module 108 can be implemented as a voltage converter or a current converter. For ease of explanation, the embodiments described herein are made with reference to a voltage converter, but embodiments are not limited to such a configuration.

[0058] Figure 3 is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108A in system 100. This embodiment of module 108A may be referred to herein as version 1 (V1) of the exemplary module and is an embodiment of the type converter source module 108. A local control device 114 (LCD) and a master control device 112 (MCD) are also shown. Module 108A is, in turn, communicatively coupled to LCD 114 and communicatively coupled to MCD 112.

[0059] Module 108A includes an energy source 202 which may include one or more energy storage elements. The energy source 202 may be, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: an ultracapacitor 600 (Figure 7A), at least one battery, or a battery module 601 (Figure 7B) which includes multiple battery cells connected in series and / or parallel, or fuel, a fuel cell, or a fuel cell module 602 (Figure 7C).

[0060] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of the energy buffer 204, respectively, which may include elements and topologies based on, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: a Z-source network 710 (Figure 8B) formed by an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB700 (Figure 8A), two inductors LEB1 and LEB2, and two electrolytic and / or film capacitors CEB1 and CEB2; or a quasi-Z-source network 720 (Figure 8C) formed by two inductors LEB1 and LEB2, two electrolytic and / or film capacitors CEB1 and CEB2, and a diode DEB. The specific topology and component choices for the energy buffer 204 depend on the maximum allowable amplitude of high-frequency voltage pulsations on the output terminals out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204. These pulsations can degrade the performance of module 108, and therefore they can be efficiently buffered by designing elements and topologies suitable as its basis.

[0061] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 are connected to the inputs in1 and in2 of the converter 206, respectively. A schematic representation of an exemplary embodiment of the converter 206 is shown in Figure 6A. In many embodiments, the converter 206 may include at least four switches S3, S4, S5, S6, which may be configured as semiconductor switches such as metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors or MOSFETs (as shown in Figures 6A-6B). Another switch embodiment is an insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT. The semiconductor switches operate at relatively high switching frequencies, thereby allowing the converter 206 to operate in pulse-width modulation mode, if desired, and to respond to control commands within relatively short time intervals. This can provide high tolerance for output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient modes.

[0062] In this embodiment, the converter 206 generates three different voltage outputs, namely +VDCL, 0, and -VDCL, by connecting the DC line voltage VDCL between its terminals in1 and in2 to its output terminals out1 and out2, using different combinations of switches S3, S4, S5, and S6. To obtain +VDCL, switches S3 and S6 are turned on, while -VDCL can be obtained by turning on switches S4 and S5. By turning on S3 and S5 or S4 and S6, the output voltage is set to zero or a reference voltage.

[0063] The control switching signals for semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways depending on the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in the LCD and MCD. One approach is to generate the output voltage of converter 206 using spatial vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) or sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), or variations thereof. An embodiment of the output voltage waveform 900 of converter 206 is shown in Figure 11A. The modulation method also depends on the version of system 100 to which it is applied, and possible solutions for modulation will be further presented herein as embodiments.

[0064] In some embodiments using pulse width modulation, the LCD (rather than the MCD) generates switching signals for switches within the module. In some embodiments, such as those using hysteresis, the generation of switching signals can be performed by the MCD. The LCD 114 shown in Figure 3 can be connected to module 108A via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines and can perform one or more of three main functions. The first function is the management of the energy source 202. The second function is the protection of the energy buffer 204, more specifically its components, from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high-temperature conditions. The third function is the control and protection of the converter 206.

[0065] In one exemplary embodiment, the function of the LCD 114 for managing the energy source 202 for module 108A is as follows: The LCD 114 accepts measurement signals VES1, TES1, and IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of at least one of the basic components of the energy source 202, preferably all voltages, or the voltage of a group of basic components such as, for example, (but not limited to) individual batteries or connected in series and / or parallel, or ultracapacitor batteries (individually or connected in series and / or parallel); TES1 is the temperature of at least one of the basic components of the energy source 202, preferably all temperatures, or the temperature of a group of basic components; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 202. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can perform one or more of the following: calculation or determination of the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or group of basic components; setting warning or alarm signals based on the measured and / or calculated data; and / or transmission of the corresponding signals to the MCD 112.

[0066] In one exemplary embodiment, the function of the LCD 114 to protect the energy buffer 204 is as follows: The LCD 114 accepts measurement signals VEB, TEB, and IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one major component of the energy buffer, for example, capacitor CEB, or capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see Figures 8A-8C), TEB is the temperature of at least one component of the energy buffer, and / or IEB is the current through at least one component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can perform the following: setting a warning or alarm signal based on the measured data, and / or transmitting the corresponding warning or alarm signal to the MCD 112.

[0067] In one exemplary embodiment, the functions of the LCD 114 for controlling and protecting the converter 206 for module 108A are as follows: The LCD 114 can receive command signals (e.g., via link 115, which may be a modulated reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index) from the MCD (e.g., via FlexRay or CAN) to generate control signals for semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6. A current feedback signal IOUT (not shown in Figure 3) coming from the converter 206's integrated current sensor can be used for overcurrent protection along with one or more signals F coming from the converter 206's switch drive circuit (not shown in Figure 3), which can carry information about the fault status of all switches in the converter 206 (e.g., short-circuit or open-circuit fault modes). Based on this data, LCD114 can determine the combination of switching signals to be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 in order to bypass or to disconnect the entire converter 206 and module 108A from system 100. (The switching signal for a particular switch can turn that switch on or off.)

[0068] Figure 4 is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of module 108B, which may be referred to herein as version 2, and is an embodiment of type converter source module 108. Module 108B is thus communicatively coupled to LCD 114, which is communicatively coupled to MCD 112.

[0069] In this embodiment, module 108B has a dual energy source configuration with a primary energy source 202 and a secondary energy source 304. The energy source 202 may include, for example, but is not limited to, one of the following: a high energy density capacitor 600 (Figure 7A) such as an ultracapacitor or supercapacitor; a battery module 601 (Figure 7B) including at least one battery or multiple battery cells connected in series and / or parallel; and fuel, a fuel cell, or a fuel cell module 602 (Figure 7C).

[0070] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of the energy buffer 204, whose variant is described above. The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 are connected to the inputs in1 and in3 of the converter 308, respectively.

[0071] The output out2 of the energy buffer 204 may also be connected to the output out2 of the energy source 304. Another output out1 of the energy source 304 is connected to the input in2 of the converter 308. The energy source 304 may include, for example, but is not limited to, one of the following: an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 (Figure 9A), a HED capacitor 810 (Figure 9B), a battery module 820 (Figure 9C) including at least one battery or multiple battery cells connected in series and / or parallel, an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 (Figure 9D) connected in parallel with the HED capacitor 810, an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 (Figure 9E) connected in parallel with the battery module 820 including at least one battery or multiple battery cells connected in series and / or parallel, a HED capacitor 810, and an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 (Figure 9F) connected in parallel with the battery module 820 including at least one battery or multiple battery cells connected in series and / or parallel.

[0072] A simplified schematic representation of an exemplary embodiment of converter 308 is shown in Figure 6B. Here, converter 308 includes six switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, which may be configured as semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs (as shown in Figure 6B) or IGBTs. The semiconductor switches operate at high switching frequencies, thereby enabling converter 308 to operate in pulse-width modulation mode if required and to respond to control commands within short time intervals, providing high tolerance for output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient modes.

[0073] The left side of converter 308 includes two switches S1 and S2, which can generate two different voltages at node 1, +VDCL and 0, referenced to input In3, which can be at a virtual zero potential. The coupled inductor L C This is connected between input In3 and node 1. The output out1 of energy source 304 is connected to the coupled inductor LC at input In3 of converter 308. The current consumed from or generated in energy source 304 is used to rectify the coupled inductor L, for example, using pulse width modulation techniques or hysteresis control methods for rectifying switches S1 and S2. C It can be controlled by adjusting the voltage above. Other techniques can also be used.

[0074] The right side of converter 308 includes four switches S3, S4, S5, and S6, and different combinations of switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 make it possible to generate three different voltage outputs, namely +VDCL, 0, and -VDCL, by connecting the DCL voltage VDCL between terminals in1 and in2 to output terminals out1 and out2. Switches S3 and S6 are turned on to obtain the +VDCL voltage between out1 and out2, while the -VDCL voltage between out1 and out2 can be obtained by turning on switches S4 and S5. By turning on S3 and S5 or S4 and S6, the output voltage is set to zero or the reference potential.

[0075] The control switching signals for semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways, depending on the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in LCD114 and MCD112. One approach is to generate the output voltage of converter 308 using pulse width modulation, such as spatial vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) or sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), including additional variations thereof. A typical output voltage waveform 900 of converter 308 is shown in Figure 11A. The modulation method may vary based on the needs of the application.

[0076] In this exemplary embodiment of module 108B, energy source 202 acts as a primary energy source and therefore supplies the average power required by the load. Energy source 304 may be a secondary energy source with the function of supporting energy source 202 by providing additional power at load power peaks or by absorbing excess power.

[0077] Figure 11B shows the output voltage waveform 1000 from an exemplary module-based energy storage system having six exemplary converter source modules.

[0078] The primary and secondary functions, performed by converter V2 and described above, can both be performed separately or simultaneously. When performed simultaneously, the energy source 304 may include an electrolytic capacitor or ultracapacitor 810 connected in parallel with other energy storage elements, as shown in Figures 9A, 9B, and 9D-9F.

[0079] The LCD 114, connected to module 108B via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines as shown in Figure 4, can perform at least one, preferably all, of four main functions. The first function is the management of energy source 202. The second function is the management of energy source 304. The third function is the protection of energy buffer 204, more specifically its components, from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature. The fourth function is the control and protection of converter 308.

[0080] The functions for managing the energy source 202 may be as follows: LCD114 accepts measurement signals VES1, TES1, and IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of all basic components / batteries of the energy source 202, or the voltage of a group of basic components / batteries such as, for example, individual or series and / or parallel connected battery cells, individual or series and / or parallel connected ultracapacitor batteries, etc.; TES1 is the temperature of all basic components of the energy source 1, or the temperature of a group of basic components; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 202. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD can perform the following: calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or group of basic components; set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data; and transmit the corresponding signals to MCD112.

[0081] The functions for managing the energy source 304 for module 108B may be as follows: LCD 114 can receive measurement signals VES2, TES2, and IES2, where VES2 is the voltage of all basic components or batteries of the energy source 304, or the voltage of basic components or groups of batteries such as, for example, individual or series and / or parallel connected battery cells, individual or series and / or parallel connected ultracapacitor batteries, etc.; TES2 is the temperature of all basic components or groups of basic components of the energy source 304, or the temperature of a group of basic components; and IES2 is the output current of the energy source 304. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD can calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or groups of basic components, set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data, and / or communicate the corresponding signals to MCD 112.

[0082] The protective function of the energy buffer 204 for module 108B may be as follows: LCD 114 receives measurement signals VEB, TEB, and IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one major component of the energy buffer 204, e.g., capacitor CEB, or capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see Figures 8A-8C), TEB is the temperature of at least one major component of the energy buffer 204, and / or IEB is the current through at least one major component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, LCD 114 can perform the following: namely, set a fault (e.g., warning or alarm) signal based on the measured data, and / or transmit the corresponding fault signal to MCD 112.

[0083] The control and protection functions of the converter 308 for module 108B may be as follows: The LCD 114 receives command signals from the MCD 112, which may be a modulated reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index, which may be used in the LCD with PWM and / or hysteresis functions, to generate control signals for semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 in accordance with the power management and / or second harmonic reduction techniques described above. Current feedback signals IES2, IOUT (not shown in Figure 4) coming from the integrated current sensor of the converter 308 may be used for overcurrent protection together with a signal F coming from, for example, the drive circuit for the semiconductor devices of the converter 308 (not shown in Figure 4), which carries information about one or more of the semiconductor switches, preferably all fault statuses (e.g., short-circuit or open-circuit fault modes). Based on this specific data, the LCD114 can determine the combination of switching signals S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, and S6 that should be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switch to bypass or disconnect the converter 308 and the entire module 108B from the system 100 (e.g., a battery pack).

[0084] Figure 5 is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108C, referred to as version 3, and is an embodiment of the type converter source module 108. In this embodiment, module 108C is communicably coupled to the LCD 114, which in turn is communicably coupled to the MCD 114.

[0085] Module 108C may include an energy source 202 and a converter 308, with an additional input for connecting an auxiliary load 410, as desired, as shown in Figure 5. Module 108C has output ports 1 and 2 for connecting to other modules 108 (e.g., V1, V2, and / or V3) in the exemplary system 100. The illustrated output ports 3 and 4 of module 108C may be used, if necessary, for connecting exemplary module 108C to the same output ports of other modules 108C in the exemplary system 100, and / or for connecting to auxiliary load 1 408, as desired, as shown in Figure 5. The illustrated output ports 5 and 6 of module 108C may be used, if necessary, for connecting exemplary module 108C to the same output ports of other modules 108C in the exemplary system 100, and / or for connecting to auxiliary load 410, as desired, as shown in Figure 5.

[0086] Similar to modules 108A and 108B, the outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of the energy buffer 204. The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 can be connected to the inputs in1 and in3 of the converter 308, respectively.

[0087] Referring again to Figure 6B, the coupled inductor L C The coupled inductor L can be connected between input In3 and node 1. C The output can be connected to port 5 of module 108C and an optional auxiliary load 410 through input In2 of converter 308, as shown in Figure 5. Since the auxiliary load 410 has an input capacitor, converter 308 can adjust the voltage on the load to the required constant voltage and coupled inductor L C It is assumed that the current passing through it can be adjusted and stabilized.

[0088] The control switching signals for semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways, depending on the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in LCD114 and MCD112.

[0089] When connected, the energy source 202 can supply the corresponding portion of the power required by the loads of system 100, auxiliary load 408, and / or auxiliary load 410. The power flow between energy source 202, auxiliary load 1, and auxiliary load 2 can be adjusted as desired. Embodiments of the auxiliary loads may be, for example, the on-board electrical network of an electric vehicle or the HVAC system of an electric vehicle. The loads of system 100 may be, for example, an electric vehicle motor or one of the phases of a power distribution network. This embodiment can enable complete separation between the electrical characteristics (terminal voltage and current) of the energy source and the electrical characteristics of the loads.

[0090] The LCD 114 for module 180C is shown in Figure 5. It can be connected to module 108B via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines and can perform at least one, preferably all, of four main functions. The first function may be the management of the energy source 202. The second function may be the management of the auxiliary load 410. The third function may be the protection of the energy buffer 204, more specifically its components, from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature. The fourth function may be the control and protection of the converter 308.

[0091] In some exemplary embodiments, the function of managing the energy source 202 for module 108C may be as follows: LCD 114 accepts measurement signals VES1, TES1, and IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of all basic components / batteries of the energy source 202, or the voltage of a group of basic components / batteries such as, for example, individual or series and / or parallel connected battery cells, individual or series and / or parallel connected ultracapacitor batteries, etc.; TES1 is the temperature of all basic components of the energy source 1, or the temperature of a group of basic components; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 1. Based on these measurement signals, LCD 114 can perform the following: calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or group of basic components; set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data; and transmit the corresponding signals to MCD 112.

[0092] The function of managing auxiliary load 2 410 for module 108C may be as follows: LCD 114 receives measurement signals VAL2 and IAL2, where VAL2 is the voltage between ports 5 and 6 of module 108C, and IAL2 is the current in the coupling inductor LC of converter 308, which is the current of auxiliary load 2. Based on these measurement signals, LCD 114 can perform correction of the reference signal for pulse width modulation in the LCD in order to stabilize and / or control the voltage on auxiliary load 410.

[0093] The protective function of the energy buffer 204 for module 108C may be as follows: LCD 114 can receive measurement signals VEB, TEB, and IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one major component of the energy buffer 204, e.g., capacitor CEB, or capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see Figures 8A-8C), TEB is the temperature of at least one major component of the energy buffer, and IEB is the current through at least one major component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, LCD 114 can perform the following: set a fault (e.g., warning or alarm) signal based on the measured data, and / or transmit the corresponding fault signal to MCD 112.

[0094] The control and protection functions of the converter 308 for module 108C may be as follows: The LCD 114 receives command signals from the MCD 112, which may be a modulated reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index, which may be used in the PWM and / or hysteresis function in the LCD to generate control signals for semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 according to the power management and / or second harmonic reduction techniques described above. Current feedback signals IES2, IOUT (not shown in Figure 5) coming from the integrated current sensor of the converter 308 may be used for overcurrent protection together with one or more signals F coming from the drive circuit (not shown in Figure 5) of the semiconductor devices of the converter 308, which carry information about one or more of the semiconductor switches, preferably all fault statuses (e.g., short-circuit or open-circuit fault modes). Based on this specific data, the LCD114 can determine the combination of switching signals S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, and S6 that should be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switch to bypass or disconnect the converter 308 and the entire module 108C from the system 100 (e.g., a battery pack).

[0095] In other exemplary embodiments, module 108 may be connected to an additional power source such as a photovoltaic panel and / or a wireless charging receiver. In other exemplary embodiments, system 100 may be connected to another system 100 (e.g., another battery pack) which is coupled to other auxiliary loads with different voltage levels, such as an EV's onboard electrical network system and an air conditioner.

[0096] Another exemplary embodiment of the converter module 108 is shown in Figure 10A. The exemplary embodiment of module 108 includes a bidirectional power connection 110, a communication bus 116, a first energy source 202 comprising, in this embodiment, twelve energy storage units or batteries (e.g., battery cells) 221 to 232 connected in series, a second energy source 304 (e.g., HED capacitors) with optional corresponding power electronics, a measuring circuit 201 configured to measure, for example, the open-circuit voltages of the energy sources 202 and 304, a temperature sensor 251, The system includes a current sensor (shunt) 252, an LCD 114, a measurement bus 242 that communicatively connects a measurement circuit 201 to the LCD 114, a second energy source connection 244, a memory 256 (capable of storing, for example, control and adaptive algorithms / software), a memory bus 243 that communicatively connects the memory 256 to the LCD 114, a power converter circuit 206 or 308, and a control bus 245 that communicatively connects the LCD 105 to the power converter circuits 206, 308. The components described herein can be interconnected in various different configurations to achieve the desired functionality.

[0097] For example, in one embodiment, the primary energy source 202 may be a lithium-ion battery, e.g., an NMC / graphite type, exhibiting a nominal voltage of approximately 43 volts (V) with a low cutout voltage of 33V and a high cutout voltage of 51V. Similarly, in one embodiment, the measurement circuit 201 may be a high-bandwidth circuit. For example, the circuit 201 may have a measurement sample rate capability of 1 millisecond (ms) or less with respect to voltage and / or current, with a voltage resolution of 1 millivolt (mV) or less. The measurement circuit 104 may have a current resolution of C / 100000 or better, where C is the C rate of the energy source 202 and / or 306. This also facilitates incremental charging. In some embodiments, the LCD 114 may have an exemplary switching capability of 1 kilohertz (kHz) or faster for generating pulses with a pulse length of 2 milliseconds or less for charging purposes.

[0098] Figure 10B illustrates another exemplary embodiment of module 108 in system 100. Here, module 108 includes a number of battery cells (900-912) connected in series, a measurement circuit 201, and an LCD processing circuit and memory 114. The measurement circuit 201 can communicate measured information (current, voltage, temperature) to the LCD 114. Similarly, the LCD 114 can instruct the measurement circuit 201 when to perform a measurement and what type of measurement to collect. The embodiment in Figure 10B also includes a DC / DC converter 930 and a converter (e.g., a switching circuit) 206 having switches 941-944 in a half-bridge configuration with switching capability in the range of kHz to 10kHz (and higher). Converter 206 can be mounted on a common board 940. Converter 206 can be coupled to a source / sink 950, which may be a load and / or charging device. The measurement circuit 201 can measure the voltage and / or current response of each battery before, during, and after the application of charging pulses to the batteries. The measurement wiring 960 connects each battery to the measurement circuit 201, for example, to perform voltage measurements of each battery. The measurement wiring 961 can carry measurement information (e.g., current or voltage signals) to the measurement circuit 201, which in turn can communicate the measured information to the LCD 114. For example, as shown here, the measurement wiring 961 can carry the measured current response from the current shunt 970 to the measurement circuit 201, which can then be communicated to the LCD 114. In some embodiments, multiple shunts 970 can be installed to measure the current response of each battery. Converter 206 can apply a voltage from power connection 110 (for example, carrying charge from DC or AC charging source 950) to DC-DC converter 930, which can then adjust the voltage or current to the desired level for fast charging of batteries 900-912. Converter 930 can be configured as a DC-DC converter, an AC-DC converter, or other circuit to perform a similar function.

[0099] Exemplary Embodiments of Module Arrays for Module-Based Systems Figures 12A–12G depict exemplary embodiments of System 100 arranged according to various architectures or configurations. In these embodiments, System 100 is referred to as being configured as a pack, such as when the components are physically fixed to each other and may be located within a common enclosure. These embodiments are not limited to implementation as a pack. Also, for ease of illustration, the MCD and LCD in each embodiment are not shown. As can be seen, the modules can be arranged in numerous ways such that the power contributed by each module can be summed to form one or more of the following: a single-phase AC output, multiple phases of an AC output, and a DC output.

[0100] Figure 12A shows an exemplary embodiment of pack 1500 according to the present disclosure, which includes a one-dimensional array of N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N. Each module in the array may be configured according to any one of the module embodiments described herein. Multiple modules may include modules configured according to the same module version (V1, V2, V3, or others), or a mixture of modules configured according to two or more module versions (e.g., V1, V2, V3, or others). The first port 1 of module 108-1 in the first row of the one-dimensional array is connected to the first output terminal out1 of the module's one-dimensional array. The second port 2 of the first module 108-1 is connected to the first port 1 of module 108-2 in the second row. In the same order, up to the Nth module 108-N in the last row, the second port 2 of the second module 108-2 is connected to the first port 1 of module 108-3 in the third row (not shown), and so on. The second port 2 of the Nth module 108-N is connected to the second output terminal out2 of the one-dimensional array 1500. This one-dimensional array of N interconnected modules can be used as a DC or single-phase AC energy source, such as a battery pack, for steady-state energy storage applications for DC or AC single-phase loads. A DC or AC single-phase load can be connected between the first and second output terminals out1 and out2.

[0101] The output voltage of a one-dimensional array of N interconnected modules 108 can be generated, for example, by using a phase-shifted carrier technique in combination with space vector modulation or sinusoidal pulse-width modulation ("PWM"). The switching signal for each converter of the modules may then be generated using the phase-shifted carrier technique. This technique ensures that the modules rotate continuously and that power is distributed approximately equally among them.

[0102] An aspect of the phase shift technique is to generate a multi-level output PWM waveform using incrementally shifted two-level waveforms. Thus, an N-level PWM waveform is generated by the sum of N-1 two-level PWM waveforms. These two-level waveforms are generated by comparing a reference waveform with a triangular carrier wave 1400, 1410 (Figures 11C, 11D) that is incrementally shifted by 360° / (N-1). A nine-level example 1400 is shown in Figure 11C. The carrier wave is incrementally shifted by 360° / (9-1)=45° and compared with the reference waveform. The resulting two-level PWM waveform 1420 is shown in Figure 11E. These two-level waveforms may be used as switching signals for semiconductor switches in the converter within each module 108. As an example, with respect to a one-dimensional array including four interconnected modules, each having a converter 206, the 0° signal is used for S3 of the first module, the 180° signal for S6, the 45° signal for S3 of the second module, the 225° signal for S6, and so on. Note that in all converters 206, with a certain dead time to avoid penetration of each section, the signal for S3 complements S4, the signal for S5 complements S6, and so on. Figure 11F depicts an exemplary AC waveform 1430 generated by the superposition of output voltages from the four modules 108.

[0103] The one-dimensional array 1500 embodiment of System 100 shown in Figure 12A uses low and / or medium voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTS, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the module, enabling the acquisition of high voltages of any shape with very low total harmonic distortion between the first and second terminals out1 and out2.

[0104] Figure 12B shows another exemplary embodiment of the pack according to the present disclosure, including a two-dimensional array 1600 of N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N or two one-dimensional arrays 1500. The configuration and output aspects of the DC or AC voltage generation of the two one-dimensional arrays 1500 forming the two-dimensional array 1600 are described above with respect to Figure 12A. The second ports 2 of each of the Nth or Nth module in the last row of both one-dimensional arrays are connected together to the common output terminal Out3 of the two-dimensional array. Output voltages are provided between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2 and the common output terminal Out3.

[0105] This two-dimensional array of 2N modules 108 can be used as a two-phase AC energy source for steady-state energy storage applications for DC or AC single-phase loads. The load can be connected between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2, while the common terminal Out3 can be connected to the neutral terminal of the load if required.

[0106] The first and second output terminals out1 and out2 of the exemplary two-dimensional array-based pack are connected together via a coupled inductor and can be connected to the same first terminal of an AC or DC load when the common output terminal out3 is connected to a second terminal of the AC or DC load. In this case, the output power capability of such a two-dimensional array-based pack with N rows is twice as high as that of one of the one-dimensional array-based packs with the same number of N rows.

[0107] The two-dimensional array embodiment of system 100 shown in Figure 12B enables the acquisition of a high-voltage two-phase system with a 90-degree phase displacement. For example, such a system can be used in electric furnaces. In general, high voltages of any shape with very low total harmonic distortion can be acquired between terminals out1, out2 and a common terminal out3 which can act as a neutral terminal, using low and / or medium-voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTS, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the module.

[0108] Figure 12C shows another exemplary embodiment of the pack according to the present disclosure, including a two-dimensional array 1700 or two one-dimensional arrays of N and N+1 cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N. The configuration and output aspects of the DC or AC voltage generation of each of the two one-dimensional arrays 1500 with N and N+1 cascaded modules forming the two-dimensional array are described above with respect to Figure 12A. The second port 2 of each of the Nth or Nth module in the last row of both one-dimensional arrays is connected to the first and second ports 1 and 2 of the additional or N+1th module.

[0109] This two-dimensional array of 2N+1 cascaded modules can be used as a single-phase AC energy source for steady-state energy storage applications for DC or AC single-phase loads. The load can be connected between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2 of the first module in each first row of the one-dimensional array.

[0110] Figure 12D shows another exemplary embodiment of the pack according to the present disclosure, including a plurality of modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N that are cascaded in a three-dimensional array 1800. The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the pack are connected to the first ports of the first module in the first row of each of three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the three-dimensional array 1800-based pack. The configuration and output aspects of the DC or AC voltage generation of each of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the three-dimensional array 1800-based pack are described above with respect to Figure 12A. The second port 2 of the nth module in the nth or last row of each of the three one-dimensional arrays is connected together to the common output terminal out4 of the three-dimensional array. The output voltage is provided between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, out3 and the common output terminal out4.

[0111] This three-dimensional array 1800, comprising 3N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N, can be used as a three-phase AC energy source for steady-state energy storage or electric vehicle applications, for DC or AC single loads, three-phase loads, three-phase power grids, or three-phase electric motors. Three-phase loads can be connected between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3, while a common output terminal out4 can be connected to the neutral terminal of the load, if required.

[0112] The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the 3D array-based pack are connected together via a coupled inductor and can be connected to the same first terminal of a DC or single-phase AC load when the common output terminal out4 is connected to the second terminal of the DC or single-phase AC load. In this case, the output power capability of such a 3D array-based pack with N rows is three times higher than that of a single 1D array-based pack with the same number of N rows.

[0113] The three-dimensional array 1900 embodiment of System 100 shown in Figure 12E provides a high-voltage three-phase system of any shape with very low total harmonic distortion between terminals out1, out2, out3 and a common terminal out3 which can act as a neutral terminal, using low and / or medium-voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTS, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the module. Such a system can be connected to a power grid and used as an active power source or buffer, reactive power compensator and power factor corrector, an active harmonic filter with very high dynamic response, and a significantly reduced-size passive filter between out1, out2, out3 and phase in the power grid. The system can also be connected to a three-phase load that receives energy from energy source elements such as batteries, HED capacitors, and fuel cells.

[0114] Figure 12E shows another exemplary embodiment of the pack according to this disclosure, which includes a plurality of modules 108 arranged in a cascade configuration in a three-dimensional array 1900. The first port 1 of module 108-1 in the first row of each of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 is connected to the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the three one-dimensional arrays, respectively, which form the three-dimensional array-based pack. The configuration and output aspects of the DC or AC voltage generation of each of the three one-dimensional arrays with N cascade modules 108 that form the three-dimensional array are described above with reference to Figure 12A. The second port 2 of the first module 108-1 is connected to the first port 1 of module 108-2 in the second row of the three one-dimensional arrays. In the same order, for M being 2 or more, and up to the number of rows of modules M, the second port 2 of the second module is connected to the first port 1 of a module in the third row (not shown) of the three one-dimensional arrays, and so on.

[0115] The first port 1 of the module in the M+1th row is connected to the second port 2 of the module in the Mth row (not shown). The second port 2 of the module in the M+1st row is connected to the first port 1 of the module in the M+2nd row (not shown). This continues in the same order up to the M+Nth row of the module, where the second output port 2 of the comodule in the M+2nd row is connected to the first port 1 of the module in the M+3rd row (not shown), and so on.

[0116] The second port 2 of a module in the last row or M+N row of the first column 1500 of the 3D array is connected to the first port 1 of a module in the M+1 row of the second column 1500' of the 3D array. The second port 2 of a module in the last row or M+N row of the second column of the 3D array is connected to the first port 1 of a module in the M+1 row of the third column 1500'' of the 3D array. The second port 2 of a module in the last row or M+N row of the third column of the 3D array is connected to the first port 1 of a module in the M+1 row of the first column of the 3D array.

[0117] This cascaded module's three-dimensional array can be used as a three-phase energy source for steady-state energy storage or electric vehicle applications, for DC or AC single loads, three-phase loads, three-phase power grids, or three-phase electric motors.

[0118] In addition to the advantages described with respect to Figure 12D, this three-phase (three-dimensional array) configuration embodiment of System 100 shown in Figure 12E, with a combination of series-connected and delta-connected modules, enables effective energy exchange between all modules of the system (inter-phase balance) and the phase of the power grid or load. The combination of delta- and series-connected modules allows for a reduction in the total number of modules in the array to obtain the desired output voltage.

[0119] Figure 12F shows another exemplary embodiment of the pack according to this disclosure, which includes multiple modules that are cascaded in a three-dimensional array 2000. The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the pack are connected to the first port 1 of module 108-1 in the first row of three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the three-dimensional array 2000-based pack. The configuration and output aspects of the DC or AC voltage generation of each of the three one-dimensional arrays, each with N interconnected modules 108-1, 108-2…108-N that form the three-dimensional array, are described above with respect to Figure 12A. The second port 2 of module in the Nth row of the first column of the three-dimensional array is connected to the first port 1 of the first additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of module in the Nth row of the second column of the three-dimensional array is connected to the second port 2 of the first additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of the module in the Nth row of the third column of the 3D array is connected to the first port 1 of the second additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of the second additional module is connected to the fourth output terminal Out4 of the pack. The third and fourth ports 3 and 4 of the first and second additional modules in the N+1th row are interconnected as shown in Figure 12F.

[0120] This cascaded module's three-dimensional array can be used as a three-phase energy source for steady-state energy storage or electric vehicle applications for DC or AC single loads, three-phase loads, three-phase power grids, or three-phase electric motors. Three-phase loads can be connected between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3, while the fourth output terminal out4 can serve as a charging terminal.

[0121] In addition to the advantages described with respect to Figure 12D, this three-phase (three-dimensional array) configuration embodiment of system 100 shown in Figure 12F, with two additional interconnection modules 108C, enables effective and rapid energy exchange between all modules of the system (inter-phase balance) and the phases of the power grid or load.

[0122] Figure 12G shows another exemplary embodiment 2500 of a pack connected to any type of three-phase electric motor 2200. The pack is as presented in Figure 12F, with the third and fourth output ports 3 and 4 of two additional modules 108C in the N+1 row connected together to a second auxiliary load 410. The two additional modules in the N+1 row further include fifth and sixth output ports 5 and 6, connected together to a first auxiliary load 408. The first and second auxiliary loads 410 have different voltages and represent, for example, an in-vehicle network system and an air conditioning power supply system in an electric vehicle, respectively.

[0123] In addition to the advantages described, this three-phase motor drive embodiment of system 100 (three-dimensional array) shown in Figure 12G, with two additional interconnection modules 108C, enables effective and high-speed energy exchange between all modules (inter-phase balanced) of the system and the phases of the electric motor. Additional output terminals 3, 4, 5, and 6 of interconnection modules 108C provide different levels of low voltage, which can be used to provide power for auxiliary loads, such as the electric vehicle network and HVAC power lines of an electric vehicle. In this case, no extra low-voltage battery is required, and the energy for the system described above is delivered by the entire array of modules 108.

[0124] Figure 12H illustrates an exemplary embodiment of system 100, which is coupled to a three-phase motor 420, powered thereto, and also configured to be switched, and alternatively, coupled to a charge source 440 (not shown), preferably a charge connection 430 (e.g., a plug), by a controllable switch 410. A bus system for module communication is not shown in Figure 12H.

[0125] The exemplary modular system 100 includes N cascaded modules 108 arranged in three arrays to supply three-phase power to a motor 420, which is coupled to the wheels 422 of an electric vehicle by mechanical connections 421. A switch 410 can enter a first position in which a module 108 is electrically connected to the motor 420. The switch 410 can enter a second position in which a module 108 is electrically disconnected from the motor 420 and, instead, a module 108 is electrically connected to a charging source 440 by a connection 430. In this second position, a module 108 can receive energy from a charging source 440, which may be a DC charger, a single-phase AC charger, or a multi-phase AC charger. The configuration shown herein, in which the switch 410 is interposed between the module 108 and the charging sink (e.g., the motor 420) and the source 440, can be applied to any of the system configurations described herein (e.g., the system described with respect to Figures 12A-12G).

[0126] In some embodiments, the exemplary modular energy topology may be coupled to multiple sinks and multiple sources. In some embodiments, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple (e.g., two) motors to power a vehicle (e.g., a four-wheeled vehicle) and be connectable to DC and / or AC sources for charging modules. In yet another embodiment, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple (e.g., four or more) motors to power an aircraft. In yet another embodiment, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple enclosure (e.g., residential) loads that are connected as solar or wind energy generators as sinks and sources. In such embodiments, the system may be used for residential energy storage. In yet another embodiment, the connected grid may serve as both a sink and a source (e.g., for grid stabilization purposes).

[0127] Exemplary embodiments relating to layout and housing In many embodiments of this specification, module 108 is shown or described as separate from the LCD 114. However, in all embodiments described herein, module 108 can be configured such that the LCD 114 is a component of it. For example, Figure 13A is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a common housing or physical packaging 4302 that holds the LCD 114 for module 108, as well as converters 206, 308, energy buffer 204, and energy source 202 (optionally, energy source 304, if present). Thus, in this embodiment, module 108 is provided or manufactured as an integrated or cohesive device or subsystem.

[0128] Figure 13B is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a housing or physical packaging 4303 that holds the LCD 114 for module 108, as well as converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204. An energy source 202 (optionally, energy source 304, if present) is provided in a separate housing 4304. Housings 4303 and 4304 may be separate entities that can be physically joined, fixed, or connected together prior to their placement in system 100, or that are electrically connected together. Housings 4303, 4304 may have ports or other access for accommodating electrical connections between various devices 114, 206, 308, 202, etc.

[0129] Figure 13C is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a first housing or physical packaging 4306 that holds the LCD 114 for module 108, and a second housing or physical packaging 4308 that holds converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204. An energy source 202 (optionally, if present, an energy source 304) is provided in a separate housing 4304. Housings 4306, 4308, and 4304 may be separate entities that can be physically joined, fixed, or connected together prior to their placement in system 100, or that are electrically connected together. All of housings 4306, 4308, and 4304 may have ports or other access for accommodating electrical connections between various devices 114, 206, 308, 202, etc.

[0130] In all embodiments described herein, various circuit components may be integrated into one or more substrates to reduce the form factor. For example, an LCD may be part of a module 108, as described with respect to Figures 13A-13C. Figure 14A is a schematic diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment in which the LCD 114, converters 206 and 308, and energy buffer 204 are mounted or fixed to a single common substrate 4402, each of which may be a single printed circuit board (PCB). These components can be electrically coupled to the substrate 4402 and to each other to allow the exchange of signals or data between them. Other passive or active components may also be mounted or fixed to the substrate 4402.

[0131] Figure 14B is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment in which converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204 are each mounted or fixed to a single common substrate 4404, which may each be a single printed circuit board (PCB). These components can be electrically coupled to the substrate 4404 and to each other to allow the exchange of signals or data between them. The LCD 114 is mounted or fixed to a different substrate 4406, which may also be a single PCB. Other passive or active components can similarly be mounted or fixed to substrates 4404 and 4406. Communication between the LCD 114 and components on substrate 4404 can occur via one or more buses, wires, or optical fibers.

[0132] System 100 can operate across a wide range of frequencies that may be required for various steady-state and mobile applications. For example, the system AC output frequency in a steady-state application would often be 60 Hz. In one embodiment, where an MSOFET is used for each switch in converters 206, 308 (Figures 6A-6B), the switching frequency (Fsw) of each MOSFET can be in the range of 1 kHz to 2 kHz or higher. In an embodiment, where there are eight modules in each phase array, the frequency resulting from pulsation in the AC output voltage is 2 Fsw * N will likely be 16kHz to 32kHz or higher. The switching frequency of conventional systems is often 5kHz lower, such as IGBT-based high-power inverters. For mobile applications, the system frequency will depend on the motor requirements, generally ranging from 0Hz to 2,000Hz or higher with respect to the sinusoidal output waveform. In an exemplary embodiment, where the Fsw of the switch in circuit 207 is 5kHz, then the switching frequency of exemplary system 100 (with equivalent output pulsation) with five modules in series is 2 * 5kHz *5 = 50 kHz. This is compared to conventional power inverters with switching frequencies of less than 20 kHz. In embodiments where converters 206 and 308 include gallium nitride (GaN) switches, the operating frequency may then be higher than that of MOSFETs or IGBTs. These embodiments merely illustrate the improved performance of System 100 compared to conventional systems and are not intended to be limiting in any way.

[0133] Exemplary embodiments related to pulse charging This specification provides embodiments relating to pulse charging, sometimes referred to as fast charging of system 100. These embodiments will be described primarily in relation to the charging of electrochemical batteries with respect to module 108 having at least one energy source 202 in the form of a battery (having one or more batteries). The battery may have any desired electrochemistry (e.g., lithium-ion, lead-acid, alkaline, nickel-metal hydride, and others). However, embodiments may also benefit high energy density capacitors and fuel cells, as well as combinations of one or more batteries, one or more HED capacitors, and one or more fuel cells. Thus, the embodiments described herein can be used in conjunction with all of the aforementioned energy sources.

[0134] The cascaded topology of system 100 allows the charging voltage or charging current from the charging source to be divided among the energy sources 202 and 304 of module 108 as needed to implement charging schemes of varying complexity. For example, the voltage (or current) can be applied in a pulsed manner, where some sources are charged at a time and other sources are not, assuming that the total voltage applied to the energy sources (and other charging sinks in the system) is generally equal to the DC or AC voltage supplied to the system by the charging source at that moment. The voltage and duration of the applied pulses (as well as the duration of the quiescent period between pulses) can be varied and timed based on the state of their sources, such as monitored by the modules (e.g., measurement circuit 201 and LCD 114). Thus, the division of voltage among the modules allows for both charging of module sources as needed and quiescent of module sources as needed.

[0135] The application of charging pulses to each source of the module is performed by the switching circuits of converters 206 and 308 under the control of the control circuit 102. Therefore, with respect to an energy source 202 in the form of a battery having multiple batteries, the charging pulses from converters 206 and 308 will be applied to all batteries in many embodiments.

[0136] Figure 15A illustrates a current stimulation pulse that can be applied as a high-bandwidth stimulation signal. Figure 15B illustrates the time response of the electrochemical system during the application of the high-bandwidth stimulation signal in Figure 15A. In Figure 15A, the simulation is a current step function, while in Figure 15B, a voltage signal carries the system response using different relaxation regimes. In the reverse case, where the stimulation signal is a voltage signal, then a current signal would exhibit the system response.

[0137] Referring to Figure 15B, different relaxation mechanisms occur on the electrochemically active interface. Typically, responses can be distinguished as they are defined by four different relaxation mechanisms. Electron relaxation occurs in attoseconds to subfemtoseconds, typical ion relaxation has a time constant in milliseconds, species diffusion relaxation in the electrolyte occurs in seconds to hours, and diffusion relaxation of the active material lasts from minutes to hours. The different system responses and stimulus signals shown in Figure 15B are: 610: Response A (electron relaxation in attoseconds to subfemtoseconds), 620: Response B (ionic relaxation in milliseconds to subseconds), 630: Response C (activation of electrochemical ion transfer of electrons and / or ions in the electrode material), 640: Response D (diffusion of solid and / or liquid ion conduction in seconds to hours), and 650: high-bandwidth current step stimulus. Table 1 below summarizes the responses referenced herein. [Table 1]

[0138] Figure 16 schematically illustrates a typical relaxation / diffusion mechanism that occurs at the electrochemical interface during high-bandwidth stimulation. Referring to Figure 16, a schematic cross-section of an active electrode immersed in an electrolyte containing an active electrochemical species is shown. Figure 16 illustrates an electrochemically active electrode 741 to which an applied high-bandwidth stimulation signal is negatively polarized to the second electrode of a complete cell array. Figure 16 further illustrates the electrochemical interface 742 between the electrode 741 containing the electrochemically active material and the electrolyte 743. Figure 16 further illustrates a single electron 751 located within the active material before the high-bandwidth stimulation signal. Response A(752) illustrates the movement of the electron 751 at a position close to the electrode interface surface within the Debye length range, due to the high-bandwidth stimulation signal. Response A results in a new position 753 of the electron 751 closer to the electrode interface.

[0139] Figure 16 further illustrates the negatively charged ion 761. In this exemplary embodiment, the species does not participate in the active electrochemical reaction before the high-bandwidth signal stimulation. Response B(762) results in the movement of the negatively charged counterion 761 due to the electric field of the high-bandwidth stimulation signal. Response D(763) results in the movement, i.e., diffusion, of the counterion 764 due to the concentration gradient (e.g., 764 illustrates the position of the counterion due to the movement in response B). Also shown in Figure 16 is the positively charged ion 771 before the high-bandwidth signal simulation, and in this embodiment, the species is electrochemically active. Response D(772) results in the movement, i.e., diffusion, of the active ion 771 due to the concentration gradient. Response B(773) results in the movement, i.e., migration, of the active ion 771 due to the electric field of the high-bandwidth stimulation signal. Also, as shown in Figure 16, the active ion 774 is positioned near the electrode interface surface. Figure 16 further illustrates the electrochemical reaction and transport 782 from the electrolyte to the active electrode of the active electrochemical species, which requires an increased energy level for activation. Response D(792) results in the movement of active ions 783 due to a concentration gradient within the active electrode, i.e., 793 represents the diffusion of the active species within the active electrode material, illustrating the position of the active ions after response D.

[0140] In the embodiment, the charging algorithm, specifically the fast charging algorithm described herein, can operate autonomously at the module level and be integrated within each module 108. For example, referring to Figure 10B, the modules 108 are connected in a single-phase cascade array and can communicate with each other and with the MCD112 (if present) via a communication bus. Energy between the modules and the source or sink can be exchanged via a two-pole power bus in this embodiment.

[0141] Some or all control functions (current, voltage, temperature), as well as measurement functions (current, voltage, and temperature), can be performed at the module level. Processing can occur directly in each module 108 with an LCD 114, where the charging algorithm can be integrated or stored. Such an array enables high-bandwidth data processing and feedback control loops independent of the size and complexity of the modular energy topology. Each module 108 does not need to transmit high-bandwidth data for each energy source of module 108 back to the MCD 112 via the communication bus, nor does the MCD 112 need to send back high-bandwidth control signals to control each energy source within a short time frame, such as a sub-millisecond range (less than 1 millisecond). The communication bus only needs to transmit low-bandwidth control and synchronization signals for the operating mode of each module (e.g., modulation index, operating state (e.g., idle, charging, discharging), etc.), which allows the bus bandwidth to remain at a low, robust level.

[0142] For example, embodiments of Figures 10A and 10B each have 12 storage units for primary storage as described herein (e.g., battery cells for batteries). Embodiments may have fewer than 12, and this is merely an example. Compared to conventional battery pack technology, where all batteries in the entire battery module need to be read and processed by a centralized chip or chipset, only the signals from 12 storage units need to be read and processed by the LCD 114 of module 108. These conventional battery packs process the signals from each storage unit at the system main controller level. For example, a battery pack with 216 energy storage units has 12 times more demanding communication and processing requirements compared to an embodiment of system 100 described herein, where 18 modules, each having, for example, 12 storage units and discrete LCDs 114, can be integrated at the module level. It should be understood that signal processing and feedback control are scale-sensitive and therefore independent of the size of the entire system of the modular energy topology described herein.

[0143] The modular arrangement described herein thus enables the operation of each individual storage unit at high bandwidth signal levels and controls the stimulus response at a sub-millisecond level independent of the size of the entire system. With respect to embodiments in which an electrochemical system is used, this level of control, combined with control algorithms for charging and discharging, enables the operation of each individual storage unit (e.g., a battery or fuel cell in a system of responses B, C, or D) with high precision.

[0144] Therefore, a key feature of this embodiment is that it enables the design and manufacture of modules without requiring knowledge of the size and quantity of energy units required at the entire system level. Furthermore, the components at the module level are simpler compared to the requirements of conventional system components acting on the same level of bandwidth signal control on each energy storage unit, due to the reduced processing speed required at the module level. These features enable a simpler system design and reduced costs for the entire system compared to conventional pack architectures.

[0145] In embodiments, current or voltage may be applied to the battery so that ions are not only moved but also further intercalated within the material. The shape of the current or voltage response may be used to determine when Li ions begin to move within the active material, e.g., the cathode material or the anode material. Typically, the charging pulse length will be about sub-milliseconds (e.g., (0.1 milliseconds)) to several seconds (1,000 milliseconds or more). Current and voltage responses will be sampled at 1 kHz or faster to determine when active intercalation of Li ions in the cathode and anode begins. The start of the active intercalation reaction determines the end of the charging pulse, followed by a quiescent phase. The next pulse is applied after the ion gradient on the electrochemical phase has relaxed due to further intercalation and diffusion within the active material. The quiescent time is determined by the relaxation of the voltage across the interface between the electrolyte and the active material.

[0146] Figure 17A depicts the current and voltage signals of an exemplary embodiment of a high-speed charging algorithm that utilizes a certain response regime described herein for advanced accelerated charging. Figure 17A illustrates an important regime for advanced accelerated charging as compared to a conventional constant current charging strategy. The important operating regimes occur during the transition from response B to response C, during response C, and during the transition from response C to response D. However, the preferred operation may be at response C when the storage-related electrochemical reaction is activated as shown in Figure 17A. In this embodiment, the current is controlled and the voltage response of each cell is used as a control feedback signal. The voltage may also be controlled and the current can be used as a control feedback signal to maintain an operating endpoint at response C during stimulation. The components and details of Figure 17A are a current stimulus (10010), a voltage stimulus (10020), current on (10011), current off (10012), voltage response A (10030), 10040, voltage response B (10040), voltage response C (10050) with switch-off conditions dE2 / dt2 < 0 and dE / dt < a certain threshold a, voltage response A (10031), and an ion gradient and voltage relaxation (10041) due to charge exchange on the electrochemical interface with switch-on conditions E < Emax, dE / dt < a certain threshold b.

[0147] Figures 18A and 18B respectively illustrate the current and voltage signals of an exemplary comparison between a constant current and a high-bandwidth stimulus-driven electrochemical reaction. Figure 18C schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of an electrochemical electrode with active electrochemically species at different time series according to the constant current and high-bandwidth simulation signals.

[0148] Figure 18A shows a constant current stimulus - current signal (11010), a constant current stimulus - voltage signal (11015), and Figure 18B shows a high-bandwidth charging - current signal (11020) and a high-bandwidth charging - voltage signal (11025).

[0149] Figure 18C shows an electrolyte (11030), an electrochemically active ion (11031), an electrochemical interface (11040), an electrochemically active electrode material (e.g., an intercalation material) (11050), an unspecified electron in the active electrode material (11051), an electrochemical charge transfer reaction of an electrochemically active ion (11041), and an electrochemically active ion intercalated in the active material with one associated electron located at a transition metal moiety (11052).

[0150] Conventional charging is based on a constant current phase until the battery's maximum voltage reaches a constant voltage phase. During the constant voltage phase, the battery voltage is held at the battery's maximum voltage until the current reaches a lower threshold. Other charging strategies also exist, described in the literature, where a step current function or pulsed current pattern is used. However, known strategies commonly require directly inducing electrochemical reactions at the interface by applied voltage and current from an external source. The duration of the applied current or voltage is longer than responses A, B, and C, leading to uniformity in the distribution of active species on the electrode surface within the electrolyte and the active material, in scenarios where the active electrode material is an intercalation material (as shown in Figure 18C). Intercalation materials or materials reacting with active ion species are typically used in batteries. This non-uniform distribution of active ion species within the electrolyte and active electrode material is mainly caused by non-uniformity of the local resistance and local charge transfer resistivity of the electrolyte on the electrode surface. These resistance non-uniformities are unavoidable due to battery design and construction. This can lead to localized overheating due to hot spots, resulting in concentration gradients that can cause Li deposition on the anode or other parts of the battery, as well as phase conversion on the cathode. Localized overheating can lead to increased electrolyte side reactions on the electrode surface. All of these effects lead to accelerated battery degradation and limit the charging current, and therefore the charge rate and speed.

[0151] In the case of high-bandwidth charging according to this disclosure, the electrochemical reaction is not directly stimulated by an externally applied voltage or current. Rather, the electrochemical reaction is only activated by the applied voltage and current (as opposed to being stimulated by them). After the activation of the electrochemical reaction, the external source is disconnected, and the reaction is further stimulated by a concentration gradient that accumulates between responses A, B, and C. The concentration gradient accumulates very uniformly over the area of ​​the electrochemical interface, almost independently of local resistance fluctuations in charge transfer resistance. This reduces the accumulation of hot spots, as schematically shown in Figure 18C for high-bandwidth charging applications.

[0152] The aforementioned embodiments lead to improved concentration uniformity of active species within the electrolyte, and more importantly, within the active material, which reduces localized overheating. This directly relates to lower battery degradation and less damage during charging, as well as the ability to charge the battery at higher current densities to accelerate charging.

[0153] Figures 19A and 19B are flowcharts illustrating exemplary embodiments of methods 1900 and 1950 for charging one or more batteries based on current-controlled and voltage-controlled high-bandwidth stimuli, respectively. These methods can be performed by modular circuits under the control of a control circuit 102, preferably a control circuit 102 (e.g., LCD 114) that is local to the module. Thresholds will vary depending on the battery chemistry and type. The methods can utilize self-learning algorithms to optimize and adapt thresholds over time, and battery usage can be integrated into advanced charging algorithms implemented on the control circuit 102 (e.g., LCD 114). While methods 1900 and 1950 will be described as being performed by individual modules 108 of system 100, the features of the methods can also be applied at the system-wide level.

[0154] Referring first to Figure 19A, step 1902 may measure one or more parameters of the battery 202 of module 108. One or more parameters may be measured with respect to the battery as a whole or individually for each cell of the battery. These parameters may include, for example, the charge state of the battery or battery cell, and optionally, the temperature of the battery or battery cell. Step 1902 may be performed during the normal discharge operation of system 100, and therefore does not need to be performed after system 100 has been placed in a charged state (e.g., connecting and switching system 100 to a charge source). Step 1902 may be repeated as necessary throughout method 1900 to obtain current parameter values.

[0155] If the battery charge state is low enough (e.g., below a threshold such as 60-80% of capacity) to allow fast charging techniques to be applied, a high-current pulse can be applied to charge the battery in a relatively fast manner. In step 1904, a divided voltage from the power connection can be converted into a controlled current pulse. For example, the switching circuits of converters 206, 308 can supply voltage pulses from the power connection 110 to a controllable DC-DC converter (e.g., converter 930 in Figure 10B) or other circuit which can be controlled to generate pulses of a desired current level. In 1906, the current-controlled pulse can be applied to the battery (e.g., to all batteries together if connected in series, or to each battery individually if connected in parallel). In some embodiments, the current is adjusted to ensure that the voltage applied to the battery does not exceed a maximum threshold (e.g., the rated maximum value with respect to the source), such as the expected voltage of the battery when it is at 100% SOC. In other embodiments, voltages exceeding this maximum value may be applied for a short period of time that does not initiate or induce side reactions in the battery, as further described herein (see, for example, Figure 17B).

[0156] In 1907, the voltage response on each battery in module 108 is measured (e.g., using a measurement circuit 201). In 1908, the measured response can be used to assess whether the cutoff condition is met. In some embodiments, the cutoff condition can be met if it is determined that a second deviation of the voltage response is negative and a first deviation of the voltage response is below a threshold. The module battery or cell that determines the cutoff condition can be a first such battery or cell that satisfies the cutoff condition, or it can be based on a weighting algorithm. After the cutoff condition is met for at least one battery, the current pulses can then be terminated by switching circuits (e.g., converters 206, 308).

[0157] In step 1910, the battery can be left at rest for a period of time without any pulses being applied. In 1911, a decision may be made as to whether a sub-maximum SOC threshold is reached (e.g., 60-80% or another level), which may involve performing another SOC measurement. The selected threshold may depend on the battery chemistry. If the threshold is reached, in step 1912, the system may transition to a different charging technique using a relatively slower method, such as using a constant lower current for a longer duration, to reach a full SOC level (e.g., 100%) as determined by the system's needs. If this method is continued, in step 1914, a decision is made as to whether to adjust the current for the next pulse. This decision may be based on the voltage measured during pulse-on phase, for example, by assessing the difference between the battery's predetermined maximum voltage and the voltage peak of the battery measured while applying the pulse. As the difference decreases, the current applied between each consecutive pulse may be reduced to help the battery not exceed the predetermined maximum voltage. If no adjustment is made, the method can be repeated by returning to step 1902 or 1904. If the current is adjusted, this may occur in 1916 prior to returning. The application of the next pulse may be conditional on the resumption condition being met and / or after the elapsed of a minimum or predetermined time period. An embodiment of the resumption condition being met may be after it is determined that the second deviation of the voltage response is positive and the first deviation of the voltage response is greater than a threshold which may be the same or a different threshold.

[0158] Figure 19B illustrates Method 1950, which is similar to Method 1900 but is performed using voltage-controlled pulses, as opposed to current-controlled pulses. In step 1952, one or more parameters of the battery 202 of module 108 can be measured. One or more parameters can be measured with respect to the battery as a whole or individually for each cell of the battery. These parameters may include, for example, the charge state of the battery or battery cell, and optionally, the temperature of the battery or battery cell. Step 1952 may be performed during the normal discharge operation of System 100 and therefore does not need to be performed after System 100 has been placed in a charged state (e.g., connecting and switching System 100 to a charge source). Step 1952 may be repeated as needed throughout Method 1950 to obtain current parameter values.

[0159] If the battery charge state is low enough (e.g., below a threshold such as 60-80% of capacity) to allow fast charging techniques to be applied, a high-voltage pulse can be applied to charge the battery in a relatively fast manner. In step 1954, the divided voltage from the power connection can be converted into a controlled voltage pulse. For example, the switching circuits of converters 206, 308 can supply a voltage pulse from the power connection 110 to a controllable DC-DC converter (e.g., converter 930 in Figure 10B) or other circuit which can be controlled to generate pulses of a desired voltage level. In step 1956, the voltage-controlled pulse can be applied to the battery as a whole (e.g., to all batteries together if connected in series, or the same pulse is applied individually to each battery if connected in parallel). In some embodiments, the current is adjusted to ensure that the voltage applied to the battery does not exceed a maximum threshold (e.g., the rated maximum value with respect to the source), such as the expected voltage of the battery when it is at 100% SOC. In other embodiments, voltages exceeding this maximum value may be applied for a short period of time that does not initiate or induce side reactions in the battery, as further described herein (see, for example, Figure 17B).

[0160] In 1957, the current response on each battery in module 108 is measured (e.g., using a measurement circuit 201). In 1958, the measured response can be used to assess whether the cutoff condition is met. In some embodiments, the cutoff condition can be met if it is determined that a second deviation of the current response is negative and a first deviation of the current response is below a threshold. The module battery or cell that determines the cutoff condition can be a first such battery or cell that satisfies the cutoff condition, or it can be based on a weighting algorithm. After the cutoff condition is met for at least one battery, the voltage pulses can then be terminated by switching circuits (e.g., converters 206, 308).

[0161] In step 1960, the battery can be left at rest for a period of time without any pulses being applied. In step 1911, a decision may be made as to whether a state of charge (SOC) threshold below the maximum (e.g., 60-80% or another level) is reached, which may involve performing another SOC measurement. The selected threshold may depend on the battery chemistry. If the threshold is reached, in step 1962, the system may transition to a different charging technique using a relatively slower method, such as using a longer duration of a constant lower voltage (below the expected voltage at full charge), until it reaches a full SOC level (e.g., 100%) as determined by the needs of the system. If this method is continued, in step 1964, a decision is made as to whether to adjust the voltage of the next pulse. This decision may be made by assessing the difference between the battery's predetermined maximum voltage and the voltage peak of the battery measured while applying the pulse. As the difference decreases, the voltage applied between each consecutive pulse may be reduced to help the battery not exceed the predetermined maximum voltage. If no adjustment is made, the method can be repeated by returning to step 1952 or 1954. If the current is adjusted, this may occur in 1966 prior to returning. The application of the next pulse may be conditional on the resumption condition being met and / or after the elapsed minimum or predetermined time period. An embodiment of the resumption condition being met may be after it is determined that the second deviation of the current response is positive and the first deviation of the current response is greater than a threshold which may be the same or a different threshold.

[0162] In electrochemical storage devices, primary and secondary reactions can occur. An electrochemical reaction is the primary process for energy storage and may also be referred to as one or more storage reactions. In the context of lithium-ion battery chemistry, this is the reaction of Li ions with an active material. Examples of such reactions on the cathode of a Li-ion battery include intercalation reactions with graphite, alloying reactions with silicon, substitution reactions with oxides, or even plating reactions with Li metal. On the anode of a Li-ion battery, typical examples of primary storage reactions include intercalation reactions with oxide or phosphate-type materials, substitution reactions with oxides or fluorides, or even formation reactions with oxygen, as used in lithium-air batteries. Typically, these reactions are fairly simple and are single-electron electrochemical reactions in which only one electron is transferred. In other battery chemistry, it is also typical that the electrochemical reaction is based on an electrochemical process in which a few (e.g., two) or fewer electrons are transferred. For example, only two electrons are transferred in lead-acid and alkali chemistry, and only one electron is transferred in nickel-metal hydride chemistry.

[0163] Side reactions are undesirable reactions that either do not contribute to energy storage or do not improve the energy storage capacity of the source. Side reactions can be detrimental or degrading to the source by limiting the cutoff voltage during the charging or discharging process and / or shortening the operating life of the energy source. Embodiments provided herein encompass techniques in which a pulse is applied to initiate an electrochemical reaction without initiating and / or prompting at least one side reaction, preferably all side reactions, in the source.

[0164] A non-inclusive list of examples of such reactions includes oxidation reactions of the electrolyte on the positive electrode, reduction reactions on the negative electrode, decomposition reactions of the active material (e.g., reduction or phase change reactions), dissolution reactions of metallic compounds in the active material, reactions resulting in dendrite formation (e.g., plating of lithium dendrites in the case of lithium-ion batteries), reactions resulting in dissolution or unwanted growth of SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) on the anode, and reactions resulting in dissolution or oxidation of the current collector on either electrode.

[0165] These side reactions are typically more complex than electrochemical reactions and often involve multiple electron transfers, often linked to slower chemical, transport, or rearrangement processes. For example, ethylene carbonate, a typical component of lithium-ion battery electrolytes, decomposes through multiple reaction pathways. These decomposition pathways, based on five electron transfers, form ethylene, polycarbonate (linked to a series of nucleophilic reactions), lithium ethylenedialkoxide, carbon dioxide, and lithium ethylene decarboxylation.

[0166] Reactions involving single or small electron transfers are typically much faster kinetically than multi-electron transfer reactions, with much shorter reaction time constants. This behavior can be explained and understood using Marcus theory, in combination with consideration of the first principle of electron tunneling processes.

[0167] Results relating to electrochemical storage devices such as batteries, fuel cells, and HED capacitors show that the initiation of a desired primary storage reaction is much faster than the initiation of undesirable side reactions. This behavior enables novel charging or discharging strategies that can suppress or even completely avoid side reactions, as described and proposed herein. Embodiments are provided herein in which each module 108 is configured to charge an energy source 202 such that a pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction at the source, without initiating, facilitating, or substantially facilitating a side reaction at the source.

[0168] The applied pattern of pulses, where each pulse has a duration longer than the reaction time constant of the primary electrochemical reaction but shorter than the time constant of the side reaction, allows for the application of one or more pulses at the elevated voltage level during the charging process, which can lead to faster charging compared to conventional constant current and constant voltage charging methodologies. Further, the effective suppression of side reactions will slow down aging and degradation, and thus extend the life of the energy source.

[0169] The reaction time constant of an electrochemical reaction can be directly related to the exchange current density of the reaction or the charge transfer resistance. Depending on the complexity of the reaction, the charge transfer resistance and exchange current can span several orders of magnitude. The reduction of a transition metal such as an ion or cobalt (typically utilized in the primary storage reaction of lithium-ion chemistry) corresponds to a very low exchange resistivity with a reaction time constant in the sub-milliseconds (e.g., 0.1 milliseconds), with a high exchange current density of up to 1 A / cm 2 (ampere per square centimeter). On the other hand, the water decomposition reaction, which is a major side reaction in batteries with aqueous electrolytes, exhibits a very low exchange current density in the range of 10 -6 ~10 -10 A / cm 2 and has a high charge transfer resistance and a reaction time constant of up to 1 second or more. In such an embodiment, the control circuit of the module (e.g., LCD114) can control the application of pulses to the source using a pattern of pulses where the length or duration of each pulse is longer than the sub-millisecond duration to initiate (optionally, facilitate) the primary electrochemical reaction but shorter than 1 second or several seconds to avoid the initiation of the water decomposition side reaction.

[0170] Depending on the chemistry of the source, in some embodiments the pulse length can range from 0.1 milliseconds (mS) to 5 seconds, more preferably from 1 mS to 100 mS, and even more preferably from 5 mS to 25 mS (e.g., using lithium-ion chemistry). These ranges correspond to different exemplary embodiments, and it is emphasized that the subject matter disclosed herein is not limited to any of these ranges, as implementations may and will vary depending on the structure, chemistry, and / or composition of the source.

[0171] To avoid initiating side reactions, these and other pulse patterns allow for the application of pulses with voltages that may be higher than the expected source voltage under fully charged conditions (e.g., 100% SOC). An example of this expected voltage is the maximum rated voltage of the source (e.g., as provided by the manufacturer). In some embodiments, this increased voltage level is 101-200% of the expected voltage at 100% SOC. In some embodiments, the range may be narrower, such as 101-180% or 105-150%. Table 2 provides a list of exemplary expected voltages at 100% SOC (maximum voltage) for batteries of common chemistry. These are merely examples, and the maximum voltage will vary based on battery chemistry, composition, size, and structure. [Table 2-1] [Table 2-2]

[0172] For example, using NMC / lithium graphite ion chemistry, the battery can be limited to an applied voltage of approximately 4.2V (expected voltage at 100% SOC), and this voltage value will not be exceeded during any operating point using standard charge and discharge protocols. With respect to pulse patterns that avoid side reactions as described herein, the applied voltage may be higher than 4.2V within a voltage range of 0% to 80% of the expected voltage at full charge. Pulses can be applied at these elevated voltage levels when the source is at a charge level below full SOC (e.g., 60-80%). The pulse voltage level may be higher when the source is at a lower SOC level than when the source is at a higher SOC level. For example, the voltage of the applied pulse may be at a first level when the source is at a first SOC below full SOC, and then after charging when the source is at a second SOC above the first SOC, and subsequently at a second level where the applied pulse is below the first voltage level. For example, the increased level may be 50% higher in a low-charge state compared to the increased level in a higher-charge state. Therefore, the increased voltage level may decrease as the source SOC increases, and pulse application at the increased level preferably stops when the source reaches a target SOC level (e.g., 60-80%) which is below full SOC (e.g., 100%). The target level can be selected based on source chemistry.

[0173] Figure 17B depicts the current and voltage signals of another exemplary embodiment of a high-speed charging algorithm that utilizes a pulse scheme to generate elevated voltage levels for advanced accelerated charging. In this embodiment, the current is controlled to generate an elevated voltage response as described. The features of Figure 17B are the current stimulus (17010), voltage stimulus (17020), current on (17011), current off (17012), voltage response A (10030), voltage response B (10040), voltage response C (10050) with switch-off conditions dE2 / dt2 < 0 and dE / dt < a certain threshold a, and relaxation of the ion gradient and voltage due to charge exchange on the electrochemical interface (10041) with switch-on conditions E < Emax, dE / dt < a certain threshold b. E at 100% SOC corresponds to the expected voltage at full charge. Here, the first two pulses are generally applied at the same voltage exceeding E, the third pulse is applied using a regulated and reduced voltage, and the fourth pulse is applied using a voltage less than E. In practice, as many pulses as necessary can be continuously applied at a voltage exceeding E. The rest time between pulses can vary and need not be constant, nor does the duration of the pulses themselves need to be constant.

[0174] Embodiments provided herein further encompass techniques in which a pulse is applied to initiate an electrochemical reaction without initiating and / or prompting harmful or degenerative side reactions (such as those listed above, and those that may dissolve the SEI), but tolerating beneficial side reactions, such as non-harmful or degenerative side reactions, that result in structural modifications of the battery to upgrade performance (e.g., lifespan). For example, in some embodiments, the formation of an SEI (solid electrolyte phase) in the first cycle or the first few cycles of the battery facilitates the formation of a stable protective coating that can improve the functional life of the battery. Side reactions used to form the SEI can therefore have a beneficial effect on the battery. In such embodiments, the pulse duration can be controlled so that these side reactions occur. After the formation of the SEI coating, the pulse duration can be modified (shortened) so that the electrochemical reaction is initiated without initiating and / or prompting the main and other side reactions. Embodiments described herein can also be utilized and tuned so that other side reactions that prove useful are tolerated over the lifespan of the source.

[0175] All of the aforementioned embodiments relating to pulse charging can be implemented according to a pulse width modulation scheme as described with respect to Figures 11C-11F, with additional constraints on pulse length that are implemented where applicable, so as not to violate the pulse duration conditions of certain embodiments described herein, such as those relating to the initiation of an electrochemical reaction without the initiation of a side reaction.

[0176] The exemplary embodiments discussed above can be applied at a system level to enable the electrification of mass transit vehicles and systems, such as locomotives and railcars, buses, trucks, ferries, aircraft, and equivalents. In mass transit systems utilizing locomotives and railcars, buses, trucks, ferries, aircraft, or other vehicles, the exemplary embodiments can be applied to a first environment having three or more waypoints, all of which include battery charging or battery replacement equipment, or to a second environment having three or more waypoints, with fewer than one waypoint including battery charging or battery replacement equipment. Waypoints include, but are not limited to, stops, stations, docks, ports, locations where transient charging is possible, and other locations where vehicles can stop and / or receive an energy source, whether electric or otherwise.

[0177] A vehicle operating in the first environment may be equipped with a smaller battery pack (and / or other energy storage unit) than a vehicle operating in the second environment. Furthermore, the power required at each charging station may be less in relation to the first environment than in the second environment due to the shorter distance between charging. In other cases, an implementation of the first environment, where the vehicle makes short stops along its route, may require higher charging power than the same vehicle operating in relation to the second environment, if an implementation of the second environment allows longer stops for charging (e.g., at the end of the route).

[0178] One or more of the advanced battery charging methods, modular energy topologies, battery systems, and / or converter-battery units described herein may be applied in connection with such embodiments to improve energy management and other aspects of mass transit systems. Other exemplary systems are also possible, comprising any number of waypoints, each waypoint having unique attributes, but not limited to, vehicle downtime, charging equipment and its available charging power, battery or energy storage unit replacement equipment, and / or distance from adjacent stops along a given route.

[0179] In such systems, energy consumption or requirements are typically too high to accommodate energy storage units to support vehicle operation over a full operational shift. For example, operational shifts for rail vehicles, buses, aircraft, and equivalents can be 12 to 19 hours. In the case of high-speed rail embodiments, energy consumption over a 19-hour operational shift is higher than 25 MWh. Batteries with sufficient energy would be too heavy and too expensive. Consequently, charging during shift operations is preferable, even if not required.

[0180] A first exemplary scenario to which this embodiment may be applied involves fast charging at terminal stations and substations / parking lots. The embodiments provided herein enable high-bandwidth pulse charging and accelerate charging without damaging the battery (e.g., 20 minutes instead of 40 minutes to a 70-80% charge). In such scenarios, no special chargers are required at the stations, substations, or parking lots. The embodiments provided herein enable charging from any AC or DC power system and are bidirectional so that the embodiments can be used to power motors and charge batteries. The embodiments also enable advanced energy peak shaving and minimize the power rating of the grid infrastructure.

[0181] A second exemplary scenario to which this embodiment may apply involves the use of interchangeable energy sources at terminal stations and / or substations or parking lots. These embodiments may include a modular system to which a battery module or pack can be removed and replaced with another battery module or pack without the need for the module or pack to be matched with other modules or packs already in place. Thus, the embodiments allow for partial replacement of only two modules or packs, or, if desired, the entire converter-battery system, as required. Battery capacity can be adjusted by adding modules during operation that depends on the desired energy and power requirements, and it is possible to use fewer battery modules when the load is lower.

[0182] A third exemplary scenario to which this embodiment may be applied involves fast charging of a battery on a third rail or on a charging catenary infrastructure, such as a corridor or part of a route, to which an energy source is provided. The above embodiment enables high-bandwidth pulse charging, accelerates charging without damaging the battery (e.g., 20 minutes instead of 40 minutes to a 70% charge state) without the use of a special charger, and allows charging from any AC or DC power system. The embodiment enables advanced temperature control and a higher charge C rate at the system level compared to conventional systems.

[0183] Vehicle battery pack configurations can be adapted during their operating life as needed. In cases where there is a need to use the vehicle for different routes requiring different power or energy, battery pack modules can be replaced and adapted as necessary. Battery modules may have different battery chemistry, different C-rate capacities, and different capacities, and the system will be adapted accordingly.

[0184] In addition, vehicle modules can be partially updated depending on the health status of the modules. Furthermore, vehicle battery packs do not need to be oversized over the desired lifespan, as improved energy utilization of aging batteries by applying the embodiments discussed herein can avoid substantial oversizing over the desired lifespan compared to conventional technologies, thus leading to fewer battery modules or packs and reduced costs.

[0185] Due to the high cycle life of high-volume transport applications, battery life can be substantially limited. As discussed in two high-speed rail embodiments with high-energy batteries of 250 Wh / kg and a 4,000-cycle life (70-80% of their initial capacity / energy), batteries need to be replaced every one or two years. The embodiments described herein enable the direct use of modules for any steady-state storage applications without any modifications. This allows for cost savings due to the high residual value of modules after high-volume transport applications. This would avoid further costs or charges for recycling.

[0186] In all embodiments described herein, the primary energy source of each module in a particular system may have the same voltage (either standard operating voltage or nominal voltage). Such a configuration simplifies the management and construction of the system. The primary and secondary energy sources may also have the same voltage (standard or nominal). Other configurations can also be implemented, such as those in which the primary energy sources of different modules in the same system have different voltages (standard or nominal), and those in which the primary and secondary energy sources of a module have different voltages (standard or nominal). Even further configurations can be implemented, such as those in which the primary energy source of a module in the system has a primary energy source battery with a different chemistry, or a module in the system has a primary energy source battery with a first chemistry and a secondary energy source battery with a second chemistry. Modules that are different from each other may be based on their placement within the system (for example, modules in a phase array are different from IC modules).

[0187] Various components in the diagram (e.g., elements, components, devices, systems, and / or functional blocks) are depicted as being combined with or connected to one or more other components (e.g., elements, components, devices, systems, and / or functional blocks). These components are often shown as being combined or connected without the presence of intervening entities in direct combinations or connections. Those skilled in the art will readily recognize from this description that these combinations and connections may be direct (without one or more intervening components) or indirect (with one or more intervening components not shown). Therefore, this paragraph serves as a preliminary reference for all combinations or connections, whether direct or indirect.

[0188] Detailed discussions of systems (e.g., ACi battery packs), devices, and methods that may be used in conjunction with the systems, devices, and methods described herein are provided in International Publication WO2019 / 183553, filed March 22, 2019, entitled "Systems And Methods For Power Management And Control," International Application PCT / US20 / 25202, filed March 27, 2020, entitled "Module-based Energy Storage Systems Having Converter-Source Modules and Methods Related Thereto," and International Application PCT / US20 / 25366, filed March 27, 2020, entitled "Module-based Energy Storage Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto" (all of which are incorporated herein by reference for any purpose as if fully described).

[0189] The embodiments described herein allow for the elimination of conventional battery management systems as subsystems accompanying each battery module, for example, when used as a battery pack in the automotive industry. Typically, the functionality performed by the battery management system is incorporated or replaced by the differences and, in many respects, superior functionality of the system embodiments described herein.

[0190] Those skilled in the art will understand that, as used herein, “module” refers to a device, assembly, or subsystem within System 100, and that System 100 does not need to be configured to allow each individual module to be physically removable and replaceable with other modules. For example, System 100 may be packaged in a common enclosure that does not allow the removal and replacement of any one module without disassembling the system as a whole. However, in any embodiment herein, each module may be configured to be removable in a convenient manner without disassembling the system and the like, and replaceable with other modules.

[0191] The term "master control device" is used in a broad sense herein and does not require the implementation of any specific protocol, such as a master-slave relationship, with any other device, such as a local control device.

[0192] The term "output" is used broadly in this specification and does not exclude its function in a bidirectional manner as both an output and an input. Similarly, the term "input" is used broadly in this specification and does not exclude its function in a bidirectional manner as both an input and an output.

[0193] The terms "terminal" and "port" are used herein in a broad sense and may be either unidirectional or bidirectional, and may be inputs or outputs, without requiring any specific physical or mechanical structure such as a female or male configuration.

[0194] The exemplary embodiments described herein can be used in conjunction with one or more cooling systems to dissipate heat from any component of the system (e.g., switch circuits, energy sources, energy buffers, control circuits, etc.). The cooling system may utilize a cooling medium such as a gas, liquid, or solid. The cooling system may utilize one or more piezoelectric cooling elements.

[0195] Various aspects of this subject matter are described below by examining and / or supplementing the embodiments described herein, with emphasis here on the interrelationships and interchangeability of the following embodiments. In other words, emphasis is placed on the fact that each feature of an embodiment can be combined with any and all other features, unless otherwise explicitly stated or logically impractical.

[0196] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided, comprising: a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharge state, at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising the superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, wherein in a charge state, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery.

[0197] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when fully charged.

[0198] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged. The first voltage may be a voltage that is 101 to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged. The control circuit may be configured to control the application of pulses so that at least one pulse is applied when the battery is less than 100% charged. The control circuit may be configured to control the application of pulses so that at least one pulse is applied when the battery is less than 80% charged. The at least one pulse may be at least one first pulse, and the control circuit may be configured to control the application of pulses so that at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage that is below the first voltage when the battery is more charged than the battery was when the at least one first pulse was applied, and the second voltage is above the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged. The control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses such that at least one first pulse and at least one second pulse are applied when the battery charge level is less than 80%.

[0199] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, while the battery charge level does not exceed 80%.

[0200] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, with each pulse having a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds.

[0201] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, with each pulse having a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds.

[0202] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, with each pulse having a duration of 5 to 25 milliseconds. The battery may be a lithium-ion battery.

[0203] In some embodiments, each module includes multiple battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions in the multiple battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions in the multiple battery cells.

[0204] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without inducing side reactions within the battery.

[0205] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without initiating any side reactions within the battery.

[0206] In some embodiments, the battery cell includes electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit may be configured to terminate the application of pulses at a time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions has substantially begun. The battery cell may include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit may be configured to apply charging pulses in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0207] In some embodiments, each of the converter modules includes a monitoring circuit that is communicatively coupled to a control circuit, and the monitoring circuit is configured to detect the voltage or current response of the battery.

[0208] In some embodiments, the control circuit may be configured to start and / or end pulses based on a response detected by a monitoring circuit.

[0209] In some embodiments, the control circuit includes a plurality of local control devices, each communicatively coupled to a plurality of converter modules, such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device; and a master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices. The local control devices of the converter modules may be configured to determine whether to trigger the start and / or end of a pulse. The local control devices may be configured to determine whether to trigger the start and / or end of a pulse without instructions from the master control device. Each of the plurality of converter modules may have a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module may be configured to control the switching circuit of the converter module so that the voltage applied to the power port is used for generating pulses for application to the battery. The master control device may be configured to control the plurality of local control devices and to coordinate the utilization of a charging voltage applied to at least one array from an external voltage source.

[0210] In some embodiments, each of the multiple converter modules includes a DC-DC converter that is electrically coupled between a switch circuit and a battery.

[0211] In some embodiments, multiple converter modules are coupled together in three or more arrays, and each of these three or more arrays is configured to generate AC voltage waveforms with different phase angles.

[0212] In some embodiments, the multiple converter modules include at least one interconnection module which is coupled to at least two of three or more arrays.

[0213] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided, which comprises a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery and a switch circuit, and in a discharge state, at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising the superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, which in a charge state is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery.

[0214] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when fully charged.

[0215] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged.

[0216] In some embodiments, the first voltage is a voltage that is 101-200% of the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged.

[0217] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses such that at least one pulse is applied when the battery charge level is less than 100%.

[0218] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to control the pulse application so that at least one pulse is applied when the battery charge level is less than 80%. The at least one pulse may be at least one first pulse, and the control circuit may be configured to control the pulse application so that at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage when the battery charge level exceeds the battery charge level at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, and the second voltage is above the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged. The control circuit may be configured to control the pulse application so that at least one first pulse and at least one second pulse are applied when the battery charge level is less than 80%.

[0219] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery.

[0220] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, while the battery charge level does not exceed 80%.

[0221] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses, each having a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds.

[0222] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses, each having a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds.

[0223] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses, each having a duration of 5 to 25 milliseconds. The battery may be a lithium-ion battery.

[0224] In some embodiments, the battery cell includes electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit may be configured to terminate the application of pulses at a time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions has substantially begun. The battery cell may include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit may be configured to apply charging pulses in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0225] In some embodiments, each of the converter modules includes a monitoring circuit that is communicatively coupled to a control circuit, and the monitoring circuit is configured to detect the voltage or current response of the battery.

[0226] In some embodiments, the control circuit may be configured to start and / or end pulses based on a response detected by a monitoring circuit.

[0227] In some embodiments, the control circuit includes a plurality of local control devices, each communicatively coupled to a plurality of converter modules, such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device; and a master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices. The local control devices of the converter modules are configured to determine whether to trigger the start and / or end of a pulse. The local control devices may be configured to determine whether to trigger the start and / or end of a pulse without instructions from the master control device. Each of the plurality of converter modules may have a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module may be configured to control the switching circuit of the converter module so that the voltage applied to the power port is used for generating pulses for application to the battery. The master control device may be configured to control the plurality of local control devices and to coordinate the utilization of a charging voltage applied to at least one array from an external voltage source.

[0228] In some embodiments, each of the multiple converter modules may include a DC-DC converter that is electrically coupled between a switch circuit and a battery, and the DC-DC converter is controllable by a control circuit to adjust the voltage of the signal from the switch circuit for application to the battery.

[0229] In some embodiments, multiple converter modules can be coupled together in three or more arrays, each of which is configured to generate AC voltage waveforms with different phase angles. Multiple converter modules may include at least one interconnection module coupled to at least two of the three or more arrays.

[0230] In some embodiments, each module includes multiple battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the multiple battery cells.

[0231] In many embodiments, a method is provided for charging a modular energy storage system, which comprises a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery and a switch circuit, and the method includes the step of applying a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery.

[0232] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when fully charged.

[0233] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged.

[0234] In some embodiments, the first voltage is a voltage that is 101-200% of the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged.

[0235] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying at least one pulse when the battery charge level is less than 100%.

[0236] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying at least one pulse when the battery charge level is less than 80%. The at least one pulse may be at least one first pulse, and the method may further include the step of applying at least one second pulse at a second voltage less than a first voltage when the battery charge level is higher than the battery charge level at the time the at least one first pulse was applied, the second voltage being higher than the expected voltage of the battery when it is 100% charged. The at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse may be applied when the battery charge level is less than 80%.

[0237] In some embodiments, the pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery.

[0238] In some embodiments, the pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery, while the battery charge level does not exceed 80%.

[0239] In some embodiments, multiple pulses are applied, each having a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds.

[0240] In some embodiments, multiple pulses are applied, each having a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds.

[0241] In some embodiments, multiple pulses are applied, each having a duration of 5 to 25 milliseconds. The battery may be a lithium-ion battery.

[0242] In some embodiments, the battery cell includes electrochemically active ions, and the application of a pulse ends substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions begins. The battery cell may include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the application of a pulse ends substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0243] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of detecting a voltage or current response in a battery. The method may further include the step of starting and / or stopping the application of pulses based on the detected response in the battery.

[0244] In some embodiments, the system further includes a control circuit associated with a plurality of converter modules.

[0245] In many embodiments, a method is provided for charging a modular energy storage system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, the method comprising the steps of measuring parameters of the energy source, generating a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit, applying a first controlled pulse to the energy source, wherein the first controlled pulse is generated from the first pulse, and measuring the response of the energy source.

[0246] In some embodiments, the method further includes a step of determining whether a pulse cutoff condition is met based on the measured response. The method may further include a step of terminating the application of the controlled response after the pulse cutoff condition has been met. The pulse cutoff condition may be based on a first deviation and a second deviation of the measured response. The method may further include a step of determining whether the energy source is at a charge threshold below the maximum. The method may further include a step of transitioning to a different charging method if a charge threshold below the maximum is reached.

[0247] In some embodiments, the method may further include a step of determining whether to adjust the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse. The method may further include a step of adjusting the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse.

[0248] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided, the system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, and in a discharge state, at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising the superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit being configured to cause a measurement of parameters of the energy source, cause the generation of a first pulse from the power connection with the switch circuit, cause the application of a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse, and cause a measurement of the response of the energy source.

[0249] In some embodiments, the control circuit may be configured to determine whether a pulse cutoff condition is met based on the measured response. The control circuit may be configured to terminate the application of a controlled response after the pulse cutoff condition is met. The pulse cutoff condition is based on a first and a second deviation of the measured response.

[0250] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to determine whether the energy source is below a maximum charge threshold. If the charge threshold below the maximum is reached, the control circuit may be configured to transition to a different charging method.

[0251] In some embodiments, the control circuit may be configured to determine whether to adjust the voltage or current of a second controlled pulse. The control circuit may be configured to cause the adjustment of the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse so that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse.

[0252] The processing circuit may include one or more processors, microprocessors, controllers, and / or microcontrollers, each of which may be a discrete chip or distributed among several different chips (and parts thereof). The processing circuit may include a digital signal processor, which may be implemented in hardware and / or software. The processing circuit may execute software instructions stored in memory, causing the processing circuit to act as a host for different actions and control other components.

[0253] The processing circuit can also be adapted to run the operating system and any software applications, and to perform other functions not related to the processing of transmitted and received communications.

[0254] Memory can be shared by one or more of the various functional units present, or distributed among two or more of them (for example, as separate memories located on different chips). Memory can also be its own separate chip. Memory can be non-transient, volatile (e.g., RAM) and / or non-volatile (e.g., ROM, flash memory, F-RAM®)).

[0255] Computer program instructions for performing actions according to the described subject may be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including object-oriented programming languages ​​such as Java®, JavaScript®, Smalltalk, C++, C#, Transact-SQL, XML, PHP, or equivalents, and traditional procedural programming languages ​​such as the C programming language or similar programming languages. The program instructions may be executed entirely on the user's computing device (e.g., a reader) or partially on the user's computing device. The program instructions may reside partially on the user's computing device and partially on a remote computing device, or entirely on a remote computing device or server, for example, where identified frequencies are uploaded to a remote location for processing. In the latter scenario, the remote computing device may be connected to the user's computing device through any type of network, or the connection may be to an external computer.

[0256] It should be noted that all features, elements, components, functions, and steps described in relation to any embodiment provided herein are intended to be freely combined and substituted with those from any other embodiment. If a feature, element, component, function, or step is described in relation to only one embodiment, it should be understood that that feature, element, component, function, or step may be used in conjunction with all other embodiments described herein unless expressly otherwise stated. This paragraph therefore serves as a prior basis and written support for the introduction of claims, which at any time combine features, elements, components, functions, and steps from different embodiments, or substitute features, elements, components, functions, and steps from one embodiment with those from another embodiment, even if the following description does not expressly state that such combinations or substitutions are possible in particular cases. In particular, it is explicitly stated that an explicit description of all possible combinations and substitutions would be an unduly burdensome, given that the permissibility of all such combinations and substitutions will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art.

[0257] To the extent that embodiments disclosed herein include or operate in relation to memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media, such memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media are non-transient. Therefore, to the extent that such memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media are covered by one or more claims, such memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media are only non-transient. The terms “non-transient” and “tangible” as used herein are intended to describe memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media excluding propagating electromagnetic signals, but are not intended to limit the types of memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media in terms of memory persistence or otherwise. For example, “non-transient” and / or “tangible” memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media include random access media (e.g., RAM, SRAM, DRAM, FRAM®, etc.), read-only media (e.g., ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash, etc.), and combinations thereof (e.g., hybrid RAM and ROM, NVRAM, etc.), as well as volatile and non-volatile media such as variants developed thereafter.

[0258] As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” refer to multiple subjects unless the context clearly determines otherwise.

[0259] The embodiments may be subject to various modifications and alternative forms, specific examples of which are shown in the drawings and described in detail herein. However, it should be understood that these embodiments are not limited to any particular form disclosed, but rather encompass all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives that fall within the spirit of this disclosure. Furthermore, any negative limitation may be stated in or added to the claims, defining the scope by any feature, function, step, or element of an embodiment, or by any feature, function, step, or element that falls outside the scope of the claimed invention.

Claims

1. 1. A modular energy storage system comprising: a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharging state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit being configured to, in a charging state, control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells; The control circuit comprises: causing a measurement of a parameter of the battery cell; causing generation of at least one pulse in said switch circuit; causing application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell; causing a measurement of a response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse; and determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and causing termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is met, the pulse cut-off condition being based on a first and second derivative of the measured response; A system configured to:

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell when fully charged.

3. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

4. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses such that when a state of charge of the battery cell exceeds a state of charge of the battery cell at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage, the second voltage being greater than an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

5. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of the pulses such that the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when a state of charge of the battery cell is less than 80%, and the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately.

6. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells while the battery cells have a state of charge of no greater than 80% and without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells.

7. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells, and each pulse has a duration between 0.1 milliseconds and 5 seconds.

8. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells, each pulse having a duration between 1 millisecond and 100 milliseconds.

9. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells, each pulse having a sub-millisecond duration.

10. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein each module comprises a plurality of battery cells, and the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the plurality of battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the plurality of battery cells.

11. 1. A modular energy storage system comprising: a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharging state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit being configured to, in a charging state, control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells; The control circuit comprises: causing a measurement of a parameter of the battery cell; causing generation of at least one pulse in said switch circuit; causing application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell; causing a measurement of a response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse; and determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and causing termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is met, the pulse cut-off condition being based on a first and second derivative of the measured response; A system configured to:

12. The system of claim 11, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell when fully charged.

13. The system of claim 11, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

14. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is between 101 and 200% of an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

15. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when a state of charge of the battery cell is less than 100%.

16. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses such that when a state of charge of the battery cell exceeds a state of charge of the battery cell at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage, the second voltage being greater than an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

17. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses such that the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when a state of charge of the battery cell is less than 80%, and wherein the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately.

18. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells.

19. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells while the state of charge of the battery cells does not exceed 80%.

20. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control the application of pulses, each pulse having a duration between 0.1 milliseconds and 5 seconds.

21. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control the application of pulses, each pulse having a duration between 1 millisecond and 100 milliseconds.

22. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control the application of pulses, each pulse having a sub-millisecond duration.

23. A method of charging a modular energy storage system for execution by a control circuit, the modular energy storage system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, the method comprising: applying a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell, the control circuitry comprising: causing a measurement of a parameter of the battery cell; causing generation of at least one pulse in said switch circuit; causing application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell; causing a measurement of a response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse; and determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and causing termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is met, the pulse cut-off condition being based on a first and second derivative of the measured response; The method is configured to:

24. 24. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse at a first voltage above an expected voltage of the battery cell when fully charged.

25. 24. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse at a first voltage above an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

26. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is between 101 and 200% of an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

27. 24. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse with a sub-millisecond duration.

28. 26. The method of claim 25, further comprising applying the at least one pulse when the battery cell has a state of charge less than 80%.

29. 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, the method further comprising applying at least one second pulse at a second voltage less than the first voltage when a state of charge of the battery cell exceeds a state of charge of the battery cell at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, the second voltage being greater than an expected voltage of the battery cell at a 100% state of charge.

30. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when the battery cell has a state of charge less than 80%, and the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately.

31. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells.

32. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the pulses are applied in a manner sufficient to initiate electrochemical reactions within the battery cells while the battery cells have a state of charge not greater than 80%, without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cells.

33. 1. A modular energy storage system comprising: a plurality of converter modules coupled together in at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, wherein in a discharging state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; A control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit comprising: causing a measurement of a parameter of the energy source; causing generation of a first pulse from the power connection with the switch circuit; causing application of a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse; causing a measurement of a response of the energy source during the application of the first controlled pulse; determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is satisfied based on the measured response during the application of the first controlled pulse, and causing termination of the application of the first controlled pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is satisfied, the pulse cut-off condition being based on a first and second derivative of the measured response; a control circuit configured to A system comprising:

34. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the control circuit is configured to determine whether the energy source is at a less than maximum charge threshold and, if the less than maximum charge threshold is reached, apply a second controlled pulse having a voltage or current less than the voltage or current of the first controlled pulse.

35. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the control circuitry is configured to determine whether to adjust a voltage or a current of the second controlled pulse.

36. 36. The system of claim 35, wherein the control circuitry is configured to cause adjustment of the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse is less than the voltage or current of the first controlled pulse.

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