Infrared plasma light recycling thermovoltaic hydrogen plasma power generation device

Abstract

A power generation device is described that supplies at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power generation device comprising: (i) at least one reaction cell for carrying out a reaction containing atomic hydrogen products identifiable by characteristic analysis and spectroscopic signature; (ii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, for supplying a flow of molten metal to the reaction cell, and at least one storage tank for receiving the flow of molten metal; and (iii) an ignition system comprising an electric power source for supplying low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the flow of molten metal to ignite the plasma and initiate an acceleration of the reaction and energy gain. In some embodiments, the power generation device may comprise: (v) a source of H2 and O2 to be supplied to the plasma; (vi) a molten metal recovery system; and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting high-power optical output from the blackbody radiator of the cell into electricity using a concentrated thermophotovoltaic cell with plasma optical recycling, or (b) converting high-energy plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic transducer.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Patent Application Specification by Randell L. Mills for "Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermovoltmatic Hydrogen Plasma Power Generation Device"

[0002] Reference to related applications This application is a compilation of U.S. Patent Applications 63 / 503,457 filed on 19 May 2023, 63 / 579,268 filed on 28 August 2023, 63 / 582,069 filed on 12 September 2023, 63 / 543,718 filed on 11 October 2023, and 63 / 600 filed on 17 November 2023. U.S. Patent Application No. 546, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 613,039 filed on 20 December 2023, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 555,399 filed on 20 February 2024, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 566,268 filed on 16 March 2024, and U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 631,905 filed on 9 April 2024 are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0003] Areas of disclosure This disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and more particularly to systems, apparatus, and methods for power generation. More specifically, embodiments of this disclosure relate to power generation apparatus and systems, and related methods, for generating electrical energy via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, photoelectric converters, plasma-electric converters, photon-electric converters, or thermal-electric converters that generate optical power, plasma, and thermal power, and further generate electrical energy. Furthermore, embodiments of this disclosure describe systems, apparatus, and methods that use ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electric power, and / or thermal power using a photovoltaic converter. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in this disclosure. [Background technology]

[0004] Background technology Power generation can take many forms by utilizing electricity from plasma. The success of plasma commercialization depends on efficiently forming the plasma and developing power generation systems that can utilize the electricity generated from it.

[0005] Plasma is formed upon ignition of certain fuels. These fuels include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-deprived atoms is formed, which can emit high photoelectric power. This high photoelectric power of the plasma can be utilized by the electrical converters of this disclosure. Ions and excited atoms can recombine and undergo electron relaxation to emit photoelectric power. This photoelectric power can be converted into electricity by photovoltaic power. [Overview of the Initiative] [Means for solving the problem]

[0006] Summary of Disclosure This disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, wherein the power generation system is At least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, It is a reactant capable of causing a reaction that generates enough energy to form a plasma within the container. a) A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or Water vapor, and / or A mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor, and / or b) Molten metal and, A mass flow controller that controls the flow rate of at least one reactant into a container, A vacuum pump that maintains the pressure inside the container below atmospheric pressure when one or more reactants are flowing into the container, A molten metal injector system comprising at least one storage tank containing a portion of molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal from the storage tank through an injector tube and provide a molten metal flow, and at least one non-injector molten metal storage tank for receiving the molten metal flow, An ignition system comprising at least one power source or ignition current source for supplying power to at least one flow of molten metal to ignite the reaction when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor is flowing into the vessel, A reactant supply system that replenishes the reactants consumed in the reaction, The system includes a power converter or output system that converts a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or thermal output from the plasma) into electrical and / or thermal power.

[0007] The power generation device disclosed herein (referred to herein as "SunCell®") a) At least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which constitutes the reaction chamber, b) Two electrodes configured to complete the circuit by flowing molten metal between them, c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes, which supplies current between them when the circuit is closed, d) A plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the outflow from the plasma generating cell is directed towards a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir), When current is applied across the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction that generates a second plasma and reaction products, and e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (e.g., 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). In certain embodiments, the molten metal is gallium. In some embodiments, the reaction product has at least one spectroscopic feature as described herein. In various embodiments, the second plasma is formed within a reaction cell, the walls of which consist of a liner having increased resistance to alloy formation with molten metal, and the liner and walls of the reaction cell have high magnetic permeability to reaction products (e.g., stainless steel (SS) such as 347SS such as 4130 alloy SS, Cr-MoSS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, Bb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%), etc.). The liner may be made of a crystalline material (e.g., SiC, BN, quartz) and / or at least one refractory metal from Nb, Ta, Mo, W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed within a reaction cell, and the wall reaction cell chamber consists of first and second sections, The first section consists of stainless steel such as 4130 alloy SS and Cr-MoSS, as well as nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb (94.33 wt%) - Mo (4.86 wt%) - Zr (0.81 wt%). The second section consists of a different fire-resistant metal than the metal in the first section. Here, the bond between different metals is formed by a laminate material (for example, a ceramic material such as BN).

[0008] The power generation device disclosed herein is a) A single vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which constitutes the reaction chamber, b) Multiple electrode pairs, each pair consisting of electrodes configured to complete a circuit by flowing molten metal between them, c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes, which supplies current between them when the circuit is closed, d) A plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the outflow from the plasma generating cell is directed towards a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir), When current is applied across the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction that generates a second plasma and reaction products. e) comprising a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from a second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy, wherein at least one of the reaction products (e.g., intermediates, final products) has at least one spectroscopic feature as described herein.

[0009] This power generation system, a) At least one vessel comprising a base plate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, and the at least one vessel constituting a reaction chamber, b) Two electrodes in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding storage tank, wherein the molten metal flows between the electrodes and is configured to form a molten metal pump system and circuit, c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes (cathode and anode) such that an ignition current is applied between them when the circuit is closed, d) Optionally, a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the outflow from the plasma generation cell is directed towards a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, each molten metal supplied from its respective molten metal reservoir), When current is applied to the circuit, the plasma effluent from the generating cell reacts, producing a second plasma and reaction products, and the energy from the second plasma generates radiation. e) A transparent window cavity that transmits radiation generated from the second plasma, wherein the transparent window cavity is in contact with the base plate of the container, f) A wet seal provided between a transparent window cavity and a base plate, which is a wet seal made of molten metal, g) a power adapter configured to receive radiation passing through a transparent window cavity and convert and / or transmit energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the vessel is a stainless steel dome. A base plate may be placed on top of the vessel. In various embodiments, a window having a cavity (e.g., a quartz window cavity) may be placed on the base plate of the vessel, and the reaction chamber may be considered to be a space defined by the cavity and the base plate (e.g., reactants are ignited in the window cavity). In various embodiments, the vessel is a reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the window and cavity are part of the vessel. In some embodiments, the vessel consists of a spherical, hemispherical, or parabolic dome portion to which storage tanks are connected, and further comprises a drip edge at the connection to each outer storage tank.

[0010] In various applications, the power generation system a) At least one vessel comprising a substrate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, including a reaction chamber, b) Two electrodes in fluid communication with molten metal contained in corresponding storage tanks, wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes by a molten metal pumping system to complete a circuit, the molten metal pumping system includes a moving magnet pump equipped with permanent magnets of alternating polarity on an electromagnetic pumping pipe, the permanent magnets inducing a rotational induction current in the molten metal, which pumps the molten metal and injects it through the electromagnetic pumping pipe to form a molten metal flow, c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes, consisting of a cathode and an anode, which applies an ignition current between the electrodes when the circuit is closed. d) A plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) which, if necessary, induces the generation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the effluent from the plasma generation cell is directed toward a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, each supplied with molten metal from a molten metal reservoir), Here, when current is applied to the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generation cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products, and the energy from the second plasma generates radiation. e) A transparent window cavity that allows radiation generated from the second plasma to pass through, and this transparent window cavity is in contact with the substrate of the container, f) A wet seal between a transparent window cavity and a substrate, wherein the wet seal includes a molten metal for wet sealing, g) A power adapter configured to receive radiation transmitted through a transparent window cavity and to convert and / or transmit energy from a second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy.

[0011] The systems of the present disclosure can be used, for example, in the power systems of the present disclosure to control and guide the flow of electric current and / or molten fluid. These pump systems can be used to electrically isolate specific components or to guide a flow of molten metal within a system, particularly in a system involved in the generation and control of plasma. For example, molten metal is supplied to electrodes by two molten metal injection systems, including a molten metal pump system, to close the circuit. Each molten metal injection system forms a flow of molten metal that contacts either electrode, and the circuit is closed when these molten metal flows intersect. Each molten metal injection system, a) A molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to receive the molten metal in the storage tank from an inlet and to supply the molten metal through the storage tank and through an injector tube to generate a molten metal flow, and a storage tank for receiving the return flow of molten metal after injection, b) An inlet riser tube provided at the inlet for controlling the molten metal level in the storage tank, c) An electrically insulating section provided on the storage tank wall for electrically insulating each corresponding electrode from an electrode of the opposite polarity, d) an alignment mechanism for reorienting the electrode injector so that two flows from two corresponding electrodes intersect to complete the circuit, the system comprising: a separator having a passage between the portion where the molten flow closes the circuit and an inner reservoir for the molten metal, the corresponding electrodes passing through the passage to allow the molten metal to flow into the container, and the flowing molten metal returning through the passage to the inner reservoir. In various embodiments, the electromagnetic pump tube is cooled (e.g. by a cooling system such as a heat exchanger) and the molten metal is cooled before entering the moving magnet pump. In one embodiment, the substrate is a hemispherical dome having throughs (e.g., channels, holes, notches) connected to each reservoir. These throughs serve to return the molten metal to the reservoir (e.g., inner reservoir) after the circuit is completed (and after plasma generation). The throughs may be provided with barriers (e.g., drip edges) to ensure electrical insulation between the molten metal return flow in the hemispherical dome and the molten metal in the reservoir. In various embodiments, the circuit includes a protection circuit that reduces or cuts off the current applied to the circuit if the power exceeds a set value. In various embodiments, the molten metal flows through an electromagnetic pump tube, the inner wall of which is coated with BN paint. In various embodiments, the system further includes a magnetic material for collecting reaction products from a second plasma generation reaction.

[0012] Molten metal is supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit. This supply is provided by two molten metal injection systems, each forming a flow of molten metal that contacts one of the electrodes via a molten metal pumping system. This molten metal pumping system includes an electromagnetic pump that pushes the molten metal through a molten metal pumping tube. At least one molten metal pumping tube is flexible and connected to a positioning mechanism. This positioning mechanism moves the corresponding nozzles of each molten metal pumping tube, allowing for alignment of the molten metal flow discharged from the flexible molten metal pumping tubes connected to the positioning mechanism. In some embodiments, molten metal is supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit. This supply is provided by two molten metal injection systems, each forming a flow of molten metal that contacts one of the electrodes via a molten metal pumping system. This molten metal pumping system includes an electromagnetic pump that pushes the molten metal through a molten metal pumping tube. This electromagnetic pump is in fluid communication with a molten metal storage tank, which consists of an inner storage tank and an outer storage tank. An inner reservoir is located within the cavity of an outer reservoir, and a positioning mechanism is operably connected to the inner reservoir to position it within the outer reservoir (for example, independently of a nozzle positioning mechanism). In certain embodiments, molten metal is supplied to electrodes to close a circuit. This supply is provided by two molten metal injection systems, each forming a flow of molten metal that contacts one of the electrodes via a molten metal pumping system. This molten metal pumping system includes an electromagnetic pump that pushes the molten metal through a molten metal pumping tube. This electromagnetic pump is in fluid communication with the molten metal reservoir, which consists of an inner reservoir and an outer reservoir. The inner reservoir is located within the cavity of the outer reservoir, and each outer reservoir further includes a separator having a passage between the container through which the flow of molten metal closes the circuit and the inner reservoir. The corresponding electrode receives molten metal through this passage into the container, and the incoming molten metal returns to the inner reservoir through the passage.

[0013] The separator and passage function as droplet barriers to interrupt and / or prevent short circuits between the container and the inner storage tank (e.g., short circuits caused by the return of molten metal coming into contact with the container and the inner storage tank). In certain embodiments, each inner storage tank in each molten metal injection system further comprises a non-conductive extension that allows the return of molten metal to flow into the inner storage tank while avoiding electrical short circuits between the first and second cavities. In some embodiments, the non-conductive extension is connected to the separator by a gasket and at least one fastener to seal the corresponding connection. Here, the non-conductive extension comprises at least one groove, pinhole, or upper flange, and the fastener each comprises at least one clasp, pin, or mating flange below the upper flange of the non-conductive extension, or the flange is held by a shelf in the outer storage tank. The non-conductive extension may comprise a double-walled tube or two concentric tubes supported by mechanical screws at a bottom edge or multiple edges, with the head of each mechanical screw provided with an electrical insulator support bracket. In some embodiments, the separator further comprises a drainage channel for returning molten metal while avoiding contact between the return molten metal and at least one of the inlet and nozzle of the electromagnetic pump. The drainage channel may be a slot in the separator that forms a gap between the inner storage tank extension liner and the inner storage tank extension. In various embodiments, the separator further comprises a flow divider that preferentially directs the return molten metal into the drainage channel. The separator may be provided with a molten metal pool above it to improve the supply rate of molten metal by increasing the molten metal head pressure. This pool may be provided with a separator extension above the separator, and the inner storage tank extension liner penetrates the separator extension, the holes in the separator, and the inner storage tank extension, and the return molten metal accumulates in the corresponding space between the separator extension and at least one of the inner wall and dome of the outer storage tank.

[0014] In some embodiments, the system includes a non-conductive inner storage tank extension that extends into the inner storage tank, and the non-conductive extension and the inner storage tank are movable relative to each other due to thermal expansion.

[0015] The fixing device for the extension of the inner storage tank is, (a) Multiple holes provided in the extension of the inner storage tank, (b) Pins, screws, or bolts passing through these holes, (c) The separator may comprise at least one of a strap, bolt, or screw connected to the bottom surface of the separator. The bolt may comprise an eyebolt that passes through a hole and is secured to the inside of the inner reservoir extension by a carbon gasket and nut. In some embodiments, the inner reservoir extension fixture further comprises a separator fixture, which is (a) The separator is provided with a threaded rod welded to the underside, the threaded rod passing through the holes of each eyebolt, and the eyebolt end of the threaded rod further fastens the inner reservoir to the gasket and the separator, or (b) A male thread passes through the hole in the eyebolt, tightening the joint between the inner reservoir extension and the separator, and a threaded tube, female threaded standoff, or coupler is connected to the separator to function as a female connector of the male thread. In various configurations, the inner reservoir fixture comprises two separators joined by a welded joint, the lower member of this pair comprises an inner reservoir extension, the welded joint is removable, and the inner reservoir extension can be replaced. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a joint or annular portion on the outer reservoir and a corresponding joint or annular portion on the inner reservoir, and these two collars constitute the joint. In certain embodiments, the joint comprises at least one Conflat flange bolted with an interposed gasket, or a seam weld along the periphery from thereto. The outer storage tank joint is welded to the bottom of the storage tank base plate, the inner storage tank joint is connected to the inner storage tank, the inner storage tank is connected to the storage tank bellows, and the inner storage tank extension is housed by passing through the opening in the storage tank base plate.

[0016] The external reservoir assembly consists of some or all of the components connected to the external reservoir (e.g., outer reservoir, PV window cavity base plate and retaining ring, circuit breaker and circuit breaker, reservoir base plate, joint collar), the internal reservoir assembly consists of all the components connected to the internal reservoir (e.g., internal reservoir, reservoir bellows, electromagnetic pump base plate, electromagnetic pump assembly, and joint collar), and the external and internal reservoir assemblies are joined at a joint consisting of a joint collar, and the assemblies are separated by reversing the joint between the joint collar on the external reservoir and the joint collar on the internal reservoir. In some embodiments, the two joint collars are welded at their outer edges, and the internal and external reservoir assemblies are disassembled by grinding away the weld from the joint. In various embodiments, the nozzle is at least partially protected from plasma damage such as etching and erosion by at least one of a Faraday cage and a magnetic field.

[0017] The system may further include: (i) a first flexible channel or storage tank bellows connected to an inner storage tank; (ii) an electromagnetic pump base plate having through holes for the storage tank bellows; (iii) a storage tank base plate; (iv) an electromagnetic pump equipped with inlet and outlet electromagnetic pump tubes; (v) an electromagnetic pump tube bellows; and (vi) a positioning mechanism (e.g., an aligner) for bending the storage tank bellows to align the molten metal flow. In some embodiments, the system may further include: (i) an electromagnetic pump base plate having a through-hole for a storage tank bellows; (ii) a first flexible channel or storage tank bellows whose upper part is connected to an internal storage tank via the electromagnetic pump base plate; (iii) a storage tank base plate connected to the bottom of a storage tank bellows at the upper part of the storage tank base plate; (iv) an electromagnetic pump having an inlet pipe and an outlet pipe, the inlet pipe being connected to the lower part of the storage tank base plate; (v) an electromagnetic pump tube bellows connected in series with the inlet or outlet electromagnetic pump tube; and (vi) an aligner that bends the storage tank bellows to align the molten metal flow. The outer storage tank, the inner storage tank, the upper part of the storage tank bellows, and / or the inlet of the electromagnetic pump are rigidly connected to the electromagnetic pump base plate, and the outlet pipe of the electromagnetic pump is rigidly connected. In some embodiments, the system may further include one or more of the following: (i) a storage tank base plate having through holes for a storage tank bellows; (ii) a flexible channel or storage tank bellows whose upper part is connected to the inner storage tank via the storage tank base plate; (iii) an electromagnetic pump base plate connected to the bottom of the storage tank bellows at the top of the electromagnetic pump base plate; (iv) inlet and outlet electromagnetic pump tubes; and (v) an aligner that can bend the storage tank bellows to align the molten metal flow. The upper parts of the outer storage tank, the inner storage tank, and the storage tank bellows are rigidly connected to the storage tank base plate, and the inlet and outlet tubes of the electromagnetic pump are rigidly connected to the electromagnetic pump base plate.

[0018] At least one of the nozzle (e.g., nozzle 5q) and the injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube (e.g., electromagnetic pump tube 5k61) is composed of ceramics, boron carbide (B4C), tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, cubic BN (cBN), BN-ZrO2, silicon carbide, graphite-silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zirconia, alumina, hafnia, silicon carbide-silicon nitride, quartz, Pyrex®, carbon, SiC-coated carbon, and diamond-like carbon-coated carbon. In some embodiments, the nozzle is conductive, and at least one of the following (i) The nozzle height is set higher than the container and base plate to prevent the electrodes from arcing against the container and base plate, (ii) The power generation system further comprises an electrically insulating liner or group of liners to prevent the nozzle from arcing against the container and base plate, (iii) The power generation system further comprises an electrically insulating electrical separator positioned approximately equidistant from each nozzle and oriented between the nozzles, perpendicular to the inter-nozzle axis, and having sufficient height to substantially prevent arc discharge while maintaining the plasma reaction. For example, the height of the electrical separator is in the range of about 1% to 90% of the height of the transparent window cavity. In some embodiments, the electrical separator is made of ceramics, boron carbide (B4C), tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, cubic BN (cBN), BN-ZrO2, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zirconia, alumina, hafnia, silicon carbide-silicon nitride, quartz, Pyrex®, or silicon carbide (SiC).

[0019] The electrode may have a shape that reduces the electric field of the plasma ignition voltage by distributing the charge density of the applied voltage across the electrode area. For example, the shape may have a flat-top nozzle electrode and an injection port located at the top center. In some embodiments, the electrode includes at least one of a ceramic insert within the nozzle port or a counterbore within the port. The counterbore is filled with injected molten metal to form a liquid electrode. This causes ions and electrons to collide with the liquid electrode, at least partially. The edges of the counterbore are rounded to avoid concentration of plasma field lines.

[0020] This system can be equipped with an adjustment device that changes the inter-electrode distance and the height of the molten metal flow intersection during plasma startup to a value lower than that during steady-state operation. This lower value reduces the voltage range required for plasma startup. Reduction of the maximum ignition power required to start the plasma, and At least one of the above can be achieved by reducing at least one of the ion etching and electron etching of the nozzle. The auxiliary device can tilt one or both nozzles to an angle that reduces the height of the intersection point between the nozzles and the molten metal flow, thereby achieving at least one of the following voltages: below the voltage that causes ion and electron etching, or in the range of approximately 1V to 25V.

[0021] In some embodiments, the electrodes and injector components of the molten metal pump may be positioned outside the storage tank so that the return flow of molten metal is inside the storage tank. The system may include an inlet riser for controlling the height of the molten metal in one or more storage tanks. For example, the inlet riser may be positioned toward the outside of the storage tank and simultaneously house the injector so that any existing molten metal oxides accumulate inside the storage tank and are not allowed to flow into the inlet of the molten metal pump.

[0022] Furthermore, the system of this disclosure may be used to facilitate the propagation of light (which may enhance the output). For example, the hemispherical dome further comprises a reflective liner that reflects light generated by a second plasma through a transparent window cavity.

[0023] These systems may also help mitigate harmful effects on components related to energy generation, particularly plasma generation. The plasma gas contains at least one of hydrogen and argon and has a pressure in the range of 1 milliliter to 760 tor, and the gas pressure is maintained at a level that suppresses ion etching (sputtering) of at least one of the electrodes, thereby preventing the PV window cavity from being metallized with electrode metal. In some embodiments, an internal reservoir partially covered by a conductive separator constitutes a Faraday cage for protecting the contained nozzle. In various embodiments, the Faraday cage may further comprise a perforated conductive cover covering the inner reservoir, the mesh openings of which are large enough to partially block at least one of ions and electrons and allow the molten metal flow injected from the nozzle to pass through. In various embodiments, the system may comprise a magnetic field source that deflects at least one of ions and electrons, thereby protecting the nozzle from etching, erosion, or other damage by at least one of ions and electrons. The magnetic field source may comprise at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic field source includes a current flowing through the injector portion of an electromagnetic pump, which is supplied by at least one of the electromagnetic pumps, either a pump current or an ignition current.

[0024] Each nozzle is The structure is configured such that the injector tube inside the inner storage tank has an inclined shape opposite to the inclination of the injection surface (for example, the surface where molten metal is present), thereby making the injection surface flat, and the injector surface has at least an injection nozzle hole with a counterbore, or The injection surface may include at least one of the following structures, comprising a counterbore injection nozzle bore and at least one of a plurality of lateral channels leading to a central injection channel: The lateral channels can maintain overflow of the molten metal pool in the counterbore, maintain a molten metal film on the nozzle surface, and / or maintain at least one molten metal flow to guide short electric field lines and plasma electron-ion flows, thereby protecting the nozzle from plasma damage such as etching.

[0025] In various embodiments, the injector includes an injection section of an electromagnetic pump and further includes a concentric tube for gas injection through a nozzle, the nozzle may include at least one molten metal outlet and at least one gas outlet or discharge port, where the gas provides a backflow to the plasma flow into the nozzle, protecting the nozzle by maintaining a relatively high local pressure at the nozzle. The inner reservoir or inner reservoir extension may further include a molten metal pool through which at least one of the nozzle and the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube passes, the molten metal level in this pool is maintained by a molten metal return flow from the molten metal injected by the injector. This pool may include a transverse pool floor plate welded transversely to the inner reservoir wall, The nozzle may have an inclined top surface or a bullet-shaped nozzle to compensate for the inclination of the nozzle and injector electromagnetic pump tube within the internal storage tank. The pool may further include an inlet riser to control the height of the molten metal in the pool. In some embodiments, the inlet riser comprises a tube having a hole at its top for receiving the overflow of molten metal being returned, and an overflow outlet at its bottom that penetrates the pool floor plate, wherein the height of the tube is a desired height of the molten metal in the pool. Excess molten metal return flow flows out of the pool through this pipe and reaches a lower position in the internal storage tank. The height of the molten metal pool is set to cover the height of the nozzle.

[0026] In various embodiments, the pool may further include a deformable floor bellows or cylindrical bellows, allowing the nozzle position to be adjusted using a regulator. In some embodiments, the cylindrical bellows includes an upper pool bellows plate, which further includes at least one inlet riser. This inlet riser has an outlet penetration at the bottom of the pool bellows plate and a penetration for an injector. In some embodiments, both the injector penetration and the injector are threaded, and the injector is connected to the pool bellows plate by the threads. In various embodiments, the pool is further a second pool floor plate connected to the periphery of the inner storage tank wall, which is connected to the second pool floor plate using mechanical screws and gaskets. In various aspects, the injector electromagnetic pump tube is joined to the electromagnetic pump base plate via a coupler and has sufficient thickness to prevent bending when adjusting the nozzle position, or The electromagnetic pump tubing consists of multiple tubing sections connected by an adapter coupler, with at least one base section having a larger outer diameter (OD) than the upper section to which it is connected to prevent bending during nozzle position adjustment, and the uppermost tubing section having an outer diameter that allows it to pass through the pool bellows plate. This pool may further include a nozzle joint to facilitate the positioning of the orientation angle of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump. In various embodiments, the nozzle joint includes a ball-socket joint and further includes a central through-hole through which at least one of the injector section or nozzle of the electromagnetic pump tubing passes. This joint is welded to the floor plate, and the injector section and nozzle of the electromagnetic pump tubing are slidable through the joint's through-hole. The nozzle joint further includes a second ball-socket joint, (a) a second ball and a second socket housing or casing into which the ball is fitted, (b) A ball joint chamber (electromagnetic pump base plate penetration) welded to the upper part of the electromagnetic pump base plate, which receives molten metal from the electromagnetic pump, and the electromagnetic pump tube is welded to the electromagnetic pump base plate at the electromagnetic base plate penetration to inject the molten metal into the chamber, and (c) A chamber cap comprising a second ball and a seating surface in a second socket casing, (i) The ball has a channel that extends across its entire diameter, and one channel opening is It has an inlet that comes into contact with the molten metal injected into the chamber by an electromagnetic pump, and the opposite opening is welded or screwed into the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube. (ii) The electromagnetic pump pressurizes the molten metal in the chamber and the ball channel It flows through to the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, and the molten metal It is injected as a subordinate flow.

[0027] The pool floor plate is (a) Arranged horizontally within the inner storage tank, (b) Welded circumferentially around the wall of the inner reservoir, (c) It can serve to separate the upper and lower parts of the inner storage tank.

[0028] In some embodiments, the injection angle of the molten flow through the injection section and nozzle of the electromagnetic pump is adjustable by an adjustment device that extends or retracts a section of the storage tank bellows and causes the electromagnetic pump base plate to tilt, move horizontally, or move vertically. In various embodiments, as the nozzle is tilted, the adjustment device may compensate by adjusting the height of the nozzle, in which case the injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube slides through the joint penetration. An adjustment device having a chamber cap including a second ball and seat in a second socket casing may include a ball channel of the second ball which can be oriented along the axis of the injector, including the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle. The adjustment device rotates the axes of the injector and ball channel at an angle with respect to the angle of the storage tank axis in order to form an intersection of the molten metal flow injected by the electromagnetic pump through the corresponding injector at a desired position. In various embodiments, the adjustment device includes at least one bellows that causes lateral movement of the base plate of the electromagnetic pump to change the injection angle of the injector. In some embodiments, the bellows includes two bellows units that can cause lateral movement by forming relative curvatures in opposite directions within the corresponding composite reservoir bellows. The two bellows can straddle the base plate of each electromagnetic pump, and the internal reservoir further includes an intermediate tube connection, where the base plate of the electromagnetic pump is fixed to the internal reservoir by the upper part of the upper unit. Furthermore, each bellows unit has an independent adjustment mechanism, each adjustment mechanism consisting of a frame, a movable frame, and bolts and nuts straddling the frame and the movable frame, and changes in the bolt length between the frames are controlled by screwing the nuts of the bolts in one direction or the other. In some embodiments, the top of the inner reservoir is cut at the same angle as the angle from the vertical of the reservoir (e.g., 12 degrees) to form a horizontal top. This ensures that the distance between the top and the horizontal partition plate is equal along the perimeter of the inner reservoir. In various embodiments, the inner storage tank extension and the partition plate are integrally constructed, or the inner storage tank extension includes a metal upper portion welded or brazed to the partition plate.The inner reservoir extension may further include an electrically insulating bottom portion brazed to the metal upper portion. In some embodiments, the upper portion of the inner reservoir extension is made of metal cut at the same or similar angles (e.g., within 5%). Welded to the separator at angles from the center of the reservoir (e.g., 5 to 25 degrees, 10 to 16 degrees, 11 to 13 degrees, 12 degrees), it further includes an electrically insulating bottom portion made of glass, borosilicate glass, Pyrex®, quartz, alumina, sapphire, zirconia, BN, or other ceramics, and the brazing material is suitable for use at high temperatures. In some embodiments, the metal of the upper portion of the inner reservoir extension may be Kovar, the ceramic bottom portion may be alumina, and the brazing material between Kovar and alumina may be copper. The internal storage tank extension may further include an electrically insulating high-temperature liner to avoid an electrical short circuit between the internal storage tank extension and the internal storage tank, in which case the nozzle height inside the liner may be higher than the bottom surface of the internal storage tank extension. A gap may be provided between the internal storage tank extension and the internal storage tank, and this gap may be filled with an electrically insulating packing material, which prevents contact between the inner storage tank and the outer storage tank, prevents molten metal from entering the gap from the storage tank side end of the extension, thereby preventing a short circuit between the internal storage tank extension and the inner storage tank, and further prevents molten metal from reaching the upper end of the inner storage tank and flowing into the gap between the inner storage tank and the outer storage tank.

[0029] In systems with a nozzle pool, the gap between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank may be sealed by a wet seal. For example, (a) The molten metal for wet sealing consists of nozzle pool molten metal, (b) The inner storage tank extension is made of an electrically insulating and high-temperature resistant liner or the bottom portion of the inner storage tank extension is made of an electrically insulating material, (c) The bottom of the inner reservoir extension liner or the bottom electrical insulation portion of the inner reservoir extension is at least partially immersed in the molten metal of the nozzle pool to form a wet seal. In some embodiments, the bottom of the inner reservoir extension liner or the bottom electrical insulation portion of the inner reservoir extension is cut horizontally so that the bottom is parallel to a horizontal pool floor plate. In various embodiments, at least one of the vacuum line and the gas line is connected to either the reservoir located above the separator or the hemispherical dome.

[0030] At least one of the vacuum line and the gas line has a penetration into the storage tank below the separator level and is in gas communication with either the upper part of the inner storage tank, the interior of the hemispherical dome, or the PV window cavity via at least one pool inlet riser. In some embodiments, the nozzle can maintain a flow of molten metal (e.g., supplied by a connection to a molten metal injection device) in a portion of the nozzle (e.g., via a microchannel) and, if necessary, can form a layer, film, or pool of molten metal on the nozzle surface.

[0031] Furthermore, the system may further include a baseplate leveling system for maintaining a uniform flow rate of molten metal back into each molten metal reservoir, the baseplate leveling system comprising an actuator mounted on the baseplate of the PV cavity.

[0032] The system may further comprise one or more heaters, including at least one H2 / O2 torch and at least one inductively coupled heater. Each inductively coupled heater is connected by leads in at least one way, either in series or in parallel, to at least one coil that induces current in the system component to be heated. In some embodiments, the inductively coupled heater coil assembly includes multiple coils connected by leads in at least one way, either in series or in parallel. The inductively coupled heater can power one inductively coupled heater coil assembly including four coils connected in parallel or in series, where the device may include (i) a coil surrounding the heat transfer block of each electromagnetic pump, (ii) a coil surrounding the bottom of each internal reservoir, and (iii) a coil at the bottom of the PV window cavity base plate. In some embodiments, the inductively coupled heater may include multiple coils, a cooling device, thermal and electrical insulators for the coils, a coolant reservoir, at least one coolant valve, at least one vapor pressure relief valve, a DC power supply, a battery, at least one inverter, and at least one temperature sensor and controller. In some embodiments, (i) the DC power supply is powered by a rechargeable battery, (ii) the coils are independent, and (iii) the DC power supply powers multiple independent inverters, each inverter being provided for an independent coil, each inverter being individually controlled by a controller and a computer, so that the temperature of each heated component, as measured by a temperature sensor, reaches a predetermined temperature.

[0033] The inner storage tank extension liner may be installed higher than the level of the separator, and the flow divider has a configuration in which the inner storage tank extension is extended higher along a portion of the inner storage tank extension, thereby preventing molten metal backflow from flowing into the gap between the raised inner storage tank extension liner and the inner storage tank. In some embodiments, the inner storage tank may be provided with an electrically nonconductive liner or sleeve on at least one of its inner or outer surfaces to achieve electrical insulation, such as insulation between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank. In various embodiments, the flow divider extends along the circumference of the inner storage tank extension, and the flow divider partially covers the separator drain slot, thereby preventing molten metal, such as molten tin, from flowing back between the flow divider and the inner storage tank extension liner, and avoiding a short circuit between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank. The divider is configured to extend along the liner of the inner storage tank extension, thereby partially covering the separator drain slot and preventing molten metal, such as molten tin, from flowing back between the divider and the inner storage tank extension liner, thus avoiding a short circuit between the inner storage tank extension liner and the storage tank extension. In some aspects, the inner storage tank extension liner support and the inner storage tank extension liner may be provided with a molten metal return drainage channel. In some embodiments, the inner storage tank extension liner support includes a mounting portion to the inner storage tank that supports a non-conductive support having a molten metal return drainage channel. In some embodiments, the inner storage tank extension liner support is located on top of the extension liner, including fasteners located on top of the inner storage tank. In various embodiments, the upper inner storage tank extension liner support includes a liner cutout and a divider shelf, or an end shelf, edge, flange, or flare located on top of the divider. In certain improved forms, the separator includes at least one dripper, through which the molten metal returnflow from the injected molten metal passes through the dripper to form separated metal droplets at its outlet, thereby interrupting the molten metal returnflow and disrupting any corresponding electrical connections that may be formed between the inner reservoir extension and one or more of the inner reservoir, the inner reservoir liner support, and the nozzle pool assembly. Each dripper may have through holes or holes in the separator that are small enough in diameter to cause the formation of molten metal droplets as the molten metal returnflow passes through the holes.In some embodiments, the drippers are located in the region of the outer radius of the inner reservoir extension liner, and are configured so that droplets fall into the corresponding space between them. The drippers have separator holes. a) Arranged at equal intervals in the area between the internal storage tank extension liner and the internal storage tank extension, b) The inner diameter is in the range of approximately 0.001 inches to 0.25 inches. c) Are there enough holes to obtain a total pass-through rate or flow rate that is comparable to or exceeds the injection flow rate from the injector and nozzle of an electromagnetic pump? d) Having a sufficient number of nozzles such that their cross-sectional area is equal to or greater than that of the nozzles arranged so that their cross-sectional area exceeds that of the corresponding nozzle, e) Can the ratio of the cross-sectional area of ​​the hole to the nozzle area be greater than a multiple of the ratio of the pressure of the injected fluid in the nozzle to the head pressure in the hole? f) Having spacing to avoid the coalescence of molten metal droplets formed in adjacent holes, g) The spacing is greater than the diameter of the droplets formed by the adjacent hole drippers, or at least one of the following:

[0034] In one embodiment, the outer reservoir 5c and the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1 may be equipped with flanges such as Conflat flanges, thereby enabling rapid replacement of the inner reservoir assembly, which includes the inner reservoir 959, the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1, the electromagnetic pump component group 5k6, 5ka2, 5ak1, the inlet riser 5qa, the injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the nozzle 5q, and at least one of metals including molten metal such as tin. In another embodiment, the flanges are replaced with joints such as welds, and the replacement can be carried out by cutting the welds using means such as a band saw.

[0035] The power generation system of the present disclosure may include a magnetofluid wet seal for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window having a light energy permeable cavity. The wet seal joins the PV window chamber to a base plate (e.g., a base plate of a container having a through hole) and includes a channel containing molten metal, into which the PV window chamber is inserted. Here, the molten metal is electrically connected to the power supply, generating an electric current in the molten metal in the channel to induce magnetic resistance in the molten metal in the housing, maintaining the seal. Here, light is generated on one side of the PV window, transmitted through the window, and collected by at least one photovoltaic element to generate power. In some embodiments, the molten metal is exposed to a magnetic field, and the Lorentz force of the current and magnetic field on the molten metal in the channel acts against an external force on the molten metal to maintain the wet seal. In some embodiments, the wet seal is formed from multiple metal layers, with a liquid metal layer placed between two solid metal layers.

[0036] In some embodiments, the container is connected to a window cavity, and the wet seal is further, a) A window flange provided at the base of the window cavity, b) Base plate flange on the base plate, c) An upper flange provided on the upper part of the window cavity flange, which is mechanically connected to the base plate flange and presses the window flange against the base plate flange, d) A gasket made of carbon or the like, provided on the surface of at least one window cavity flange and in contact with the upper flange and the base plate flange, e) At least one of an inner circumferential housing or retaining wall provided inside the window cavity, and an outer circumferential housing or retaining wall provided outside the window cavity flange, f) A wet seal of molten metal held by a housing and retaining walls and gaskets, maintaining a pressure difference by keeping the inside of the window cavity at a lower pressure than the outside. The wet seal may include a flanged seal with a graphite gasket for a transparent window cavity, which comprises upper and lower seal flanges bolted together with upper and lower graphite gaskets between each flange face of the window cavity, and the corresponding seal flange further comprises an angle ring or channel ring surrounding the flanged seal with a graphite gasket, which is welded to at least one of the base plate and the lower flange of the seal, forming a cavity around the flanged seal with a graphite gasket, which is filled with wet seal molten metal to form a wet seal.

[0037] A wet seal gasket (e.g., a graphite or carbon gasket) is compressed by atmospheric pressure due to a pressure difference, reducing at least one of the mechanical tensions of the flange, and the force maintaining the gasket compression may be provided solely by atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, the wet seal includes a barrier gasket that supports the weight of the window cavity and prevents the flow of molten material. The wet seal is, a) A window cavity having a precision flat surface at its base that fits with a corresponding precision flat surface of a base plate, b) A window flange provided at the base of a window cavity, having a precision flat surface that fits with a corresponding precision flat surface of a base plate, c) Gasket (e.g., carbon) between the bottom of the window cavity and the base plate flange, d) A gasket (e.g., carbon) placed between at least a portion of the surface of the window cavity flange that is in contact with the window base plate, e) An outer periphery housing or retaining wall provided on the outside of the window cavity or window cavity flange, f) A housing or retaining wall provided on the inside of the window cavity in the circumferential direction, g) A wet seal of molten metal held by a housing, retaining wall and gasket, which maintains a pressure difference by keeping the pressure inside the window cavity lower than the pressure outside, h) A wet-sealed molten metal which is held by a housing and a retaining wall, and by a precisely fitted contact between a window cavity or window cavity flange and a base plate, thereby maintaining a pressure difference by keeping the inside of the window cavity at a lower pressure than the outside, may include at least one of these.

[0038] The wet seal molten metal (or a portion thereof) may solidify along at least one of the outer periphery of the outer housing or retaining wall, or the base of the PV window cavity or the lower part of its flange. In some embodiments, a) At least one of the height of the outer periphery housing or the height of the retaining wall, b) The width of the window cavity flange not covered by the gasket, c) The width of the window cavity flange precisely fitted to the base plate, d) The height of the window cavity flange and at least one of them have a sufficient thickness (e.g., in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm) to form a wet seal. In various embodiments, the wet seal has precise and aligned flatness with respect to the window cavity flange and the base plate, where, a) The gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate is such that, beyond this point, wet seal molten metal will penetrate. b) The gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate shall be smaller than the height at which the wet seal molten metal would leak to the outside, regardless of whether a wet seal gasket is present. c) Any clearance between the flange and the base plate shall be less than 1 mm (e.g., less than 100 microns, less than 10 microns) (ranging from 0.1 microns). d) The circumferential portion of the gap between the precisely fitted window cavity flange and the base plate is 1) The height of the gap is such that it prevents the penetration of wet seal molten metal, and this gap height maintains a barrier against the flow of wet seal molten metal inward, and / or maintains a positive pressure difference between the inside and outside of the window cavity, and / or 2) The wet seal suppresses the outward flow of molten metal and retains the molten metal within the gap area. e) At least at the periphery of the gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate, the height of the base plate due to the gasket thickness is such that the molten metal of the wet seal is held within the gap region in order to prevent leakage to the outside.

[0039] A wet seal molten metal is typically a molten metal that can fill a channel in a flow state (e.g., by heating) and maintain a pressure difference. The wet seal molten metal may contain tin or gallium. In some embodiments, the wet seal molten metal is impregnated into a solid matrix.

[0040] The wet seal and window cavity may further include a gasket interface consisting of surfaces on each joint that can tolerate relative moments between the gasket and the window cavity without causing destructive damage. The gasket interface is provided at the base of the window cavity or configured such that a flange has a radius of curvature or chamfer on each side to form a smooth edge. In various embodiments, the wet seal includes at least one of an inner housing and an outer housing, and one of a retaining ring, where at least one is a) At least one of the inner housing or inner retaining ring is made of a refractory metal consisting of a group of W, Ta, Mo, or Nb, or a ceramic such as quartz or alumina. b) At least one of the inner and outer housing and retaining ring walls is covered with BN, c) At least one housing and retaining ring are at least partially embedded in the base plate.

[0041] In some embodiments, the system (e.g., a base plate and / or container) further comprises a reflective liner on all surfaces irradiated with plasma radiation, which can reflect incident light through a window cavity to a power adapter, and the liner is further covered with a liner having a perforation for an injector, which is further covered with a reflective perforation. The reflector may consist of a quartz plate adapted to the lining surface, with a reflective coating on the back. An example of a reflective coating is Aremco QuartZ Coat 850. https: / / news.thomasnet.com / fullstory / reflective-coating-handles-t electromagnetic perature-to-1-600-f-454985 CP4040-S2_HT and LC4040-SG, Aremco Pyro-Duct® 597-A (adhesive) Pyro-Duct® 597-C (coating) Silver-filled, electrically and thermally conductive, single-component system up to 1700°F (927°C) https: / / WWW.Aremco.com / conductive-compounds / ), Aremco 634-BN-SiC, reflective quartz material OM100 (Heraeus, https: / / www.heraeus.commedia / media / hca / products_and_solutions_8 / solids / OM100_EN.pdf Examples include metals, silver, aluminum, precious metals, gold, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, and platinum, as well as combinations thereof. In various embodiments, the reflective coating may be covered with a protective coating (e.g., BN) to avoid alloying with the molten metal. In various embodiments, the system (e.g., any of the base plate, container, and inner reservoir) may further include an electromagnetic pump base plate, the surface in contact with the molten metal may be covered with a coating (e.g., boron nitride) to prevent alloying with the molten metal. The electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 may be covered with a TiN, CrN, Ta or other conductive alloy-resistant coating, at least in the internal region of the electromagnetic busbar assembly 5k6. The rest of the electromagnetic pump tube may be coated internally with Ta or BN. The BN coating may be applied by means such as dipping, brushing, or spray coating.

[0042] Methods for using the system of this disclosure are also provided. For example, a method for maintaining a pressure difference (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a first solid material is: a) A process of fitting a first solid material and a second solid material together using molten metal placed between them, wherein a magnetic field is applied to the molten metal during fitting. b) A device that passes an electric current through molten metal, c) A device that reduces the pressure applied to the molten metal, The forces generated by electric current and magnetic fields include those that counteract the forces generated by depressurization to maintain the pressure difference.

[0043] A method for maintaining a pressure difference (e.g., a vacuum) on both sides of a molten metal seal between a first solid material and a second solid material includes providing magnetic fields of opposite polarity to each half of the periphery, along with a current in the opposite direction, such that the Lorentz forces are in the same direction with respect to the channel (e.g., half of the channel is magnetized by a magnetic field in the +z direction and half of the channel is magnetized by a magnetic field in the -z direction).

[0044] A method for forming a molten metal seal between the atmosphere and a closed cavity and maintaining a pressure difference (e.g., a vacuum) between both sides includes a channel loop, which comprises a channel loop made of molten metal that conducts current, a plurality of current conductors supplying current to a plurality of current segments between at least one pair of conductors arranged clockwise or counterclockwise along the periphery of the channel loop, and a plurality of magnetic field sources perpendicular to the direction of each segment of the plurality of current segments, each magnetic field being configured such that the Lorentz force generated by the current segments and the magnetic field is in the opposite direction to the force generated by the pressure drop in order to maintain the pressure difference.

[0045] The power system may include a gas mixing device for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas and / or water molecules, as well as a hydrogen-oxygen recombination device and / or hydrogen decomposition device. In some embodiments, the hydrogen-oxygen recombination device includes plasma. The plasma cell includes a centrally located positive electrode and a grounded tubular counter electrode, and a voltage (e.g., a voltage in the range of 50V to 1000V) is applied between the electrodes to induce the formation of plasma from a gas mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). In some embodiments, the hydrogen-oxygen recombination device includes a recombination catalyst metal supported on an inert support material. In certain embodiments, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation cell to generate a first plasma includes a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2 mixture with an O2 content of less than 1 / 33 mol%, or 0.01% to 30%, or 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3%), which is flowed through a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to produce a reaction mixture capable of generating a second plasma through a sufficiently exothermic reaction. The non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture, through a glow discharge, produces effluent of atomic hydrogen and newly formed H2O (e.g., a mixture containing water with sufficient concentration and internal energy to prevent hydrogen bond formation), which is then led to a reaction cell chamber where an ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., molten metal passing between the electrodes), and the interaction with the voltage-applied molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin) induces a reaction between newly formed water and atomic hydrogen, for example, when an arc current is generated.

[0046] The power system includes a condenser for condensing molten metal vapor, thereby condensing the metal oxide particles and vapor and returning them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further include a vacuum line, thereby the condenser forming part of a vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to a vacuum pump, perpendicular to the reaction cell chamber and equipped with an inert, high-surface-area packing material, which condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber, while simultaneously allowing the vacuum pump to maintain the vacuum pressure within the reaction cell chamber.

[0047] This power system includes a blackbody radiator and a window, and outputs light from the blackbody radiator. Such an embodiment is used to generate light (for example, for illumination).

[0048] In some embodiments, the power system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and a hydrogen-oxygen recombination device and / or hydrogen decomposition device. For example, the power system includes a hydrogen-oxygen recombination device, which includes a recombination catalyst metal supported on an inert support material.

[0049] This power system can be operated with parameters that maximize the reaction, specifically maximizing a reaction capable of producing enough energy to maintain plasma generation and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the internal pressure in the vessel during pressure operation is in the range of 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen mass flow rate is 1.5 to 1000 times higher than the oxygen mass flow rate. In some embodiments, the pressure exceeds 50 Torr and may further include a gas recirculation system.

[0050] In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the container. This inert gas may be used to extend the lifespan of certain in-situ reactants (e.g., fresh water).

[0051] The power system may include a water microinjector configured to inject water into a container so that the plasma generated by the energy output from the reaction contains water vapor. In some embodiments, the microinjector injects water into the container. In some embodiments, the H2 mole percentage is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of water vapor (e.g., water vapor injected by the microinjector).

[0052] The power source typically supplies electrical energy sufficient to react the reactants and form a plasma (e.g., a high current). In certain embodiments, the power source includes at least one supercapacitor. In various embodiments, the current from the power source of the molten metal ignition system ranges from 10A to 50,000A, as DC, AC, or a mixture thereof.

[0053] The molten metal may include at least one of silver, gallium, silver-copper alloys, copper, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the melting point of the molten metal is less than 700°C. For example, the molten metal may include at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Rose Metal, Cerosafe, Wood Metal, Fields Metal, Cellolow 136, Cellolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-TI, and Gallistan. In certain embodiments, at least one component of the power generation system that comes into contact with the molten metal (e.g., a reservoir, an electrode) is composed of, covered with, or coated with one or more alloy-resistant materials that are resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal. Examples of alloy-resistant materials include W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide coating, carbon, and ceramics such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, chapal, AIN, sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, and HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the container is composed of ceramics and / or metal. These ceramics may include at least one of metal oxides, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics. In some embodiments, the metal of the container includes at least one of stainless steel and heat-resistant metals.

[0054] In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises a hydrogen source and an HOH catalyst source, and may further include other gases such as an inert gas (e.g., argon) and an oxygen-containing gas such as CO2. The hydrogen source and catalyst source may include at least one of a hydrogen gas source, an oxygen gas source, and a water vapor source. The hydrogen source and oxygen source are corresponding gases supplied by a gas line, a mass flow controller, valves, flow / pressure sensors, a computer, and other systems herein. Alternatively, water may be supplied as water vapor gas. The water vapor gas can be controlled by the mass flow controller to flow from a water tank maintained at a desired pressure for operation of the mass flow controller into at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the molten metal. The water vapor pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the water vapor source, such as a closed water tank. In one embodiment, MKS models #1150, 1152m, and 1640( https: / / www.mksinst.com / c / vapor-mass-flow-contorollers:https: / / ccrprocessproducts.com / product / 1640a-mass-flow-controller-mks / The system detects the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet and uses that data to control the flow rate of water vapor.

[0055] In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water / hydrogen mixture that is directed towards a molten metal cell via a plasma generating cell. In these embodiments, a plasma generating cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen), where the effluent from the plasma generating cell is directed towards any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, or an electrode immersed in a molten metal reservoir). The interaction of this effluent with the applied molten metal can form a second plasma (higher energy than that generated by the plasma generating cell). In these embodiments, the plasma generating cell is supplied with a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), adjusted to have a molar excess of hydrogen, so that the effluent contains atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluent may be nascent water or in a form that is sufficiently energized and does not hydrogen-bond with other components in the effluent. This effluent proceeds to a higher-energy secondary reaction involving H and HOH, forming a plasma. This plasma is then enhanced by interaction with the molten metal and by an external current supplied through at least one of the molten metal or the plasma, generating additional atomic hydrogen from H2 in the effluent, which can further accelerate the secondary energy reaction.

[0056] In one embodiment, SunCell® may comprise: (i) a recirculation system and gas inlet and outlet; (ii) a gas separation system capable of separating at least two gases from at least two mixed gases (argon, O2, H2, HCO, air, noble gases such as hydrino gas); (iii) partial pressure sensors for at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and H2O; (iv) a flow controller; (v) at least one injector (such as a microinjector) or a mass flow controller for injecting water or steam; (vi) at least one valve; (vii) one pump; (viii) one exhaust gas pressure and flow control device; and (ix) a computer for maintaining at least one of the pressures of the noble gas, argon, O2, H2, H2O, and hydrino gas. The recirculation system may include a semipermeable membrane for removing at least one gas, such as molecular hydrino gas, from the recirculated gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas, such as a noble gas, can be selectively recirculated while at least one gas of the reaction mixture is discharged from the outlet and exhausted through the exhaust port.

[0057] In some embodiments, the power system may further include at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger connected to the wall of a container wall, a heat exchanger that transfers heat to and from molten metal, or a heat exchanger that transfers heat to and from molten metal). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger may include any of (i) a plate, or (ii) a block in a shell, or (iii) a SiC annular groove, or (iv) a SiC polyblock, or (v) a shell-tube heat exchanger. In certain embodiments, the shell-tube heat exchanger includes conduits, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, a baffle, at least one pump for recirculating the hot molten metal from a storage tank through the heat exchanger and returning the cooled molten metal to the storage tank, and one or more water pumps and water coolant, or one or more blowers and air coolant for circulating a coolant through the external coolant inlet and shell, thereby heating the coolant by heat transfer from the conduits and discharging it from the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, the shell-tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, and heat exchanger outlet lines, which are made of carbon and expand and contract independently of the conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, heat exchanger outlet lines, shell, external coolant inlet, external coolant outlet, and baffles made of stainless steel. The external coolant of the heat exchanger is air, and cold air from a microturbine compressor or microturbine regenerator is supplied through the external coolant inlet and shell, where this coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and discharged from the external coolant outlet. The hot coolant discharged from the external coolant outlet then flows into the microturbine, where it converts thermal energy into electrical energy.

[0058] In some embodiments, the power system includes at least one power converter or output system, the reactive power output comprising a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectron converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasma dynamics converter, a thermoelectron converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external combustion Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine, a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may have a lightweight and transparent photovoltaic (PV) window that transmits light from inside the vessel to the photovoltaic element.

[0059] The power converter or output system may include a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a nozzle connected to a vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, a magnet, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may contain silver. In embodiments comprising a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the converter is supplied with oxygen gas, which interacts with silver in the molten metal flow to form silver nanoparticles (e.g., molecular size such as less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm), where the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through the magnetohydrodynamic nozzle and given kinetic energy. A reactant supply system can supply oxygen gas to the converter and control the amount supplied. In various embodiments, at least a portion of the kinetic energy of the silver nanoparticles is converted into electrical energy within the magnetohydrodynamic channel. This form of electrical energy can cause the nanoparticles to aggregate. The nanoparticles aggregate as molten metal, which at least partially absorbs oxygen in the condensation section of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as the MHD condensation section). The oxygen-deprived molten metal is returned to the injector reservoir by the metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, oxygen is released from the metal by plasma within the container. In some embodiments, the plasma is maintained within a magnetohydrodynamic channel and a metal recovery system to facilitate oxygen absorption by the molten metal.

[0060] The molten metal pump system may include a first-stage electromagnetic pump and a second-stage electromagnetic pump, where the first stage consists of a pump for a metal recirculation system and the second stage consists of a pump for a metal injector.

[0061] The reaction induced by the reactants generates enough energy to initiate plasma formation within the vessel. This reaction can produce hydrogen products exhibiting one or more of the following properties: a) Molecular hydrogen products H2 (for example, H2(1 / p) consisting of unpaired electrons (where p is an integer greater than 1 and less than or equal to 137), which generate a spectral signal by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, b) Molecular hydrogen products H2 (e.g., H2(1 / 4)) have a main peak in the EPR spectrum with a g factor of 2.0046386, and this main peak may arbitrarily split into a series of peak pairs, the components of which are separated by a spin-orbit coupling energy, which depends on the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum number, where, (i) The magnetic moment of the unpaired electron induces a diamagnetic moment in the pair electron of the H2(1 / 4) molecular orbital, based on the diamagnetic susceptibility of H2(1 / 4). (ii) The magnetic moment interactions of the corresponding intrinsic paired and unpaired currents and the magnetic moments resulting from the relative rotational motion around the internuclear axis generate spin-orbit coupling energy, (iii) Each spin-orbit splitting peak is further subdivided into a group of equally spaced peaks that coincide with integer fractional energies corresponding to the electron fractional quantum number, and these fractional energies coincide with integer fractional energies that are a function of the electron fractional quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition. (iv) Furthermore, due to the increase in magnetic energy associated with the accumulation of magnetic flux links by molecular orbitals, spin-orbit splitting increases along with the spin-orbit coupling quantum number below the series of peak pairs. c) For an EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz, (i) Lower peak position E S / Ocombined downfieldThe magnetic energy and the spin-orbit coupling energy of H2(1 / 4) due to the following composite shift are

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[0062] These reactions may produce hydrogen products with one or more of the following properties: a) 1900cm -1 ~2200cm -1 , 5500cm -1 ~6400cm -1 , 7500cm -1 ~8500cm -1 One or more of the following ranges, or 1900cm -1 ~2200cm -1 Hydrogen products having Raman peaks in integer multiples of the range, b) Hydrogen products having multiple Raman peaks at integer multiples intervals from 0.23 eV to 0.25 eV, c) 1900cm -1 ~2000cm -1 Hydrogen products having infrared peaks in the range of integer multiples of , d) Hydrogen products having multiple infrared peaks arranged at integer multiples intervals of 0.23 eV to 0.25 eV, e) A hydrogen product having multiple ultraviolet fluorescence emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm, with intervals of 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV between them, f) Hydrogen products having multiple electron emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm, with intervals between them being integer multiples of 0.2 eV to 0.3 eV. g) 5000cm -1 ~20,000cm -1 It has multiple Raman spectral peaks in the range, with an interval of 1000 ± 200 cm. -1 Hydrogen products having multiple Raman spectral peaks that are integer multiples of , h) Hydrogen products exhibiting peaks in the energy range of 490 eV to 525 eV in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, i) Hydrogen products that cause MAS NMR matrix shifts, j) A shift supported by MASNMR or liquid NMR is greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS, m) A hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, and further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W. o) Inorganic compound M x X y and hydrogen products including H2, where M is a cation and X is one anion, and at least M(M x X y H2) n Here, n is an integer and has peaks in electro-spray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToFMS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). p) A hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2, wherein at least one is a peak in electro-spray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToFMS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), respectively, K(K2H2CO3) + n and K(KOHH2) + nCorresponding items, q) A magnetic hydrogen product comprising at least one of metal hydrides and metal oxides, further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, FeMo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals. r) A hydrogen product comprising at least one from metal hydrides and metal oxides, further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one from Zn, FeMo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals that exhibit magnetism as determined by magnetic susceptibility testing. s) A hydrogen product containing an inert metal as observed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum includes at least one of the following: the g factor is approximately 2.0046 ± 20%, the splitting of the EPR spectrum is divided into a series of peaks at intervals of approximately 1 G to 10 G, and each major peak is re-split into a series of sub-peaks at intervals of approximately 0.1 G to 1 G. t) A hydrogen product containing an inactive metal as measured by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum has at least the following characteristics: the electron spin-orbit coupling splitting energy is approximately m1 × 7.43 × 10 -27 J ± 20%, and flaxon fission approximately m² × 5.78 × 10 -28 J ± 20%, and approximately 1.58 × 10⁻⁶ -23 Dimer magnetic moment interaction splitting energy of J±20%, v) Products containing hydrogen that exhibit a negative peak in gas chromatography using a hydrogen or helium carrier, w) A hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e, represented by the following equation (1.70127a0 2 / p 2 ) ±10%, where p is an integer, x) A proton-hydrogen product that constitutes a molecular dimer and has an end-over-end rotational energy of (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ in the transition from integer J to J+1. -1 ±20cm -1 It is within the range, where the corresponding rotational energy of a deuterium-containing molecular dimer is half that of a proton-containing dimer. y) A hydrogen product comprising hydrogen molecule dimers, wherein at least one parameter is selected from the following group: (i) separation distance between hydrogen molecules is 1.028 Å ± 10%, and (ii) vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules is 23 cm. -1 (iii) The van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules is 0.0011 eV ± 10%, z) (i) The separation distance of hydrogen molecules is 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) The vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules is 23 cm -1 A solid hydrogen product having (iii) an intermolecular van der Waals energy of 0.0019 eV ± 10%, aa) The following hydrogen products have FTIR and Raman spectral characteristics: (i) (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ -1 ±20cm -1 (ii)(J+1)22.15cm -1 ±10cm -1 (iii) 23cm -1 Hydrogen products having ±10%, and / or X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns showing a hydrogen molecule separation distance of 1.028 Å ± 10%, and / or hydrogen products with a heat of vaporization of 0.0011 eV ± 10% per molecule of hydrogen determined by calorimetry. bb) The following solid hydrogen product has the following spectral characteristics as measured by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy: (i) (J+1) 44.30 cm⁻¹ -1 ±20cm -1 (ii)(J+1)22.15cm -1 ±10cm -1 and (iii) 23cm -1 X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns indicating ±10% and / or 1.028 Å ± 10% separation of hydrogen molecules, and / or determination of the vaporization energy of 0.019 eV ± 10% per molecule of hydrogen by calorimetry. cc) A hydrogen product containing hydrogen hydride ions that are magnetic in the bond free bond energy region and bond magnetic flux in magnetic units, and dd) A hydrogen product that exhibits a chromatographic peak with a retention time longer than the retention time of hydrogen in high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), wherein the chromatographic peak exhibits a long retention time when using an organic column with a water-containing solvent, and the detection of the peak by mass spectrometry such as ESI-ToFMS indicates that it represents a fragment of at least one inorganic compound.

[0063] In various embodiments, hydrogen products can be characterized similarly to products formed from various hydrino reactors, such as those produced by wire detonation in a steam-containing atmosphere. Such products may include: a) A material comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, and further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W, and the hydrogen is H. b) Inorganic compound M x X y The mixture contains H2, where M is a metal cation and X is an anion, and in at least one of electro-spray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToFMS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), where n is an integer, M(M x X y H(1 / 4)2) n Including the peak, c) Having magnetism, comprising at least one metal hydride and / or metal oxide, and further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal includes Zn, FeMo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4), d) comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a hydrogen-containing metal oxide, wherein the metal comprises one or more of Zn, FeMo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals, and H is H(1 / 4), and the product exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility testing.

[0064] In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction is (i) an element other than hydrogen, or (ii) at least one H + Or normal H2, normal H - , normal H+ 3. The hydrogen product comprises a conventional hydrogen species, or (iii) an organic species, or (iv) an inorganic species, at least one of which forms a complex with the hydrogen product. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various embodiments, the hydrogen product (or the hydrogen product recovered from embodiments including a getter) may comprise at least one compound having a formula selected from the following group: a) MH, MH2, or M2H2, where M is an alkali cation and H or H2 is a hydrogen product. b) MH n Here, n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is a hydrogen product. c) MHX, where M is an alkali cation, X is an anion which is either a neutral atom or molecule such as a halogen atom, or a monovalent anion such as a halogen, and H is a hydrogen product. d) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent anion, and H is a hydrogen product. e) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a divalent anion, and H is a hydrogen product. f) M2HX, where M is an alkali metal cation, X is a monovalent anion, and H is a hydrogen product. g)MH n Here, n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H n It contains at least one hydrogen product, h)M2H n Here, n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H n It contains at least one hydrogen product, i) M2XH n Here, n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and X is a monovalent anion, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound is... n It contains at least one hydrogen product, j)M2X2H n Here, n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent anion, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound is... n It contains at least one hydrogen product, k) M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, l) M2XH n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a divalent anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, m) M2XX’H n , where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent anion, X’ is a divalent anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, n) MM’H n、 where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, o) MM’XH n , where n is an integer of 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a monovalent anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, p) MM’XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a divalent anion, and H is a hydrogen product, q) MM’XX’H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X and X’ are anions with a single negative charge, and H is a hydrogen product, r) MXX’H n , where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is an anion with a single or double negative charge, X’ is a metal or metalloid, transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one of the following hydrogen products, s) MH n , where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product, t)MXH n Here, n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation or alkaline earth cation, and X is another cation such as a transition element, an intertransition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound. n It contains at least one hydrogen product, u)(MH m CO3) n Here, M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, and m and n are integers, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H m It contains at least one hydrogen product, v)(MH m NO3) + n nX - Here, M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are integers, X is a 1 valence negative anion, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound m It contains at least one hydrogen product, w)(MHMNO3) n Here, M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound contains at least one hydrogen product. x)(MHMOH) n Here, M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound contains at least one hydrogen product. y)(MH m 'X) n Here, m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali cations or other cations, X is a negatively charged anion with a univalent or divalent charge, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound. m It contains at least one hydrogen product, z)(MH m M'X') + n nX -Here, m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali cations or other cations, X and X' are monovalent or divalent negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen-containing H of the compound. m It contains at least one hydrogen product.

[0065] The anions of the hydrogen products generated by the reaction may include one or more single anions, such as halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, and nitrate ions, or they may include dianions, carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfate ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogen products are embedded in a crystal lattice (for example, using a getter such as K2CO3 placed in the container or exhaust line). For example, the generated hydrogen may be embedded in a salt lattice. In various embodiments, the salt lattice may include alkali salts, alkali halides, alkali hydroxides, alkaline earth salts, alkaline earth halides, alkaline earth hydroxides, or combinations thereof.

[0066] Electrode systems (multiple) are also provided, and these are components, a) The first electrode and the second electrode, b) The flow of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode, c) A circulation system comprising a pump that draws the molten metal from a storage tank and transports it through a conduit (e.g., a tube) to generate a flow of the molten metal flowing out of the conduit, d) A power supply configured to supply a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode, comprising: Here, the molten metal flow brings the first electrode and the second electrode into contact simultaneously, generating an electric current between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the power is sufficient to generate a current exceeding 100 A.

[0067] Electrical circuits (multiple circuits are also provided) are a) Heating means for generating molten metal, b) Pumping means for transferring the molten metal from the storage tank through the conduit and generating a flow of the molten metal flowing out of the conduit, c) A first electrode and a second electrode electrically connected to a power supply means, which generate a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode, Here, the molten metal flow brings the first electrode and the second electrode into contact simultaneously, forming an electrical circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, in an electrical circuit including the first electrode and the second electrode, an improvement may be made to allow current to flow by passing the molten metal flow across the electrodes.

[0068] Furthermore, a system for generating plasma (usable in the power generation system described herein) is provided. These systems are a) A molten metal injection system configured to generate a molten metal flow from a metal storage tank, b) An electrode system for passing an electric current through the molten metal flow, c) at least one of the following: (i) a water injection system configured to bring a measured amount of water into contact with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and generate hydrogen gas; or (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; or (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and water vapor. d) A power supply configured to supply the aforementioned current, Here, the plasma is generated by supplying an electric current to the metal flow. In some embodiments, the system further The system may include a transfer system configured to transfer the metal recovered after plasma generation to the metal storage tank. In some embodiments, the system may include the following: A metal regeneration system configured to recover the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal, wherein the metal regeneration system includes an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, an electrical bias is supplied between the anode and the cathode, and the system converts the metal oxide into the metal, and in a particular embodiment, the system is a) A pump system configured to transfer the metal collected after plasma generation to the metal storage tank, b) A metal regeneration system configured to recover the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal, wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal, Here, the metal recycled in the metal recycling system can be transferred to the pump system. In certain embodiments, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

[0069] The plasma generating system of this disclosure is a) A molten metal injection system configured to generate a flow of molten metal from a metal storage tank, b) An electrode system for passing an electric current through a flow of molten metal, c) (i) A water injection system configured to bring a measured amount of water into contact with molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas, or (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, or (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and water vapor, d) A power supply configured to supply the current, which may include Here, the plasma is generated when an electric current is supplied to the metal flow. In some embodiments, the system further a) A pump system configured to transfer the metal recovered after plasma generation to the metal storage tank, b) A metal regeneration system configured to recover the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal, wherein the metal regeneration system includes an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode, thereby converting the metal oxide into the metal, wherein the metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is transferred to a system that transfers to a pump system.

[0070] The plasma generation system is a) Two electrodes configured to form a two-electrode circuit in which molten metal flows to complete the circuit, b) A power supply for applying current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed, c) A recombinator cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the generation of new water and atomic hydrogen from a gas, wherein the effluent from the recombinator is directed toward a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir), Here, when current is applied to the circuit, the exhaust flow from the recombinator cell reacts to generate plasma. In some embodiments, the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. In various embodiments, the system is used to generate light from the plasma.

[0071] The system of this disclosure can constitute a mesh network (or part thereof) including a plurality of power system transmit / receive nodes, the aforementioned nodes perform transmit / receive and may constitute part of a mesh network composed of a plurality of power system transmit / receive nodes that transmit and receive electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band. Due to the characteristic that the nodes can be locally placed at short distance intervals, the frequency in the band can be high. The frequency may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz, and 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

[0072] The unique spectroscopic signatures measured in the reaction products result in hydrogen products(s) with unique properties. These hydrogen reaction products can be used in a variety of devices that are components of this disclosure.

[0073] Methods (or more) are also provided. For example, one or more systems described herein can be used to generate electricity, light, or plasma. In some embodiments, the method is a) Applying an electrical bias to the molten metal, b) The process involves interacting the effluent from a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) with a biased molten metal to induce the formation of a plasma. In certain embodiments, the effluent from the plasma generation cell is generated from a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases passing through the plasma generation cell during the operation of the apparatus. [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0074] Brief explanation of the drawing The accompanying drawings are incorporated herein and constitute part thereof, illustrating some embodiments of the present disclosure and illustrating the principles of the present disclosure together with the description. These drawings are shown below.

[0075] [Figure 66U] Figure 66U is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® electromagnetic pump tube and electromagnetic pump busbar assembly according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66U1] Figure 66U1 is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® electromagnetic pump magnet and cooling block according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66V]Figures 66V to 66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes a double inner and outer reservoir DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, these reservoirs being coupled to form a chamber connected to a base plate, and further sealed to the base plate by a wet seal to have a PV window chamber. [Figure 66W] Figures 66V to 66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes a double inner and outer reservoir DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, these reservoirs being coupled to form a chamber connected to a base plate, and further sealed to the base plate by a wet seal to have a PV window chamber. [Figure 66X] Figures 66V to 66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes a double inner and outer reservoir DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, these reservoirs being coupled to form a chamber connected to a base plate, and further sealed to the base plate by a wet seal to have a PV window chamber. [Figure 66Y] Figures 66Y to 66ZB are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device configured according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer storage tank and a liquid electrode having a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, where the storage tanks intersect and are coupled to a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate, and the storage tanks are coupled to a hemispherical dome with a wet seal. [Figure 66Z] Figures 66Y to 66ZB are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device configured according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer storage tank and a liquid electrode having a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, where the storage tanks intersect and are coupled to a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate, and the storage tanks are coupled to a hemispherical dome with a wet seal. [Figure 66ZA]Figures 66Y to 66ZB are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device configured according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer storage tank and a liquid electrode having a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, where the storage tanks intersect and are coupled to a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate, and the storage tanks are coupled to a hemispherical dome with a wet seal. [Figure 66ZB] Figures 66Y to 66ZB are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device configured according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer storage tank and a liquid electrode having a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, where the storage tanks intersect and are coupled to a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate, and the storage tanks are coupled to a hemispherical dome with a wet seal. [Figure 66ZC] Figure 66ZC is a schematic diagram of a reflective dome liner having a through-hole for an injector electrode and a molten metal return channel, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZD] Figures 66ZD to 66ZG are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer reservoir and a DC electromagnetic pump injector serving as a liquid electrode, each inner reservoir further comprising a reservoir bellows enabling the positioning of the corresponding electrode, and the inner reservoir can be kept stationary. [Figure 66ZE] Figures 66ZD to 66ZG are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer reservoir and a DC electromagnetic pump injector serving as a liquid electrode, each inner reservoir further comprising a reservoir bellows enabling the positioning of the corresponding electrode, and the inner reservoir can be kept stationary. [Figure 66ZF] Figures 66ZD to 66ZG are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a double inner and outer reservoir and a DC electromagnetic pump injector serving as a liquid electrode, each inner reservoir further comprising a reservoir bellows enabling the positioning of the corresponding electrode, and the inner reservoir can be kept stationary. [Figure 66ZG] Figures 66ZD to 66ZG are schematic diagrams of a SunCell (registered trademark) power generation device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, including double inner and outer storage tanks and a DC electromagnetic pump injector functioning as a liquid electrode. Each inner storage tank further includes a storage tank bellows that enables positioning of the corresponding electrode, and the inner storage tank can maintain a stationary state. [Figure 66ZHa] Figures 66ZHa to 66Hd are schematic diagrams of an inner storage tank extension of SunCell (registered trademark), which consists of an inner storage tank extension and its fasteners, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZHb] Figures 66ZHa to 66Hd are schematic diagrams of an inner storage tank extension of SunCell (registered trademark), which consists of an inner storage tank extension and its fasteners, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZHc] Figures 66ZHa to 66Hd are schematic diagrams of an inner storage tank extension of SunCell (registered trademark), which consists of an inner storage tank extension and its fasteners, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZHd] Figures 66ZHa to 66Hd are schematic diagrams of an inner storage tank extension of SunCell (registered trademark), which consists of an inner storage tank extension and its fasteners, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZI] Figures 66ZI to 66ZK are schematic diagrams of a SunCell (registered trademark) power generation device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, including double inner and outer storage tanks and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode. Each inner storage tank further includes a storage tank bellows that enables positioning of the corresponding electrode, the inner storage tank can be fixed, and the inner and outer storage tank assemblies can be reversibly connected by corresponding joints. [Figure 66ZJ]Figures 66ZI to 66ZK are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes double inner and outer storage tanks and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode. Each inner storage tank further includes a storage tank bellows that enables positioning of the corresponding electrode. The inner storage tank is fixable, and the inner and outer storage tank assemblies are reversibly connectable by corresponding joints. [Figure 66ZK] Figures 66ZI to 66ZK are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes double inner and outer storage tanks and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode. Each inner storage tank further includes a storage tank bellows that enables positioning of the corresponding electrode. The inner storage tank is fixable, and the inner and outer storage tank assemblies are reversibly connectable by corresponding joints. [Figure 66ZL] Figure 66ZL is a schematic diagram of a bellows nozzle pool assembly for at least maintaining a substantially constant liquid level of a molten metal electrode in an inner storage tank and protecting a molten metal coating layer formed around (and optionally above) a nozzle from plasma damage according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZM] Figure 66ZM is a schematic diagram of an inner storage tank further including a nozzle pool assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZN] Figure 66ZN is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® power generation device including double inner and outer storage tanks and a DC electromagnetic pump type injector functioning as a liquid electrode, and these electrodes further include a nozzle pool assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZO] Figure 66ZO is a schematic diagram further including a ball socket nozzle pool assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZOa] Figure 66ZOa is a schematic diagram showing an enlarged view of a ball socket nozzle pool assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZP]Figure 66ZP is a schematic diagram of an injector base, ball socket joint assembly according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZQ] Figure 66ZQ is a schematic diagram of an internal storage device assembly comprising a ball-socket nozzle pool assembly, an injector base, a ball-socket joint assembly, and a bellows and inline ball-socket regulator, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZR] Figure 66ZR is a schematic diagram of an internal reservoir assembly comprising a ball-socket nozzle pool assembly, an injector base, a ball-socket joint assembly, and a bellows with two inline ball-socket regulators, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZS] Figure 66ZS is a schematic diagram relating to one embodiment of the present disclosure, further comprising an electrical insulating liner, an inner storage tank extension welded to the electrical insulating liner, an inner storage tank extension welded to the electrical insulating liner, an inner storage tank electrical insulating liner further welded to the electrical insulating liner, and parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coils. [Figure 66ZSa] Figure 66ZSa is a schematic diagram of an outer storage tank semble including a welded inner storage tank extension according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, the outer storage tank semble further includes an electrical insulation liner, a flow divider, a separator drain channel, and a separator drain channel slot. [Figure 66ZSb] Figure 66ZSb is a schematic diagram of an outer storage tank assembly comprising an inner storage tank extension welded according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, and further comprising an electrically insulating liner, a shunt, a separator drainage channel, and a separator drainage channel slot, wherein the liner is supported on the shunt by a flange and configured to eliminate the liner support portion. [Figure 66ZT]Figure 66ZT is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a ball-socket nozzle pool assembly, a welded inner reservoir extension further including a brazed ceramic tube, and parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coils. [Figure 66ZU] Figure 66ZU is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a ball-socket nozzle pool assembly, a welded inner reservoir extension (including an electrically insulating liner), and parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coils. [Figure 66ZV] Figures 66ZV and 66Va are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a PV window cavity dome, a SunCell® stand, an electromagnetic pump, a heat transfer block, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel. [Figure 66ZVa] Figures 66ZV and 66Va are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a PV window cavity dome, a SunCell® stand, an electromagnetic pump, a heat transfer block, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel. [Figure 66ZW] Figures 66ZW and 66Wa are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a PV window cavity dome, a SunCell® stand, an electromagnetic pump, a heat transfer block, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in series. [Figure 66ZWa] Figures 66ZW and 66Wa are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® power generation system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a PV window cavity dome, a SunCell® stand, an electromagnetic pump, a heat transfer block, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in series. [Figure 66ZX] Figure 66ZX is a schematic diagram of a parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coil assembly according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZY]Figure 66ZY is a schematic diagram of a series-connected inductively coupled heater coil assembly according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZZ] Figure 66ZZ is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® power generation system including an H2 / O2 burner and a heat transfer block, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2I132] Figure 2I132 is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® power generation device showing details of an optical distribution and photovoltaic power converter system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2I133] Figure 2I133 is a schematic diagram of a triangular element of a geodesic high-density receiving array for a photovoltaic converter or heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 21D] Figure 21D shows the Raman anti-Stokes scattering (-50 cm⁻¹ to -8000 cm⁻¹) and Stokes scattering (100 cm⁻¹ to 8000 cm⁻¹) spectra of a FeOOH sample ball-milled according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, measured using a 300 mW, 785 nm laser at 25% and 50% of the output power and a 100x objective lens. The anti-Stokes scattering emission is the source of Stokes spectral lines resulting from secondary and tertiary high-energy emission. [Figure 21E] Figure 21E shows the Raman anti-Stokes scattering (-50 cm⁻¹ to -8000 cm⁻¹) and Stokes scattering (100 cm⁻¹ to 8000 cm⁻¹) spectra of ball-milled CoOOH and ball-milled non-magnetic chemical mixture KI-NH4NO3 according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, measured using a 300 mW, 50% of a 785 nm laser output, and a 100x objective lens. The anti-Stokes scattering emission observed only in the CoOOH product is the source of Stokes spectral lines resulting from secondary and tertiary high-energy emission. [Figure 21F]Figure 21F shows the Raman-Stokes spectrum (4000 cm⁻¹ to 8000 cm⁻¹) of CoOOH ball-milled according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, measured with a 300 mW 785 nm laser at 50% output and a 100x objective lens. The peaks correspond to anti-Stokes scattered emission, which are consistent with Stokes spectral lines resulting from secondary and tertiary high-energy emission. [Figure 21G] Figure 21G shows the Raman anti-Stokes spectra (-50 cm⁻¹ to -9500 cm⁻¹) of a FeOOH sample (upper curve) and a control Si wafer (lower curve) ball-milled according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The spectra were recorded on the ball-milled FeOOH using a 28.5 mW 785 nm laser. The anti-Stokes scattering emission is the source of Stokes spectral lines resulting from second and third-order high-energy emission. [Figure 21H] Figure 21H shows the Raman anti-Stokes spectra (-50 cm⁻¹ to -8000 cm⁻¹) of nickel and tin-coated nickel foil samples and a control nickel foil operated in a SunCell® according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, measured using a 300 mW 785 nm laser beam at 50% power and a 100x objective lens. The anti-Stokes scattering emission is the source of Stokes spectral lines attributed to secondary and tertiary high-energy emission. These results indicate that, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, the H₂ to H₂(1 / 4) reaction is the source of the power gain of the SunCell®. [Figure 21I] Figure 21I shows the Raman Stokes spectra (3000 cm⁻¹ to 8000 cm⁻¹) of nickel and tin-coated nickel foil samples and a control nickel foil operated in SunCell® according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, measured using a 300 mW 785 nm laser at 50% power and a 100x objective lens. These peaks coincide with the second and third anti-Stokes lines, respectively, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 21J]Figure 21J is a 325 nm Raman spectrum (12,250 cm-1 to 14,750 cm-1) obtained from a Ni foil sample maintained within a SunCell® in which a hydrino plasma reaction was conducted for 10 minutes according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, and shows a series of high energy hydrino emission peaks. [Figure 21K] Figure 21K is a Raman mode photoluminescence spectrum of ball milled KOH-KCl recorded with a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer equipped with a 325 nm laser, using a Semrock long wavelength cut filter (BLPO1-325R-25) and a 300 lines / mm diffraction grating in the Raman shift range of 8,000 cm-1 to 19,000 cm-1. The two-photon primary H2(1 / 4) rotational vibrational emission line was observed together with the corresponding second, third, and fourth order lines according to one embodiment of the present specification. [Figure 22] Figure 22 is a schematic diagram of a HET scanner showing details of excitation according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing details of the array and simultaneous detector array.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0076] Detailed description of the invention The disclosure herein is a power generation system and method that converts energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical energy and / or thermal energy. These reactions may involve a catalyst system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form a lower energy state where the electron shell is closer to the atomic nucleus. The released energy is utilized for power generation, and further new hydrogen species and compounds become desirable products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst that receives energy from hydrogen to cause the corresponding energy release transitions.

[0077] Theories that can explain the exothermic reactions produced by the power generation systems described herein involve non-radiative energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to a specific catalyst (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics provides ground state solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules in a closed system, predicting corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with a specific species, including itself, in which it can receive an energy m·27.2eV, which is an integer multiple of the atomic hydrogen's potential energy. The predicted reactions are resonant and involve non-radiative energy transfer. The product is H(1 / p), which is a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom," where n=1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (p<137 is an integer) is a substitute for the known parameter n=integer of hydrogen excited states in the Rydberg equation. Each hydrino state is also composed of electrons, protons, and photons, but the contribution of photons to the field increases rather than decreases the binding energy. This corresponds to desorption, not energy absorption. Since the potential energy of an atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms can act as a catalyst for another (m+1)th H atom with m·27.2 eV [published in R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of ClaSSiCal PhySiCs; December 2016 Edition, https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-anSStreaming / (abbreviated as "Mills GUTCP" or "MILLS GUT")]. For example, a hydrogen atom acts as a catalyst by receiving 27.2 eV from another hydrogen atom through spatial energy transfer via magnetic or inductively electrically dipole-dipole coupling, forming an intermediate in the process, which has a short-wavelength cutoff and m 2 · 13.6 eV ((91.2 / m 2 It decays while emitting light in a continuous spectral band with an energy of )nm.

[0078] In addition, atomic hydrogen can also function as a catalyst if it receives energy m·27.2eV from atomic hydrogen, causing the molecular potential energy to decrease by the same amount. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6eV. By a similar mechanism, it is predicted that newly formed H2O molecules (which do not form hydrogen bonds in solid, liquid, or gaseous states) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of metal oxides will function as a catalyst to form H(1 / 4) with an energy release of 204eV. This energy release includes an 81.6eV transition to HOH accompanied by the emission of continuous radiation cutoff at 10.1nm (122.4eV). H In a reaction involving a transition to the state (p=m+1), m H atoms act as catalysts for another (m+1)th H atom, absorbing m·27.2 eV. Subsequently, through a reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms, the m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively absorb m·27.2 eV, producing the (m+1)th hydrogen atom. In this reaction, mH acts as a catalyst.

number

number

[0079] The catalytic reaction (m=3) related to the potential energy of newly formed water (H2O) [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of ClaSSiCal PhySiCs; December 2016 Edition, https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-anSStreaming / ] is,

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[0080] After energy transfer to the catalyst (Equations (1) and (5)), intermediate H * [a H A state is formed with the radius of a hydrogen atom, and the energy of the central region is m+1 times the energy of the proton's central field of a hydrogen atom. This radius is predicted to decrease as the electron is accelerated radially and reaches a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+1) times the radius of an uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, and in this process m 2 • 13.6 eV of energy is released. * [a H The extreme ultraviolet continuous radiation band due to the / (m+1)] intermediate (e.g., equations (2) and (6)) is short wavelength cutoff and the following equation

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number

[0081] Additional catalysts and hydrino formation reactions are possible. Specific species (e.g., He) can be identified based on known electronic energy levels. + ,Ar + ,Sr + K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n=integer) must be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze this process. This reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer q·13.6eV followed by continuous spectral emission, or an energy transfer q·13.6eV to the hydrogen atom, producing a very high-temperature excited state H and a hydrogen atom with lower energy than the atomic hydrogen before the reaction, corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, the following equation gives the principal energy level corresponding to the principal quantum number of the hydrogen atom.

number

[0082] Catalytic reactions involve a two-step energy release: non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Therefore, the general reaction is expressed by the following equation.

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[0083] The catalytic product H(1 / p) reacts with electrons to form the hydrino hydride ion H - (1 / p), or two H(1 / p) molecules, may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2(1 / p). Specifically, the catalytic product H(1 / p) also has electrons in the following equation

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number

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[0084] The upward-shifted NMR peak is direct evidence of the presence of a lower-energy hydrogen state with a reduced radius and increased proton diamagnetic shielding compared to normal hydride ions. This shift is the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of intensity p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)), as follows:

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[0085] H(1 / p) reacts with one proton, and two H(1 / p) react to form H2(1 / p). + And H2(1 / p) can be formed. The charge and current density function, bond distance, and energy of the hydrogen molecular ion and molecule are given by the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates under the constraint of non-radiation.

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[0086] The total energy E of a hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +pe at each focus of its elongated elliptical molecular orbital. T (Mills GUT formula (11.192~11.194)) is E T =p 2 16.253 (22) Therefore, the total energy E of a hydrogen molecule with a central field of +pe at each focus of its elongated elliptical molecular orbit is... T (Mills GUT formula (11.239~11.242)) is, E T =p 2 31.6673 (23) That is the case.

[0087] The bond dissociation energy of a hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p), E D (Mills GUT equation (11.249~11.253)) shows the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T It is the difference, E D =E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four) Given, here E(2H(1 / p))=-p 2 27.20 EeV (25) E D According to equations (23-25), E D =E(2H(1 / p))-E T =p 2 27.20-E T =p 2 4.478 eV (26) This will be

[0088] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), in which case the ionization products consist of ionized electrons, plus two protons and electrons, hydrogen (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p). + In this context, energy can be shifted by a matrix that can shift energy.

[0089] NMR of the catalyst product gas provides definitive verification of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2(1 / p). In general, H2(1 / p) 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be maintained at a higher position than that of H2 due to the fractional radius in the elliptic coordinate system, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB for H2(1 / p) T / B is the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the contribution of the photon field of magnitude p, given by the following equation

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[0090] Vibrational energy E in the transition of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) from ν=0 to ν=1 vib teeth E vib =p 2 0.515902eV (29) And here, p is an integer.

[0091] Rotational energy E for the J to J+1 transition of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) rot teeth

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[0092] rotational energy p 2 The dependence is due to the inverse p-dependence of the internuclear distance and the resulting effect on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c' for H2(1 / p) is given by the following equation.

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[0093] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) can be measured by electron-excited emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, or Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). H2(1 / p) can be measured while confined in a matrix containing MOH, MX, or M2CO3 (M=alkali metal, X=halide).

[0094] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is approximately 1950 cm⁻¹ -1 This is observed as a peak of the inverse Raman effect (IRE) in [location]. This peak is enhanced by using a conductive material with a particle size or surface texture equivalent to the Raman laser wavelength supporting surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), resulting in the IRE peak.

[0095] I. Catalyst In this specification, terms such as hydrogen reaction, H catalyst, H catalytic reaction, catalysis of hydrogen, reaction in which hydrogen reacts to form hydrino, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to reactions such as those given by formulas (15) to (18), in which a catalyst defined in formula (14) reacts with atomic hydrogen to form a state of hydrogen having the energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12), as shown in formulas (15) to (18). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactant for hydrino formation, reactant that generates or forms hydrogen or hydrino in a low-energy state are also used interchangeably when referring to reaction mixtures resulting from the catalytic reaction of H to a state of H or hydrino having the energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12).

[0096] The catalytic low-energy hydrogen transitions of this disclosure require a catalyst, which may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction with an enthalpy of 27.2 eV, at an integer m times the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, that accepts energy from an atom H to induce the transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom, ion, or molecule, and may further involve a concerted reaction of bond cleavage accompanied by the ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the initial bonding partners. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also function as catalysts with an enthalpy of 27.2 eV at an integer multiple. In one embodiment, the catalyst can accept energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of either about 27.2 ± 0.5 eV and (27.2 / 2) ± 0.5 eV.

[0097] Classical physical laws predict that atomic hydrogen will undergo catalytic reactions with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of its potential energy m·27.2eV (where m is an integer). Otherwise, the predicted reaction involves a resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-accepting catalyst. The product is H(1 / p), a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom," where n=1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (where p is an integer less than or equal to 137) is replaced by the well-known parameter n=integer of the Rydberg equation for the excited states of hydrogen. Each hydrogen state is also composed of electrons, protons, and photons, but the field contribution from photons corresponds to the emission of energy rather than the absorption of energy, increasing rather than decreasing the bond. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms act as catalysts for another (m+1)th H atom by m·22.7 eV. For example, one H atom can act as a catalyst for another H atom by accepting 27.2 eV from another H atom through energy transfer through space, such as by magnetic or inductively electrically dipole-dipole bonding. In addition to atomic H, molecules that accept m·22.7 eV from atomic H by reducing the magnitude of their molecular potential energy by the same amount can also function as catalysts. The potential energy of H₂O is 81.6 eV [Mills GUT]. Therefore, by the same mechanism, a nascent H₂O molecule (not hydrogen-bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) can also function as a catalyst. Based on the 10% energy change of the heat of vaporization when ice at 0°C becomes water at 100°C, the average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6 [Mills GUT]. Therefore, for H2O to function as a catalyst for hydrino formation, it must be chemically formed as an isolated molecule with an appropriate activation energy. The catalytic reaction (m=3) with respect to the potential energy of newly formed H2O is:

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[0098] The overall reaction was,

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[0099] After energy transfer to the catalyst, an intermediate H is formed with a central magnetic field that is m+1 times the radius of the hydrogen atom and the central magnetic field of the proton. * [a H / (m+1)] is formed (for example, H * [a H / 4] is an intermediate of equation (1) where m=3, and H + fast and H fast (This refers to these intermediates which have excess kinetic energy). The radius decreases when the electrons are accelerated radially to a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+1) of the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, and m 2 It is predicted that 13.6 eV of energy will be released. * [a H In the extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation band (e.g., equation (2a)) resulting from the / (m+1)] intermediate, there is a short-wavelength cutoff, and energy

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[0100] II. Hydro atoms Bond energy E B = 13.6eV / (1 / p) 2A hydrogen atom having a bond energy (where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably 2 to 137) is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of this disclosure. The bond energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a bond energy given by equations (10) and (12) will hereafter be referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino". Radius a H / p(a H A hydrino (where p is the radius of a normal hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is H[a H / p] is shown below. H A hydrogen atom is called a "normal hydrogen atom" or "ordinary hydrogen atom." A characteristic of normal hydrogen atoms is that their bond energy is 13.6 eV.

[0101] According to this disclosure, the bond energy according to equation (19) is greater than the bond energy of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.75 eV) when p=2 to 23, and when p=24, it is greater than the bond energy of a hydride ion (H) with a smaller bond energy. - Formula (19) is provided. For p=2 to p=24 in formula (19), the binding energies of the hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions containing the newly formed hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0102] Also provided are exemplary compounds consisting of one or more hydrinohydride ions and one or more other elements. Such compounds are called "hydrinohalide compounds."

[0103] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following bond energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); (e) H + 3. 22.6 eV ("normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). Here, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonymous in terms of the form of hydrogen.

[0104] Further embodiments of the present disclosure provide compounds such as: (a) 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 Approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p), where p is an integer between 2 and 137, and is within the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times that value. 2 (b) A hydrogen atom having a bond energy of

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[0105] Further embodiments of the present disclosure provide a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy, such as: (a) total energy is E T =p 2 16.253 (where p is an integer)

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[0106] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, the compound contains a hydrogen species with increased negatively charged bond energy, and the compound contains a proton, a normal H + 2 or normal H + It further contains one or more cations such as 3.

[0107] This specification presents a method for producing compounds containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Hereinafter, such compounds will be referred to as "hydrino halide compounds." This production method involves reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately (m / 2)·27 eV, where m is an integer of 1 or more, preferably an integer less than 400, and approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p). 2A hydrogen atom with increased bond energy is generated, having a bond energy of p, where p is an integer, preferably between 2 and 137. Energy is further generated in the catalytic reaction. When the hydrogen atom with increased bond energy reacts with an electron source, it can produce a hydride ion with increased bond energy. When the hydride ion with increased bond energy reacts with one or more cations, it can produce a compound containing at least one hydride ion with increased bond energy.

[0108] In one embodiment, at least one of the very high power and energy is referred to herein as “disproportionation,” as described in Chapter 5 of Mills GUTCP. The hydrogen atom H(1 / p) (p=1, 2, 3, ..., 137) can further undergo transitions to lower energy states shown in equations (10) and (12), where this transition is catalyzed by a second atom that resonantly and non-radiatively accepts m·27.2eV, with its potential energy simultaneously changing in the opposite direction. The overall general formula for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) caused by the resonant transition from m·27.2eV to H(1 / p'), given in equation (32), is:

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[0109] Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light from hydrino processes dissociates dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms can act as catalysts for transitions to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction consists of a catalytic reaction of H(1 / 4) to H(1 / 17), where H(1 / 4) may be a reaction product of another H catalytic reaction by HOH. The hydrino disproportionation reaction is predicted to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown in equations (5) to (8), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is H[a H [4] As a transition reaction in a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas, the first hydrogen-type atom H[a H / p] is an H atom, and the second acceptor hydrogen atom H[a H / p'] is H[a H Consider the case where H[a] is the same. H The potential energy of [ / 4] is 4 2 Since 27.2eV = 16 and 27.2eV = 435.2eV, the transition reaction is

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[0110] And the overall reaction was

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[0111] H * [a H The extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation band resulting from the / (p+m) intermediate (such as equations (16) and (34)) has a short-wavelength cutoff and energy

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[0112] The newly generated hydrogen composition may include the following: (a) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having bond energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased bond energy"), (i) is greater than the bond energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) The corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, or the bond energy of the normal hydrogen species is not observed because it is less than the thermal energy under ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure (STP)), or is greater than the bond energy of a hydrogen species that is negative, and (b) at least one other element. Typically, the hydrogen products described herein are hydrogen species with increased bond energy.

[0113] Here, "other elements" refers to elements other than the hydrogen species whose bond energy has increased. Therefore, the other elements may be ordinary hydrogen species or elements other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the hydrogen species whose bond energy has increased with the other elements is neutral. In another group of compounds, the hydrogen species whose bond energy has increased with the other elements is charged in such a way that it provides a balance charge for the other elements to form neutral compounds. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular bonds and coordinate bonds, while the latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonds.

[0114] Novel compounds and molecular ions, including the following, are also provided: (a) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having total energy, (i) If the energy is greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, (ii) The corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, or the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy under ambient conditions and therefore not observed, or is greater than the total energy of a negative hydrogen species, and (b) at least one other element.

[0115] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energy required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to this disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. The hydrogen species having increased total energy according to this disclosure are also referred to as “increased bond energy hydrogen species,” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having increased total energy may have a first electron bond energy smaller than the first electron bond energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of equation (19) for p=24 has a first bond energy smaller than the first bond energy of an ordinary hydride ion, but the total energy of the hydride ion of equation (19) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

[0116] Furthermore, this specification also provides novel compounds and molecular ions, including: (a) A plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having bond energy, (i) is greater than the bond energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) The corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable, or the bond energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy under ambient conditions, and therefore greater than the bond energy of the hydrogen species that is not observed, (b) Optionally, one other element.

[0117] Hydrogen species with increased bond energy can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of the following: electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound containing at least one of the hydrogen species with increased bond energy, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the hydrogen species with increased bond energy.

[0118] Novel compounds and molecular ions, including the following, are also provided: (a) Multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having total energy, (i) If it is greater than the total energy of a normal hydrogen molecule, (ii) The corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, or the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is greater than the total energy of the unobserved hydrogen species because the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy under ambient conditions; and (b) Optionally, one other element.

[0119] In one embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy selected from the following: (a) a hydride ion having a bond energy according to formula (19) greater than that of a normal hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 to 23 and less than that for p=24 ("increased bond energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion"), or (b) a hydrogen atom having a bond energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) ("increased bond energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino"), or (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first bond energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("increased bond energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino"), or (d) a hydrogen molecular ion having a bond energy greater than about 16.3 eV ("increased bond energy hydrogen molecular ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion"). In this disclosure, hydrogen species and compounds with increased bond energy are also referred to as low-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos consist of hydrogen species with increased binding energy or equivalently low-energy hydrogen species.

[0120] III. Chemical Reactors This disclosure is also directed toward other reactors for generating hydrogen species and compounds of this disclosure with increased binding energy, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalytic reactions are power and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors may hereafter be referred to as “hydrogen reactors” or “hydrogen cells.” A hydrogen reactor consists of cells for producing hydrino. Cells for generating hydrino can take the form of gas discharge cells, plasma torch cells, or microwave power cells, and chemical reactors such as electrochemical cells. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. This ice has a large surface area and can increase at least one of the formation rate of the HOH catalyst and H from the ice and the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine fragments to increase the surface area. In one embodiment, the cell consists of an arc discharge cell and contains ice in at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0121] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a container, two electrodes, a high-voltage power supply capable of supplying a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, as well as a water source such as a reservoir, and means for forming and supplying H2O droplets. These droplets can move between the electrodes. In one embodiment, these droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma consists of H and HOH, which can react to form hydrino. The ignition rate and the corresponding power rate can be adjusted by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which the droplets are supplied to the electrodes. The high-voltage source may consist of at least one high-voltage capacitor that can be charged by this high-voltage power supply. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell may further include means such as a power converter according to the present invention, such as at least one photovoltaic (PV) converter and a thermal engine, for converting power from hydrino processes such as light or heat into electricity.

[0122] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrino can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells comprises (i) a reactant comprising an atomic hydrogen source, (ii) at least one catalyst selected from solid catalysts, molten catalysts, liquid catalysts, gaseous catalysts, or mixtures thereof for producing hydrino, and (iii) a vessel for reacting the hydrogen and catalyst for producing hydrino. As used herein and as intended in this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" means protium unless otherwise specified. 1 H) as well as deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3 This also includes H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors can constitute embodiments of the SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell of this disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are described in this section on chemical reactors. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in this disclosure. Other catalysts may play a role in forming hydrogen species and compounds with increased bond energy. Reactions and conditions can be adjusted from these exemplary cases in terms of parameters such as reactants, wt% of reactants, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Preferred reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of this disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos have been shown to be generated in the reactors of this disclosure by the extremely high H kinetic energy, which is otherwise inexplicable, as measured by a predicted continuous radiation belt of integer multiples of 13.6 eV, Doppler linewidth expansion of H lines, H line inversion, plasma formation without a breaking field, and an unusual plasma afterglow time, as reported in a prior publication by Mills. Data such as those relating to CIHT cells and solid fuels have been independently validated by other researchers outside of this facility. Hydrino formation by the cells described herein was also confirmed by continuously outputting electrical energy over long periods. The electrical energy was, in most cases, more than 10 times the input without alternative sources. The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) was MAS 1Identified by 1H NMR as a byproduct of the CIHT cell and solid fuel, it showed a predicted upfield-shift matrix peak of approximately -4.4 ppm, and ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS revealed that H2(1 / 4) was complex-forming in the getter matrix, where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer, m / e = M + n 2 It is shown as a peak, and electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy have shown that the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) are the product of 16, i.e., the square of the quantum number p=4 and the energy of H2, and Raman and FTIR spectroscopy have shown that the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) is 1950 cm⁻¹. -1 It was shown that this is the product of the rotational energy of H2 and 16, i.e., the square of the quantum number p=4. Furthermore, XPS showed that the predicted total bond energy of H2(1 / 4) is 500 eV. In the ToF-SIMS spectrum, a peak indicating an earlier arrival time than the m / e=1 peak corresponding to H was observed. This peak corresponds to a hydrogen atom with a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV, which is consistent with the energy released when the hydrogen atom transfers energy to the third particle, the hydrogen atom, and changes from H to H(1 / 4). These findings are consistent with previous publications by Mills and R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. LoPtoski, “Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell,” International Journal of Energy This has been reported in Research (2013) and R. Mills, J. Ltoski, J. Kong, G. Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0123] Observations using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) confirmed that hydrino formation by the cells of this disclosure, including those composed of solid fuels that generate thermoelectric power, yielded thermal energy from the hydrino-forming solid fuels exceeding 60 times the maximum theoretical energy. 1 ¹H NMR showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm at 1950 cm⁻¹. -1 The Raman peak beginning at was consistent with the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in a previous publication by Mills, and in R. Mills, J. Ltoski, W. GooD, J. He, “Solid Fules that Form HOH CaTalyst,” (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0124] IV. SunCell® and power converters A power system (also referred to herein as "SunCell®") that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, A container capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure. and a reactant capable of causing a reaction that generates enough energy to form a plasma in the container, (a) A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or Water vapor, and / or A mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor, (b) Molten metal and something consisting of, and a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the container. and a vacuum pump that maintains the pressure inside the container below atmospheric pressure when one or more reactants are flowing into the container. A molten metal injector system comprising: at least one storage tank containing a portion of the molten metal; a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal from the storage tank through an injector tube and provide a molten metal flow; and at least one non-injector molten metal storage tank for receiving the molten metal flow. and at least one ignition system including a power source or ignition current source for supplying power to at least one flow of molten metal to ignite the reaction when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor is flowing into the vessel, and a reactant supply system for replenishing the reactants consumed in the reaction. The system may also consist of a power converter or output system that converts a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or thermal output from the plasma) into electrical and / or thermal electrical power. In some embodiments, the effluent consists of (or comprises) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent consists of (or comprises) nascent water and hydrogen molecules. In some embodiments, the effluent includes (or comprises) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and hydrogen molecules. In some embodiments, the effluent further includes a noble gas.

[0125] In some embodiments, the power system may include an optical rectenna, such as that reported by A. Sharma, V. Singh, TLBougher, BACola, “A carbon nanotube optical rectenna,” Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027-1032, doi: 10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated herein by reference in whole, particularly in relation to thermoelectric converters. In further embodiments, the vessel may be capable of at least one of atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, and below atmospheric pressure. In another embodiment, at least one direct plasma-power converter may include at least one of the following: plasma dynamic power converters, E (vector) × B (vector) orientation angle converters, magnetohydrodynamic power converters, magnetomirror magnetohydrodynamic power converters, charge drift converters, post-type or Venetian-blind power converters, gyrotrons, photon bunching microwave power converters, and photoelectric converters. In further embodiments, at least one thermoelectric converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermoelectric power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary combined heat and power systems, which may consist of a closed cooling water system or an open system that releases heat to the ambient atmosphere, are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0126] In addition to the ultraviolet photovoltaic and thermophotovoltaic powers of this disclosure, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbine, microturbine, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. A Rankine cycle turbine may consist of supercritical CO2, organic materials such as hydrofluorocarbons and fluorocarbons, or a steam working fluid. In a Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, SunCell® supplies thermal power to at least one of the turbine system's preheater, reheater, boiler, and external combustor type heat exchanger. In one embodiment, a Brayton cycle turbine may include a SunCell® turbine heater incorporated into the turbine's combustion section. The SunCell® turbine heater may consist of a duct receiving airflow from at least one of a compressor and a recuperator, the air being heated, and the duct leading the heated compressed air flow to the turbine inlet to perform pressure volume work. SunCell® turbine heaters can replace or complement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle may be a closed-loop system in which the power converter further includes at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0127] The converter may be one described in Mills' prior publications and Mills' prior applications. The hydrino reactants, such as the H source, HOH source, and SunCell® system, are those disclosed herein, or those described in the following documents: Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor (PCT / US08 / 61455, filed April 24, 2008), Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor (PCT / US09 / 052072, filed July 29, 2009), Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System (PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010), Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System (PCT / US11 / 28889, filed March 17, 2011), and H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System (filed March 30, 2012). System (Water-based electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power generation system), PCT / US12 / 31369; CIHT Power System, PCT / US13 / 041938, filed May 21, 2013; Power Generation System and Methods Regrading Same, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, filed January 10, 2014; Photovoltanic Power Generation System and Methods Regrading Same, PCT / US14 / 32584, filed April 1, 2014;PCT / US2015 / 033165, filed on May 29, 2015; PCT / US2015 / 065826, filed on December 15, 2015; PCT / US16 / 12620, filed on January 8, 2016; PCT / US2017 / 035025, filed on December 7, 2017; PCT / US2017 / 035025, filed on January 18, 2017. Generator (thermophotovoltaic generator), PCT / US2017 / 013972; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltanic Cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635, filed January 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 17765, filed February 18, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842, filed May 29, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2018 / 059646, filed December 5, 2018;The entirety of the preceding U.S. patent applications, including the Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator (PCT / IB2020 / 050360) filed January 16, 2020; the Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator (PCT / US21 / 17148) filed February 8, 2021; the Infarred Light Recycling Thermophotovoltanic Hydrogen Electric Power Generator (PCT / IB2022 / 052016) filed March 8, 2022; and the Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermophotovoltanic Hydrgen Electrical Power Generator (PCT / IB23 / 53939) filed April 18, 2023 ("Mills Prior Applications"), is incorporated herein by reference.

[0128] In one embodiment, H2O is ignited to form a hydrino with a high release of energy in the form of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (optical) power. ("Ignition" in this disclosure refers to ignition from a set of reactants to generate a reaction, such as a reaction ignited by applying an electric current to a set of reactants to generate a plasma resulting from the very high reaction rate of H to the hydrino, which may manifest as a burst, pulse, or other form of high-power emission.) H2O can constitute a fuel ignited by the application of a high current, such as in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of the high current. In one embodiment of SunCell®, the reactants forming the hydrino receive a low voltage, high current, high-power pulse that results in a very fast reaction rate and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the voltage at 60 Hz is less than 15 V at its peak, and the current is 100 A / cm at its peak. 2 ~50,000 A / cm2 The range is 1000W / cm², and the power is 1000W / cm². 2 ~750,000W / cm 2 This is within the range of these parameters. Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers in the range of approximately 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are also suitable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a large current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to produce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one of the ranges of 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, or 10kA to 50kA. The DC current density or peak AC current density is 100A / cm². 2 ~1,000,000 A / cm² 2 , 1000 A / cm 2 ~100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000 A / cm 2 ~50,000 A / cm 2 The DC voltage or peak AC voltage can be within at least one of the following ranges: 0.1V to 1000V, 0.1V to 100V, 0.1V to 15V, and 1V to 15V. The pulse time is approximately 10 -6 seconds~10 seconds, 10 -5 seconds ~ 1 seconds, 10 -4 seconds~0.1 seconds, 10 -3 It can be at least one range selected from seconds to 0.01 seconds.

[0129] Ignition system In one embodiment, the ignition system may include at least one switch that initiates a current and interrupts the current once ignition is achieved. The current flow can be initiated by contact of a flow of molten metal. Switching can be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition can be switched mechanically. To optimize the output hydrino generation energy relative to the input ignition energy, the current may be interrupted after ignition. The ignition system may include a switch for injecting a controllable amount of energy into the fuel to cause detonation and for turning off the power at the stage when plasma is generated. In one embodiment, a power source for supplying a short-circuit burst of high-current electrical energy is provided. A voltage selected to produce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one of the following ranges: 1A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, or 10kA to 50kA, 1 A / cm 2 ~1,000,000 A / cm² 2 , 1000 A / cm 2 ~100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000 A / cm 2 ~50,000 A / cm 2 A DC current density or peak AC current density in at least one range of; Here, the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, and the voltage is given by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel sampler. The DC voltage or peak AC voltage is in at least one of the following ranges: 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV, and The AC frequency consists of at least one of the following ranges: 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10kHz.

[0130] The system further includes a starting power / energy source such as a battery, such as a lithium-ion battery, and a supercapacitor. Alternatively, external power, such as grid power, may be supplied for starting via a connection from an external power source to a generator. This connection can constitute a power output busbar. The starting power energy source can perform at least one of the following: supplying power to a heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, supplying power to the injection system, and supplying power to the ignition system.

[0131] In embodiments for activating SunCell®, a heater such as a burner or torch heater, or an inductively coupled heater, can heat at least one of the following to a molten state: molten metal such as tin in the storage tank 5c, electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, PV window chamber 5b4, and wet seal metal in contact with the PV window chamber. In one embodiment, SunCell® includes a heater such as a combustion heater that performs hydrogen-oxygen combustion to melt the molten metal in the wet seal, storage tank and electromagnetic pump tube. In one embodiment, SunCell® includes a heater such as a combustion heater, which is configured to melt molten metal such as the molten metal contained in the wet seal, storage tank and electromagnetic pump tube by the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. This heater may include a plurality of burner nozzles. The burner or nozzle may be made of a material capable of operating at high temperatures, such as stainless steel such as 310. An exemplary heater comprises at least one of a plurality of burner nozzles: (i) positioned around the periphery of the PV window chamber; (ii) positioned below the base plate 5b31c to heat the base plate 5b31c and the wet seal; (iii) positioned around the storage tank to heat the corresponding compartment and the molten metal inside the storage tank 5c or inner storage tank 959; and (iv) positioned toward the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 to heat the molten metal inside. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump tube may be covered with a heat transfer block containing a highly thermally conductive material such as copper, silver, aluminum, or tin. The heat transfer block may conduct heat from the heated storage tank to the electromagnetic pump tube. As an example, the pump tube 5k6 may have a heat transfer block, such as one made of copper, for transferring heat from the heater and the storage tank 5c or 959 and at least one of other SunCell® components such as the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1 to the electromagnetic pump tube. To improve heat transfer from the block to the electromagnetic pump tube, a thermal conductive paste such as Ametek Grade 2 HTC may be used.

[0132] In one embodiment, the inner surface of the outer storage tank, the outer surface of the inner storage tank, and the gap side of the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1 may be coated as one of the disclosed items. This coating can prevent the formation of an alloy between the heat transfer block material and the storage tank and base plate materials, such as alloys of aluminum and stainless steel, respectively. An exemplary coating is BN. In embodiments including coated surfaces that constitute the gap walls and bottom surface, such as a BN-coated coating, the heat transfer material may include a molten metal such as molten aluminum (melting point = 660.3°C; boiling point = 2,470°C) or tin (melting point = 232°C; boiling point = 2,602°C).

[0133] In one embodiment, the electromagnet 5k4 is supported by a support fixture that is attached to an electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1. This support fixture includes a vertical rod whose upper part is welded to the electromagnetic pump base plate, and a horizontal rod positioned below the electromagnet at the lower part of the vertical rod, the horizontal rod supporting the electromagnet. The horizontal rod is connected to the vertical rod via a connector such as a right-angle clamp holder.

[0134] This section is heated to a temperature considerably above its melting point and heats other components of SunCell® by conduction and transport of molten metal by electromagnetic pumps. Melting and heating are performed at startup. The source of the hydrogen heater may be housed in a tank that can also supply hydrogen reactants for the idrino reaction. Hydrogen is produced by the electrolysis of water, and the power consumed for its electrolysis may be supplied by SunCell®. In addition to the above tank, the combustion heater gas system further includes an optional oxygen tank capable of supplying oxygen from atmospheric air, a water electrolyzer, a flow meter, a pressure gauge, sensors, a pressure / flow controller, valves, at least one temperature sensor, and at least one temperature controller. After startup, the burner nozzles function as coolant injection jets to cool corresponding SunCell® components such as storage tanks. Examples of coolants include air and water.

[0135] The burner is equipped with a hydrogen manifold for supplying hydrogen, which is supplied to at least one nozzle, and oxygen for the corresponding combustion flame is supplied from atmospheric air. Alternatively, the burner may be equipped with two manifolds (e.g., one for H2 or acetylene and another for oxygen) and a plurality of nozzles, configured such that the gases from the separate manifolds are mixed in the nozzles before combustion. In one embodiment, each of the plurality of burner nozzles may include at least one of the following: a connection to a manifold for hydrogen or acetylene gas, a connection to a manifold for oxygen gas, an independent hydrogen or acetylene gas line, an independent oxygen gas line, and an independent torch head with separate gas flow controllers for hydrogen or acetylene gas and oxygen gas. Air may be used instead of the oxygen manifold and line. In one embodiment, the burner may be equipped with at least one nozzle, means for moving at least one nozzle, such as mechanical means, and a heater control device for performing desired temporal and spatial heating by the corresponding nozzle flame(s). In one embodiment, during high-temperature operation, a torch or a series of torches may be used to supply a coolant such as air or water to cool at least one SunCell® component, such as the base plate 5b31c, the reservoir hemispherical dome 960, the reservoir 5c, the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, the electromagnetic pump assembly 5ka2, the electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2, and the electromagnetic pump magnet 5k4. The corresponding cooling system may include one or more of the following: a cooling source, a cooling device, a fan, a pump such as a water pump or an air pump, at least one temperature sensor, and a control device. The cooling system consists of a cooling vortex tube, which may further include an airflow regulating device such as those from Mcmaster-Carr (https: / / www.mcmaster.com / products / compreSSed-air-coolers / equipment-cooling-vertex-tubes / ).

[0136] In one embodiment, the burner heater nozzle can directly or indirectly heat the inner reservoir to melt the molten metal at startup. The nozzle is positioned externally and directed outwards from the outer reservoir, so that the inner reservoir can be heated by heat conduction. The gap between the inner and outer reservoirs may be made of a heat-conductive medium.

[0137] In one embodiment, the space between the inner and outer storage tanks (or the inner and outer housings within the storage tanks) below the electrical breakaway section 913 (on the electromagnetic pump side) may be filled with a thermally conductive material or block such as copper, silver, aluminum, tin, tungsten, or other metals, or with a highly thermally conductive electrical insulator such as aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, Si3N4, MgO, or silicon carbide. The inner dimensions of the block, such as its inner diameter, may match the shape of its outer dimensions, such as its outer radius. The outer dimensions of the block, such as its outer diameter, may match the shape of its inner dimensions, such as its inner radius. The block may also match the shape of its inner dimensions, such as its inner radius. The block is in close contact with the outer surface of the inner storage tank and the inner surface of the outer storage tank, enabling heat transfer between the inner and outer storage tanks. This allows for the removal of heat from the inner storage tank during SunCell® operation and the conduction of heat to the inner storage tank to melt molten metal such as tin during startup.

[0138] In another embodiment, the space between the inner and outer storage tanks (or the inner and outer housings within the storage tanks) above the electrical isolation section 913 (PV window cavity 5b4 side) may be filled with an electrical insulator and thermal conductor such as solid aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, Si3N4, MgO, or silicon carbide. Alternatively, the heat transfer material or block may consist of an electrical and thermal conductor electrically insulated from the storage tank wall by an electrical insulator such as an insulating film or coating.

[0139] When SunCell® is started, a plurality of burners constituting the heater are arranged to heat at least a portion of the outer wall of the outer storage tank. In one embodiment, the burners include a manifold capable of supplying a plurality of nozzles, and a plurality of such manifolds may be provided. Alternatively, SunCell® may include at least (i) a heating coil, each of which covers at least a portion of the components of SunCell®, such as the storage tank or PV base plate, and (ii) a resistance heater, such as a Kanthal wire resistance heater, which covers at least a portion of the components of SunCell®.

[0140] In one embodiment, the heat conduction block below the electrical breaker may be made of a highly thermally conductive material such as copper that fills the space between the storage tanks. In one embodiment, the heat transfer block positioned above the circuit breaker may include (i) an electrical insulator positioned between the inner and outer storage tanks, such as a closed layer of AIN, BN, Si3N4, MgO, or SiC, and (ii) a highly thermally conductive material such as copper that fills the remaining space between the storage tanks. In an embodiment including cylindrical inner and outer storage tanks, the heat transfer block below the heat transfer electrical breaker may be made of a copper annular cylinder or a plurality of cylinders that fill the space between the inner and outer storage tanks. In an embodiment comprising a cylindrical inner storage tank and an outer storage tank, the heat transfer block above the electrical breakaway portion comprises at least one of the following: (i) a BN liner positioned outside the inner storage tank; (ii) a BN liner positioned inside the outer storage tank; (iii) a circumferential BN cylindrical storage tank positioned between the inner and outer storage tanks; and (iv) an annular cylindrical body or a plurality of cylindrical bodies made of copper (melting point = 1,085°C; boiling point = 2,595°C) filling the remaining gap between the inner and outer storage tanks. The cylindrical body in the annular space may include at least one expansion joint or slit. The height of the heat transfer block may be part of the height of the storage tank. The heat transfer block may consist of multiple sections.

[0141] In embodiments comprising at least one heat transfer block above the electrical disconnection section 913, the outer reservoir may comprise at least one flexible joint to allow alignment of the nozzle 5q by an injector electrode aligner, which moves the positions of the inner reservoir 959, the electromagnetic pump injector tube 5k61, and the nozzle 5q by tilting the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1. An exemplary aligner shown in Figure 66V constitutes a flexible section 917 of the reservoir and comprises a screw-in positioning rod 921 connected as a bellows to a movable frame 920a, such as a frame 920 and the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1. This flexible joint comprises at least one bellows and may comprise a plurality of bellows having at least one linear non-flexible section, such as a tube section, between at least two bellows.

[0142] In one embodiment, any molten metal oxides formed inside the SunCell® are reduced by applying hydrogen at high temperatures. Hydrogen reduction is accelerated by increasing pressure and temperature. Hydrogen reduction can be carried out in a temperature range of approximately 300°C to 2000°C and a hydrogen pressure range of approximately 0.001 atmospheres to 100 atmospheres. In one embodiment, molten metals such as tin can be heated using an H2 / O2 torch. In another embodiment, the electromagnetic pump injector tube 5k61 or nozzle 5q can be connected with a connector such as a copper rod or copper wire to short-circuit the ignition system. Heating is provided by resistive ignition power applied to the short-circuited ignition circuit. When high-pressure hydrogen is applied, the PV window cavity and wet seal may be replaced with a gasketed flange secured to the PV window base plate 5b31c with clamps or bolts. Oxygen penetration from the gasket can be mitigated by adding a blanket by argon filling around the seal, or by adding an external housing or chamber that can seal and exhaust or contain an inert gas.

[0143] In one embodiment, SunCell® may include an outer chamber capable of maintaining at least one of vacuum, atmospheric pressure, or a pressure above atmospheric pressure in order to maintain positive pressure and corresponding forces between the outside and inside of the PV window cavity. In one embodiment, the outer chamber may include a vacuum-sealed chamber for maintaining an idrino reaction mixture gas in communication with the outer chamber at a desired pressure.

[0144] SunCell® may include a high-pressure water electrolysis system that includes a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolytic cell having water under high pressure to supply high-pressure hydrogen.

[0145] Generation of molten metal flow In embodiments as shown in Figures 66U to 66ZA, SunCell® comprises two reservoirs 5c, each reservoir comprising an electromagnetic (EM) pump, such as a DC, AC, or other electromagnetic pump as described herein; an injector that also functions as an ignition electrode; and a reservoir inlet riser for equalizing the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may include tin, silver, silver-copper alloys, gallium, gallistan, or other metals as described herein. SunCell® further provides: (i) a reaction cell chamber or molten storage tank section 960, each storage tank electrically insulated from the reaction cell chamber 960 by an electrical isolation section 913 in each storage tank, and the storage tanks and electromagnetic pumps electrically insulated from each other, where the ignition current flows by the contact of intersecting molten metal flows of two electromagnetic pump injectors; and (ii) an injector electrode aligner comprising, for example, a flexible portion 917 of the storage tank such as a bellows, a threaded position adjustment rod 921 connected to a frame 920, and a movable frame 920Aa such as an electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1, wherein the direction of the injector nozzle is tilted and alignment is achieved by rotating and shortening or extending the positioning rod length between the plates. In one embodiment, the aligner includes a flexible portion such as a bellows 917, and in a contraction tilt system, the tilt of the bellows by the tilt system is achieved by contraction on one side of the bellows rather than compression and extension on the opposite side of the bellows. In one embodiment, the electrical interruption unit 913 may be a commercially available product such as one manufactured by Kurt Lesker, for example, an exemplary vacuum ceramic brake with a CF flange (product number CFT08V2376) [https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feesthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf], or a product from MPF Products, Inc., for example, product number A0625-2-W [https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / uhv-isolators / 10kv-uhv-breaks / a0625-2-w / ]. The electrical circuit breaker 913 may have a structure in which ceramics such as alumina are brazed to a metal such as Kovar.The brazing material can be a high-temperature compatible brazing material, such as copper brazing material, that can operate at temperatures of 500°C or higher.

[0146] In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump shown in Figures 66U and 66U1 comprises an electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 connected by means such as laser welding at a joint 5ka6, an electromagnetic busbar assembly 5ka2, an electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2, an optional access port 5ka61 with a cap, and a magnet 5k4 which may include a yoke 5k5, a cooling plate 5ka1, and a cooling line 5k11 for supplying and recovering coolant from a chiller. SunCell® further comprises an electromagnetic pump power supply and a power control device for controlling the electromagnetic pump power.

[0147] Electromagnetic pumps consist of one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps used for liquid metals: either AC or DC conduction pumps, where an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing the liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is supplied to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube walls; or induction pumps, where a traveling magnetic field induces the required current, such as an induction motor that can intersect with an AC electromagnetic field to which a current is applied. Induction pumps come in three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and spiral. Pumps can also consist of other pumps well known in the art, such as mechanical pumps and thermoelectric pumps. Mechanical pumps can consist of centrifugal pumps with motor-driven impellers. Mechanical pumps may include centrifugal pumps with motor-driven impellers. Mechanical pumps may also be metal centrifugal magnetic drive pumps. A typical example of a pump for molten metal operating at high temperatures is the MMP11 Iwaki Sanwa pump. [https: / / iwakiamwerica.com / Literature / Sanwa / Datasheets / MMP11.C%20Datasheet.pdf]. Power to the electromagnetic pump can be constant or pulsed, respectively, to cause the corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal. Pulsed injection is driven by a program or function generator. Pulsed injection can maintain a pulsed plasma within the reaction cell chamber. The electromagnetic pump can be configured as a multistage pump.

[0148] Molten metal pumps can consist of moving magnet pumps (MMPs). An example of a commercially available AC electromagnetic pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, which can support the pumping of molten metal by modifying the heating and cooling system.

[0149] In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump is, for example, [V. Dewlme et al., “Numerical modeling of liquid metal electromagnetic pump with rotating permanent magnets”, 2018 IOP Conf.Ser.:Mater.Sci.Eng.424012046, A. Gaile, et al., “Permanent Magnet Pump for Aluminum Transport in a Linear Channel”, Metals 2023,13(7),1160;https: / / doi.org / 10.3390 / met13071160, T. Ando et al., “Induction Pump for High-Temperature Molten Metals Using Rotating Twisted Magnetic Field: Molten Gallium Experiment”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL.40, NO.4, JULY] A moving magnet pump (MMP) may be provided as a molten metal pump, as reported in [2024, pp.1846-1857, MGHvastaa, WKNollet, MHAnderson, “Designing Moving Magnet Pumps for High-Temperature Liquid-Metal Systems”, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol.327, February 2018, pp.228-237, the full text of which is incorporated herein by reference]. The rotating magnetic field of the rotating magnet is composed of permanent magnets with alternating polarities, which are rotated on an electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 by a motor such as an electric motor, generating a rotational induced current in the molten metal such as molten tin, creating a Lorentz force in the direction of rotation, and causing the molten metal to be pumped.

[0150] The MMP may have an extended pump tube that reaches the electromagnetic pump base plate 409b to receive molten tin from the pump inlet riser 5qa section and discharge it through the injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, both tubes located within the internal storage tank 959. Each MMP is positioned on the side near the outer storage tank, with the MMP inlet receiving molten metal from the inlet riser penetration of the electromagnetic pump, and the MMP pumps the molten metal through the injection penetration of the electromagnetic pump base plate and the injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61.

[0151] Cooling systems, such as heat exchangers, are positioned along a portion of the extended pump tubing to cool the molten metal before it enters the MMP. The cooling system can also directly cool the MMP magnets. Cooling must be carried out so as not to exceed the Curie temperature of the rotating magnets. Heat exchangers may include gaseous or liquid coolants, such as air or water, respectively. As an example, the heat exchanger may be a forced-air heat exchanger with a fan or air jet to cool the electromagnetic pump tubing.

[0152] In one embodiment, SunCell® may include a molten metal level controller in each storage tank. This level controller may include an inlet riser 5qa consisting of a tube having an inlet opening along part of its widening from top to bottom. The inlet riser may have a structure in which the opening cross-sectional area decreases from top to bottom in order to reduce the inlet flow rate and the amount of fluid delivered by the electromagnetic pump as the molten metal in the storage tank decreases.

[0153] In another embodiment, the control device may comprise at least one sensor, a molten metal leveling device and control device, and an electromagnetic pump current or power control device. The sensor may be of the float type, including a float that floats over the molten metal in the storage tank and a sensor that detects the vertical position of the float in the storage tank. The leveling device controls the molten metal level in the storage tank by increasing or decreasing the electromagnetic pump speed of the corresponding electromagnetic pump based on the float position and the corresponding molten metal level. The leveling device can stop the electromagnetic pump when the molten metal level becomes sufficiently low and tin oxide on the surface of the molten metal flows into the inlet of the electromagnetic pump.

[0154] In one embodiment, SunCell® provides each storage tank with a permeable membrane that is selectively permeable to molten tin but impermeable to tin oxide. The membrane may be made of a refractory material resistant to alloy formation. The membrane may consist of a screen or a mesh. The membrane may be positioned in the storage tank below the maximum tin level and above the suction riser. The membrane can serve to scoop up metal oxide flows or block inflow to the electromagnetic pump.

[0155] In one embodiment, tin oxide that may form in SunCell® is reduced by a reducing agent. Reducing agents such as H2, CO, sulfur, carbon, methane, propane, and other hydrocarbons form gaseous products that can be removed by a vacuum pump. In an embodiment in which hydrogen atoms are generated to increase the hydrogen reduction rate of molten metal oxides such as tin oxide, SunCell® comprises a hydrogen decomposition device such as a catalytic decomposition device of Pt, Pd, other precious metals, or R-Ni, a high-temperature filament such as W, and a plasma source such as a glow discharge, microwave, or RF plasma source. In one embodiment, molten tin is transferred to SunCell® in an airtight manner to prevent the formation of tin oxide in the storage tank 5c.

[0156] In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2 may include extensions such as rods or bars made of copper or stainless steel (SS). The rods can be easily bent into desired shapes using a tube bender. Each rod extension may have flattened ends to facilitate electrical connection. The extensions can be connected to the electromagnetic busbar 5k2 by welding, brazing, or soldering. In one embodiment, the welding connection between the stainless steel electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2 and the copper extension includes laser welding using filler wire such as SS347 filler wire. In another embodiment, the connection includes a mechanical connection with connecting means such as bolt fasteners or LockRing connectors. In one embodiment, the connection comprises a cylindrical slotted SS stub welded to the end of the SS electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2 and a cylindrical slotted copper stub welded to the end of the flat copper busbar extension, and these stubs are joined by a LockRing connector. The extensions may be coated to prevent corrosion by air. Examples of coatings include thin-density chromium, nickel, and aluminide (Hitemco), such as electroplated chromium.

[0157] Power systems and configurations SunCell® may comprise: a DC or AC ignition power supply for supplying current to each molten metal channel through corresponding injector nozzles acting as electrodes to intersecting molten metal flows injected by multiple electromagnetic pumps; a plasma control system; a gas source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank; a hydrogen supply monitor and regulator; an inlet to a vacuum line; and a vacuum system comprising a vacuum line, traps, and vacuum pumps. The vacuum pumps are high-velocity pumps such as Roots pumps, scroll pumps, multilobe pumps, or rotary vane pumps. The vacuum system is preferably capable of maintaining an ultra-high vacuum or an operating pressure in the reaction cell chamber at a low range of at least about 0.01 Torr to 10 Torr. SunCell® may further comprise a vacuum line 711 and a hydrino reaction gas line 906. SunCell® further comprises at least one of a gas recirculation device and means for selectively discharging, recovering, removing, or purging hydrino gas from the recirculated gas (such as a getter or a selectively permeable membrane). Hydrogen removed as hydrino can be replenished by supplying supplemental hydrogen from a hydrogen source.

[0158] In some embodiments, the hydrino reaction gas is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (e.g., 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). The reaction gas may further contain H2O vapor and at least one noble gas such as argon. In one embodiment, this gas is added inside or outside SunCell® to induce polymerization of hydrino to form H2(1 / p) fibers, which are polymerization agents. The gas may contain oxides such as CO2. In one embodiment, the CO2 polymerization of molecular hydrino serves as a means of removing CO2 from the atmosphere.

[0159] In one embodiment, SunCell® includes a hydrogen source (e.g., hydrogen), an oxygen source such as gas and oxygen gas. The supply source of at least one of the hydrogen source and the oxygen source includes at least one of a gas tank, a flow regulator, a pressure gauge, a valve, and gas piping to the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the HOH catalyst is produced from the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen gas and oxygen gas can be introduced into the reaction cell chamber. The introduction of reactants, such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen, may be continuous or intermittent. The flow rate and exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The introduction can be made intermittent, stopping the flow at the maximum pressure in a desired range and starting it at the minimum pressure in a desired range. At least one of the H2 pressure and flow rate, as well as the O2 pressure and flow rate, can be controlled to maintain at least one of the HOH and H2 concentrations or partial pressures within a desired range, thereby controlling and optimizing the output from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the hydrogen stock and flow rate may be significantly larger than the oxygen stock and flow rate. At least one partial pressure ratio of H2 to O2, or flow rate ratio of H2 to O2, is in at least one range of about 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1,000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50, or 2 to 10. In one embodiment, the total pressure is maintained in a range that maintains high concentrations of nascent HOH and atomic H, for example, at least one pressure range of about 1 milliliter to 500 tor, 10 milliliter to 100 tor, 100 milliliter to 50 tor, or 1 to 100 tor.

[0160] In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises: (i) a gas recirculation system with a gas inlet and outlet; (ii) a gas separation system capable of separating at least two gases from a mixture of at least two noble gases, such as argon, O2, H2, H2O, air, and hydrino gas; (iii) partial pressure sensors for at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and H2O; (iv) a plurality of flow controllers; (v) at least one injector, such as a microinjector or mass flow controller, for injecting water or steam; (vi) at least one valve; (vii) one pump; (viii) one exhaust gas pressure / flow controller; and (ix) pressures for at least one noble gas, argon, ozone, hydrogen, bicarbonate, and hydrino gas. The recirculation system may include a semipermeable membrane to remove at least one gas, such as molecular hydrino gas, from the recirculated gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas, such as a noble gas, is selectively recirculated, while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow out the outlet and be discharged through the exhaust port.

[0161] In another embodiment, the ignition system includes an induction system, where a power source is applied to a conductive molten metal to induce ignition of a hydrino reaction, providing an induced current, voltage, and power. The ignition system includes an electrodeless system, where the ignition current is applied by induction by an induction ignition transformer assembly. The induced current is induced by intersecting molten metal flows supplied from a plurality of injectors. This group of injectors is maintained by a pump, such as an electromagnetic pump. In one embodiment, the storage tank 5c may further include a ceramic cross-connecting channel, such as a channel between the bases of the storage tank 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly comprises an induction ignition transformer winding and an induction ignition transformer yoke extending throughout the induction ignition transformer assembly through a current loop formed by the storage tank 5c, intersecting molten metal flows from a plurality of molten metal injectors, and a cross-connecting channel.

[0162] In one embodiment, at least one of the injection electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 in the inlet riser 5qa and nozzle 5q may contain carbon such as pyrolytic carbon, vitreous carbon, or glassy carbon. The nozzle 5q may be connected to the injection pump tube 5k61 by a screw. Alternatively, the carbon filament may be replaced by a carbon annular washer positioned below and held by a metal annular portion welded to the metal injector tube 5k61, in which case the carbon nozzle is fixed to the carbon annular washer with carbon adhesive. In one embodiment, a vitreous carbon injector tube 5k61 may be bonded to the carbon nozzle 5q.

[0163] In one embodiment, SunCell® is equipped with connecting ignition busbars 5k2al, which connect the ignition power source to components of SunCell® such as the electromagnetic pump base plate, supplying ignition current through a cross-molten metal flow injected by the electromagnetic pump. The connection between the ignition busbars 5k2al (Figure 66ZB) and components of SunCell® such as the electromagnetic pump base plate can be constructed by any of the methods described herein, such as welding from SS to copper using SS347 filler wire, or a LockRing connection. The ignition busbars 5k2al may be constructed with a coating described herein, such as chromium, nickel, or aluminide, to prevent air oxidation. The ignition busbars may be positioned away from the electromagnetic pump magnets to prevent interference between the ignition current magnetic field and the magnetic field of the electromagnetic pump magnets 5k4. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump magnets 5k4 and the yoke on the magnets may be cooled to prevent the electromagnetic pump magnetic field from being extinguished by exceeding the Curie temperature.

[0164] In one embodiment, tin oxide in SunCell® can be reduced by flowing hydrogen at a pressure of 0.1 to 10 atmospheres and a temperature in the range of 232°C to 1000°C. During hydrogen reduction, the PV window cavity and wet seal can be replaced with a gasketed mechanical compression seal, in which case the tin can be solidified and an inert gas can be flowed over the solid tin while the mechanical seal is replaced with the PV window cavity and wet seal.

[0165] In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises a transparent window or cavity, and light energy generated by a hydrino reaction on one side of the window or inside the cavity is transmitted through the PV window or cavity to a photoelectric converter 26a, where each PV cell is equipped with a reflector on its back side, which can reflect the light energy that was not converted into electrical energy back to the plasma as reused light energy, allowing it to be absorbed and re-emitted. A single-junction III-V semiconductor PV conversion test of 1207°C blackbody radiation using infrared light reuse is reported by Z. Omair et al. ["Ultraefficient thermophotovoltanic power conversion by band-edge spectral filtering", PNAS, Vol.116, No.3 (2019), pp.15356-15361], the full text of which is referenced. Omair et al. achieved a conversion efficiency of 30% and predicted an efficiency of 50% through improvements to mirrors, PVs, blackbody emissivity, line-of-sight coefficients, series resistances, and other factors. The thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion efficiency for 3000K SunCell® radiation using a single-junction focused silicon PV cell operating at 120°C was calculated to be 84%, with a practical expectation of 50%. In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter consisting of at least one photovoltaic cell and at least one blackbody radiator or emitter. The blackbody radiator for thermophotovoltaic conversion with photorecycling includes one or more of the following: (i) at least one outer wall of the SunCell® component, and (ii) a hydrino plasma in a reaction cell chamber that radiates light to the PV converter through a window or cavity.

[0166] To convert high-intensity light into electricity, the power generation device may include an optical distribution system and a photovoltaic converter 26a as shown in Figure 2I132. The optical distribution system may consist of a plurality of translucent mirrors stacked in a louver-like manner along the propagation axis of light emitted from the cell, and in each stacked mirror member 23, the light is reflected at least partially to a photovoltaic cell, such as a photovoltaic cell 15, which is arranged parallel to the direction of light propagation. The photoelectric conversion panel 15 may include at least one of PE, PV, and thermionic cells. The windows of the power converter may be transparent to synchrotron radiation such as short-wavelength light emitted by the cell, or to blackbody radiation corresponding to temperatures of about 1000K to 4000K, where the converter may consist of a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power converter. The PV window or PV converter window may comprise at least one of the following: sapphire, aluminum oxide nitride, LiF, MgF2, CaF2, other alkaline earth halides (fluorides such as BaF2 and CdF2), quartz, fused silica, UV glass, borosilicate glass, or Infrasil (manufactured by ThorLabs). The translucent mirror 23 is transparent to short-wavelength light. This material is the same as that of the PV converter window and may be partially coated with a reflective material such as a UV mirror. The translucent mirror 23 may consist of a checkerboard pattern of at least one reflective material such as a UV mirror, including MgF2-coated aluminum, thin-film fluorides such as MgF2 or LiF, or a SiC thin film on aluminum.

[0167] In one embodiment, the PV converter 26a comprises a plurality of triangular light-receiving units (TRUs), each light-receiving unit comprising a plurality of photovoltaic elements such as front-facing concentrating photovoltaic elements, a mounting plate, and a cooling device on the back of the mounting plate. Figure 2I133 shows a schematic diagram of the triangular elements in the geodesic high-density light-receiving array of the photovoltaic converter. The PV converter 26a in the geodesic dome may include a high-density light-receiving array composed of triangular elements 200, which consist of a plurality of concentrating photovoltaic cells 15 capable of converting light from a blackbody radiator 5b4c or PV window 5b4 into electricity. The PV cells 15 may consist of at least one of concentrating Si, GaAs P / N cells on a GaAsN wafer, InAlGaAs on InP, or InAlGaAs on GaAs. Each cell may have at least one junction. The triangular element 200 may include a cover body 201 such as a pressed Kovar sheet, hot ports 202 and cold ports 204 such as press-fit tubes, and mounting flanges 203 such as a pressed Kovar sheet for connecting adjacent triangular elements 200.

[0168] In one embodiment, the PV converter 26a includes a high-density light-receiving array and is an assembly of linear elements, each element comprising a plurality of PV cells. These elements may be oriented along the vertical or Z axis of the SunCell® PV window cavity. The elements may be arranged to optimize at least one of the absorption of incident light emitted from the hydrino reaction plasma maintained within the PV window cavity, and the reflection of light below the band gap of the PV cells and light that is not converted into electricity. The latter reflected light is recycled light that passes through the PV window cavity and is incident, at least partially absorbed within the hydrino reaction plasma and contributing to the power radiated by the hydrino reaction plasma maintained within the PV window cavity. The width of the linear elements may be selected to optimize at least one of the absorbed light and recycled light. The linear elements may form an assembly including an enclosure structure. In one embodiment, this assembly is configured to be circumferentially arranged in a cylindrical PV window cavity (see, for example, Figure 66ZA), the PV window cavity having a flat top with a geometrically fitted flat PV top panel. Other embodiments include a PV converter 26a comprising a PV window cavity having alternative geometric shapes such as cubes, rectangles, triangles, and hemispheres, and a corresponding high-density receiving array. The PV cells of each linear element may be connected in either series or parallel to obtain the desired voltage and current for each element. The linear elements may be connected in either series or parallel to obtain the desired voltage and current for the entire assembly.

[0169] In one embodiment, the seal between the base plate 5b3lc and the PV window cavity 5b4 includes a wet seal of molten metal. This wet seal comprises a molten metal for wet sealing, such as tin; means such as a retaining housing or wall 5b10 for holding the molten metal at the connection between the PV window cavity 5b4 and the base plate 5b3lc; a gasket for resisting atmospheric pressure; a source of MHD force, such as a vertically oriented magnetic field source; and a current source applied to the wet seal molten metal. In one embodiment, a graphite or carbon gasket between the base or flange of the PV window and the base plate 5b31c is compressed by atmospheric pressure by a retaining wall positioned peripherally and circumferentially in the PV window when a vacuum is drawn in the PV window cavity, and the cavity or its flange holds the wet seal of molten metal relative to the gasket.

[0170] In one embodiment, the seal may include a PV window cavity flange 5b9 as the upper flange of a gasketed flange seal, such as a graphite gasketed flange seal for a PV window cavity, and a base plate 5b3lc as the bottom flange. The graphite or carbon gasket is compressed by atmospheric pressure by drawing the PV window cavity into a vacuum. The seal may optionally further include a wet seal housing, such as a tin angle ring or retaining wall, around the gasketed flange welded to the bottom flange 5b31c, forming a molten metal-filled cavity around the graphite gasketed flange seal. The wet seal is maintained along at least a portion of the vertical periphery of the PV window cavity flange and between the bottom of the PV window cavity and the base plate 5b31c. In the latter case, the outer diameter of the graphite gasket is smaller than the outer diameter of the PV window cavity flange to form a cavity between the bottom of the PV window cavity and the base plate 5b31c for wet sealing a molten metal such as tin or gallium. In one embodiment, the thickness of the partial gasket is in the range of about 0.1 mm to 10 mm to prevent the wet seal metal from penetrating into the PV window cavity while minimizing the gap between the base plate 5b31c and the PV window cavity flange 5b9. In one embodiment, the seal may include at least one groove, recess, or notch provided in the PV window cavity and the base plate to accommodate a portion of the gasket height and reduce the gap between the PV window cavity flange and the base plate. In one embodiment, the base plate 5b3lc includes a recessed section with a flange that fits into the PV window cavity, the flange maintaining an inner pool of molten metal covering the inner surface of the gasket to prevent deterioration by gases in the PV window cavity. Alternatively, the wet seal includes an inner retaining wall or housing for maintaining an inner pool of molten metal.In one embodiment, the base plate 5b31c, a portion of the base plate 5b31c, the outer housing or retaining ring, and at least one of the inner housing or retaining ring may be composed of and / or coated with either (i) a material resistant to alloying with wet sealing molten metal such as tin, or (ii) a refractory material. In one embodiment, the material may include refractory metals such as W, Ta, Mo, or Nb, or ceramics such as quartz or alumina. The coating may include any of the disclosed materials such as BN or aluminides.

[0171] In one embodiment, the base plate 5b31c includes a wet seal molten metal drain 713 (Figures 66ZS, 66ZT, 66ZU). The drain 713 includes a tube connected to a hole in the base plate 5b3lc located directly inside the wet seal retaining ring 5b10, and the tube extends to a sealed outlet. This seal may consist of a mechanical plug or solidified tin. In the latter case, the seal can be opened by melting the tin. The outlet is located below the wet seal molten metal surface to allow for gravity-driven discharge of the molten metal. When SunCell® is idling, the wet seal molten metal, such as molten tin, is discharged from the space between the PV window cavity 5b4 and the retaining ring 5b10, and when SunCell® is started, the liquid or solid wet seal metal can be returned to the space between the PV window cavity 5b4 and the retaining ring 5b10.

[0172] In one embodiment, the molten metal for the wet seal, such as molten tin, is allowed to solidify in the space between the PV window cavity 5b4 and the retaining ring 5b10. The PV window cavity 5b4, made of quartz or the like, has a geometric shape such as a cylindrical shape and a thickness in the range of approximately 3 mm to 10 mm, thereby preventing damage to the PV window cavity 5b4 even when the molten metal for the wet seal solidifies. In one embodiment, the retaining ring 5b10 may be equipped with an expansion mechanism such as a bellows-type expansion joint or a stress-relieving joint. In one embodiment, the wet seal outer retaining wall 5b10 includes an L-shaped channel ring having an arc-shaped outer wall and a floor bellows, the inner floor portion of the L-shaped channel ring is welded to the PV base plate 5b31c, and damage to the PV window cavity 5b4 is prevented by allowing the expansion and contraction of the molten metal for the wet seal, such as tin, during melting and solidification. Alternatively, the wet seal outer retaining wall 5b10 may be made of an elastic material such as a graphite rope fixed to the inner surface by fasteners such as clips, which can accommodate the expansion and contraction of tin.

[0173] In one embodiment, the PV window cavity includes a cylindrical quartz tube and at least an upper quartz plate or a base quartz flange, and these can be sealed in the cylindrical tube with a high-temperature resistant adhesive such as Armco Ceramabond® 618-N, Ceramabond® 503, Ceramabond® 571, Ceramabond® 835M, or Ceramabond® 865.

[0174] In one embodiment, the storage tank comprises at least two housings or chambers: (i) an outer housing 5c ​​that is airtightly sealed from other components such as SunCell® electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1 and PV window cavity base plate 5b31; and (ii) an inner housing for containing molten metal. The inner housing is sealed at the bottom to the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1 and has an opening at the top to receive the return flow of molten metal injected into the PV window cavity 5b4. The opening at the top may have a flare that forms a female funnel for receiving molten metal from a bead housing or the like. The outer housing has a male funnel at the top that directs the return flow of molten metal to the female funnel of the inner housing. In another embodiment, the male funnels may be located on both sides of a recess in the molten storage tank, for example, at the top. The two male funnels supplying the return flow of molten metal to the two corresponding storage tanks are electrically insulated from each other. The male funnel is provided with a drip edge to interrupt the flow of molten metal returning and form droplets, thereby blocking short-circuit current to the molten metal contained in the inner housing. The outer housing may be equipped with an electrical interruption section 913 and an injector position adjustment device 917 such as a bellows. The inner housing is electrically insulated from the outer housing above its electrical interruption section. The inner housing houses an inlet riser 5qa and an injector 5k61 connected to an electromagnetic pump 5kk. The opening of the inlet riser is positioned close to the top of the inner housing or storage tank, which can increase the injection pressure of the molten metal by the electromagnetic pump by increasing the depth of the sealed molten metal.

[0175] In one embodiment, at least one of the inlet riser 5qa and the corresponding extension, as well as the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, is composed of a structure such as a stainless steel (SS) nut coated with W or BN, to allow for easy removal or installation.

[0176] In one embodiment, at least one of the PV window cavity base components, such as the mirror-face floor plate, the molten reservoir recess liner, the funnel, and the inner reservoir, may be provided with a drip edge. In one embodiment, (i) one or more drip edges, (ii) the mirror-face floor plate, (iii) the molten reservoir recess liner, and (iv) the funnel may be provided with a seal to prevent molten metal return flow from flowing into the gap between the inner and outer housings. In one embodiment, the drip edge may have a portion of one component that protrudes from the other component to function as a seal. In one exemplary embodiment, the seal may include a drip edge that functions as a cover or protrusion of the floor base plate with the molten reservoir recess liner. In another exemplary embodiment, the seal may include a drip edge that functions as a cover or protrusion from the funnel and the inner reservoir. Alternatively, the seal may include a joint such as a lip or tongue-and-groove joint. The seal may include a gasketed joint, such as one with a carbon gasket. In an exemplary embodiment, the upper part of the inner housing is provided with a drip edge collar that protrudes into the funnel, and the funnel further includes a carbon gasket combined with the drip edge collar.

[0177] In one embodiment, SunCell® further includes an adjustable or dynamic leveling system for the PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c to maintain a substantially uniform molten metal return flow. The baseplate leveling system comprises mechanical, electromagnetic, screw jack, stepping motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoid, piezoelectric, shape memory polymer, photopolymer, and other actuators of the known art, which can move or tilt at least one angle of the baseplate to a desired angle with respect to the horizontal plane. In an exemplary embodiment, the drive mechanism may comprise at least one of a screw-in rod collar and means for rotating the rod, and a pneumatic, hydraulic, or piezoelectric actuator, or other actuators of the present disclosure for pushing or pulling the rod.

[0178] In one embodiment, the actuator may include a screw that penetrates vertically through a threaded portion of the electromagnetic pump base plate at its end along the x-axis, and a servo motor positioned below the base plate and aligned on the screw axis. The servo motor rotates the screw inward and outward to tilt the nozzle in corresponding opposite directions in the xz plane. Alternatively, the screw may be rotated by a servo motor positioned next to the screw, in which case a gear on the screw is connected to a servo motor gear, rotating the screw clockwise and counterclockwise to tilt the nozzle in corresponding opposite directions. The gear consists of a screw ring gear and a pinion servo motor gear. The screw may consist of bearings and mounting brackets to maintain the connection between the gear and the servo motor. In another embodiment of the actuator, the electromagnetic pump base plate is pushed up or pulled up, or conversely pushed down or pulled down, by a rack and pinion connection between the base plate and the servo motor. In one embodiment, the rack and pinion may be replaced by a solenoid actuator.

[0179] In an embodiment in which the electromagnetic pump base plate can be controllably tilted in the xz and yz planes, the actuator may include two screws perpendicularly passing through threaded corner through-holes positioned opposite each other along an axis perpendicular to the xz plane, which is the plane of the reservoir, and two corresponding servo motors positioned below the base plate and aligned on each corresponding screw axis. Each servo motor tilts the nozzle by turning its screw inward and outward. The angle by which one corner moves up and down relative to the other determines the direction of the nozzle tilt in the xz and yz planes. Each screw may be replaced by another mechanical connection to the servo motor, such as a screw ring gear and pinion servo motor gear, or a rack and pinion connection. Alternatively, the actuator may consist of two solenoid actuators positioned in different lateral directions.

[0180] In one embodiment, one or more components that receive plasma light other than the PV window or window cavity, such as the molten storage tank recess 958 or the PV base plate 5b3lc, may include reflectors such as mirrors. These mirrors may be (i) liquid metal mirrors such as liquid tin metal walls, (ii) transparent glass with a metallized back surface, Pyrex®, quartz, MgF2, sapphire, or other transparent materials, with a back surface coated with silver, gold, aluminum, or other metals, or (iii) metal plates, sheets, or foils such as polished gold, aluminum, silver, stainless steel, Ta, or W. In one embodiment, the metal mirror may be sealed at the edge of the liner using a gasket such as a carbon gasket on the back surface of the transparent liner (i.e., the side opposite to the side where the plasma is maintained). In this embodiment of the mirror, the metal coating or metal foil on the side opposite to the plasma light may be covered with a protective coating such as BN to prevent alloy formation with molten metal such as tin due to the hydrino reaction. Alternatively, the mirror may be hermetically sealed on the back surface of the transparent liner. In one embodiment, a metallic mirror, such as gold, silver, or aluminum foil or sheet, may be sealed inside a transparent liner, such as quartz, Pyrex®, or glass liner. This seal may include space for the mirror to expand relative to the liner. In one embodiment, the liner has a hollow space on its back surface. This hollow space may be filled with a liquid mirror that may solidify, such as gold, silver, or aluminum, or with a liquid mirror, such as a mercury mirror. This hollow space may be filled to less than 100% to allow space for the thermal expansion of the mirror. This hollow space may have a filling hole. Filling this space is achieved by pouring liquid metal through the filling hole. The filling hole can be sealed using a plug or by melting the liner material. In one embodiment, the transparent liner consists of (i) a transparent liner such as a quartz liner, (ii) a thin mirror foil or sheet, and (iii) an outer liner such as a quartz liner.The liner shape may be flat, dome-shaped, spherical, hemispherical, cylindrical, or other shapes that match the shape of a lined component such as a recess 958 in the molten storage tank or a PV base plate 5b3lc, or a shape that covers a penetration of another liner such as a reflective liner 956 in the molten storage tank. In one embodiment, the wall of the recess may have a hemispherical or parabolic or other preferred shape to reflect plasma light through the PV window cavity. The inner and outer liners may be welded or bonded to form an airtight mirror located between the inner and outer liners. The size of the mirror, and the thickness of at least one of the gaps between the mirror and the inner and outer liners, may be selected to accommodate the expansion of the mirror. In one embodiment, the inner liner and the outer liner are bonded together along their adjacent edges using a high-temperature adhesive such as an interquartz adhesive, for example, Aremco Ceramabond 618-N, Cermabond® 503, Cermabond® 571, Cermabond® 835M, or Cermabond® 865.

[0181] The inner housing, the inlet riser 5qa, and at least one of the injection portions of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 may be covered with an electrically insulating liner, jacket, or tube, such as one made of quartz, BN, alumina, hafnia, MgO, SiC, AIN, Si3N4, zirconia, or other material described herein. The liner, jacket, or tube prevents short-circuit current between the molten metal return flow and any of the inner walls of the inlet riser 5QA, the injector 5K61, and the inner wall of the base plate 5b31c, and the wall of the recess 958 of the molten storage tank. In one embodiment, the tube covering and electrically insulating the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 is made of quartz or BN tubing. In one embodiment, the molten metal return flows inside the funnel, over the drip edge 957, and enters the inner storage tank at the injector portion position of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 below the nozzle 5q.

[0182] In one embodiment, the storage section can be welded to form a cavity, for example, a welded storage section recess 958 (Figure 66X). The welded storage section consists of two vertical metal tubes and a horizontal metal tube, which may have a larger radius than the vertical tubes. This configuration makes it possible to construct the storage tank liner of the welded storage tank recess from, for example, a quartz tube. In one embodiment, the wall of the welded storage tank recess may be made of a liner such as a quartz liner. In one embodiment, the reflector, such as a mirror-surface floor plate liner 5b3lb or a mirror-surface transparent plate, may be coated with Heraeus reflective coating (HRC®) or Heraeus quartz reflective coating (Heraeus QuartZ Refelctive). It may consist of a single quartz plate coated on its back surface with a pure silica reflective coating, such as a pure silica coating with open porosity (QRC(registered trademark)) (https: / / www.heraeus.com / media / media / hca / products_and_solutions_8 / services / LM_HR_EN.pdf, https: / / www.heraeus.com / en / hnq / products_and_solutions / infrared_emitters_and_systems / qrc_emitters.html, and https: / / www.heraeus.commedia / media / hng / products_a (See nd_solutions_1 / infrared_emitters_and_systems / qrs_infrared_d.pdf, which is incorporated herein by reference.) In some embodiments, the reflective layer may include silica or quartz microbeads. At least one of the quartz floor plates, quartz melting reservoir recess liners, quartz funnels, and quartz injector sleeves on the injector electromagnetic pump tubes, at least one of which is mirror-finished, may include a silica or quartz reflective coating such as HRC® or silicon microparticle coating. The HRC® coating is essentially 100% reflective from 250 nm to 2500 μm and is stable up to 1100°C.

[0183] In one embodiment, for example, at least one of a nozzle made of W and a reflective nozzle may reflect light incident along the nozzle axis and the injector electromagnetic pump tube section.

[0184] The embodiment of SunCell® shown in Figures 66V-66X includes a wet-seal retaining wall, such as an outer retaining wall 5b10, an optional inner retaining wall, and a PV window cavity 5b4 mounted on a base plate 5b3lc. The base plate 5b3lc is mounted on a stand 953 with a cable rack 954 for supporting ignition power cables and electromagnetic pump power cables. The base plate may be lined with a reflective liner 950 that overhangs a recess 958 of the molten storage tank to form a drip edge for returning molten metal. The molten storage tank may be lined with a reflective liner 956 supported by a drip edge 957 for the return flow of molten metal, such as tin. The drip edge 957 may be welded to each storage tank wall 5c of the molten storage tank. The return flow of molten metal flows over the drip edge 957, and a reflective funnel 955 may be sealed at the bottom of the drip edge 957 using a gasket, such as a graphite gasket. The injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube 561 passes through the center of the funnel and is connected to the nozzle 5q. The injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 may be lined with an electrically insulating sleeve. The liner, funnel, and sleeve may be made of quartz with a reflective coating on the back, such as that of Heraeus. In one embodiment, one or more liners are integrally welded and further welded to the PV window cavity. In an exemplary embodiment, the sleeve may consist of quartz, boron nitride, carbon, and at least one of a plurality of carbon sections. Separated by electrically insulating boron nitride or quartz sections or washers, it may include at least two parts, an upper and a lower. In one embodiment, the quartz funnel 955 may include a quartz funnel, a SiC-coated carbon or Pyrex crucible, or a Pyrex funnel.

[0185] In one embodiment, the storage tank hemispherical dome 960 has through-holes to receive at least one of either the injection section or the nozzle 5q of the electromagnetic pump 5k61 of each corresponding storage tank. Each dome through-hole may further function as a return through-hole for molten metal. The inner diameter of the through-holes is set to be smaller than the inner diameter of the inner storage tank 959 to selectively and exclusively guide the return flow of molten metal into the inner storage tank. In one embodiment, each through-hole is provided with a drip edge, such as a partially or completely cylindrical tube extending toward the inner storage tank through a permeation section, thereby guiding the return flow into the inner storage tank. In one embodiment, the inner storage tank 959 is provided with a non-conductive extension at the top, such as part of a ceramic tube, such as a BN tube or a quartz tube, which allows the return flow of molten metal while avoiding an electrical short circuit between the hemispherical dome and 960 of the storage tank and the inner storage tank 959. This extension partially extends into the wall of the inner reservoir, creating a wall overlap and preventing leakage of molten metal from the extension into the gap between the inner and outer reservoirs. The extension contacts or nearly contacts the bottom of the dome 960. Each extension is supported by a support such as at least one pin extending from the inside of the inner reservoir wall.

[0186] In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZB, each outer storage tank may be provided with a separator 957a or partition separating the inner storage tank 959 from the cavity formed by the storage tank hemispherical dome 960. Each outer storage tank separator may be provided with a through-hole for at least one of the injection section of the electromagnetic pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q of each corresponding storage tank. Each separator through-hole may further function as a through-hole for the molten metal return flow. Each separator through-hole may be located at the center of the separator or at other desired locations, such as a position displaced along the x-axis when SunCell® is centered in the xz plane. The through-hole location may be selected to better guide the molten metal return flow to the corresponding inner storage tank. The inner diameter of the through-hole is set smaller than the inner diameter of the inner storage tank 959 to guide the return flow. In one embodiment, each penetration may further include a drip edge 957 consisting only of the penetration, or a lip such as a partially or completely cylindrical lip extending through the penetration toward the inner storage tank, allowing the return flow to be directed toward the inner storage tank. In one embodiment, the drip edge 957 may include a non-conductive extension, such as part of a ceramic tube such as a BN tube or a quartz tube, to allow the backflow of molten metal while simultaneously avoiding an electrical short circuit between the storage hemispherical dome 960 and the inner storage tank 959. In one embodiment, the drip edge may consist of a metal tube welded to the penetration of the separator, and further include a BN or quartz tube fitted to the outside of the drip edge. Each ceramic extension may be secured to the drip edge by fasteners such as at least one welding pin that partially penetrates from the inside of the drip edge to the extension. In one embodiment, the non-conductive extension may constitute a funnel 955.

[0187] In one embodiment, the hemispherical dome 960 may have an inner diameter (ID) of each through-hole in the storage tank that is larger than the inner diameter of the corresponding inner storage tank. In one embodiment, the inner diameters of these through-holes are the same as the inner diameter of the outer storage tank. In embodiments comprising an outer storage tank separator, each separator is positioned at a desired angle with respect to the corresponding outer storage tank, such as coaxially or horizontally with respect to the vertical axis of SunCell®. Furthermore, in addition to extending downward from the separator, the drip edge extends upward to form a dam, maintaining the return depth of the molten metal, which functions as a reflective molten metal liner. Other surfaces irradiated by plasma light, such as the inner surface of the outer storage tank or the storage tank hemispherical dome 960, may be covered with a reflective liner, such as quartz with a reflective coating. The storage tank hemispherical dome liner 961 may be provided with through-holes that substantially match the shape of the hemispherical dome 960 of each storage tank.

[0188] In one embodiment, the separator 957a may be positioned at least slightly concave within the outer storage tank with respect to the intersection of the outer storage tank 5c and the bottom surface of the dome 960 in order to promote the return flow of molten metal and avoid accumulation. In one embodiment, the storage tank hemispherical dome liner 961 may be provided with at least one injector through-hole for the injection section of the electromagnetic pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q of each corresponding storage tank, and the inner diameter of the through-hole is minimized to form a liner that covers the outer storage tank. In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZC, the storage tank hemispherical dome liner 961 is provided with a molten metal return flow drainage through-hole in the center of the dome bottom surface to prevent molten metal stagnation. The drainage through-hole is, for example, the area between two injector through-holes removed. The drainage through-hole may constitute a channel. The channel may include a structure that at least optimizes the return flow of molten metal and supports the reflective liquid metal liner of the storage tank hemispherical dome 960.

[0189] In one embodiment, the dome liner 961 has substantially the same shape as the dome 960 (Figures 66ZSa and 66ZU), and the molten metal of the nozzle pool assembly 998 acts as a reflector from inside the reservoir 5c. In another embodiment, the base of the quartz liner 961 is cut out, and the molten metal on the base of the dome 960 acts as a reflector from its surface. In one embodiment, the dome liner 961 may include at least one of the polished metal surface of the dome 960 and the molten metal coating the inner surface of the dome 960. In an exemplary embodiment, the dome is coated with polished tantalum to function as a reflective liner 961. The Ta coating may include any of the disclosures, such as those manufactured by Tantaline's CVD APS (https: / / tantaline.com / application-notes / tantaline-treated-bellows / ). In another embodiment, the dome 960 is lined with polished W metal, which functions as a reflective liner 961. In one embodiment, the inner wall of the dome 960 has a surface structure or surface pattern such as roughening, micropores, ridges, or a honeycomb surface, and molten tin is retained within these structures to form a molten metal layer or wet wall that has reflectivity and protective properties.

[0190] In one embodiment, the reflective dome liner 961 includes a wet wall made of a metal screen, such as a tungsten screen, which forms a cavity with the wall of the dome 960, where this cavity is filled with molten metal, such as molten tin. The molten metal may be pressurized to permeate through the screen in the cavity and to form and maintain the wet wall. The molten metal may be a return of molten metal that has been guided to flow into the wet wall cavity. Alternatively, the wet wall may include at least one pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, for feeding molten metal into the cavity to form and maintain the wet wall. This pump may include at least one independent electromagnetic pump having a molten metal inlet to the molten metal in the internal storage tank 959, or it may include an internal storage tank electromagnetic pump having a connection from the injection pump tube 5k61 to the wet wall cavity.

[0191] In one embodiment, the penetration portion of the separator 957a constitutes a drip edge 957. The inner storage tank 959 may include an electrically insulating extension 959a that extends from the inside of the inner storage tank to the vicinity of the separator within a range of approximately 1 mm to 1 cm. This extension is made of a ceramic material such as BN or a material containing quartz and is installed on a pin-like shelf on the wall surface of the inner storage tank. An example of a shelf is a welding bead. The outer diameter of the extension is approximately equal to the inner diameter of the inner storage tank. In one embodiment, the separator is positioned horizontally and slightly concave within a range of 1 mm to 1 cm from the bottom of the dome. In one embodiment, the upper end of the extension 959a may be cut at an angle matching the angle of the storage tank with respect to the SunCell® vertical axis, so that when connected to the inner storage tank 959, the upper part of the extension 959a is horizontal with respect to the SunCell® vertical axis. The extension may further include a gasket, such as a graphite gasket or other gaskets disclosed herein, for sealing the extension to the separator 957a and the drip edge 957. In one embodiment, the inner reservoir 959 may be provided with an expansion joint, such as a bellows, in the upper section to which the compressible extension 959a is connected to the inner reservoir. This joint prevents damage to the quartz or other extension due to thermal expansion of components such as the separator 957a or the inner reservoir extension 959a that the extension may come into contact with, which would cause thermal expansion of SunCell® or components that contribute to it. In an embodiment in which the inner reservoir 959 is connected to the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1, the adjustment device includes a compressible element, such as a spring on a drive mechanism such as a threaded rod 921, which allows the bellows 917 to expand when a compressive force due to thermal expansion acts on the inner reservoir extension 959a.

[0192] In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZG, an inner storage tank extension 959a, such as one made of quartz, is connected to a separator 957a via a gasket 959b to seal the corresponding connection. The inner storage tank extension 959a includes a flange with multiple screw holes for mechanical screws that are screwed into a plurality of corresponding screw holes, and fastens the flange of the inner storage tank extension 959a to the gasket 959b and the separator 957a, where the gasket 959b is provided with corresponding holes for the mechanical screws to pass through. In one embodiment, the separator may include a plurality of female-threaded standoffs or couplers on the bottom surface into which the mechanical screws are screwed. In an exemplary embodiment, the inner storage tank extension 959a and the flange are integrally molded and are made of glass such as borosilicate glass, Pyrex®, quartz, alumina, sapphire, zirconia, or other ceramics as described herein, and the flange is provided with holes that serve as through holes for the mechanical screws.

[0193] An inner storage tank extension 959a, such as one made of quartz, may be provided with fasteners for connecting the storage tank extension 959a to the separator 957a. The storage tank extension 959a includes at least one projection, peg, projection, groove, hole, or upper flange, and the fasteners each include at least one clasp, pin, bolt, stud, or mating flange below the upper flange of 959a, such as one made of stainless steel. In another embodiment, the fasteners include a fastener connecting the lower end of the inner storage tank extension 959a to the separator 957a, or the flange may be held in the outer storage tank 5c by projections such as weld beads. The inner storage tank extension 959a is able to extend into the inner storage tank 959, and 959a and 959 are able to move freely relative to each other as thermal expansion occurs.

[0194] In another embodiment shown in Figure 66ZHa, the inner reservoir extension assembly 959c includes an inner reservoir extension 959 and fasteners. In one embodiment, the fasteners include (i) a plurality of holes provided in the inner reservoir extension 959, such as two holes located at two positions offset by 180 degrees from each other; (ii) pins, screws, or bolts passing through the holes; and (iii) straps, bolts, or screws attached to the bottom surface of the separator 957a. In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZHa, the bolts passing through the holes include eye bolts 982, which may be secured within the inner reservoir extension by a gasket 983 and optionally include a curved washer and a nut 983a to conform to the curvature of the inner reservoir extension. The exemplary gasket is made of carbon. The eye bolt 982 may have a washer 987, such as a curved washer, positioned on the outer wall of the inner reservoir extension 959a to distribute the fastening force. The inner reservoir extension fastener 959a may further include a connection to the separator 957a, such as a threaded rod 984. The threaded rod 984 may be connected to the underside of the separator 957a. The threaded rod may pass through the holes of each eyebolt 982. The threaded rod may be welded to the underside of the separator 957a. Nuts at the eyebolt ends of the threaded rod tighten the inner reservoir against the gasket 959b and the separator 957a. In another embodiment, the threaded rod is replaced by a machine screw 984 and a machine screw washer 986 used to tighten the joint between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the separator 957a, where a threaded tube, a female threaded standoff such as a round standoff, or a coupler 985 is connected to the separator and acts as a female connector for the male machine screw 984. The standoff may be welded to the separator. In one embodiment, at least one of the eyebolt and its nut, or the machine screw, and the female connector is made of ceramics such as quartz, BN, zirconia, or alumina.

[0195] In another embodiment, the fasteners for the inner storage tank extension 959a include an L-shaped electrically insulating bracket, such as a quartz or ceramic bracket as described herein, the vertical portion of which has a hole through which a mechanical screw 984 passes. The quartz inner storage tank extension 959a is positioned on a lower leg, and this mechanical screw is threaded into a female-threaded standoff or coupler 985, fastening the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank extension gasket 959b to the separator 957a. The bracket is countersunk at the head of the mechanical screw to recess the screw and prevent short circuits of molten metal flowing out of the inner storage tank extension. The mechanical screw 984 for the bracket may be a socket screw, such as a hex socket screw.

[0196] In another embodiment shown in Figure 66ZHb, the inner storage tank extension fixture consists of a plurality of ceramic mechanical screws 984 arranged circumferentially (for example, at 120-degree intervals in the case of three screws), each screw having a ceramic washer at its base. The female coupler 985 can be tilted at the same angle as the storage tank 5c (for example, 5-25 degrees, 10-16 degrees, 11-13 degrees, 12 degrees), so that the washer 986 rests flat on the lower end of the inner storage tank extension 959a. The washer 986 may have a shape other than circular (for example, a partially semicircular shape), so as to support the lower end of the inner storage tank extension 959a while fitting into the gap between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959.

[0197] In other embodiments, the inner storage tank extension fixing device comprises at least one of the following: (i) a plurality of mechanical screws that are electrical insulators, such as mechanical screws made of ceramic or quartz, or electrical insulating anodized metal mechanical screws such as anodized titanium mechanical screws or ceramic coated metal mechanical screws, with a ceramic washer 986 attached to the head of each screw, supporting the bottom of the inner storage tank, and the mechanical screws being screwed into a female threaded coupling 985 in the extension 959a; or (ii) a plurality of mechanical screws, such as stainless steel mechanical screws, each comprising an electrical insulating sleeve such as a quartz sleeve and a countersunk ceramic washer 986 provided on the head of the mechanical screw, with the washer supporting the bottom of the inner storage tank extension 959a, and the mechanical screws being screwed into a female threaded coupler 985. The washers support the inner storage tank extension and may be asymmetrical so as to fit into the gap between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959. In another embodiment shown in Figure 66ZHc, the inner storage tank extension 959a comprises (i) a plurality of mechanical screw channels 984a, (ii) a double-layer quartz tube such as that manufactured by Lianyungang Qudao Quartz Products Co., Ltd. [https: / / www.alibaba.com / product-detail / Factory-Double-Hole-Transparent-Quartz-Glass_1600316078308.html], and (iii) two concentric tubes having circumferential channels 984a for mechanical screws 984 between the double layers, into which the mechanical screws 984 are screwed. The inner storage tank extension fixing device may consist of a plurality of mechanical screws 984, each of which has a head such as a head cap 985a that supports the bottom of the inner storage tank extension 959a, and each mechanical screw 984 passes through one of the grooves 984a and is screwed into a female-threaded coupler 985, or each mechanical screw 984 passes through the groove 984a and the separator 957a and is screwed into the female thread of a dome or cap nut 985 welded to the upper surface of the separator 957a.The female threaded coupler and cap nut 985 are positioned at an angle on the separator 959a (e.g., 5–25 degrees, 10–16 degrees, 11–13 degrees, 12 degrees if the separator 957a is horizontal and the storage tank is at 12 degrees to the vertical axis) to equalize the support force on the lower end of the inner storage tank extension 959a. The fasteners may further include an electrically insulating support, such as a ceramic support bracket, on the head of a mechanical screw that supports the bottom of the inner storage tank extension 959a. The mechanical screw may be made of ceramic or metal. In the latter case, the head of the mechanical screw may be embedded in a counterbore provided in the wall of the inner storage tank extension or in the bottom surface of the bracket. The ceramic support, such as the bracket, forms a recess provided between the double-layered tubes or between the tubes of a double-tube inner storage tank extension to prevent contact with the mechanical screw when molten metal flows out of the inner storage tank extension. In another embodiment, each machine screw 984 is replaced with a threaded rod housed in a groove 984a and screwed into an upper cap nut 985, the bracket comprises one or more of an electrically insulating nut, an adhesive nut cover, a washer, and a gasket, the cap nut is screwed into the bottom, and the threaded rod 985a fastens the inner storage tank extension 959a and gasket 959b to the separator 957a. In one embodiment, the fastener consists of three machine screws arranged at 120-degree intervals in the circumferential direction.

[0198] In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZHd, the inner storage tank semblé 959c includes an inner storage tank extension 959a and a separator 957a, where these two components are connected by a brazed or solder joint 985b at the upper end of the outer or inner diameter of the inner storage tank extension 959a. The separator may be welded to the outer diameter of the outer storage tank 5c. The separator may have a drip edge. The inner storage tank 959a may include an electrical insulator such as glass, Pyrex®, quartz, alumina, sapphire, zirconia, BN, or other ceramic materials as disclosed. The brazing material is any of the disclosed materials capable of high-temperature operation, such as copper. Similar products consisting of a glass or alumina tube and a metal seal are, https: / / www.idealvac.com / Conflat-Flange-(CF)-Borosilicate-Glass-Adapter-1-12-inch-to-CF-2-3-4-inch / P1011118 , and is unilaterally adaptive https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / freedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf These each have no bolt holes in the flange and function as separators. In an exemplary embodiment, extension 959a consists of an alumina electrical breaker such as MPF A1988-4-W|Ceramic Break, 40KV insulated, 2.80-inch diameter Kovar tube adapter (https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / uhv-isolators / 40kv-breaks / a1988-4-w / ) or A1988-3-W (https: / / mpfpu.com / ?s=A1988-3-W+) or Kurt Lesker CFT40V2381 CERAMIC BREAK, 40KV, VACUUM, 2.375-inch outer diameter Kovar tube end (https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=weld), where, (i) The Kovar weldable tube end is cut perpendicular to the storage tank at an angle such as 12 degrees, (ii) the weldable tube end is welded to the separator 957a, and (iii) there is no weldable tube end on the opposite end (i.e., in the inner storage tank 959) in the ceramic extension 959a.

[0199] In one embodiment, at least one of the brazing joint metal, such as Kovar, and the brazing material, such as copper, may be coated to protect against alloy formation with a molten metal, such as molten tin. The coating may include any of the disclosed materials, such as BN paint.

[0200] The internal storage tank extension (for example, as shown in Figures 66ZHd, 66ZS, 66ZT, and 66ZU) is made of a conductive material such as stainless steel and may have a welded or soldered joint with the separator 959a, or be integrally molded with the separator 957a. In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZS, to prevent molten metal from being injected near the gap between the internal storage tank extension 959a and the internal storage tank 959 and to prevent an electrical short circuit between the two, the internal storage tank extension 959a may be equipped with an electrically insulating high-temperature liner 959d, such as a quartz or borosilicate glass liner, or a ceramic liner such as an alumina or zirconia liner, or other liners described herein. The liner is placed on an internal storage tank liner support 959f, such as the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61. Alternatively, the support 959f may be welded to the inside of the internal storage tank 959. The height of the nozzle 5q inside the inner storage tank liner 959d may be higher than the bottom surface of the inner storage tank liner 959d.

[0201] The inner reservoir 959 has at least one weld point or bead-like projection from its inner wall, which can support a liner support made of ceramics, quartz, or metal on which the liner rests within the inner reservoir. An exemplary liner support consists of a plate having an outer diameter approximately equal to the inner diameter of the inner reservoir, and the plate is provided with through holes to prevent the accumulation of molten metal backflow.

[0202] In the embodiment shown in Figure 66ZSa, the separator 957a is equipped with a drainage channel 957c for returning molten metal such as tin, thereby preventing the molten metal return flow from contacting at least one of the injection section and nozzle 5q of the electromagnetic pump 5k61. In an exemplary embodiment, the drainage channel 957c extends to cover the outermost portion of the inner diameter (ID) of the separator 957a (e.g., in the range of about 1% to 60%). In one embodiment, the separator drainage slot 957d covers a portion corresponding to about 1% to 60% of the circumference of the inner diameter of the separator 957a furthest from the area between the two nozzles 5q. The separator may further be equipped with means for generating a flow that preferentially directs the molten metal return flow to the drainage channel 957c. In one embodiment, the separator 957a can be positioned at an angle within the outer storage tank 5c, tilting the separator toward the flow path to induce preferential flow into the flow path. In one embodiment, the separator 957a may be provided with a flow channel for guiding the flow to a drain. This flow channel consists of at least one of the dome 960, the outer storage tank 5c, the separator 957a, and a liner 959d that rises above the separator. The flow divider 959g may include a raised extension of the internal storage extension 959a, thereby preventing the molten metal return flow from flowing into the gap between the raised liner 959d and the internal storage extension 959a. The flow divider 959g extends to cover approximately 1% to 60% of the circumference of the inner diameter (ID) of the separator 957a closest to the area between the two nozzles 5q, guiding the molten metal flow to the drain 957c and the separator drain slot 957d, and further inward, allowing the molten metal return flow to flow through the separator drain slot 957d. If the molten metal return flow flows into the gap between the liner 959d and the inner storage tank extension 959a at the closest point, the inner storage tank 959 can achieve electrical insulation between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959 by providing an electrically insulating liner, such as a quartz liner, on at least one of the inner or outer sides of the inner storage tank 959.

[0203] In one embodiment, the channel formed by the inner storage tank extension 959a or the inner storage tank liner 959d and the inner storage tank 959 may include a current breaker for interrupting an electrical path formed by the molten metal return flow. In one embodiment, the current breaker includes at least one means for electrically or physically interrupting the molten metal return flow in order to interrupt the electrical path formed by the molten metal return flow. The current breaker may have features such as a helical ridge on at least one surface of the channel, for example, the outer surface of the liner. Alternatively, the current breaker may include a ceramic paddle wheel or impeller that rotates or swirls in the direction of the molten metal return flow. The rotation or swirl caused by the molten metal return flow can interrupt the electrical connection.

[0204] In one embodiment, the separator drain slot 957d is located in the front region closest to the dome 960 portion between the two separators 957. A flow divider may be located in the rear region opposite the separators. The inner reservoir 959 may be equipped with an electrically insulating inner liner so that the molten metal return flow flows into the slot, along the liner, and reaches the molten metal pool in the inner reservoir. At least one of droplet fall onto the liner and flow on the liner prevents the inner reservoir extension from short-circuiting the inner reservoir.

[0205] In one embodiment, the circuit breaker may include at least one means for electrically and physically interrupting the metal return flow, such as between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the nozzle pool assembly 998, such as a ball-socket nozzle pool assembly. In one embodiment, the cavity extension 959a, the inner reservoir 959, and the inner reservoir liner 959d, formed by at least two of the inner reservoir walls, are filled with an electrically insulating packing material that is not wetted by the molten metal return flow, such as tin. Exemplary packing materials include ceramics, glass, or quartz beads with a sufficient outer diameter of about 0.1 mm to 1 cm, which disperse the molten metal return flow to achieve the desired current interruption. Ceramic beads may include alumina, zirconia, silicon carbide, BN, or other ceramics described herein.

[0206] In embodiments for disconnecting electrical connections formed by a molten metal return flow, such as molten tin, the liner 959d has a structure or surface structure on at least the outer or inner surface of the molten metal return flow. Exemplary structures include a corrugated structure on the back surface of the liner that disperses the flow of molten metal.

[0207] In one embodiment, the separator drain slot 957d is provided with a metal wire screen or grid above the slot inlet to improve the Faraday cage, which consists of the inner storage tank extension 959a, the inner storage tank 959, and the separator 957a, and to prevent plasma from forming in the gap between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959.

[0208] In one embodiment, the flow divider 959g is positioned along the circumference of the liner to partially cover the separator drain groove slot 957d, thereby preventing molten metal such as molten tin from flowing back between the flow divider 959g and the liner 959d, and avoiding a short circuit between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959. In one embodiment, at least one of the inner storage tank extension liner support section 959f and the liner 959d is provided with a molten metal return drainage channel. In one embodiment, the inner storage tank extension liner support section 959f may be provided with a plurality of horizontally arranged support shelves. These shelves may be formed by grooves cut from the collar. Alternatively, the inner storage tank extension liner support section 959f may be provided with a plurality of support columns that support the liner 959d while simultaneously forming drainage channels between the columns. In one embodiment, the bottom of the liner 959d is provided with at least one notch or hole, which may constitute at least one molten metal drainage channel.

[0209] In one embodiment, the inner storage tank extension liner support 959f includes an attachment to the inner storage tank and supports a non-conductive support which may include a molten metal return drain channel. In an exemplary embodiment, the wall support attachment comprises a welded stainless steel collar or spokes, the inner diameter (ID) of which is sufficiently large so that the wall support attachment is not electrically short-circuited by the molten metal return flow. The non-conductive liner support consists of a collar with a molten metal drainage channel such as a notch or hole, or a rod supported by the wall support attachment, the inner diameter of which is smaller than that of the support wall attachment. In an exemplary embodiment, the non-conductive liner support is made of ceramics such as BN or quartz.

[0210] In one embodiment, the inner reservoir extension liner 959d is supported by a fastener located at the upper end of the liner 959d. The fastener may be located above or below the separator 957a. The fastener is attached to at least one of the diverter 959g, the inner reservoir extension 959a, and the separator 957a. The fastener includes, for example, an eyebolt as described herein. In another embodiment, the diverter 959g includes a shelf-like section, and the liner 959d has a notch, and the liner 959d is supported by the shelf-like section on the 959g, with the notch of the liner 959d fitting into the shelf-like section. Alternatively, the liner 959d may have a shelf-like section, lip, or flange at its terminal edge that rests on the diverter (e.g., the diverter 959g shown in Figure 66ZSb). In another embodiment, the liner 959d has an increased inner diameter (ID) section or a flared section that retains its position at the top. In one embodiment, at least one of the shelf-like sections, lips, flanges, or flares is selected from Cotronics Resbond 989 and interquartz adhesives such as Aremco Ceramabond 618-N, Ceramabond® 503, Ceramabond® 571, Ceramabond® 835M, and Ceramabond® 865. Alternatively, the liner 959d may have, for example, a non-circular opening in the separator 957a, a slanted shunter 959g, and at least one of the separator 957a and shunter 959g may have a knife edge. The liner 959d can also be held in place by tightly wrapping its top with wire, which rests on the shunter 959g. This wire may be made of a material such as W or Ta that is resistant to melting or alloying with the molten metal. This wire may be wrapped around the outside of liner 959d and at least one of the notches on the outside of liner 959d.

[0211] In one embodiment, the separator 957a includes at least one dripper, such as a lead shot dripper. The molten metal return flow flows through the dripper, forming separated metal droplets at its outlet, interrupting the molten metal return flow and thereby disrupting the corresponding electrical connections, such as those that may be formed between the inner reservoir extension 959a and one or more of the inner reservoir 959, the inner reservoir liner support 959f, and the nozzle pool assembly 998. The dripper has an inlet and an outlet for the molten metal return flow, the outlet having a smaller cross-sectional area than the inlet. The dripper includes an inlet channel connected to the separator 957a at the dripper inlet, and an outlet channel connected to the inlet channel and the dripper outlet. The inlet channel may be connected to the separator at any angle, e.g., horizontal or vertical, that allows the inlet and the inlet channel to receive the molten metal flow. The outlet channel may also be connected to the inlet channel at any angle with its outlet. The outlet channel may have a smaller cross-sectional area than the inlet channel. In one embodiment, the inlet channel and at least one of the inlets have an inner diameter in the range of approximately 0.1 inches to 3 inches, and the outlet channel and at least one of the outlets have an inner diameter in the range of approximately 0.001 inches to 0.09 inches. In an exemplary embodiment, the inlet channel leads to the separator 957a, and the outlet channel leads perpendicular to the inlet channel.

[0212] In one embodiment, the separator 957a comprises a plurality of drippers arranged at equal intervals on the circumference of the separator with a radius smaller than the outer radius of the separator. In one embodiment, the dripper inlets are positioned on the separator 957a so that molten metal drips from the inlets and the droplets fall into a space between the inner storage extension 959a and the inner storage extension liner 959d. In one embodiment, the dripper outlets are directed tangentially to the inner storage extension 959a. In one embodiment, the dripper outlets are preferentially directed away from the inner wall of the inner storage tank 959, for example, towards the inner storage extension 959a or its liner 969d. Each dripper may include at least one of a plurality of outlet channels and a plurality of outlet holes.

[0213] In one embodiment, each dripper has through holes or holes in the separator 957a that are small enough in diameter to form molten metal droplets as the molten metal return flow passes through the holes. These holes(s) are located in the region between the outer radius of the inner storage tank extension liner 959d and the inner storage tank extension 959a, so that droplets fall into the corresponding space between them. In an exemplary embodiment, the holes(s) may be equally spaced along at least one circumference between the extension 959a and the liner 959d in the region between the extension 959a and the liner 959d. In an embodiment, the inner diameter of the dripper is in the range of about 0.001 inches to 0.25 inches. The separator may comprise multiple drippers. The number of drippers shall be such that the aggregate permeability or flow rate through the holes is comparable to or exceeds the injection flow rate from the electromagnetic pump injector 5k61 and nozzle 5q. In one embodiment, the number of drippers in each separator is set such that their cross-sectional area exceeds the cross-sectional area of ​​the corresponding nozzle 5q. The ratio of the dripper area to the nozzle area may be greater than a multiple of the ratio of the pressure ratio of the injected fluid in the nozzle to the head pressure. Multiple drippers are separated by a distance that avoids the accretion of molten metal droplets formed by adjacent or nearby drippers. This distance is set to be approximately larger than the diameter of the droplets formed by adjacent drippers. In one embodiment, the separator 957a may be provided with a molten metal pool on top to improve the processing rate of the molten metal by increasing the head pressure of the molten metal.

[0214] In one embodiment, multiple drippers constitute a dripper assembly. The dripper assembly includes ceramic frit, a metal screen, or a perforated metal sheet and may be connected to the top of the separator 957a, above the separator drain slot 957d. The mesh or hole size may be optimized to increase the flow rate through the dripper while allowing molten metal return flow, such as tin, to form droplets and disrupt the electrical connection of the flow. In one embodiment, the screen mesh opening size or hole diameter is in the range of approximately 0.010 inches to 0.5 inches. In one embodiment, the dripper assembly, consisting of ceramic frit, a metal screen, or a perforated metal sheet, may be positioned on the periphery of the liner and have an outer diameter smaller than the inner diameter of the inner storage tank extension. The dripper assembly may be fixed to the separator at one or more locations along the separator by at least spot welding, or supported by supports such as struts from the separator. In one embodiment, three struts may be arranged circumferentially at 120-degree intervals and supported by a dripper assembly spanning 360 degrees.

[0215] In one embodiment, the separator includes a separator extension, such as a tube, welded to the separator 957a, which extends upward from the separator, and an inner reservoir extension liner 959d passes through the separator extension, the separator hole, and the inner reservoir extension 959a. The inner reservoir extension liner 959d may also function as a separator extension liner. The liner 959d may have a flange at its top that rests on the upper end of the separator extension. In an embodiment that maximizes the separator hole area relative to a given inner diameter of the inner reservoir extension, the separator extension is connected to the inner diameter of the separator hole, and the relative diameters of the separator components are such that (i) the inner diameter of the inner reservoir extension 959a is greater than the inner diameter of the separator hole, (ii) the inner diameter of the separator hole is greater than or equal to either the inner or outer diameter of the separator extension, and (iii) the outer diameter of the inner reservoir extension liner 959d is approximately equal to the inner diameter of the separator extension. The separator extension protrudes above the separator, allowing the molten metal return flow to accumulate in the corresponding space between the separator extension and at least one of the inner wall of the outer storage tank 5c and the dome 960. In one embodiment, the hemispherical dome liner 961 may be held in place by the separator extension, or by a mounting or reinforcing member between the separator extension and the liner.

[0216] In another embodiment, the gap between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959 is made of an electrically insulating packing material capable of blocking molten metal from flowing into the gap from the storage tank end of the extension 959a, reaching the top of the inner storage tank 959 and preventing it from flowing into the gap between the inner storage tank 959 and the outer storage tank 5c. This packing material may consist of an annulus or cylinder made of solid ceramics. The packing material may include a washer or annular body made of an electrically insulating material that is not wetted by molten metal such as tin. In one embodiment, the packing material may consist of a BN washer covering the entrance to the gap between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank. This washer may have means for connecting to at least one of the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank, for example, a vertical tab on the inner diameter (ID) of the washer, and a screw or pin may be inserted into the inner diameter of the inner storage tank extension wall to hold the washer. In one embodiment, the washer may be held in place by welding to the wall of the inner storage tank to support the washer in a suitable position covering the gap between the extension and the inner storage tank when the inner storage tank semble is inserted into the outer storage tank semble. Drainage of molten metal in the gap can be achieved by a flat washer angled with respect to the horizontal plane crossing the gap, since the bottom surface of the extension is sloped. In one embodiment, the extension of the straight cylindrical bottom is positioned to match the angle between the inner and outer storage tanks, and the washer is also sloped in the same manner. Alternatively, the washer may be wedge-shaped.

[0217] In another embodiment, the packing material consists of a cylinder made of a non-wettable electrical insulator, such as a BN straight cylinder, extending downward from the lower end of the inner reservoir. The reservoir extension 959a is spaced substantially vertically apart from the separator 957a in the inner reservoir extension-inner reservoir gap, preventing molten metal from the injector from moving to a higher position. The cylinder may be held in place by at least one screw or pin connected to either the inner reservoir extension or the inner reservoir, which only partially penetrates the packing material to prevent electrical short circuits. In one embodiment, the gap is sealed with one or more packing materials, such as BN or ceramic fiber, and coating sealants, such as BN paint or ceramic adhesive.

[0218] Alternatively, the packing material may consist of a fibrous packing material containing at least one of the following: alumina silicate, alumina, silicate, quartz, zirconia, BN, aluminum nitride, silicon, etc. The fibrous packing material in the gap between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank may further include an electrical shield to prevent an electrical short circuit between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank caused by molten metal such as tin wetting the fibrous packing material. The electrical shield may include an electrical insulator that continuously separates one or more layers of the fibrous packing material, for example, a cylinder of an electrically insulator that is not easily wetted, such as a straight cylinder of BN, extending downward from the lower end of the inner storage tank extension. This cylinder is held in place by the compressive force of the fibrous packing material or by a connector that avoids an electrical short circuit across the gap.

[0219] In another embodiment, the inner storage extension 959a is equipped with a metal tube such as a Kovar tube, which is cut at the top at the same angle as the vertical of each storage tank, and the bottom of the Kovar tube is welded to the separator 957a by brazing it to the ceramic tube portion of the extension 959a. The gap between the inner storage extension and the inner storage tank is filled with a packing material such as ceramic fiber, so that the bottom of the packing material is in contact with the ceramic portion of the extension 959a. If molten metal such as molten tin wets up from the bottom surface of the packing material, an electrical short circuit can be prevented.

[0220] The packing material is preferably permeable to gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, argon, and atmospheric gases, but impermeable to molten metals such as molten tin. The packing material may also be composed of a selectively permeable membrane that is permeable to gases, has very high permeability to hydrino gas, and is impermeable to molten tin. For example, Grainger Item 56GV24Mfr, Model ZUSA-RES-101. https: / / www.grainger.com / product / 56GV27?gucid=N:N:PS:Paid:GGL:CSM-2295:4P7A1P:20501231&gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiA1-6sBhAoEiwArqlGPh0VT4RNLKVk-PYPHTVHpU6p9kevTOWrrd90_VbezTzlDH0rt6AWLxoC47QQAvD_BwE&gcclsrc=aw.ds Examples of packing materials include high-temperature ceramic paper, such as Contronics' ceramic paper (e.g., 3000°F Ultra Temp 300 ceramic paper).

[0221] Packing material, consisting of a ceramic annular or cylindrical portion, can fill gaps so as to block the upward flow of molten metal while allowing gas to pass through the packing material. At least the gap formed between the inner reservoir 959 and the packing material, and the gap between the extension 959a and the packing material, may be in the range of 1 micrometer to 1 centimeter. In another embodiment, the solid packing material has porosity or microchannels to allow gas to pass while blocking the flow of molten metal, and the size of the corresponding pores or microchannels may be in the range of 1 micrometer to 1 centimeter. Examples of porous packing materials include zeolite, sand, or alumina, zirconia, or quartz beads.

[0222] In one embodiment, the packing material includes ceramic rods such as BN, alumina, zirconia, or quartz rods, which are positioned substantially perpendicular to the gap between the inner storage tank 959 and the outer storage tank 5c and spaced apart in the circumferential direction. In another embodiment, the electrical insulating material such as the packing material between the inner storage tank 959 and the outer storage tank 5c is, for example, a Flexo Silica Sleeve. https: / / www.techflex.com / high-temperature / silica-sleeve?product_selected=SLN3.00NT The collar 980 may be provided by brazed ceramics such as a braided silica sleeve. The sleeve may have an inner diameter approximately equal to the outer diameter of the inner reservoir. The collar 980 may have an inner diameter sufficient for the inner reservoir covered with the braided silica sleeve to pass through when assembling the inner reservoir assembly into the outer reservoir assembly.

[0223] In one embodiment, a braided ceramic sleeve provided on the outside of the inner storage tank 959 covers the upper part of the inner storage tank 959 and folds back into the upper interior of the inner storage tank 959, functioning as an electrical insulating sleeve between the inner storage tank 959 and the inner storage tank extension 959a. The extent of the sleeve's extension within the inner storage tank may be in the range of 1% to 200% of the length of the inner storage tank extension within the inner storage tank.

[0224] In another embodiment, electrical insulation between the inner reservoir 959 and the inner reservoir extension 959a can be achieved using packing materials described herein. An exemplary packing material includes a ceramic sleeve positioned outside the inner reservoir extension, thereby electrically insulating the inner reservoir extension from the inner reservoir, similar to a sleeve on the inner reservoir that can electrically insulate the inner reservoir from the outer reservoir. As a further embodiment for achieving electrical insulation, the inner reservoir 959 may include an electrically nonconductive liner, such as a quartz liner, in at least one of the inner reservoir or the outer reservoir.

[0225] In another embodiment, an electrically insulating collar, such as a lamin or quartz collar, is provided in the gap between the inner reservoir 959 and the outer reservoir 5c and functions as a packing material, or spacer, to prevent the inner reservoir from short-circuiting with the outer reservoir. This collar may be located directly below the separator 957a. The collar is supported by the outer reservoir wall and sealed by welding. An exemplary collar is a straight cylindrical collar made of BN or quartz, into which the inner reservoir is inserted via collars 980 and 981 during assembly of the inner reservoir semble 978 and the outer reservoir semble 977, and the collar is removed during disassembly.

[0226] In one embodiment, at least one of the injector tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q is housed within a housing to prevent the nozzle from injecting molten metal into the joint area between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the separator 957a. The housing may consist of a quartz or ceramic tube extending along the injector axis and of sufficient length to block the injection of molten metal into the joint.

[0227] The inner storage tank extension 959 and its fasteners to the separator 957a (first separator) are assembled to a second separator. The second separator is positioned below the first separator and is fixed to the first separator by welding at the inner diameter of the mating surfaces of the two separators, for the purpose of sealing the composite separator against molten tin ingress. The inner diameter welds may be ground off for repair or replacement of the second separator and the attached inner storage tank extension. Alternatively, the two separators may be joined by a gasket and fasteners such as screws that seal the top with a weld to prevent molten tin ingress. These screws may be drilled to allow removal and replacement of the inner storage tank extension. Alternatively, the second separator may be fastened to the gasket and to the first separator by a mechanical screw that passes through the first separator. This mechanical screw is screwed into a cap nut welded to the top of the first separator.

[0228] In one embodiment, the inner storage tank extension and its fasteners may include deflection plates to prevent molten metal from contacting at least one of the connection between the first and second separators, and the connection between the inner storage tank extension and the separator. The deflection plates consist of outwardly flared rings connected to the bottom of the separator. 957a can block any metal injected from the nozzle 5q located below the separator 957a. The deflection plates may be concave from the inner diameter of the separator to provide a drip edge for returning the injected molten metal. In another embodiment, the deflection plates consist of a tube connected below the separator 957a, the inner diameter of which may be equal to or greater than the inner diameter of 957a. The connection between the metal deflector and the metal separator may be a welded joint.

[0229] In one embodiment, the inner storage tank extension 959a is made of metal, such as a stainless steel inner storage tank extension pipe 959a, and is connected to the separator 957a. The inner storage tank extension pipe 959a is attached to the inner diameter of the separator 957a such that its outer diameter matches the inner diameter of the separator 957a. Alternatively, the inner storage tank extension pipe 959a can be connected to the underside of the separator 957a, in which case the inner diameter of the inner storage tank extension pipe 959a is larger than the inner diameter of the separator, and its outer diameter is smaller than the outer diameter of the inner storage tank 959. The connection between the metal inner storage tank extension pipe 959a and the metal separator may be configured with a welded joint at the upper end. The inner storage tank extension pipe 959a is cut at the top at the same angle as the storage tank angle (e.g., 5-25 degrees, 10-16 degrees, 11-13 degrees, 12 degrees) and welded to a metal separator, such as one made of stainless steel. The stainless steel inner storage tank extension pipe extends into the inner storage tank 959. The gap between the outer diameter of the stainless steel inner storage tank extension pipe and the inner diameter of the inner storage tank 959 pipe is the gap between the electrical tube and the molten metal such as tin injected laterally from the nozzle 5q. This gap is in the range of approximately 1 mm to 10 cm. If the length of the inner storage tank extension 959a extending into the inner storage tank 959 and the gap between the inner storage tank extension 959a and the inner storage tank 959 are narrow, it is possible to prevent the tin injected laterally from overflowing from the inner storage tank 959 and flowing into the gap with the outer storage tank. The length of the inner storage tank extension 959a extending into the inner storage tank 959 is in the range of approximately 1 mm to 20 cm. The depth of the nozzle 5q, or the depth of the nozzle pool (Figure 66ZN), is sufficient to ensure electrical insulation between the molten tin return flow and the nozzle or pool from the bottom of the inner storage tank extension 959a. If a nozzle pool is not designed, the injector tube can be electrically insulated by an electrically insulating sleeve such as a quartz sleeve. The depth of the nozzle or nozzle pool ranges from approximately 1 mm to 25 cm from the bottom of the inner storage tank extension 959a.

[0230] If the molten metal flow injected from the nozzle is injected into the metal inner reservoir extension 959a instead of contacting an opposing molten metal flow within the PV window cavity 5b4 or the dome 960, an undesirable electrical short circuit may occur. In an embodiment to prevent damage due to an electrical short circuit, the molten metal injector further comprises at least one optical, thermal, voltage, or current sensor that detects at least one of the following: the molten metal flow from the nozzle contacting the inner reservoir extension 959a, and the corresponding electrical short circuit; and a controller that performs one of the following: (i) terminating the corresponding electromagnetic pumping by means such as terminating the electromagnetic pump current; (ii) terminating the ignition power; and (iii) increasing the corresponding electromagnetic pumping by means such as increasing the electromagnetic pump current, thereby propagating the molten metal flow to the dome 960 and the PV window cavity 5b4.

[0231] In the embodiments shown in Figures 66ZI to ZK, SunCell® comprises a collar or annular portion 980 on the outer storage tank 5c and a corresponding collar or annular portion 981 on the inner storage tank 959. The two collars are connected by a joint such as a Conflat flange, with a gasket in between and bolted together, or by seam welding around the collars. In one embodiment, the outer storage tank collar 980 is welded to the bottom of the storage tank base plate 5k22, and the inner storage tank 959 is connected to the storage tank bellows 917a, which passes through an opening in the storage tank base plate 5k22 to accommodate the inner storage tank extension 959a. All components connected to the outer storage tank 5c (shown in Figure 66ZJ, the outer storage tank 5c, PV window cavity base plate 5b3lc and retaining ring 5b10, dome 960, separator 957, inner storage tank extension assembly 959c, inner storage tank extension gasket 959b, electric circuit breaker with collar 913, storage tank base plate 5k22, and collar 980) can be removed from all components connected to the inner storage tank 959 (shown in Figure 66ZK, the inner storage tank 959, storage tank bellows 917a, electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1, and electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk) by reversing the joint between the collar 980 of the inner storage tank and the collar 981 of the outer storage tank. In one embodiment, the two collars are welded at the edges, and the inner and outer storage tank assemblies can be disassembled by grinding off the collar weld or cutting the collar weld with a laser. In one embodiment, the collar weld joint is constructed using a softer weld, such as one using a MIG welder. In another embodiment, the collar joint is constructed using brazing or soldering, and this joint can be released by melting the brazing material or solder. In one embodiment, collars 980 and 981 are joined by silver brazing. Silver brazing is performed by using a silver wire placed around the collar periphery between the collars, or by placing a silver gasket between the collars, and then heating the collars using a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, to melt the silver and braze or solder the collars. In another embodiment, an exemplary alloy for brazing SS collars 980 and 981 is one known in the art ( https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / List_of_brazing_alloys) contains Ag 72 Zn 28 Ag 49 Cu 16 Zn 23 Mn 7.5 Ni 4.5 Ag 6l.5 Cu 24 In 14.5 The composition of the silver is Ag-15% / P-5% / Cu-80%, Cu-30% / Zn-25% / Ag-45%, Ag-56% / Cu-22% / Zn-5%, Cu-22% / Sn-5% / Zn-17% / Ag-56%, and Cu-23% / Sn-9% / Zn-12%. The color can be separated by heating it with an induction heater to melt the silver and then pulling the color away. To prevent oxidation and corrosion, the unsoldered surface of the color can be coated with chromium or nickel coating, or a high-temperature resistant coating such as VHT paint.

[0232] Another embodiment of SunCell® shown in Figures 66Y-66ZA comprises a double-layered inner 959 and outer 5c reservoir and a DC electromagnetic pump injector 5kk for liquid, wherein the electrode has a reservoir 5c that intersects and connects with a spherical or hemispherical reservoir dome 960 connected to a base p...

Claims

1. It is a power generation system, (a) At least one container comprising a pressure-maintaining base plate Reaction chamber and (b) Two electrodes in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding storage tank, wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes to form a circuit with a molten metal pump system, the molten metal pump system comprising a movable magnet pump having permanent magnets and permanent magnets arranged on an electromagnetic pump tube having alternating polarity, wherein the electrodes generate a rotational induced current in the molten metal to pump the molten metal and inject it through the electromagnetic pump tube to form a molten metal flow, (c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes, which consist of a cathode and an anode, which applies an ignition current between them when the circuit is closed, (d) Optionally, a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the discharge flow from the plasma generation cell is directed toward a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, and molten metal supplied from molten metal reservoirs, respectively). Here, when current is applied to the circuit, the effluent from the generation cell reacts, generating a second plasma and reaction products, and the energy from this second plasma generates radiation in the plasma generation cell. (e) A transparent window cavity that is in contact with the base plate of the container and is transparent to radiation generated from the second plasma, (f) A wet seal provided between the transparent window cavity and the base plate, including a wet seal made of molten metal, (g) A power generation system comprising a power converter configured to receive radiation passing through a transparent window cavity and to convert and / or transmit energy from a second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy.

2. In the power generation system according to claim 1, molten metal is supplied to the electrodes by two molten metal injection systems, each of which includes a molten metal pump system, and the circuits are closed, and each molten metal injection system forms a molten metal flow that comes into contact with one of the electrodes, and the molten metal flows intersect to close the circuits, and each molten metal injection system, (a) comprising at least a storage tank for containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps), wherein the molten metal pumping system receives the molten metal in the storage tank through an inlet, supplies the molten metal in the storage tank as a molten metal flow through an injector tube to supply a molten metal flow, and receives the molten metal return flow after injection, (b) an inlet riser tube on the inlet side that controls the molten metal level in the storage tank, (c) An electrical shielding section provided on the wall of a storage tank, which electrically separates each corresponding electrode from an electrode of the opposite polarity, (d) A power generation system characterized by comprising: a positioning mechanism that changes the orientation of an electrode injector so that two flows from two corresponding electrodes intersect to complete a circuit.

3. The power generation system according to claim 2, wherein the system comprises a separator having a passage between a position where the molten flow closes the circuit and the inside, and a storage tank for molten metal, wherein a corresponding electrode passes through the passage to cause the molten metal to flow into the container, and the flowing molten metal returns to the inner storage tank through the passage.

4. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that the electromagnetic pump tube is cooled (for example by a cooling system such as a heat exchanger) to cool the molten metal before it enters the mobile magnet pump.

5. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 4, characterized in that the base plate is a hemispherical dome and has through-ports (e.g., channels, holes, notches) connected to each storage tank.

6. The power generation system according to claim 5, characterized in that the through-hole returns the molten metal to the storage tank after the circuit is completed (and plasma is generated).

7. The power generation system according to claim 5 or 6, wherein the penetration portion includes a barrier (e.g., a drip edge) for electrically insulating the molten metal return flow in the hemispherical dome from the molten metal in the storage tank.

8. The power generation system according to claim 5, wherein the hemispherical dome further comprises a reflective liner that reflects light generated by the second plasma through a transparent window cavity.

9. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the circuit includes a protection circuit that reduces or interrupts the current applied to the circuit when the power exceeds a set value.

10. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 9, characterized in that the flow of molten metal is generated through the electromagnetic pump pipe and the inner wall of the electromagnetic pump pipe is coated with BN paint.

11. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein the system further comprises a magnetic material for collecting reaction products from a second plasma formation reaction.

12. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the molten metal is supplied by two molten metal injection systems that form a flow of molten metal in contact with one of the electrodes in order to supply it to the electrodes and close the circuit, and these are composed of a molten metal pump system including an electromagnetic pump that forcibly pumps the molten metal through the molten metal pump tube, wherein at least one of the molten metal pump tubes is flexible and is connected to a positioning mechanism that moves the corresponding nozzle of each molten metal injection system, and the power generation system is characterized in that it allows alignment of the flow of molten metal flowing out of the flexible molten metal pump tube connected to the positioning mechanism.

13. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein molten metal is supplied to electrodes to close a circuit, and two molten metal injection systems form a flow of molten metal that contacts one electrode, each, and the molten metal pump system comprises an electromagnetic pump that forcibly pumps molten metal through the molten metal pump tube, the electromagnetic pump is in fluid communication with the molten metal storage tank, which includes an inner storage tank and an outer storage tank, the inner storage tank is located in the cavity of the outer storage tank, and a positioning mechanism is operably connected to the inner storage tank to position the inner storage tank (determined, for example, independently of a nozzle positioning mechanism).

14. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein molten metal is supplied to an electrode by two molten metal injection systems, each forming a molten metal flow and bringing the molten metal into contact with one electrode to close a circuit, and the molten metal pump system comprises an electromagnetic pump forcibly pumping molten metal through a molten metal pump pipe, the electromagnetic pump is in fluid communication with the molten metal storage tanks, which include an inner storage tank and an outer storage tank, the inner storage tank being located in the cavity of the outer storage tank, and each outer storage tank further comprises a separator having a passage through which the molten metal is discharged from the container, the corresponding electrode causing the molten metal to flow into the container through the passage, and the flowing molten metal returning to the inner storage tank through the passage.

15. The power generation system according to claim 14, wherein the separator and the passage function as a drip edge that interrupts and / or prevents a short circuit between the container and the inner storage tank (for example, a short circuit caused by a return flow of molten metal in contact with the container and the inner storage tank).

16. The power generation system according to claim 15, wherein each inner storage tank of each molten metal injection device system is further provided with a non-conductive extension to avoid an electrical short circuit between the first cavity and the second cavity, while allowing the molten metal return flow to flow into the inner storage tank.

17. In the power generation system according to claim 16, the non-conductive extension is connected to the separator using a gasket and at least one fastener to seal the corresponding connection, the non-conductive extension comprises at least one groove, pinhole or upper flange, and the fastener comprises at least one clasp, pin or fitting flange below the top flange of the non-conductive extension, or A power generation system characterized in that the flange is held in place within the outer storage tank by a projection.

18. The power generation system according to claim 17, wherein a non-conductive inner storage tank extension extends into the inner storage tank, the non-conductive extension and the inner storage tank are freely movable relative to each other due to thermal expansion, and the electrically non-conductive extension and the inner storage tank are freely movable relative to each other due to thermal expansion.

19. A power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 18, further comprising: (i) a first flexible channel or storage tank bellows connected to an inner storage tank; (ii) an electromagnetic pump base plate having a through hole for the storage tank bellows; (iii) a storage tank base plate; (iv) an electromagnetic pump having inlet and outlet electromagnetic pump tubes; (v) an electromagnetic pump tube bellows; and (vi) a positioning mechanism (e.g., an aligner) for bending the storage bellows to position the molten metal flow.

20. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 19, further comprising: (i) an electromagnetic pump base plate having through holes for a storage tank bellows; (ii) a first flexible channel or storage tank bellows having an upper part connected to an internal storage tank via the electromagnetic pump base plate; (iii) a storage base plate having a lower part of a storage bellows connected to the upper part of the storage base plate; (iv) an electromagnetic pump having an inlet or outlet electromagnetic pump pipe whose inlet pipe is connected to the lower part of the storage base plate; (v) an electromagnetic pump pipe bellows connected in series with the inlet or outlet electromagnetic pump pipe; and (vi) a positioning device that can bend the storage bellows to position a molten metal flow.

21. A power generation system according to any one of claims 19 to 20, characterized in that the outer storage tank, the inner storage tank, the upper part of the storage tank bellows, and the inlet of the electromagnetic pump are rigidly connected to the electromagnetic pump base plate, and the outlet pipe of the electromagnetic pump is rigidly connected to the storage tank base plate.

22. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 21, further comprising: (i) a storage tank base plate having through holes for storage tank bellows; (ii) flexibility; (iii) a channel or storage tank bellows connected at the top to an internal storage tank by the storage tank base plate; (iv) an electromagnetic pump base plate connected to the bottom of the storage tank bellows on the upper part of the electromagnetic pump base plate; (v) an electromagnetic pump having inlet and outlet electromagnetic pump tubes connected to the bottom of the electromagnetic pump base plate; and (vi) an aligner that bends the storage tank bellows to align the molten metal flow.

23. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 22, characterized in that the upper parts of the outer storage tank, the inner storage tank, and the storage tank bellows are rigidly connected to the storage tank base plate, and the inlet pipe and outlet pipe of the electromagnetic pump are rigidly connected to the electromagnetic pump base plate.

24. In the power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 23, at least one of the nozzle (e.g., nozzle 5q) and the injection part of the electromagnetic pump tube (e.g., electromagnetic pump tube 5k61) is made of ceramics, boron carbide (B ４ C), tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, cubic BN (cBN), BN-ZrO ２ A power generation system characterized by containing silicon carbide, graphite-silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zirconia, alumina, hafnia, silicon carbide-silicon nitride, quartz, Pyrex, carbon, SiC-coated carbon, and diamond-like carbon-coated carbon.

25. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 24, comprising an electrically conductive nozzle, (i) The nozzle height is raised relative to the container and base plate to prevent the electrodes from arcing against the container and base plate. (ii) The power generation system further includes an electrically insulating liner or group of liners to prevent the nozzle from arcing against the container and base plate, (iii) The power generation system further comprises an electrically insulating electrical separator located approximately equidistant from each nozzle and oriented to separate the nozzles, positioned perpendicular to the inter-nozzle axis and having sufficient height to substantially prevent arc discharge while maintaining the plasma reaction.

26. The power generation system according to claim 25, characterized in that the height of the electrical separator is in the range of about 1% to 90% of the height of the transparent window cavity.

27. In the power generation system according to claim 26, the electrical separator is made of ceramics, boron carbide (B ４ C), tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum nitride (AIN), BN, cubic BN (cBN), BN-ZrO ２ A power generation system characterized by being composed of silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zirconia, alumina, hafnia, silicon carbide-silicon nitride, quartz, Pyrex, or silicon carbide (SiC).

28. A power generation system according to claims 1 to 27, characterized in that the pressure of the plasma gas, which includes at least one of the plasma gas hydrogen and argon, is in the range of 1 milliliter to 760 tor, and the gas pressure is maintained at a level that suppresses ion etching, and the PV window cavity is prevented from being metallized with electrode metal by sputtering of at least one electrode.

29. The power generation system according to claim 28, characterized in that the electrode has a shape that reduces the electric field of the plasma ignition voltage by distributing the charge density due to the applied voltage across the entire area of ​​the electrode.

30. The power generation system according to claim 29, characterized in that the shape includes a flat-top nozzle electrode having an injection outlet at the upper center.

31. The power generation system according to claims 28 to 30, wherein the electrode comprises at least one of a ceramic insert in a nozzle outlet and a counterbore, wherein the counterbore is filled with injected molten metal to form a liquid electrode, thereby causing ions and electrons to collide with the liquid electrode at least partially, and the edge of the counterbore is rounded to avoid concentration of plasma field lines.

32. The power generation system according to claim 31, comprising a regulator that changes at least one of the inter-electrode distance and the height of the intersection of the inter-electrode flow path, wherein during plasma startup, it is set to a lower value than the position during steady-state operation, and this lower value allows, The voltage range required for plasma activation has been reduced. A power generation system characterized by reducing at least one of ion etching and electron etching of a nozzle.

33. The power generation system according to claim 32, characterized in that the regulator tilts the nozzles to reduce the nozzle spacing and the height of the intersection of the molten metal flow, and achieves at least one of the following: a voltage below the voltage that causes ion and electron etching, or a voltage in the range of about 1V to 25V.

34. A power generation system according to claims 2 to 33, characterized in that the electrodes and the injector portion of the molten metal pump are located outside the storage tank, and the molten metal return flow is configured to flow towards the inside of the storage tank.

35. The power generation system according to claims 2 to 34, wherein the inlet riser is located outside the storage tank while housing the injector, and is an inlet for a molten metal pump such that the molten metal oxide present accumulates inside the storage tank and does not flow into the storage tank.

36. In the power generation system according to any one of claims 16 to 23, the inner storage tank extension fixing device is (a) Multiple holes in the extension of the inner storage tank, (b) A pin, screw, or bolt through the hole, (c) Straps, bolts or screws connected to the bottom of the separator, A power generation system characterized by including at least one of the following.

37. The power generation system according to claim 36, characterized in that the bolt passes through a hole and includes an eyebolt fixed to the inside of the inner storage tank extension by a carbon gasket and a nut.

38. In the power generation system according to claim 37, the inner storage tank extension fixing device further, (a) The separator is provided with a threaded rod welded to its lower surface, the threaded rod passing through the holes of each eyebolt, and the eyebolt ends of the threaded rod further tighten the inner storage tank against the gasket and the separator, or (b) A power generation system characterized by comprising a male thread passing through the hole of an eyebolt and tightening the joint between the inner storage tank extension and the separator, wherein a threaded tube, a female threaded standoff, or a coupler is connected to the separator and functions as a female connector to the male thread.

39. The power generation system according to claim 37, wherein the inner storage tank fastener consists of two separators joined by a welded joint, the pair of lower members includes an inner storage tank extension, the welded joint is removable, and thereby the inner storage tank extension can be replaced.

40. A power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 22, further comprising a joint collar or annular portion on the outer storage tank and a corresponding joint or annular portion located in the inner storage tank, wherein these two constitute a joint.

41. A power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 22, wherein the joint includes at least one conflat flange which is bolted via a gasket or seam-welded around a collar.

42. A power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 22 and 40 to 41, characterized in that the outer storage tank joint collar is welded to the bottom of the storage tank base plate, the inner storage tank joint collar is connected to the storage tank bellows, and is connected to an inner storage tank that houses an inner storage tank extension through an opening in the storage tank base plate.

43. In the power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 22 and 40 to 42, the outer storage tank assembly includes all components connected to the outer storage tank (e.g., outer storage tank, PV window cavity base plate and retaining ring, circuit breaker with circuit breaker collar, storage tank base plate, joint collar, etc.), and the inner storage tank assembly includes all components connected to the inner storage tank (e.g., inner storage tank, storage tank bellows, electromagnetic pump base plate, electromagnetic pump assembly and joint collar, etc.), The outer storage tank assembly and the inner storage tank assembly are joined at a joint including the joint collar. The assembly is separated by inverting the joint between the joint collar of the outer storage tank and the joint collar of the inner storage tank. A power generation system characterized by the following features.

44. A power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 22 and 40 to 43, characterized in that two joint collars are welded at their outer edges, and the inner and outer storage device assemblies can be disassembled by grinding away the welded portion of the joint collars.

45. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 33, characterized in that the nozzle is at least partially protected from plasma damage such as etching or erosion by at least one of a Faraday cage and a magnetic field.

46. A power generation system according to claim 45, wherein the inner storage tank, partially covered by a conductive separator, constitutes a Faraday cage for protecting the nozzle housed inside from etching by either ions or electrons.

47. The power generation system according to claim 46, wherein the Faraday cage further comprises a perforated conductive cover covering an inner storage tank, and the mesh openings of the cover are large enough to partially block at least one of ions and electrons while allowing the molten metal flow injected from the nozzle to pass through.

48. The power generation system according to claim 45 is further characterized in that the nozzle is provided with a magnetic field source to deflect at least one of ions and electrons to protect the nozzle from etching, erosion, or other damage by either ions or electrons.

49. The power generation system according to claim 48, characterized in that the magnetic field generating device includes at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet.

50. The power generation system according to claim 49, wherein the electromagnetic field source is configured to pass an electric current through the injector portion of an electromagnetic pump, and the electric current is supplied by at least one of an electromagnetic pump current and an ignition current.

51. In the power generation system according to any one of claims 13 to 50, the nozzle is The injection surface (for example, the surface where molten metal is present) has an inclined shape, which is on the opposite side of the inclination of the injector tube in the inner storage tank, thereby making the injection surface flat, or The injector surface consists of an injection nozzle hole with at least a counterbore and a plurality of lateral channels leading to a central injection channel. A power generation system characterized by including at least one of the following.

52. The power generation system according to claim 51, wherein at least one of the side channels includes maintaining the overflow of the molten metal pool in the counterbore, maintaining the molten metal coating on the nozzle surface, or maintaining at least one molten metal stream that short-circuits electric field lines and blocks the plasma electron / ion flow in order to protect the nozzle from plasma damage such as etching.

53. The power generation system according to claim 52, wherein the injector comprises an injection section of an electromagnetic pump and further comprises a concentric tube for injecting gas through a nozzle, the nozzle comprising at least one molten metal outlet and at least one gas outlet or gas discharge section, wherein the gas provides a backflow to the plasma flow into the nozzle and maintains a relatively high local pressure in the nozzle to protect the nozzle.

54. A power generation system according to any one of claims 18 to 53, wherein the inner storage tank or the extension of the inner storage tank further comprises a molten metal pool through which at least one of the nozzle portion and the injection portion of an electromagnetic pump tube passes, and the molten metal level in the pool is maintained by the return flow of molten metal from the molten metal injected by the injector.

55. In the power generation system according to claim 54, the pool includes a lateral pool floor plate welded to the wall of the inner storage tank, The nozzle includes a nozzle with an inclined upper surface to compensate for the inclination of the nozzle and injector electromagnetic pump tube in the inner storage tank, or a bullet-shaped nozzle. The power generation system is further characterized by the pool having an inlet riser that controls the height of the molten metal in the pool.

56. In the power generation system according to claim 55, the inlet riser comprises a tube having an opening at its top for receiving the overflow of molten metal returning, and an overflow outlet at its bottom that penetrates a pool floor plate, wherein the height of the tube is a desired height of the molten metal in the pool. Excess molten metal flows out through the tube from the pool to a lower position in the internal storage tank. A power generation system characterized in that the height of the molten metal pool is set to cover the height of the nozzle.

57. The power generation system according to claim 55, wherein the pool further comprises a deformable floor bellows or cylindrical bellows that allows the nozzle position to be adjusted by a regulator.

58. The power generation system according to claim 55, wherein the cylindrical bellows comprises an upper pool bellows plate, and the plate further comprises at least one inlet riser having an outlet penetration portion for the pool bellows plate at its bottom and a penetration portion for an injector.

59. The power generation system according to claim 55, characterized in that both the through-hole for the injector and the injector are threaded, and the injector is connected to the pool bellows plate by a screw.

60. The power generation system according to claim 55, wherein the pool further comprises a second pool floor plate which is connected to the inner storage tank wall in its peripheral portion and connected to the first pool floor plate using mechanical screws and gaskets.

61. The power generation system according to claim 55, wherein the injector electromagnetic pump tube is joined to the electromagnetic pump base plate by a coupler, has sufficient thickness to prevent bending when adjusting the nozzle position, or the electromagnetic pump tube consists of a plurality of tube sections connected by an adapter coupler, at least one base section has a larger outer diameter than the upper connecting section to prevent bending when adjusting the nozzle position, and the uppermost tube section has an outer diameter that can penetrate the pool bellows plate.

62. The power generation system according to claim 56, wherein the pool further comprises a nozzle joint that facilitates the positioning of the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump and the orientation angle of the attached nozzle.

63. The power generation system according to claim 62, wherein the nozzle joint comprises a ball-socket joint and further comprises at least one central through-hole, the central through-hole passing through at least one of the injection portion of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle, the joint is welded to a floor plate, and the injection portion of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle are slidable through the through-hole.

64. The power generation system according to claim 63 further comprises a second ball-socket joint, (a) a second ball and a second socket housing or casing into which the ball is fitted, (b) A ball joint chamber welded to the upper part of the electromagnetic pump base plate at a through portion for receiving molten metal, wherein the electromagnetic pump tube is welded to the electromagnetic pump base plate at a position where it penetrates the electromagnetic base plate, and the ball joint chamber for injecting molten metal into the chamber, (c) A chamber cap that forms the seating surface between the second ball and the second socket casing, (i) The ball has a full-diameter channel, one channel opening forming an inlet that comes into contact with the molten metal injected into the chamber by the electromagnetic pump, and the opposite opening is connected to the injector portion by welding or screwing, and has an opening that is welded or screwed to the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube, (ii) The electromagnetic pump pressurizes the molten metal in the chamber and causes it to flow through the ball channel into the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, thereby injecting it as a molten metal stream, and the chamber cap is such that the molten metal flows through the ball channel into the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and is injected as a molten metal stream, A power generation system characterized by having the following features.

65. In the power generation system according to claim 64, the pool floor plate is (a) They are arranged horizontally within the internal reservoir, (b) The walls of the internal storage tank are welded in the circumferential direction, (c) This separates the upper and lower parts of the internal storage tank, A power generation system characterized by the following.

66. The power generation system according to claim 65, wherein the melt flow injection angle of the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump and the nozzle is adjustable by an adjustment device, the adjustment device extending or retracting a section of the storage tank bellows, and the electromagnetic pump base plate is made to be able to move at least one of the following: inclination, horizontal lateral movement, or vertical lateral movement.

67. The power generation system according to claim 66, characterized in that when the nozzle is tilted, the height of the nozzle is compensated by the adjustment device, and the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube slides through the joint penetration portion.

68. The power generation system according to claim 67, wherein the ball channel of the second ball is inclined from the vertical by approximately (for example, 5 to 25 degrees, 10 to 16 degrees, 11 to 13 degrees, 12 degrees) relative to the axis of the injector constituting the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle constituting the axis of the storage tank, and the regulator rotates the injector axis and the ball channel axis relative to the angle of the storage tank axis to determine a predetermined position.

69. The power generation system according to claim 68, wherein the adjustment device includes at least one bellows that generates lateral movement of the electromagnetic base plate in order to change the injection angle of the injector.

70. The power generation system according to claim 69, characterized in that the bellows includes two bellows units that can form relative curvatures in opposite directions in the corresponding composite storage tank bellows, thereby causing lateral movement.

71. The power generation system according to claim 70, wherein the two bellows straddle each electromagnetic base plate, and the inner storage tank further has a connection portion that includes an intermediate pipe, and therein, when expansion and contraction are performed alternately on one side of adjacent units, the upper part of the upper unit is fixed to the inner storage tank, so the electromagnetic base plate moves.

72. The power generation system according to claim 71, wherein each of the bellows units further comprises an independent adjustment device, each adjustment device comprising a frame, a movable frame, and a bolt and nut spanning between the frame and the movable frame, wherein the length of the bolt is changed, and the change in length is controlled by screwing the nut on the bolt in one direction or the other.

73. The power generation system according to claim 72, characterized in that the upper part of the inner storage tank is cut at the same angle as the angle from the vertical of the storage tank (for example, 12 degrees) to form a horizontal upper part, and the distance between the upper part and the horizontal separator is made uniform along the perimeter of the inner storage tank.

74. The power generation system according to claim 73, characterized in that the inner storage tank extension and the separator are integrated, or the inner storage tank extension includes a metal upper portion welded or brazed to the separator.

75. The power generation system according to claim 74, characterized in that the inner storage tank extension further includes an electrical insulator bottom portion brazed to the metal upper portion.

76. The power generation system according to claim 75, wherein the upper portion of the inner storage tank extension is made of metal, and the metal is made of metal cut at the same or similar angles (e.g., 5 to 25 degrees, 10 to 16 degrees, 11 to 13 degrees, 12 degrees) (e.g., 5 to 25 degrees, 10 to 16 degrees, 11 to 13 degrees, 12 degrees), welded to the separator, and further includes an electrical insulator bottom portion made of glass, borosilicate glass, Pyrex, quartz, alumina, sapphire, zirconia, BN, or other ceramics, and the brazing is capable of high-temperature operation.

77. The power generation system according to claim 76, characterized in that the metal is Kovar for the upper component of the extension of the internal storage tank, alumina for the ceramic bottom component, and copper for the brazing material between Kovar and alumina.

78. The power generation system according to claim 77, wherein the inner storage tank extension further includes an electrically insulating high-temperature liner for avoiding an electrical short circuit between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank, and the height of the nozzle inside the liner may be higher than the bottom of the inner storage tank extension.

79. A power generation system according to claim 78, wherein there is a gap between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank, and the gap is filled with at least one of the following: the packing material has the function of preventing contact between the inner storage tank and the outer storage tank, and the packing material has the function of blocking molten metal from flowing from the storage tank side of the extension into the gap, thereby preventing a short circuit between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank, and preventing molten metal from reaching the top of the inner storage tank and flowing into the gap between the inner storage tank and the storage tank.

80. A power generation system according to claim 79, comprising a nozzle pool, wherein the gap between the inner storage tank extension and the inner storage tank is sealed by a wet seal.

81. In the power generation system according to claim 80, (a) The molten metal to be wet-sealed includes the nozzle pool molten metal, (b) The inner storage tank extension is made of an electrically insulating high-temperature liner, or the bottom portion of the inner storage tank extension is made of an electrically insulating material, (c) A power generation system characterized in that the bottom of the inner reservoir extension liner or the bottom electrical insulating portion of the inner reservoir extension is at least partially immersed in the molten metal of the nozzle pool to form the wet seal.

82. The power generation system according to claim 81, characterized in that the bottom of the inner storage tank extension liner or the bottom electrical insulation portion of the inner storage tank extension is cut horizontally and the bottom is arranged parallel to a horizontal pool floor plate.

83. A power generation system according to claim 82, wherein at least one of the vacuum line and the gas line is connected to at least one of the storage tanks located above the separator, and the dome liner of the hemispherical dome is provided with through holes for each line.

84. The power generation system according to claim 83, wherein at least one of the vacuum line and the gas line has a penetration into the storage tank below the level of the separator, and is connected via at least one pool to at least one of the upper part of the inner storage tank, the inside of the hemispherical dome, and the PV window cavity, and is in gas communication with at least one of them via an inlet riser.

85. A power generation system according to any one of claims 12 to 84, wherein the nozzle maintains a flow of molten metal (for example, supplied by connection to a molten metal injection device) in a portion of the nozzle (for example, via a microchannel), and can form a layer, film, or pool of molten metal on the nozzle surface as needed.

86. A power generation system according to any one of claims 16 to 85, wherein the non-conductive extension includes a double-walled tube or two concentric tubes supported at the bottom edge or edge by mechanical screws, each having an electrically insulating support bracket on the head of the mechanical screw.

87. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 86, comprising a base plate leveling system that equalizes the flow rate of molten metal returned to each molten metal storage tank, wherein the base plate leveling system includes an actuator attached to the base plate of the PV cavity.

88. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 87, wherein the system further comprises at least one H ２ / O ２ A power generation system characterized by comprising a heater including a torch and at least one inductively coupled heater.

89. The power generation system according to claim 88, characterized in that each of the inductively coupled heaters is connected by lead wires to at least one coil that induces current in a system component to be heated, either in series or in parallel.

90. The power generation system according to claim 89, characterized in that each of the inductively coupled heaters comprises an inductively coupled heater coil assembly in which a plurality of coils are connected by lead wires in at least one of the following connection methods: in series or in parallel.

91. The power generation system according to claim 90, wherein one inductively coupled heater drives one inductively coupled heater coil assembly in which four coils are connected in parallel or in series, the assembly comprising (i) a coil arranged around the heat transfer block of each electromagnetic pump, (ii) a coil arranged around the bottom of each internal storage tank, and (iii) a coil at the bottom of the PV window cavity base plate.

92. The power generation system according to claim 91, wherein the inductively coupled heater comprises a plurality of coils, a cooling device, a thermal and electrical insulator for the coils, a coolant storage tank, at least one coolant valve, at least one steam pressure relief valve, a DC power supply, a power supply, a battery, at least one inverter, and at least one temperature sensor and controller.

93. The power generation system according to claim 92, characterized in that (i) the DC power supply is powered by a rechargeable battery, (ii) the coils are independent, and (iii) the DC power supply powers a plurality of independent inverters, one for each independent coil, and each inverter is individually controlled by the controller and computer to achieve a desired temperature measured by a temperature sensor for each heated component.

94. A power generation system according to claims 14 to 93, wherein the separator further comprises a drainage channel for returning molten metal, and the power generation system is characterized in that the molten metal being returned does not come into contact with at least one of the injector portion and the nozzle of the electromagnetic pump.

95. The power generation system according to claim 94, characterized in that the drainage channel includes a slit in the separator that forms a gap between the inner storage tank extension liner and the inner storage tank extension.

96. The power generation system according to claim 94 or 95, wherein the separator further comprises a flow divider for preferentially guiding the molten metal return flow to the drainage channel.

97. The power generation system according to claim 95 or 96, wherein the inner storage tank extension liner is positioned higher than the level of the separator, and the flow divider includes a raised extension of the inner storage tank extension along a portion of the inner storage tank extension, the extension preventing the returning molten metal from flowing into the gap between the raised inner storage tank extension liner and the inner storage tank extension.

98. The power generation system according to claim 97, wherein the inner storage container may be provided with an electrically non-conductive liner or sleeve on at least one of its inner or outer surfaces in order to achieve electrical insulation, such as insulation between the extension of the inner storage container and the inner storage container.

99. The power generation system according to claim 98, wherein the flow divider extends along the circumference of the inner storage tank extension liner, and the flow divider partially covers the separator drain groove slot, thereby preventing molten metal such as molten tin from flowing back between the flow divider and the inner storage tank extension liner, and avoiding a short circuit between the inner storage tank extension liner and the storage tank extension.

100. A power generation system according to claim 99, characterized in that at least one of the inner storage tank extension liner support and the inner storage tank extension liner is provided with a molten metal return drainage channel.

101. The power generation system according to claim 100, wherein the inner storage tank extension liner support portion includes an attachment portion to the inner storage tank, and the attachment portion is a non-conductive support having a molten metal return drainage channel.

102. The power generation system according to claim 101, characterized in that the inner storage tank extension liner support is provided with fasteners on the upper part of the inner storage tank extension liner.

103. The power generation system according to claim 102, wherein the upper internal storage tank extension liner support portion comprises a liner notch, a flow divider edge or end edge, a lip disposed on the flow divider, and a flange or flare.

104. A power generation system according to claims 14 to 103, wherein the separator comprises at least one dripper, wherein the injected molten metal return flow passes through the dripper to form separated metal droplets at its outlet, and the separator interrupts the molten metal return flow, thereby interrupting any corresponding electrical connections that may be formed, and is provided between the inner storage tank extension and one or more of the inner storage tank, the inner storage tank liner support, and the nozzle pool assembly.

105. The power generation system according to claim 104, wherein each of the drippers has a small diameter through-hole or hole in the separator that causes the formation of molten metal droplets as the molten metal return flow passes through the hole.

106. The power generation system according to claim 105, wherein the dripper is positioned in the region between the outer radius of the inner storage tank extension liner and the inner storage tank extension, and is configured such that droplets fall into the corresponding space between them.

107. In the power generation system according to claim 106, at least one of the drippers having the separator hole is (a) Arranged at equal intervals in the region between the internal storage tank extension liner and the internal storage tank extension, (b) The inner diameter is in the range of approximately 0.001 inches to 0.25 inches, (c) A sufficient number is provided for the total processing volume or flow rate through the flow path, and is comparable to or exceeds the injection flow rate from the electromagnetic pump injector and the nozzle. (d) The cross-sectional area is set to a value that exceeds the cross-sectional area of ​​the corresponding nozzle. (e) The ratio of the cross-sectional area of ​​the hole to the nozzle area is greater than the pressure ratio of the injection flow in the nozzle. (f) Having a separation distance that avoids the coalescence of molten metal droplets formed by adjacent holes, (g) A power generation system characterized by having a spacing that is larger than the diameter of the droplets formed by the dripping device of adjacent holes.

108. The power generation system according to claim 107, wherein the separator is provided with a molten metal pool above it in order to increase the head pressure of the molten metal and thereby increase the processing speed of the molten metal.

109. The power generation system according to claim 108, wherein the pool includes a separator extension extending above the separator, the inner storage tank extension liner passes through the separator extension, the separator hole, and the inner storage tank extension, so that the molten metal return flow accumulates in the corresponding space between the separator extension and at least one of the inner wall and dome of the outer storage tank.

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