High-power ion beam generator system and method

Abstract

To provide a high power ion beam generator system and method.SOLUTION: Provided herein are a high energy ion beam generator system and a method that provide low cost, high performance, robust, consistent, uniform, low gas consumption and high current / high-moderate voltage generation of neutrons and protons. Such a system and a method find use for commercial-scale generation of neutrons and protons for a wide variety of research, medical, security, and industrial processes.SELECTED DRAWING: None

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 447,685 (filed January 18, 2017), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0002] (Field) High-energy ion beam generator systems and methods that provide low-cost, high-performance, robust, consistent, uniform, highly efficient, and high-current / high-to-medium-voltage generation of neutrons and protons are provided herein. Such systems and methods will find applications for commercial-scale generation of neutrons and protons for a wide variety of research, medical, security, and industrial processes. [Background technology]

[0003] (background) A particle accelerator is a device that energizes ions and drives them into a target. A neutron generator is a specific application of a particle accelerator that produces neutrons by fusing isotopes of hydrogen. Nuclear fusion reactions are carried out by accelerating either deuterium, tritium, or a mixture of two isotopes into a target that also contains deuterium, tritium, or a mixture of isotopes. Nuclear fusion of deuterium atoms is, 3 This results in half the time being spent in the formation of He ions and neutrons, and the other half is spent. 3 This leads to the formation of H (tritium) ions and protons. Nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium atoms 4 This leads to the formation of He ions and neutrons.

[0004] Particle accelerators and neutron generators have numerous applications in medical, imaging, industrial processes (e.g., online analyzers, metal cleanliness, raw materials, Al-based catalysts, energy production), materials analysis, safety measures (e.g., nuclear material detection), research, education, exploration, security (e.g., explosive detection, chemical weapons detection, contraband detection), and ion implantation.

[0005] Historically, neutron generation has employed approaches that either involve extremely complex and expensive systems, generate or use excessive levels of hazardous materials, or provide insufficient neutron output to meet commercial needs. Radioactive sources capable of producing high neutron levels contain harmful levels of radiation, requiring numerous safety considerations. Neutrons can also be produced by nuclear reactions using accelerators (e.g., cyclotrons, van de Graaff accelerators, LINACs), which offer high yields but are substantially costly and complex to operate. The use of neutron generators using deuterium-tritium (DT) reactions has addressed some of the safety issues, but the tritium content necessitates encapsulation and typically results in a short lifetime. Attempts to use deuterium-deuterium (DD) neutron generators have yielded limited success, due to the approximately 100 times lower fusion cross-section of the DD reaction compared to the DT reaction.

[0006] The high cost, lack of efficiency, safety concerns, and lack of durability of existing systems have prevented them from finding applications in many commercial uses where they could benefit from neutron generators. Addressing these issues in this field has been extremely complex, and routine optimization or modification of existing systems has not been able to provide meaningful or practical solutions. [Overview of the project] [Problems that the invention aims to solve]

[0007] High-energy ion beam generator systems and methods are provided herein that offer low cost, high performance, robust, consistent, uniform, low gas consumption, low fuel consumption, and high current / high-to-medium voltage neutron and proton generation. The systems and methods offer a balance of throughput, cost, and reliability not previously achieved. Such systems provide viable commercial-scale neutron and proton generation for commercial processes such as semiconductor and LED manufacturing, among other things. [Means for solving the problem]

[0008] Multiple performance enhancement techniques that contribute individually and collectively to high-performance high-energy ion beam generator systems and methods are described herein. Unless otherwise expressly stated or unless it is logically contradictory, each of the techniques described herein may be used in combination with one another to provide a generator with desirable performance characteristics and properties. For convenience, these techniques are grouped into the following categories: I) Ion Source Techniques, II) Infrastructure Techniques, III) High-Voltage System Techniques, IV) Neutron Generation Target Techniques, V) Automatic Control System Techniques, and VI) Exemplary Applications and Indications. Specific techniques within and between each group may be used in combination.

[0009] Individually or collectively, these techniques may be applied to any high-energy ion beam generator system having the relevant components. To illustrate embodiments of the techniques, many of the features are described in relation to a high-energy ion beam generator employed by Phoenix Nuclear Labs, LLC (Monona, Wisconsin). See, for example, U.S. Patent Publications 2011 / 0096887, 2012 / 0300890, and 2016 / 0163495, as well as U.S. Patents 8,837,662 and 9,024,261 (which are incorporated herein by reference as a whole). However, it should be understood that these technologies may be applicable to a wide range of high-energy ion beam generators and their components, including those from Pantechnik (Bayeux, France), D-Pace (British Columbia, Canada), Adelphi Tech Inc. (Rosewood City, California) (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2014 / 0179978, incorporated herein in whole by reference), Starfire Industries, LLC (Champaign, Illinois) (see, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 9,008,256, incorporated herein in whole by reference), Thermo Fisher Scientific (see, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 8,384,018, incorporated herein in whole by reference), and Sodern (Limeil-Brevannes, France).

[0010] Applications of such systems are not limited to semiconductor manufacturing (e.g., silicon cleavage for photovoltaic semiconductor applications), isotope generation and separation, cyclotron injection systems, accelerator mass spectrometry, security (e.g., explosive detection), industrial diagnostics and quality control, and imaging. Cyclotrons are widely used across medical and industrial fields. Ion beams are used in a wide range of settings in the semiconductor industry. Better ion sources translate into cheaper, more efficient, and more effective production techniques for circuit components, which are the building blocks of all modern IC-based technologies. In another embodiment, negative ion sources find applications in the field of magnetic confinement fusion energy.

[0011] For decades, scientists have sought to develop energy sources based on nuclear fusion reactions, as they could potentially provide an essentially unlimited amount of clean energy along with virtually harmless byproducts. While nuclear fusion energy technology has made great progress over the past few decades, several technical challenges still remain that have hindered the development of clean nuclear fusion energy reactors. One challenge faced by nuclear fusion energy is the unreliable high-current negative ion source. Existing negative ion fusion injectors use filaments and / or magnetically coupled plasmas, which are plagued by many of the shortcomings discussed herein. A reliable, long-lived negative ion source would significantly increase ion source conversion efficiency, lifetime, reliability, and current output.

[0012] In some embodiments, a waveguide is provided herein, comprising: a)i) a proximal end having an electromagnetic wave incidence point; ii) a distal end having an electromagnetic wave emission point; and iii) an outer wall extending between the proximal and distal ends and configured to propagate electromagnetic waves; and b) a reverse impedance matching component located inside the waveguide component, wherein the reverse impedance matching component extends from the distal end of the waveguide to at least partway toward the proximal end of the waveguide, and the reverse impedance matching component comprises a distal end and a proximal end, the distal end of the impedance matching component being located at or near the distal end of the waveguide and having a larger cross-sectional area than the proximal end of the reverse impedance matching component.

[0013] In one embodiment, the reverse impedance matching component is made of metal. In a further embodiment, the reverse impedance matching component is configured to be cooled by water. In another embodiment, the reverse impedance matching component is located along the centerline of the waveguide. In an additional embodiment, the reverse impedance matching component is supported by one or more support legs attached to the outer wall of the waveguide. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic wave is a microwave. In a further embodiment, the cross-sectional area at the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component is at least two, three, or four times larger than the cross-sectional area at the proximal end of the reverse impedance matching component. In some embodiments, the reverse impedance matching component has one or more steps (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7...10...or 20) that allow the cross-sectional area to vary from the proximal end to the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component.

[0014] In further embodiments, the reverse impedance matching component comprises a taper from the proximal to the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component, thereby allowing the cross-sectional area to change. In some embodiments, the cross-sectional area at the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component is large enough to block all or nearly all of the backflowing electrons when the device is part of an accelerator system.

[0015] In certain embodiments, a system is provided herein that comprises a) an electromagnetic wave source, b) a plasma chamber, and c) a device described above (and herein), comprising a waveguide and reverse impedance matching components. In some embodiments, the proximal end of the waveguide is operably mounted to the electromagnetic wave source, and the distal end of the waveguide is operably mounted to the plasma chamber. In further embodiments, the electromagnetic wave source comprises a microwave source.

[0016] In some embodiments, a) a computer processor; b) a non-transient computer memory comprising one or more computer programs and a database, wherein the one or more computer programs comprises accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software; and c) an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam (e.g., generating neutrons or protons), which is operably communicating with the non-transient computer memory and can be automatically adjusted by the accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software, namely, one or more subsystems, i) an ion source and ion source monitoring component; and ii) a focusing solenoid magnet and focusing solenoid magnet monitoring component. A system is provided herein that comprises an accelerator system comprising: iii) a tube opening and a tube opening monitoring component; iv) a solid or gas target and a solid or gas target monitoring component; v) an ion beam extraction and secondary electron suppression component and an extraction and suppression monitoring component; vi) a beam generation subsystem and a beam generation subsystem monitoring component; vii) a beam focusing and steering subsystem and a beam focusing and steering subsystem monitoring component; viiii) an accelerator / resistor subsystem and an accelerator / resistor subsystem monitoring component; ix) a beam steering subsystem and a beam steering subsystem monitoring component; and x) a pressurized gas subsystem component and a pressurized gas subsystem component monitoring component.

[0017] In one embodiment, 1) an ion source monitoring component comprises a mass flow meter, a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, and / or a pressure gauge; 2) a focusing solenoid monitoring component comprises a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, a voltage monitor, and / or a current monitor; 3) a tube opening monitoring component comprises a camera, a thermocouple, and / or a coolant flow meter; 4) a solid or gas target monitoring component comprises a camera, a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, and / or a radiation detector; 5) an extraction and suppression monitoring component comprises a pressure gauge, a thermocouple, a current monitor, and / or a voltage monitor; 6) a beam generation subsystem monitoring component comprises a current monitor and / or an emittance scanner; and 7) a pressurized gas subsystem monitoring component comprises a pressure gauge and / or a gas analyzer.

[0018] In certain embodiments, accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software is configured to collect and analyze multiple different settings for subsystems and calculate optimized settings for such subsystems. In other embodiments, accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software is configured to change settings in one or more subsystems to optimize the performance of the accelerator system, at least partially.

[0019] In some embodiments, a) an ion source plasma chamber having a source axis aligned with the direction of a beam emanating from the plasma chamber; b) at least one ion source magnet (e.g., a solenoid or permanent magnet), the at least one ion source magnet comprising an opening and at least one outer wall, the ion source plasma chamber extending through the opening of the at least one ion source magnet; c) at least one receiving component attached to or integral with the at least one outer wall of the at least one ion source magnet; and d) a ferromagnetic enclosure comprising at least one ion source A system is provided herein, comprising: a ferromagnetic enclosure having a source magnet and an ion source plasma chamber located inside the ferromagnetic enclosure, wherein at least one ion source magnet can move to a plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure along the source axis of the plasma chamber, and having at least one longitudinal opening extending along the direction of the source axis and aligned with a receiving component; and at least one tunable component extending through the longitudinal opening and configured to attach to the receiving component, which can fix at least one ion source magnet at a plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure.

[0020] In some embodiments, the receiving component comprises a threaded metal connector, a snap receiver, or a pinhole. In certain embodiments, the adjustment component comprises a threaded bolt. In other embodiments, the receiving component is bonded to at least one ion source magnet (e.g., a solenoid magnet or a permanent magnet). In some embodiments, at least one ion source magnet is at least partially encased in epoxy. In other embodiments, at least one ion source magnet comprises two, three, or four ion source magnets. In additional embodiments, at least one longitudinal opening comprises at least two, three, or four longitudinal openings.

[0021] In some embodiments, a method is provided herein that includes: a) providing a system as described directly above or elsewhere herein; b) moving at least one ion source magnet (e.g., a solenoid magnet or a permanent magnet) from a first position among a plurality of positions to a second position among the plurality of positions; c) inserting at least one adjustment component into at least one receiving component through at least one longitudinal opening; and d) fixing at least one adjustment component to at least one receiving component, thereby fixing at least one ion source magnet at the second position. In certain embodiments, the at least one ion source magnet comprises a first and a second ion source magnet, and both the first and second ion source magnets are moved from the first position to the second position and fixed at the second position.

[0022] In some embodiments, there is provided a manufactured article comprising a metal assembly of an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam, the metal assembly partially blocking the high-energy ion beam when positioned within the accelerator system, the metal assembly comprising a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, the filler metal attaching the first metal component to the second metal component at a joint (e.g., a brazed joint).

[0023] In certain embodiments, there is provided a manufactured article comprising a metal assembly of an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam, the metal assembly: i) partially blocking the high-energy ion beam; ii) being within a vacuum environment when positioned within the accelerator system, the metal assembly comprising: i) at least one water-cooling channel; ii) a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, the filler metal attaching the first metal component to the second metal component at a joint (e.g., a brazed joint).

[0024] In certain embodiments, the first and second metal components are made of a highly thermally conductive metal (e.g., copper, aluminum, etc.). In some embodiments, the filler metal has a lower melting point than the first and second metal components. In certain embodiments, the first metal component comprises a tube sheet and the second metal component comprises a plate plug. In certain embodiments, the filler metal is BNi-7 alloy, BNi-6 alloy, Pd 100 , Pt 100 , Ni 100 , or other metal or alloy suitable for brazing both the first and second metal components. In some embodiments, the first metal component comprises a first item selected from the group consisting of a first tube, a tube cap, a different tube sheet, and a valve, and the second metal component comprises a second item selected from the group consisting of a second tube, a tube cap, a different tube sheet, and a valve. In some embodiments, at least one water-cooled channel comprises at least two water-cooled channels (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6... 10... or 25 water-cooled channels).

[0025] In additional embodiments, a system is provided herein that comprises: a) an accelerator system that generates an ion beam (e.g., a high-energy ion beam); and b) a metal assembly that is positioned within the accelerator system such that the metal assembly: i) at least partially obstructs the high-energy ion beam; and ii) is within a vacuum environment, the metal assembly comprising a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, the filler metal attaching the first metal component to the second metal component in a joint (e.g., a brazed joint).

[0026] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein comprising a) an accelerator system for generating an ion beam (e.g., a high-energy ion beam) and b) a metal assembly, wherein the metal assembly is positioned within the accelerator system such that i) it partially obstructs the high-energy ion beam and ii) it is in a vacuum environment, and the metal assembly comprises i) at least one water-cooling channel and ii) a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, the filler metal attaching the first metal component to the second metal component in a joint (e.g., a brazed joint).

[0027] In one embodiment, a method is provided herein that includes a) using a brazing technique to attach a first metal component to a second metal component using a filler metal to produce a metal assembly, and b) inserting the metal assembly into an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, wherein the metal assembly is positioned to partially obstruct the high-energy ion beam.

[0028] In some embodiments, the metal assembly further includes at least one water cooling channel. In other embodiments, the metal assembly is further positioned in a vacuum environment.

[0029] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein that includes a gas removal subsystem comprising: a) a high-voltage dome; b) an ion source plasma chamber located inside the high-voltage dome; c) an extraction component operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber; d) i) an exhaust component located inside the high-voltage dome; ii) an insulating hose, the first portion of which is located inside the high-voltage dome and the second portion of which is located outside the high-voltage dome in a lower-voltage area; iii) a first vacuum pump located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust and extraction components, configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to the exhaust component; and iv) a second vacuum pump located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust component, the second vacuum pump configured to receive gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and deliver the gas to the insulating hose at a second pressure, the second pressure being higher than the first pressure.

[0030] In one embodiment, the system further comprises e) an outer pressure vessel, in which at least a portion of the high-voltage dome, ion source plasma chamber, extraction component, exhaust component, first vacuum pump, second pump, and insulating hose are located within the pressure vessel. In other embodiments, the insulating hose is configured to release the gas to the atmosphere. In some embodiments, the gas is a non-ionized gas. In other embodiments, the non-ionized gas is deuterium gas. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a gas. In certain embodiments, the gas is a non-ionized gas. In additional embodiments, the insulating hose has a helical shape. In further embodiments, the insulating hose has about 20 to 30 helical turns and is about 5 to 15 feet long. In other embodiments, the first vacuum pump comprises a pump selected from a turbomolecular pump, a cryopump, an ion pump, and a high vacuum pump. In some embodiments, the second vacuum pump comprises a roughing pump. In other embodiments, the system further comprises e) an inner pressure vessel located inside the high-voltage dome, with a second vacuum pump located inside the inner pressure vessel, and the following components, namely the high-voltage dome, ion source plasma chamber, extraction components, and first vacuum pump, not located inside the pump pressure vessel.

[0031] In some embodiments, a gas removal subsystem is provided herein, configured to be introduced into a high-energy ion beam generating system having a high-voltage dome and an extraction component, comprising: a) an exhaust component configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome; b) an insulating hose, the first portion of which is configured to extend through an opening in the high-voltage dome; c) a first vacuum pump configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust and extraction components, configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to the exhaust component; and d) a second vacuum pump configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust component, the second vacuum pump configured to receive gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and deliver the gas to the insulating hose at a second pressure, the second pressure being higher than the first pressure.

[0032] In certain embodiments, a) providing a system as described above or otherwise herein, and b) activating a gas removal subsystem such that a gas present in an extraction component is i) removed to an exhaust component by a first vacuum pump, ii) received from the exhaust component by a second vacuum pump at a first pressure and delivered to an insulating hose at a second pressure higher than the first pressure, and iii) delivered to the atmosphere by the insulating hose. In some embodiments, the gas in the extraction component is a non-ionized gas that has progressed from an ion source plasma chamber to the extraction component.

[0033] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein that comprises: a) an outer pressure vessel; b) an inner pressure vessel located inside the outer pressure vessel; c) an exhaust component located inside the outer pressure vessel, wherein a portion of the exhaust component is also located inside the inner pressure vessel; d) an insulating hose located inside the outer pressure vessel, wherein a portion of the insulating hose is also located inside the inner pressure vessel; e) a first vacuum pump located inside the outer pressure vessel and operably connected to the exhaust component; and f) a second vacuum pump located inside the inner pressure vessel and operably connected to the exhaust component.

[0034] In some embodiments, the outer pressure vessel contains gas at a higher pressure than the gas in the inner pressure vessel. In some embodiments, the gas in the inner pressure vessel is at approximately atmospheric pressure. In further embodiments, a first vacuum pump is configured to be operably connected to an extraction component of an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, and the first vacuum pump is configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to an exhaust component. In additional embodiments, a second vacuum pump is configured to receive gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and deliver the gas to an insulating hose at a second pressure, the second pressure being higher than the first pressure. In some embodiments, the system further includes an extraction component. In further embodiments, the system further includes an ion source plasma chamber located inside the outer pressure vessel. In some embodiments, the extraction component is operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber.

[0035] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein that comprises a) at least one high-voltage component held at a high voltage in an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam, and b) a power component electrically coupled (and / or mechanically coupled) to the at least one high-voltage component, which provides power to the at least one high-voltage component (e.g., in a manner electrically isolated from ground), wherein the power component comprises a V-belt, the V-belt comprising a plurality of sections (e.g., 3··25···100···400 sections), and i) being a poor electrical conductor or ii) being a non-electrical conductor.

[0036] In further embodiments, the V-belt is made of a polyester-polyurethane composite material. In one embodiment, the power component further comprises a motor and a generator. In an additional embodiment, the power component further comprises a first V-belt pulley operably mounted to the motor and a second V-belt pulley operably mounted to the generator. In some embodiments, at least one high-voltage component comprises an ion source plasma chamber.

[0037] In some embodiments, a) an accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, comprising i) an ion source plasma chamber, ii) a microwave generation component for generating microwaves, iii) a power supply operably connected to the microwave generation component, iv) a waveguide positioned to receive microwaves and deliver them to the ion source plasma chamber, which generates an ion source when the microwaves come into contact with a gas in the ion plasma chamber, v) an ion beam extraction component operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber to extract a low-energy ion beam from the ion plasma chamber, and iv) an accelerator A system is provided herein that comprises an accelerator subsystem having an accelerator component comprising a column, an accelerator inlet opening for receiving a low-energy ion beam, and an accelerator outlet opening for delivering a high-energy ion beam; and a) a power modulation component operably coupled to a power supply, the power modulation component being configured to modulate power flowing from the power supply to a microwave generating component such that microwaves incident on a waveguide are rapidly pulsed and / or extinguished / generated, thereby rapidly pulsed and / or extinguished / generated a high-energy ion beam. In one embodiment, the accelerator system is a direct injection accelerator system. In another embodiment, the microwave generating component consists of a magnetron.

[0038] In certain embodiments, methods are provided herein that include a) providing the system described above (and herein), and b) activating accelerator subsystems and power modulation components so that a high-energy ion beam is generated, the high-energy ion beam is pulsed at high speed, and / or extinguished / generated.

[0039] In some embodiments, methods are provided herein that include a) positioning an ion beam generating component at a first distance from the accelerator inlet of an accelerator column in a direct injection accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam, and b) positioning an ion beam generating component at a second distance from the inlet of the accelerator column, wherein the second distance is different from the first distance, and the second distance improves the performance of the direct injection accelerator system. In some embodiments, the first and second distances are in the range of 10 to 500 mm.

[0040] In some embodiments, a) a direct injection accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, the accelerator system comprising i) an ion source plasma chamber, ii) a microwave generating component for generating microwaves, iii) a power supply operably coupled to the microwave generating component, iv) a waveguide positioned to receive microwaves and deliver them to the ion source plasma chamber, wherein when the microwaves come into contact with the gas in the ion plasma chamber, an ion beam is generated, v) an extraction component operably coupled to the ion source plasma chamber, and iv) an accelerator component comprising an accelerator column and an accelerator inlet opening for receiving the ion beam, is provided herein, and b) a vacuum component operably coupled to the extraction component and / or the accelerator component, the vacuum component configured to reduce the pressure within the extraction component and / or the accelerator component. In certain embodiments, the pressure reduction is at a level that reduces the diameter of the high-energy ion beam.

[0041] In some embodiments, methods are provided herein that include a) providing the system described above (and herein), and b) activating the direct injection accelerator subsystem and vacuum components so that a high-energy ion beam is generated such that the high-energy ion beam has a smaller diameter than it would have if there were no pressure reduction.

[0042] In some embodiments, the system provided herein includes: a) an accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, the accelerator system comprising i) a high-voltage dome, ii) an ion beam generating component located inside the high-voltage dome, and iii) an accelerator component comprising an accelerator column; and b) a water circulation component comprising i) water piping and a water reservoir, and ii) a water resistor element extending along the accelerator column, the water resistor element comprising non-conductive and / or insulating tubing fluidly connected to or integrated with the water piping so that a controlled conductivity water circulation within the water circulation component passes through the water resistor element.

[0043] In one embodiment, the system further comprises controlled conductivity water, which consists of i) deionized water, and 2) a deionization (DI) resin and a metal salt. In a further embodiment, the accelerator component further comprises a plurality of grading rings extending along the accelerator column. In an additional embodiment, the insulating tubes consist of a material selected from the group consisting of polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyethylene. In a further embodiment, the water circulation component further comprises a water pump, a heat exchanger, and / or a DI resin source component. In some embodiments, the controlled conductivity water contains a sufficient amount of DI resin so that the deionized water has a resistivity of 15 megaohms-cm or more. In a further embodiment, the metal salt is selected from the group consisting of copper sulfate, sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and sodium thiosulfate. In a further embodiment, the water resistor element can withstand a voltage of up to about 300 kV DC and remove heat of up to about 3 kW, or up to about 5 kW.

[0044] In certain embodiments, a method is provided herein that includes a) providing the system described above (and as described herein) and b) activating the accelerator subsystem and the water resistor subsystem so that controlled conductivity water circulates through the water circulation components and the water resistor elements function as electrical resistors along the accelerator column while a high-energy ion beam is being generated.

[0045] In other embodiments, a system is provided herein that comprises a) at least one high-voltage power source (HVPS) configured to deliver power to components of an accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam; and a water resistance subsystem comprising: b) i) a water circulation component comprising water piping and a water reservoir; and ii) a water resistance element comprising non-conductive and / or insulating tubing fluidly connected to or integrated with the water piping so that a controlled conductivity water circulation within the water circulation component passes through the water resistance element.

[0046] In certain embodiments, a method is provided herein that includes a) providing a system as described above (and as described herein) and b) testing at least one HVPS using a water resistor subsystem as a test load.

[0047] In some embodiments, a method for designing a lens is provided herein, comprising: a) inputting the following parameters at the plasma lens aperture of an accelerator system, namely, beam current, extraction voltage, ion species ratio, maximum electric field, and ion current density, into a software application; b) receiving an output from the software for the design of at least one lens in an electrostatic lens stack, wherein the electrostatic lens stack comprises a plasma lens, an extraction lens, a suppression lens, and an output lens; and c) fabricating at least one lens based on the output. In some embodiments, the software application comprises the PBGUNS software application. In further embodiments, the at least one lens comprises at least two, at least three, or all four of the lenses in the electrostatic lens stack. In further embodiments, the method further comprises inputting at least one of the following into the software application, namely, grid accuracy, an empirically determined beam neutralization factor, and electron and ion temperatures in the source plasma.

[0048] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein (for example, for use in or as part of a high-energy ion beam generator system) comprising an extraction lens stack having a plurality of insulating balls (e.g., alumina ceramic, aluminum nitride, sapphire, diamond, or other oxide or non-oxide ceramic balls) positioned between the lens gaps of the extraction lens stack. In some embodiments, at least three insulating balls are positioned between each lens gap. In some embodiments, the three insulating balls are evenly spaced in azimuthal coordinates. In some embodiments, the lens stack is held together using metal bolts. Furthermore, methods are provided herein for generating neutrons and protons using such a system to provide, for example, enhanced mechanical stability, beam quality, and protection of source and beamline components, while increasing the total current that can be reliably transported to target.

[0049] In some embodiments, systems (for example, for use in or as part of a neutron generator system) are provided herein, comprising a) a high-power-density solid target consisting of a reactive species (e.g., a reactive hydrogen species such as deuterium or tritium) embedded in a solid matrix, and b) a cooling component. The solid matrix may be made from any desired material, including but not limited to titanium.

[0050] In some embodiments, the cooling component is a closed-loop component. In some embodiments, the coolant flow path is integrated into a solid target. In some embodiments, the system further includes a coolant source that provides a coolant to be flowed through the cooling component. In some embodiments, the coolant is selected from the group consisting of water, glycol (e.g., (poly)ethylene glycol), oil, helium, or equivalents. In some embodiments, the closed-loop component includes a deionization subcomponent for deionizing the coolant flowing through it. In some embodiments, the closed-loop component includes a filtration subcomponent for filtering the coolant flowing through it. In some embodiments, the coolant component includes a cooling device positioned to pre-cool the coolant prior to contact with the target.

[0051] In some embodiments, the target is manufactured with thin walls to maximize the effect of the coolant. In some embodiments, the walls have a thickness of 0.02 inches or less (e.g., 0.01 inches). In some embodiments, the walls are made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, gold, diamond, diamond-like carbon, or a combination thereof.

[0052] In some embodiments, the target has a path with a spiral to increase the surface area of ​​a target lacking a spiral. In some embodiments, the spiral is a fin, or a rib, or a combination thereof.

[0053] In some embodiments, the cooling component is configured for laminar flow of the coolant. In some embodiments, the cooling component comprises channels having irregular surface features (e.g., indentations, spiral depressions, or a combination thereof). In some embodiments, the coolant component is configured for laminar flow of the coolant, with channels having irregular surface features (e.g., indentations, spiral depressions, or a combination thereof).

[0054] Methods for employing such systems are also provided. For example, in some embodiments, a method for generating neutrons using a high-power-density solid target is provided by using one of the systems described above. In some embodiments, this method involves depositing the energy of an ion beam into a small volume.

[0055] In some embodiments, a system (for use in or as part of a neutron generator system) is provided herein, comprising a) a solid target, b) a vacuum system, and c) a noble gas source configured to be in fluid communication with the vacuum system and to release a noble gas near the solid target. In some embodiments, the noble gas is argon. Furthermore, a method for purifying a neutron generator solid target is provided herein, comprising exposing the solid target to a noble gas (for example, while the solid target is exposed to an ion beam). In some embodiments, the noble gas is flowed at a rate of 1 to 10 cubic centimeters / minute.

[0056] In some embodiments, a system (for example, for use in or as part of a neutron generator system) is provided herein, comprising: a) an accelerator that generates an ion beam; b) a target (e.g., a gas target) positioned to be in contact with the ion beam; c) a target aperture separating the accelerator and the target; d) steering components that focus the ion beam into the aperture; and e) a plurality of thermal sensors positioned near the upstream surface of the target aperture. In some embodiments, the plurality of thermal sensors comprises four thermal sensors equally spaced at 90-degree intervals around the axis of the aperture. In some embodiments, the thermal sensors comprise thermocouples (e.g., copper-constantan thermocouples). In some embodiments, the thermal sensors are platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, or semiconductor temperature sensors.

[0057] In some embodiments, the system further includes a processor that receives temperature signals from sensors. In some embodiments, the processor sums the temperature signals from sensors to generate an average target aperture temperature. In some embodiments, the processor adjusts the ion beam position based on the average target aperture temperature to minimize the target aperture temperature.

[0058] Furthermore, this specification provides a method for directing an ion beam to a target aperture in a neutron generator system, which includes a) measuring temperatures at multiple locations around the target aperture, and b) maneuvering the position of the ion beam (e.g., using the system described above) to minimize the temperature at the target aperture.

[0059] In some embodiments, a system (for example, for use in or as part of a neutron generator system) is provided herein, comprising: a) an accelerator that generates an ion beam; b) a target (e.g., a gas target) positioned to be in contact with the ion beam; c) a target aperture separating the accelerator and the gas target; and d) a reverse gas injection that increases the pressure difference across the aperture. In some embodiments, the reverse gas injection comprises a narrow-diameter gap, a nozzle having a nozzle angle and nozzle length, and a plenum. In some embodiments, the reverse gas injection comprises a nozzle that widens after it converges. In some embodiments, the reverse gas injection comprises a nozzle aperture of about 3 / 8 inch. In some embodiments, the reverse gas injection comprises a narrow-diameter gap of less than 0.01 inch. In some embodiments, the reverse gas injection comprises a nozzle angle of 12.5 degrees. Furthermore, a method for increasing the pressure difference across a target aperture of a neutron generator is provided herein, which includes employing a reverse gas injection at the target aperture.

[0060] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein (for use in or as part of a neutron generator system) comprising a beam scraper, the beam scraper being movable into the path of an ion beam using a motor, the motor being mounted on a generator system outside a vacuum vessel containing a target. In some embodiments, the motor is connected to the beam scraper via a magnetically coupled vacuum feedthrough (e.g., a linear motion feedthrough). In some embodiments, the motor, beam scraper, and the connections thereto are all metal with brazing fabrication. Furthermore, a method is provided herein for blocking a portion of an ion beam striking a target in a neutron generator, comprising using a motor mounted on a generator system outside a vacuum vessel containing a target to move the beam scraper into a position to be contacted by the ion beam.

[0061] In some embodiments, a system is provided herein comprising a) a high-energy ion beam generator device having a first interlock, and b) a user control station having a second interlock, wherein the high-energy ion beam generator and the user control station are connected via an optical fiber interlock comprising a plurality of normally closed switches in a series loop that remain closed to indicate that the generator is safe to operate, a plurality of normally open switches in a parallel loop that remain open to indicate that the generator is safe to operate, or both a series loop and a parallel loop. In some embodiments, the high-energy ion beam generator and the user control station are electrically isolated from each other. In some embodiments, the optical fiber interlock comprises a frequency generator. In some embodiments, the frequency generator triggers an optical fiber transmitter that pulses light at a set frequency. In some embodiments, the system can be configured between a plurality of distinctly different frequencies for the purpose of having a plurality of channels with no interoperability between channels, for example, to prevent erroneous cross-connections. In some embodiments, the system comprises control software that manages the optical fiber interlock. In some embodiments, the control software operates a multiplexed signal verification procedure for the optical fiber interlock. Methods of using such a system are also provided. In some embodiments, the method includes transmitting information to one party via an optical fiber interlock that travels back and forth between a high-energy ion beam generator and a user control station.

[0062] In some embodiments, a system (for example, for use in or as part of a high-energy ion beam system) is provided herein, comprising: a) a high-energy ion beam generator device that generates a beam; and b) a damage mitigation component comprising: i) a plurality of sensors positioned on the device and configured to monitor a plurality of areas of the device that may interact with the beam; and ii) control software configured to communicate with the plurality of sensors, generate alerts or alarms, and adjust the device in response to the alerts or alarms. In some embodiments, one or more of the sensors measure the temperature of a region of the device. In some embodiments, one or more of the sensors measure the flow rate of a coolant (e.g., water). In some embodiments, one or more of the sensors are in continuous sensing mode. In some embodiments, one or more of the sensors have associated thresholds that generate an alert or alarm if exceeded. In some embodiments, the alerts include user warnings. In some embodiments, the alarms trigger a device shutdown or reset. In some embodiments, the alarm is a latch arm that prompts the user to reset the device prior to further operation. In some embodiments, the control software filters out background EMI. In some embodiments, excluded background EMI is below a predetermined threshold duration or frequency to distinguish it from potentially harmful events. Methods for using the system are also provided. In some embodiments, the method includes using the system to detect a potentially damaging event. In some embodiments, the method includes generating an alert or alarm and a desired associated response (e.g., warning, automatic system shutdown, etc.).

[0063] In some embodiments, a system (for example, for use in or as part of a high-energy ion beam system) is provided herein, comprising: a) a high-energy ion beam generator device; and b) an arc-down mitigation component comprising: i) a plurality of sensors positioned on the device and configured to monitor conditions consistent with an arc-down event; and ii) control software configured to communicate with the plurality of sensors, generate alerts or alarms, and adjust the device in response to the alerts or alarms. In some embodiments, the alarm triggers an automatic recovery sequence that restores the device to normal operation without user intervention. Methods of using the system are also provided. In some embodiments, the method includes using the system to respond to an arc shutdown event.

[0064] In some embodiments, high-energy ion beam generator systems are provided herein that include a closed-loop control component for managing a high-voltage power source (HVPS) setpoint. In some embodiments, the component also controls one or more other system functions, including, but not limited to, microwave power, focusing, and steering. In some embodiments, methods are provided herein for controlling high-energy ion flux output variability in a high-energy ion beam generator, which includes managing a high-voltage power source (HVPS) setpoint using a closed-loop control component.

[0065] In some embodiments, neutron induction systems for use in neutron radiography are provided herein, which include a collimator comprising a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) layer, a polyethylene borate layer, a metal layer (e.g., comprising an aluminum and / or lead layer), and a cadmium layer.

[0066] In some embodiments, a system for neutron radiography is provided herein, comprising one or more of the following: a) a neutron source (e.g., a 2.45 MeV neutron source), b) a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) layer, a polyethylene borate layer, a metal layer (e.g., comprising an aluminum and / or lead layer), and a cadmium layer, c) a detector, d) a moderator (e.g., a graphite moderator and / or an aD2O moderator), and e) underground shielding (e.g., comprising soil, concrete, or other protective layers). In some embodiments, the system comprises an offset collimator that is not directly matched with the fast neutron source.

[0067] Furthermore, a method for imaging a sample is provided herein, which includes exposing the sample to neutrons generated by the method described above.

[0068] In some embodiments, systems and methods for semiconductor manufacturing are provided herein. In some embodiments, the system comprises an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam (e.g., a hydrogen ion beam), as described herein, which directs the beam onto a component holding a semiconductor material. In some embodiments, the method comprises bringing the semiconductor material into contact with protons generated from a high-energy ion beam generator system as described herein. In some embodiments, the method further comprises producing a thin-film wafer by fracturing the semiconductor material (e.g., at fracturing sites formed by implanted hydrogen ions). In some embodiments, the method further comprises processing a photovoltaic (PV) wafer from the thin-film wafer. In some embodiments, the method further comprises processing a solar cell panel comprising a photovoltaic wafer. In some embodiments, the method further comprises processing a light-emitting diode (LED) comprising a photovoltaic wafer. In some embodiments, the method further comprises processing a light-emitting diode (LED) from a thin-film wafer. This specification also provides, for example, the following items: (Item 1) A device, wherein the device is a) A waveguide, wherein the waveguide is i) The proximal end having an electromagnetic wave incidence point, ii) A distal end equipped with an electromagnetic wave emission point, iii) An outer wall extending between the proximal end and the distal end and configured to propagate electromagnetic waves A waveguide equipped with, b) Reverse impedance matching component located inside the waveguide component and Equipped with, The reverse impedance matching component extends at least partway from the distal end of the waveguide toward the proximal end of the waveguide, The reverse impedance matching component comprises a distal end and a proximal end, wherein the distal end of the impedance matching component is located at or near the distal end of the waveguide and has a larger cross-sectional area than the proximal end of the reverse impedance matching component. (Item 2) The reverse impedance matching component comprises a metal, as described in item 1. (Item 3) The reverse impedance matching component is configured to be cooled by water, as described in item 1. (Item 4) The reverse impedance matching component is the device described in item 1, located along the centerline of the waveguide. (Item 5) The device according to item 4, wherein the reverse impedance matching component is supported by one or more support legs attached to the outer wall of the waveguide. (Item 6) The electromagnetic wave is a microwave, as described in item 1. (Item 7) The device according to item 1, wherein the cross-sectional area at the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component is at least two, three, or four times larger than the cross-sectional area at the proximal end of the reverse impedance matching component. (Item 8) The device according to item 1, wherein the reverse impedance matching component comprises one or more steps that allow the cross-sectional area to vary from the proximal end to the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component. (Item 9) The device according to item 1, wherein the reverse impedance matching component comprises a taper from the proximal end to the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component, thereby allowing the cross-sectional area to change. (Item 10) The device according to item 1, wherein the cross-sectional area at the distal end of the reverse impedance matching component is large enough to block all or almost all of the backflowing electrons when the device is part of an accelerator system. (Item 11) a) Electromagnetic wave source and b) Plasma chamber and c) The devices listed in item 1 and A system equipped with these features. (Item 12) The system according to item 11, wherein the proximal end of the waveguide is operably mounted to the electromagnetic source, and the distal end of the waveguide is operably mounted to the plasma chamber. (Item 13) The electromagnetic wave source is the system described in item 11, comprising a microwave source. (Item 14) A system, wherein the system is a) Computer processor and b) A non-transient computer memory comprising one or more computer programs and a database, wherein the one or more computer programs comprises accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software, c) Accelerator system for generating high-energy ion beams and Equipped with, The accelerator system has the following subsystems that can communicate operably with the non-transient computer memory and can be automatically adjusted by the accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software: i) Ion source and ion source monitoring component, ii) Focusing solenoid magnet and focusing solenoid magnet monitoring component, iii) Pipe opening and pipe opening monitoring components, iv) Solid or gas target, and solid or gas target monitoring components, v) Extraction and suppression components, and extraction and suppression monitoring components, vi) Beam generation subsystem and beam generation subsystem monitoring components, vii) Beam focusing and steering subsystem, and beam focusing and steering subsystem monitoring components, viii) Accelerator / resistor subsystem and accelerator / resistor subsystem monitoring components, ix) Beam steering subsystem and beam steering subsystem monitoring components, x) Pressurized gas subsystem components and pressurized gas subsystem component monitoring components A system that has one or more of the following features. (Item 15) The system as described in item 14: 1) The ion source monitoring component comprises a mass flow meter, a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, and / or a pressure gauge; 2) The focusing solenoid monitoring component comprises a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, a voltage monitor, and / or a current monitor; 3) The tube opening monitoring component comprises a camera, a thermocouple, and / or a coolant flow meter; 4) The solid or gas target monitoring component comprises a camera, a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, and / or a radiation detector; 5) The extraction and suppression monitoring component comprises a pressure gauge, a thermocouple, a current monitor, and / or a voltage monitor; 6) The beam generation subsystem monitoring component comprises a current monitor and / or an emittance scanner; 7) The pressurized gas subsystem monitoring component comprises a pressure gauge and / or a gas analyzer. (Item 16) The accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software described in item 14 is configured to collect and analyze multiple different settings of the subsystem and to calculate an optimized setting for such subsystem. (Item 17) The accelerator system monitoring and / or optimization software described in item 16 is configured to modify the settings in one or more of the subsystems to optimize the performance of the accelerator system at least partially. (Item 18) A system, wherein the system is a) An ion source plasma chamber, wherein the ion source plasma chamber has a source axis aligned with the direction of the beam emitted from the plasma chamber, b) at least one ion source magnet, the at least one ion source magnet comprising an opening and at least one outer wall, the ion source plasma chamber extending through the opening of the at least one ion source magnet, c) At least one receiving component attached to or integrated with the at least one outer wall of the at least one ion source magnet, d) A ferromagnetic enclosure wherein the at least one ion source magnet and the ion source plasma chamber are located inside the ferromagnetic enclosure, the at least one ion source magnet can move to a plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure along the source axis of the plasma chamber, and there is at least one longitudinal opening extending along the direction of the source axis and aligned with the receiving components, e) at least one adjustment component that extends through the vertical opening and is configured to attach to the receiving component, Equipped with, The at least one adjustment component can fix the at least one ion source magnet at the plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure. system. (Item 19) The receiving component comprises a threaded metal connector, as described in item 18. (Item 20) The adjustment component comprises a threaded bolt, as described in item 18. (Item 21) The system according to item 18, wherein the receiving component is integrated with the at least one ion source magnet. (Item 22) The system according to item 18, wherein at least one ion source magnet is at least partially encased in epoxy. (Item 23) The system described in item 18 comprises at least one ion source magnet and two ion source magnets. (Item 24) The system according to item 18, wherein the at least one vertical opening comprises at least two, three, or four vertical openings. (Item 25) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide a system as described in any of items 18-24, b) Moving the at least one ion source magnet from a first position among the plurality of positions to a second position among the plurality of positions, c) Inserting the at least one adjustment component into the at least one receiving component through the at least one vertical opening, d) Fixing the at least one adjustment component to the at least one receiving component, thereby fixing the at least one ion source magnet at the second position. Methods that include... (Item 26) The method according to item 25, wherein the at least one ion source magnet comprises a first and a second ion source magnet, and both the first and the second ion source magnet are moved from a first position to a second position and fixed in the second position. (Item 27) A manufactured product comprising a metal assembly for an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, When the metal assembly is located within the accelerator system, i) it partially obstructs the high-energy ion beam, and ii) it is in a vacuum environment. The metal assembly comprises i) at least one water cooling channel, and ii) a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, wherein the filler metal attaches the first metal component to the second metal component in a joint, the manufactured product. (Item 28) The article according to item 27, wherein the first and second metal components are made of a highly thermally conductive metal. (Item 29) The article according to item 27, wherein the filling metal has a lower melting point than the first and second metal components. (Item 30) The article according to item 27, wherein the first metal component comprises a tube sheet, and the second metal component comprises a plate stopper. (Item 31) The product according to item 27, wherein the filler metal comprises a BNi-7 alloy. (Item 32) The article according to item 27, wherein the first metal component comprises a first item selected from the group consisting of a first tube, a tube cap, different tube sheets, and a valve, and the second metal component comprises a second item selected from the group consisting of a second tube, a tube cap, different tube sheets, and a valve. (Item 33) The product according to item 27, wherein the at least one water cooling channel comprises at least two water cooling channels. (Item 34) A system, wherein the system is a) An accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, b) Metal assembly and Equipped with, The metal assembly is positioned within the accelerator system, thereby i) partially obstructing the high-energy ion beam, and ii) being in a vacuum environment. The metal assembly comprises i) at least one water cooling channel, and ii) a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, wherein the filler metal attaches the first metal component to the second metal component in a joint. (Item 35) A method, wherein the said method is a) Using a brazing technique, attach a first metal component to a second metal component using filler metal to produce a metal assembly, b) Inserting the metal assembly into an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam. Includes, A method wherein the metal assembly is positioned to partially obstruct the high-energy ion beam. (Item 36) The method according to item 35, wherein the metal assembly further comprises at least one water cooling channel. (Item 37) The method according to item 35, wherein the metal assembly is further positioned in a vacuum environment. (Item 38) A system, wherein the system is a) High-voltage dome and b) An ion source plasma chamber located inside the high-voltage dome, c) An extraction component operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber, d) A gas removal subsystem, wherein the gas removal subsystem is i) Exhaust components located inside the high-voltage dome, ii) An insulated hose, wherein a first portion of the insulated hose is located inside the high-voltage dome, and a second portion of the insulated hose is located outside the high-voltage dome in a lower voltage area, iii) A first vacuum pump located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust component and the extraction component, wherein the first vacuum pump is configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to the exhaust component, iv) A second vacuum pump located inside the high-voltage dome and operably connected to the exhaust component, A gas removal subsystem and Equipped with, The second vacuum pump is configured to receive the gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and deliver the gas to the insulating hose at a second pressure, wherein the second pressure is higher than the first pressure in the system. (Item 39) e) The system according to item 38, further comprising an outer pressure vessel, wherein at least a portion of the high-voltage dome, the ion source plasma chamber, the extraction component, the exhaust component, the first vacuum pump, the second pump, and the insulating hose are located inside the pressure vessel. (Item 40) The system according to item 38, wherein the insulating hose is configured to release the gas into the atmosphere. (Item 41) The system described in item 38, wherein the gas is a non-ionized gas. (Item 42) The system described in item 41, wherein the non-ionized gas is deuterium gas. (Item 43) The system described in item 38, further comprising the aforementioned gas. (Item 44) The system described in item 43, wherein the gas is a non-ionized gas. (Item 45) The insulating hose has a spiral shape, as described in item 38. (Item 46) The insulating hose has approximately 20 to 30 spiral windings and is approximately 5 to 15 feet in length, as described in item 45. (Item 47) The system described in item 38 comprises a first vacuum pump selected from a turbomolecular pump, a cryopump, an ion pump, and a high vacuum pump. (Item 48) The system described in item 38 includes a roughing pump as the second vacuum pump. (Item 49) e) The system according to item 38, further comprising an inner pressure vessel located inside the high-voltage dome, wherein the second vacuum pump is located inside the pump pressure vessel, and the following components: the high-voltage dome, the ion source plasma chamber, the extraction component, and the first vacuum pump are not located inside the inner pressure vessel. (Item 50) A gas removal subsystem configured to be introduced into a high-energy ion beam generation system having a high-voltage dome and extraction components, wherein the gas removal subsystem is a) Exhaust components configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome, b) An insulating hose, wherein a first portion of the insulating hose is configured to extend through an opening in the high-voltage dome, c) A first vacuum pump configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome and configured to be operably connected to the exhaust component and the extraction component, wherein the first vacuum pump is configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to the exhaust component, d) A second vacuum pump configured to be located inside the high-voltage dome and configured to be operably connected to the exhaust component, Equipped with, The gas removal subsystem is configured such that the second vacuum pump receives the gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and delivers the gas to the insulating hose at a second pressure, the second pressure being higher than the first pressure. (Item 51) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide the system described in item 50, b) Activating the gas removal subsystem and Includes, The gas present in the aforementioned extraction component is i) Removed to the exhaust component by the first vacuum pump, ii) The second vacuum pump receives the exhaust component at a first pressure and delivers it to the insulating hose at a second pressure higher than the first pressure. iii) Delivered to the atmosphere by the insulated hose, method. (Item 52) The method according to item 51, wherein the gas in the extraction component is a non-ionized gas that has progressed from the ion source plasma chamber to the extraction component. (Item 53) A system, wherein the system is a) Outer pressure vessel and, b) An inner pressure vessel located inside the outer pressure vessel, c) An exhaust component located inside the outer pressure vessel, wherein a part of the exhaust component is also located inside the inner pressure vessel, d) An insulating hose located inside the outer pressure vessel, wherein a portion of the insulating hose is also located inside the inner pressure vessel, e) A first vacuum pump located inside the outer pressure vessel and operably connected to the exhaust component, f) A second vacuum pump located inside the inner pressure vessel and operably connected to the exhaust component, A system equipped with these features. (Item 54) The system according to item 53, wherein the outer pressure vessel contains gas at a higher pressure than the gas in the inner pressure vessel. (Item 55) The system described in item 53, wherein the gas in the inner pressure vessel is at approximately atmospheric pressure. (Item 56) The system according to item 53, wherein the first vacuum pump is configured to be operably connected to an extraction component of an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, and the first vacuum pump is configured to remove gas from the extraction component and deliver the gas to the exhaust component. (Item 57) The system according to item 56, wherein the second vacuum pump is configured to receive the gas from the exhaust component at a first pressure and deliver the gas to the insulating hose at a second pressure, the second pressure being higher than the first pressure. (Item 58) The system described above further comprises extraction components, as described in item 53. (Item 59) The system according to item 58, further comprising an ion source plasma chamber located inside the outer pressure vessel. (Item 60) The system according to item 59, wherein the extraction component is operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber. (Item 61) A system, wherein the system is a) At least one high-voltage component held at a high voltage in an accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, b) A power component electrically connected to at least one high-voltage component and Equipped with, The power component provides power to the at least one high-voltage component. The aforementioned power component includes a V-belt, The V-belt is a system comprising multiple sections, i) a faulty electrical conductor, or ii) a non-electrical conductor. (Item 62) The V-belt comprises a polyester-polyurethane composite material, as described in item 61. (Item 63) The system according to item 61, wherein the power components further comprise a motor and a generator. (Item 64) The system according to item 61, wherein the power component further comprises a first V-belt pulley operably mounted on the motor and a second V-belt pulley operably mounted on the generator. (Item 65) The system according to item 61, wherein the at least one high-voltage component comprises an ion source plasma chamber. (Item 66) A system, wherein the system is a) An accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, wherein the accelerator subsystem comprises: i) Ion source plasma chamber, ii) Microwave generating components that generate microwaves, iii) A power supply operably connected to the microwave generating component, iv) A waveguide positioned to receive the microwaves and deliver them to the ion source plasma chamber, wherein when the microwaves come into contact with the gas in the ion plasma chamber, the waveguide generates an ion source. v) An ion beam extraction component operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber for extracting a low-energy ion beam from the ion plasma chamber, iv) Accelerator components comprising an accelerator column, an accelerator inlet opening for receiving a low-energy ion beam, and an accelerator outlet opening for delivering a high-energy ion beam. The accelerator subsystem is equipped with, b) Power modulation component operably connected to the power supply and Equipped with, The power modulation component is configured to modulate the power flowing from the power source to the microwave generation component, thereby causing the microwave incident on the waveguide to be pulsed at high speed and / or extinguished / regenerated, thereby causing the high-energy ion beam to be pulsed at high speed and / or extinguished / regenerated, in a system. (Item 67) The accelerator system is a direct injection accelerator system, as described in item 66. (Item 68) The microwave generating component comprises a magnetron, as described in item 66. (Item 69) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide the system described in item 66, b) Activating the accelerator subsystem and the power modulation components so that the high-energy ion beam is generated, the high-energy ion beam is pulsed at high speed, and / or extinguished / generated. Methods that include... (Item 70) A method, wherein the said method is a) In a direct injection accelerator system that generates a high-energy ion beam, the ion beam generation component is positioned at a first distance from the accelerator inlet of the accelerator column, b) Positioning the ion beam generation component at a second distance from the accelerator inlet of the accelerator column. Includes, The second distance differs from the first distance in a method for improving the performance of the direct injection accelerator system. (Item 71) The method according to item 70, wherein the first and second distances are within the range of 20 to 500 mm. (Item 72) A system, wherein the system is a) A direct injection accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, wherein the accelerator system is i) Ion source plasma chamber, ii) Microwave generating components that generate microwaves, iii) A power supply operably connected to the microwave generating component, iv) A waveguide positioned to receive the microwaves and deliver them to the ion source plasma chamber, wherein when the microwaves come into contact with the gas in the ion plasma chamber, an ion beam is generated; v) An extraction component operably connected to the ion source plasma chamber, iv) Accelerator components comprising an accelerator column and an accelerator inlet opening for receiving the ion beam. A direct injection accelerator subsystem is provided, b) Vacuum components and Equipped with, A system in which the vacuum component is operably connected to the extraction component and / or the accelerator component, and the vacuum component is configured to reduce the pressure within the extraction component and / or the accelerator component. (Item 73) The system according to item 72, wherein the pressure reduction is at a level that reduces the diameter of the high-energy ion beam. (Item 74) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide the system described in item 72, b) Activating the direct injection accelerator subsystem and the vacuum components so that the high-energy ion beam can be generated. Includes, The method wherein the high-energy ion beam has a smaller diameter than it would have if there were no pressure reduction. (Item 75) A system, wherein the system is a) An accelerator subsystem for generating a high-energy ion beam, wherein the accelerator system is i) High-voltage dome and, ii) An ion beam generation component located inside the high-voltage dome, iii) Accelerator components equipped with accelerator columns The accelerator subsystem is equipped with, b) Water resistor subsystem and Equipped with, The water resistor subsystem is as follows: i) A water circulation component comprising water piping and a water reservoir, ii) Water resistor elements extending along the accelerator column and Equipped with, The water resistor element comprises non-conductive tubing fluidly connected to or integrated with the water piping, thereby allowing controlled conductivity water circulation within the water circulation component to pass through the water resistor element. (Item 76) The system according to item 75, further comprising the controlled conductivity water, wherein the controlled conductivity water comprises i) deionized water, 2) a deionization (DI) resin, and a metal salt. (Item 77) The system according to item 75, wherein the accelerator component further comprises a plurality of grading rings extending along the accelerator column. (Item 78) The system according to item 75, wherein the insulating tubes are made of a material selected from the group consisting of polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyethylene. (Item 79) The system according to item 75, wherein the water circulation component further comprises a water pump and a heat exchanger. (Item 80) The system according to item 75, wherein the controlled conductivity water contains a sufficient amount of the DI resin such that the deionized water has a resistivity of 15 megaohms-cm or more. (Item 81) The system according to item 75, wherein the metal salt is selected from the group consisting of copper sulfate, sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and sodium thiosulfate. (Item 82) The water resistor element can withstand a maximum voltage of approximately 300kV DC and dissipate a maximum heat of approximately 3kW, as described in item 75. (Item 83) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide the system described in item 75, b) Activating the accelerator subsystem and the water resistor subsystem Includes, A method wherein, while the high-energy ion beam is being generated, the controlled conductivity water circulates through the water circulation components, and the water resistor elements function as electrical resistors along the accelerator column. (Item 84) A system, wherein the system is a) At least one high-voltage power source (HVPS) configured to deliver power to components of an accelerator subsystem that generates a high-energy ion beam, b) Water resistor subsystem and Equipped with, The water resistor subsystem is as follows: i) A water circulation component comprising water piping and a water reservoir, ii) Water resistor elements equipped with insulating tubes and Equipped with, The insulating pipes are fluidly connected to or integrated with the water piping, thereby allowing the controlled conductivity water circulation within the water circulation component to pass through the water resistor element. system. (Item 85) A method, wherein the said method is a) To provide the system described in item 84, b) Test the at least one HVPS using the water resistor subsystem as a test load. Methods that include... (Item 86) A method for designing a lens, wherein the method is a) Inputting the following parameters at the plasma lens aperture of the accelerator system: beam current, extraction voltage, ion species ratio, maximum electric field, and ion current density into a software application, b) Receiving an output from the software for designing at least one lens in an electrostatic lens stack, wherein the electrostatic lens stack comprises a plasma lens, an extraction lens, a suppression lens, and an output lens. c) Processing the at least one lens based on the output Methods that include... (Item 87) The method according to item 86, wherein the software application comprises the PBGUNS software application. (Item 88) The method according to item 86, wherein the at least one lens comprises at least two, at least three, or all four of the lenses in the electrostatic lens stack. (Item 89) The method according to item 86, further comprising inputting at least one of grid accuracy, empirically determined beam neutralization factor, and electron and ion temperatures in the source plasma into the software application. (Item 90) A high-energy ion beam generator system comprising an extraction lens stack, wherein the extraction lens stack has a plurality of insulating balls positioned between the lens gaps of the extraction lens stack. (Item 91) The system described in item 90, in which three insulating balls are positioned between each lens gap. (Item 92) The system described in item 91, wherein the three insulating balls are evenly spaced in azimuthal coordinates. (Item 93) The lens stack is held together using metal bolts, as in the system described in item 90. (Item 94) The system described in item 90, wherein the insulating ball is an alumina ceramic ball. (Item 95) A method for generating neutrons or protons, including using a system described in any of items 90-94. (Item 96) A neutron generator system, wherein the neutron generator system is a) A high-power-density solid target having reactive hydrogen species embedded in a solid matrix, b) Cooling components and A neutron generator system equipped with [a specific feature / feature]. (Item 97) The system according to item 96, wherein the solid matrix comprises titanium. (Item 98) The system described in item 96, wherein the reactive hydrogen species is deuterium. (Item 99) The system described in item 96, wherein the reactive hydrogen species is tritium. (Item 100) The cooling component is a closed-loop component, as described in item 96. (Item 101) The cooling component comprises a coolant source, as described in item 96. (Item 102) The coolant is water, as described in item 101. (Item 103) The system described in item 96, wherein the target has a wall thickness of 0.02 inches or less. (Item 104) The system described in item 103, wherein the wall thickness is 0.01 inches or less. (Item 105) The system according to item 103 or 104, wherein the wall is made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, gold, diamond, diamond-like carbon, or a combination thereof. (Item 106) The system according to item 96, wherein the target comprises a spiral, the spiral increasing the surface area of ​​the target compared to a target lacking the spiral. (Item 107) The system according to item 106, wherein the vortex is selected from the group consisting of fins and ribs, or combinations thereof. (Item 108) The system according to item 100, wherein the closed-loop component comprises a deionization subcomponent. (Item 109) The closed-loop component comprises a filtration subcomponent, as described in item 100. (Item 110) The cooling component is configured for laminar flow of the coolant, as described in item 96. (Item 111) The cooling component comprises channels having irregular surface features, as described in item 96. (Item 112) The system according to item 111, wherein the irregular surface features are selected from the group consisting of depressions, spiral depressions, or combinations thereof. (Item 113) The system according to item 96, wherein the coolant component comprises a cooling device positioned to pre-cool the coolant prior to contact with the target. (Item 114) A method for generating neutrons using a high-power-density solid target, including the use of a system described in any of items 96-113. (Item 115) A system, wherein the system is part of a neutron generator system or is intended for use in a neutron generator system, and the system is A system comprising a) a solid target, b) a vacuum system, and c) a noble gas source configured to be in fluid communication with the vacuum system and to release a noble gas near the solid target. (Item 116) The noble gas is argon, as described in item 115 of the system. (Item 117) A method for purifying a neutron generator solid target, the method comprising exposing the solid target to a noble gas while the solid target is exposed to an ion beam. (Item 118) The method according to item 117, wherein the noble gas is argon. (Item 119) The noble gas is flowed at a rate of 1 to 10 cubic centimeters per minute, according to the method of item 117. (Item 120) A neutron generator system, wherein the neutron generator system is A neutron generator system comprising: a) an accelerator that generates an ion beam; b) a gas target positioned to be in contact with the ion beam; c) a target aperture separating the accelerator and the gas target; d) a steering component that focuses the ion beam into the aperture; and e) a plurality of thermal sensors positioned near the surface facing upstream of the target aperture. (Item 121) The system according to item 120, wherein the plurality of thermal sensors comprises four thermal sensors equally spaced at 90-degree intervals around the axis of the opening. (Item 122) The sensor is a system as described in item 120, comprising a thermocouple. (Item 123) The system described in item 122, wherein the thermocouple is a copper-constantan thermocouple. (Item 124) The system described in item 120, wherein the sensor is selected from the group consisting of a platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD), a thermistor, and a semiconductor temperature sensor. (Item 125) The system according to item 120, further comprising a processor that receives a temperature signal from the aforementioned sensor. (Item 126) The system according to item 125, wherein the processor sums the temperature signals from the sensors to generate an average target aperture temperature. (Item 127) The system according to item 126, wherein the processor adjusts the ion beam position based on the average target aperture temperature to minimize the temperature of the target aperture. (Item 128) A method for directing an ion beam to a target aperture in a neutron generator system, the method comprising: a) measuring temperatures at a plurality of locations around the target aperture; and b) directing the ion beam to minimize the temperature at the target aperture. (Item 129) A neutron generator system comprising: a) an accelerator that generates an ion beam; b) a gas target positioned to be in contact with the ion beam; c) a target aperture separating the accelerator and the gas target; and d) a reverse gas injection that increases the pressure difference across the aperture. (Item 130) The reverse gas injection system, as described in item 129, comprises a nozzle, the nozzle expanding after it converges. (Item 131) The reverse gas injection system described in item 129 has a nozzle opening of approximately 3 / 8 inch. (Item 132) The reverse gas injection system described in item 131 has a narrow diameter gap of less than 0.01 inches. (Item 133) The reverse gas injection system described in item 132 has a nozzle angle of 12.5 degrees. (Item 134) A method for increasing the pressure difference across a target aperture of a neutron generator, the method comprising employing reverse gas injection at the target aperture. (Item 135) A neutron generator system comprising a beam scraper, wherein the beam scraper is movable into the path of an ion beam using a motor, and the motor is mounted on the generator system outside a vacuum vessel containing a target. (Item 136) The system according to item 135, wherein the motor is connected to the beam scraper via a magnetically coupled vacuum feedthrough. (Item 137) The system described in item 135, wherein the motor, beam scraper, and connections thereto are all metal, manufactured using brazing. (Item 138) A method for blocking a portion of an ion beam that strikes a target in a neutron generator, the method comprising using a motor to move a beam scraper to a position to be contacted by the ion beam, the motor being mounted on the generator system outside a vacuum vessel containing the target. (Item 139) A system, wherein the system is a) A high-energy ion beam generator device having a first interlock, b) A user control station having a second interlock Equipped with, The high-energy ion beam generator and the user control station are connected via an optical fiber interlock, the optical fiber interlock comprising: a number of normally closed switches in a series loop that remain closed to indicate that the generator is safe to operate; a number of normally open switches in a parallel loop that remain open to indicate that the generator is safe to operate; or both of the series and parallel loops. (Item 140) The system according to item 139, wherein the high-energy ion beam generator and the user control station are electrically isolated from each other. (Item 141) The optical fiber interlock is a system as described in item 139, comprising a frequency generator. (Item 142) The system described in item 141, wherein the frequency generator triggers an optical fiber transmitter so that light pulses at a set frequency. (Item 143) The system described in item 139, comprising control software for managing the optical fiber interlock. (Item 144) The control software is the system described in item 143, which operates the multiplexed signal verification procedure for the optical fiber interlock. (Item 145) A method, the method comprising transmitting information from the high-energy ion beam generator to the user control station, or from the user control station to the high-energy ion beam generator, using a system described in any of items 139-144. (Item 146) A system, wherein the system is a) A high-energy ion beam generator device that generates a beam, b) Damage reduction components and Equipped with, The aforementioned damage reduction component is i) A plurality of sensors positioned on the device and configured to monitor a plurality of regions of the device that can interact with the beam, ii) Control software configured to communicate with the plurality of sensors, generate alerts or alarms, and adjust the devices in response to the alerts or alarms. A system equipped with these features. (Item 147) The system according to item 146, wherein one or more of the aforementioned sensors measure the temperature of the area of ​​the device. (Item 148) One or more of the aforementioned sensors measure the coolant flow rate in the system described in item 146. (Item 149) The sensor is in continuous sensing mode, as described in item 146 of the system. (Item 150) The system according to item 146, wherein each sensor has an associated threshold, and if the threshold is exceeded, the system generates the alert or alarm. (Item 151) The aforementioned alert is provided by the system described in item 146, which includes a user warning. (Item 152) The aforementioned alarm triggers a device shutdown, as described in item 146 of the system. (Item 153) The system according to item 146, wherein the alarm is a latch arm that prompts the user to reset the device before further action. (Item 154) The aforementioned control software is for the system described in item 146, which excludes EMI. (Item 155) The excluded EMI is the system described in item 154, which is below a predetermined threshold duration or frequency. (Item 156) A method comprising detecting a potential damage event to a high-energy ion beam generator device using a system described in any of items 146-155. (Item 157) A system, wherein the system is a) High-energy ion beam generator device, b) Arc down mitigation components and Equipped with, The aforementioned arc-down reduction component is i) Multiple sensors positioned on the device and configured to monitor conditions consistent with an arcdown event, ii) Control software configured to communicate with the plurality of sensors, generate alerts or alarms, and adjust the devices in response to the alerts or alarms. A system equipped with these features. (Item 158) The system described in item 157, wherein the alarm triggers an automatic recovery sequence that restores the device to normal operation without user intervention. (Item 159) A method comprising responding to an arcdown event using a system described in any of items 157-158. (Item 160) A high-energy ion beam generator system comprising a closed-loop control component that manages i) a high-voltage power source (HVPS) setting value and / or ii) an ion source current setting value. (Item 161) A method for controlling neutron flux output variability in a high-energy ion beam generator, comprising i) managing a high-voltage power source (HVPS) setpoint using a closed-loop control component, and / or ii) managing an ion source current setpoint. (Item 162) A neutron collimator for use in neutron radiography, wherein the neutron collimator comprises a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) layer, a polyethylene borate layer, a metal layer, and a cadmium layer. (Item 163) A system for thermal neutron radiography comprising a) a neutron source, b) a neutron collimator as described in item 162, and c) a detector. (Item 164) The collimator is offset so that it does not align directly with the fast neutron source, as described in item 163. (Item 165) A method for imaging a sample, the method comprising exposing the sample to neutrons generated by a system described in item 163 or 164. (Item 166) A semiconductor manufacturing system or method comprising an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam as described in any of items 1-165, wherein the accelerator system directs the beam toward a component holding a semiconductor material. (Item 167) A method for manufacturing a semiconductor wafer, comprising contacting a semiconductor material with protons generated from a high-energy ion beam generator system or method described in any of items 1-165. (Item 168) The method according to item 167, further comprising the step of producing a thin film wafer by cleaving the semiconductor material. (Item 169) The method according to item 168, further comprising the step of processing a photovoltaic (PV) wafer from the thin film wafer. (Item 170) The method according to item 169, further comprising the step of processing a solar panel comprising the photovoltaic wafer. (Item 171) The method according to item 168, further comprising the step of processing a light-emitting diode (LED) from the thin film wafer. [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0069] [Figure 1] Figure 1 shows an illustrative schematic diagram of an accelerator system where the target is a gas target. [Figure 2] Figure 2 shows an illustrative schematic diagram of an accelerator system where the target is a solid target. [Figure 3] Figures 3A-B show a known waveguide design with metallic impedance matching components (two stepped ridges are shown), each of which extends inward from the wider plane of the waveguide in the direction of its narrower dimension. Figure 3A is a cross-sectional view, while Figure 3B shows the electric field at each step. [Figure 4]Figures 4A-B illustrate an exemplary waveguide design of the present disclosure with an inverse impedance matching component, which extends progressively outward from the central plane of the waveguide toward the wider walls of the waveguide. Figure 4A is a cross-sectional view, while Figure 4B shows the electric field at each stage. [Figure 5] Figure 5 shows an exemplary layout of telemetry and diagnostics in an accelerator system. [Figure 6] Figure 6 shows illustrative flowcharts for automatic mapping (left) and closed-loop feedback (right). [Figure 7] Figure 7 shows an example of a 2D slice of the ion source operating phase space mapped by an automated algorithm. [Figure 8] Figure 8 provides an exemplary embodiment of a tuning system for tuning and fixing solenoid magnets surrounding an ion source plasma chamber. [Figure 9] Figure 9A shows an exemplary differential tube assembly with components that are brazed together. Figure 9B shows a perspective view of an exemplary differential tube plate showing the water channels located within it. Figure 9C shows a perspective view of the exemplary differential tube plate. [Figure 10] Figure 10 provides an illustrative schematic diagram of a gas pressure flow in a nested pressure vessel configuration, where the roughing pump is located inside an inner (smaller) pressure vessel inside an outer (larger) pressure vessel, thereby allowing the roughing pump to operate at different pressures (e.g., atmospheric pressure). [Figure 11] Figure 11 shows an example of a pulsed beam from a modulated magnetron (measured using a Faraday cup) that modulates microwaves incident on a plasma chamber. [Figure 12]Figure 12A shows an example of a simulation of the beam trajectory in a direct injection high-gradient accelerator. 70mA deuterium, 300keV accelerator, 39kV extraction. The resulting beam generally has lower emittance but greater divergence. Figure 12B shows an example of a simulation of the same beam with prior drift length and electrostatic suppression, as well as drift region, in a low-gradient accelerator. 70mA deuterium, 300keV accelerator, 39kV extraction. The resulting beam has greater emittance but lower divergence. [Figure 13] Figure 13 shows an exemplary actively cooled water resistor system. [Figure 14] Figure 14 shows an exemplary user interface for a lens design software application. [Figure 15] Figure 15 shows the sample beam trajectory plot from PBGUNS. [Figure 16] Figure 16 shows an exemplary use of precision ceramic balls for electrical isolation and matching of electronic suppression elements. [Figure 17] Figure 17 shows one embodiment of a liquid-cooled solid target featuring a turbulence-inducing structure, which comprises multiple parallel fins with recessed holes for disrupting a smooth surface. The left panel shows a top view. The right panel shows a cross-sectional view with a plan view of the identified cross section. [Figure 18] Figure 18 shows an example of irregular features that induce turbulence in the fluid cooling channel of a solid target. [Figure 19] Figure 19 shows a graph of the neutron yield from a titanium-plated target as a function of time. [Figure 20] Figure 20 shows an exemplary configuration of a system for focusing and / or shaping an ion beam through a target aperture. [Figure 21] Figure 21 shows a schematic diagram of reverse gas flow injection. [Figure 22] Figure 22 shows an exemplary beam scraper configuration. [Figure 23]Figure 23 shows an exemplary optical fiber interlock array for communication between an electrically isolated high-energy ion beam generator and a user control station. [Figure 24] Figure 24 shows a schematic diagram of a moderator, collimator, and imaging enclosure for thermal neutron radiography applications. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0070] Exemplary components of the accelerator system are described in more detail in the following sections: I. Ion Source, II. Infrastructure, III. High Voltage System, IV. Neutrons for Target Generation, V. Automatic Control System, VI. Diagnostics, and VII. Use for Accelerator Systems.

[0071] (I. Ion Sources) The ion source provided herein includes several components, including a plasma chamber microwave waveguide feed, operational parameter optimization techniques, a source magnet mounting mechanism, and the use of brazing for fabricating water-cooled beamline components. Each of these improvements will be discussed in turn.

[0072] (A. "Inverse" waveguide) Waveguides are provided herein that include reverse impedance matching components (e.g., stepped ridges, which are reversed in the sense that they are mounted at the center of the waveguide rather than being incorporated into the external structure) which help prevent electron backflow when positioned between an electromagnetic source (e.g., a microwave source) and a plasma chamber (e.g., as part of a larger accelerator system). Reverse impedance matching components are generally considered "reverse" or "inverted" to conventional impedance matching techniques because, in some embodiments, the reverse components gradually extend outward from the central plane of the waveguide toward a wider wall (Figure 4). In one embodiment, the inverse waveguide comprises a waveguide having a)i) a proximal end having an electromagnetic wave incidence point, ii) a distal end having an electromagnetic wave emission point, and iii) an outer wall extending between the proximal and distal ends and configured to propagate electromagnetic waves, and b) an inverse impedance matching component located inside the waveguide component, wherein the inverse impedance matching component extends from the distal end of the waveguide to at least partway toward the proximal end of the waveguide, and the inverse impedance matching component comprises a distal end and a proximal end, the distal end of the impedance matching component is located at or near the distal end of the waveguide and has a larger cross-sectional area than the proximal end of the inverse impedance matching component.

[0073] In a microwave ion source, the plasma chamber is supplied with a desired gas (e.g., hydrogen, deuterium, etc.), a magnetic field, and microwave power. The microwaves are delivered to the plasma chamber through a waveguide that enters the chamber at the opposite end of the beam exit aperture. The magnetic field is shaped such that electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) conditions are met near the beam exit aperture; that is, the electron cyclotron frequency at that location matches the frequency of the applied microwaves. For example,

number

[0074] Due to the magnetic field geometry, microwave power can also be absorbed into the ECR region within the waveguide before reaching the plasma chamber. This is prevented by keeping the waveguide under vacuum and using a ceramic disk to isolate it from the gas in the plasma chamber. In the art, the waveguide may also include a mechanism for impedance conversion in the form of a pair of stepped ridges in the ceramic disk, increasing in range from a broad surface of the guide to reach their maximum extent, designed to reduce impedance mismatch between the waveguide and the plasma in the source chamber (see Figure 3).

[0075] As background, electrons extracted and created in the accelerator system's acceleration region can enter the ion source plasma chamber through the ion beam exit aperture and collide with a ceramic insulator at the opposite end of the plasma chamber at high energy. If these electrons scorch holes through the insulator, working gases in the plasma can flow into the waveguide, where they absorb microwaves and can lead to plasma formation in this region. This reduces the microwave power available to drive the ion source plasma, affecting the stability of the ion source and lowering the maximum extractable beam current. If the holes in the ceramic become large enough, overheating of the waveguide can also damage its components and affect the reliability and lifespan of the overall system.

[0076] The inverse waveguide described herein (for example, Figure 4) is designed to block backflow electrons that may perforate a ceramic disk, which would otherwise lead to plasma formation within the waveguide and reduce the plasma density and beam current in the source chamber due to microwave power loss, while potentially damaging the waveguide due to excessive heating. In one embodiment, holes are provided in the ceramic disk so that electrons do not damage the disk by damaging it, but rather intentionally affect impedance matching components directly.

[0077] Accordingly, in some embodiments, inverse impedance matching components (e.g., water-cooled metal surfaces) are provided herein that are positioned to efficiently couple microwave power into the plasma chamber while blocking backflow electrons without damage. Known designs of waveguide step ridges are conventional in that they are electrically and mechanically attached to the outer waveguide wall, extending symmetrically from the center of their broad surface into the guide and across a portion of the guide's width, as shown in Figure 3. Due to the orientation and symmetry of the electric field within the waveguide, in some embodiments, as shown in Figure 4, it is possible to divide it in half along a central plane between the ridges and transpose the two halves across the central plane. This symmetry is applied at each step of the ridge to maintain the electrical performance of the step design and match the waveguide impedance to the plasma chamber. Other approaches may also be used to reverse the typical orientation of impedance matching components within the waveguide.

[0078] The resulting inverted design provided herein provides a substantial metal mass (see the large cross-sectional area, which is the rightmost portion of Figure 4B) in the path of the reverse-flowing electrons on the axis of the plasma chamber, supported from the sides of the chamber by support components that do not perturb microwave propagation because they are in a low electric field region. These support components (e.g., legs) may be solid metal for low-power applications, or hollow tubes for water-cooling impedance matching components, which may take the form of discrete steps as shown, or a smoothly tapered shape.

[0079] In one embodiment, two sets of support legs are used, separated as shown in Figure 4A, such that the reflection of microwave power away from the plasma chamber by one support leg is largely canceled out by the power reflected by the other support leg, and the second reflection has the same wavescale and opposite wavephase. Alternatively, in some embodiments, a single support leg may be used when the reflection scale is not important in low-power applications.

[0080] In one embodiment, the surface of the impedance matching component into which the reverse-flowing electrons are incident may be fitted with a heat-resistant metal insert for high-power applications, or left as a high-thermal-conductivity metal with a lower melting point for low-power applications, as needed.

[0081] In conventional technology, each impedance matching component (which may consist of, for example, two sets of metallic steps (stepped protrusions)) extends inward from the wider surface of the waveguide in the direction of the narrower dimension, with each half of it being translated inward by the narrower half of the waveguide (Figure 3).

[0082] (B. Optimization of operating parameters) In some embodiments, the accelerator system or subsystem described herein is optimized to improve performance. Generally, an accelerator system consists of a number of coupled nonlinear subsystems, which include, but are not limited to, ion source magnet position and current, ion source microwave power, ion source gas flow, beam extraction voltage, accelerator voltage, focusing solenoid current, steering magnet current, and gas target pressure. The entire system is generally too complex to be modeled or predicted directly a priori. In addition, slight differences between individual instances of the system, such as beamline alignment, can have a significant impact on system performance and are difficult to incorporate into predictive models. Therefore, final system optimization usually relies on empirical results. This process generally requires skilled and experienced operators to obtain peak system performance and carries the risk of component damage due to operator error. Embodiments of this disclosure address these problems by providing automated and partially automated processes for optimization.

[0083] An automated process for the final optimization of the system provides repeatable performance while minimizing the risk of damage and eliminating the need for skilled operators. In some embodiments, the accelerator system or subsystem may include one or more protective / monitoring components, including thermocouples, cameras, and voltage and current monitors, which automatically assess the state of the system and prevent the system from operating in a way that could damage components during the optimization process. Figure 5 provides exemplary protective and monitoring components, including an ion source mass flow meter and pressure gauge, an ion source thermocouple and coolant flow meter, a focusing solenoid thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, a voltage monitor, and a current monitor, an aperture camera, a thermocouple, and a coolant flow meter, a target camera, a thermocouple, a coolant flow meter, and a radiation detector, an extraction and suppression pressure gauge, a thermocouple, a current monitor, and a voltage monitor, beam diagnostic components such as a current monitor and emittance scanner, a pressure gauge, and a gas analyzer.

[0084] In one embodiment, these monitoring components communicate with central computer startup control software that enables automatic adjustment to the monitored accelerator system components. For example, during this process, one or more system parameters are automatically controlled and adjusted while the relevant system outputs are being monitored. This allows the operating phase space of individual systems to be mapped. Such a map allows the most stable operating points to be found across the entire system range. Once mapped, the control system can automatically use a closed-loop PID (proportional-integral-derivative) algorithm to return to these stable operating points as needed, without requiring a skilled operator. An embodiment of computer-implemented control logic that provides feedback from the monitoring components to the central computer system to prevent accelerator system components from operating under conditions that could damage various components is shown in Figure 6.

[0085] In some embodiments, the ion source subsystem is monitored using monitoring components. Initially, prior to implementing the monitoring components, each parameter, such as ion source magnet position and current, ion source microwave power, ion source gas flow, and extraction voltage, was manually adjusted individually while performance metrics such as beam current were recorded. This resulted in a limited mapping of the operating phase space. This manual process was time-consuming, and only a small subset of the operating space could be pursued at reasonable intervals. The manual method also tended to damage components, especially when an automated health monitoring and interlock system was not implemented. To begin addressing these limitations, algorithms (such as those in Figure 6) were developed to post-process and extract data collected during such manual optimization processes and map the operating phase space, as illustrated by the embodiment shown in Figure 7. This partial automation improved the efficiency and repeatability of the process, but did not enable real-time results while the system was operating. In some embodiments, monitoring components, employed to track long-term operation at a given setpoint and collect long-term stability statistics, can also be incorporated into the system to quantitatively determine the most stable operating point.

[0086] (C. Magnet concentration / installation) Because a precise magnetic field profile in the ion source is a critical factor for properly coupling microwave power into the plasma, even slight physical movement of the ion source magnets can cause significant changes in source performance. Therefore, adjustment systems and components are provided herein for adjusting and fixing the position of these magnets as required for testing and optimization, and for accounting for subtle variations by the system. An exemplary embodiment of an adjustment system for adjusting and fixing solenoid magnets surrounding an ion source plasma chamber is shown in Figure 8. In this embodiment, each ion source solenoid magnet is encased in epoxy, which is used to firmly bond the magnet to one or more mounting components (e.g., threaded metal features). The magnets are located inside a ferromagnetic enclosure that concentrates the magnetic field within the ion source region and shields the ion source from any external magnetic fields. The ferromagnetic enclosure has slots along its sides, allowing bolts to be attached from outside the enclosure to threaded metal features of each magnet assembly. The position of each magnet along the axis of the source shaft can therefore be adjusted by moving bolts along slots and fixed in place by tightening bolts against the enclosure. Thus, a reliable and relatively low-cost method and system for both positioning and fixing ion source solenoid magnets in place is provided herein.

[0087] (D. Brazing and water cooling) In one embodiment, a metal assembly (e.g., made of a low-conductance metal) is provided herein that partially obstructs a high-energy ion beam when positioned within an accelerator system, the metal assembly comprising i) at least one water-cooled channel, and ii) a first metal component, a second metal component, and a filler metal, the filler metal attaching the first metal component to the second metal component at a joint (e.g., a brazed joint).

[0088] In configurations (for example, those involving a gaseous target), a large pressure difference across the vacuum system is maintained by a low-conductance metal aperture that restricts the gas flow from the target to the beamline. High-energy ions in the edge region of the ion beam deposit a large amount of energy on the aperture, which can lead to excessive heating and permanent damage.

[0089] Figure 9A shows an exemplary differential tube assembly with components that are brazed together. Figure 9A shows the following components: a differential tube plate (1), a first differential tube (2), a second differential tube (3), a turbo shadow (4), an open tube cap (5), a pair of open tube rods (6), and several plate plugs (7). Figure 9B shows a perspective view of the exemplary differential tube plate, showing the water channels located within it. Figure 9C shows a perspective view of the exemplary differential tube plate.

[0090] Studies conducted during the development of the embodiments disclosed herein identified water cooling as an efficient method for removing heat from metal components that may partially obstruct the beam. Due to the high power density of the beam and the vacuum environment in which the beam and these components exist, special considerations must be taken into account when implementing water cooling.

[0091] The reliability of the system has been found to be significantly improved by using highly thermally conductive metals (e.g., copper, aluminum), fabricating components that may be affected by the beam, and adding water-cooling channels to these parts to prevent them from melting. Since these components often do not need to have complex shapes, and highly thermally conductive materials are difficult to weld, brazing has been determined to be the best method for joining parts together while leaving space for water to flow in. This not only allows for complex water channel shapes to reach all critical areas, but also creates a strong, fully penetrating joint that maintains the high thermal conductivity of the base metal. Although more expensive than some other techniques, this provides high reliability against water leakage, which is a major problem for water-cooled components in a vacuum.

[0092] First, it should be noted that in studies conducted during the development of the embodiments described herein, these components were made from copper, tungsten, aluminum, or stainless steel, but did not survive for long periods, even if only the edges of the beam were blocked, due to the lack of cooling. Water-cooled channels were later added and sealed with NPT plugs, but the thread sealant was not effective in preventing leakage into the high-vacuum environment because the temperature was high enough to decompose the polymer. O-rings have similar problems with high temperatures. Brazing metal plugs in place (for example, to fill holes drilled to create water channels) is a good solution. In some embodiments, heat pipes are employed to remove waste heat, either in addition to or instead of water channels. In certain embodiments, the reliability of the overall accelerator system is improved by using brazed assemblies with water-cooled channels, as less leakage may exist that could damage other expensive equipment such as vacuum pumps.

[0093] (II. Ion Source Infrastructure) In some embodiments, the ion source infrastructure has several improvements that contribute to its improved behavior. These include, for example, the implementation of a vacuum pump at high voltage, a nested pressure vessel for the operation of certain components at high voltage, and the use of a V-belt for power transmission to the components at high voltage. Each of these improvements will be discussed in turn.

[0094] (A. Vacuum pumps at high voltage) Some of the gas supplied into the plasma chamber is not ionized by microwaves and is instead deflected into extraction and acceleration regions where a strong electric field is applied. The presence of neutral gas typically increases the likelihood of high-voltage arcs, which can disrupt system operation, induce failure conditions in the high-voltage power source, and reduce the lifetime of beamline components. Furthermore, ions in the beam can undergo atomic and molecular processes using the background neutral gas, such as scattering or charge exchange events, which degrade beam quality or reduce ion current.

[0095] In light of these problems, systems and methods for enabling the removal of non-ionized gases from an extraction region are provided herein. In one embodiment, the ion source region is designed to remove gases entering the extraction region from a plasma source by mounting a first vacuum pump (e.g., a small turbomolecular vacuum pump) directly above the ion source inside a high-voltage dome. However, the exhaust from the vacuum pump cannot be released into a high-pressure insulating gas-filled enclosure where the ion source resides. To solve this secondary problem, the vacuum pump exhaust is compressed to a higher pressure using a second vacuum pump (e.g., a small roughing pump) and then passed through an insulating hose extending between the high-voltage end and ground. In one embodiment, the insulating hose is wound in a helical shape to increase its voltage breakdown rating. At the ground end, the gas is released into the atmosphere as in a normal vacuum pump system. Pumping exhaust gases across high voltage is uncommon, and the solution is counterintuitive due to implementation difficulties, but it enables the removal of gases from the extraction and acceleration regions when using an insulating gas-filled enclosure. Directly pumping the ion source region removes most of the leaked gas from the plasma source and reduces the pressure in the extraction region. This increases the maximum voltage that can be used, reduces arcing, increases long-term reliability, and enables better beam quality. This also allows the ion source region to be designed regardless of gas flow requirements, increasing design flexibility.

[0096] Conventional designs used a vacuum pump at the ground end of the accelerator, but note that the gas is typically injected at the ion source end, which is maintained at a high voltage. In that configuration, the ion source and accelerator had a high gas flow and had to be carefully designed to allow gas to escape from the accelerator. Even with such designs, the underlying physics of the system limited the achievable vacuum level in the ion source region, limited the maximum voltage that could be used, increased the arc frequency, which was detrimental to stability and long-term operation.

[0097] (B. Pressure vessel within a pressure vessel) Equipment that needs to be maintained at a high voltage is typically enclosed within a smooth-shaped high-voltage dome inside an insulating gas-filled pressure vessel to minimize arc discharge events that are destructive and potentially damaging. However, some auxiliary components cannot operate correctly in a pressurized environment. Thus, a solution is provided herein where components (e.g., roughing pumps) that need to be located inside the pressure vessel for reliable operation at high voltage but cannot operate in a high-pressure environment are installed in a smaller (inner) pressure vessel that is pressurized up to nominal atmospheric pressure and connected to the outside of a larger (outer) pressure vessel via a pipe.

[0098] For example, as described in the above section, a roughing pump is used to assist a turbomolecular pump that is added to an ion source to remove gas from an extraction region. The roughing pump functions best at atmospheric pressure rather than in a pressurized environment generated by a larger (outer) pressure pump (see, for example, the SF6 pressure vessel of FIG. 1). Thus, as shown in FIG. 10, a nested pressure vessel configuration is provided where the roughing pump is located inside an inner (smaller) pressure vessel inside an outer (larger) pressure vessel so that the roughing pump can operate at different pressures (e.g., atmospheric pressure). Note that during the research conducted during the development of embodiments of the present disclosure, it was noted that attempts to operate the roughing pump in a pressurized environment led to gas leakage into the pump, so the pump needed to operate more actively. Also, not using the roughing pump inside the inner pressure vessel can lead to gases that backflow through the turbomolecular pump and contaminate the vacuum system.

[0099] (C.V belt) Power for components held at high voltage needs to be supplied in a manner that is electrically isolated from ground. Prior art for providing this energy includes insulated transformers and generators driven by insulated shafts or belts. Most belts produced for power transmission applications have either steel cables embedded in them, large amounts of carbon added to the polymer, or both. Both of these characteristics prevent them from maintaining the voltage separation requirement because they make the belt an effective electrical conductor. Other belts do not conduct electricity easily, but they are usually too weak to handle large amounts of transmitted power or have been observed to become more conductive over time, leading to belt breakage and failure.

[0100] A solution to the problem is provided herein by providing a system comprising: a) at least one high-voltage component held at a high voltage in an accelerator system for generating a high-energy ion beam; and b) a power component electrically coupled to the at least one high-voltage component, which provides power to the at least one high-voltage component (for example, in a manner electrically isolated from ground), wherein the power component comprises a V-belt, the V-belt comprising a plurality of sections (for example, 3, 25, 100, 400 sections), and i) being a poor electrical conductor or ii) being a non-electrical conductor.

[0101] V-belts capable of both handling the transmitted power load and maintaining the necessary electrical isolation have been identified. For example, segmented V-belts such as Fenner Power Twist have been found to successfully transmit large amounts of power across the voltage gap.

[0102] (III. High-voltage systems) In various embodiments, the high-voltage system has several improvements that contribute to its improved behavior. These include direct ion implantation, active cooling water resistors, an ideal electrostatic lens design process, and the use of precision insulating balls for electrical isolation and matching of electron suppression elements. Each of these improvements will be discussed in turn.

[0103] (A. Direct ion implantation) Many beamlines require components located between the ion source and the accelerator. This low-energy beam transport (LEBT) component receives the beam as it exits the plasma source and delivers it to the accelerator with the required beam parameters. Typically, an LEBT includes, but is not limited to, analytical magnets, focusing elements, electron suppression elements, and beam choppers. Such components are necessary when the beam extracted from the plasma source is not of sufficiently high quality to be accepted by the accelerator. Such LEBT components increase the size, cost, and complexity of the system. Increased complexity generally leads to a less reliable and less robust system. In addition, due to the increase in space charge in the beam, these problems are generally more pronounced with respect to high-current DC beamlines.

[0104] In light of these possible problems relating to LEBT components, in some embodiments, direct ion implantation systems that do not employ any LEBT components are provided herein. Various solutions are employed to provide only direct ion implantation, including rapidly modulating microwave power, altering the drift length (the distance between the ion source and the inlet to the accelerator column), reducing the pressure within the accelerator column, and reducing the pressure within the high-voltage area (for example, using first and second vacuum pumps as described above and herein).

[0105] The high atomic fraction characteristic of microwave ion sources eliminates the need for seed analysis magnets between the ion source and the accelerator. Sufficient vacuum pumps within the beamline eliminate the need for background ionization and electrostatic suppression between the ion source and the accelerator. This is further facilitated by adding pumps at the high-voltage end of the accelerator, as described herein.

[0106] Many ion source technologies, such as those based on filaments, rely on thermal processes and are relatively slow to switch on and off. With such sources, extraction or acceleration high-voltage power supply must be shunted or switched to rapidly modulate the beam. This generally adds complexity and cost while reducing reliability.

[0107] In one embodiment, the microwave ion source is rapidly and directly modulated by controlling the driving microwave power. This allows the beam to be rapidly pulsed or extinguished while the extraction and accelerating high-voltage power supply remains steady. Such functionality enables system commissioning and mechanical protection without the need for beam choppers, kickers, or high-voltage switching circuits. Figure 11 shows an embodiment of a pulsed beam from a modulated magnetron (measured using a Faraday cup) that modulates microwaves incident on a plasma chamber.

[0108] In a direct injection architecture, the beam extracted from the ion source is immediately injected into the accelerator, as illustrated in 12A. This geometry minimizes the drift length and thus reduces the increase in beam diameter due to space charge. Ion beam diameter is a critical factor for solenoid focusing elements. The ability to control beam diameter and divergence by modifying the drift length between the ion source and the accelerator enables better performance when designing the entire beamline by matching the ion source, accelerator, focusing elements, and target. Therefore, in some embodiments, the drift length is modified (extended or shortened) to optimize the direct injection architecture.

[0109] "Drift length" is the physical distance a beam travels in a region without an external electromagnetic field. This corresponds to the physical distance between the extraction / suppression / exit lens group and the accelerator column inlet in the main system diagram. This is the same location where LEBT would be used in a non-direct injection system.

[0110] Examples of drift lengths in front of the accelerator are shown in Figure 12B, ranging from 20 to 500 mm.

[0111] In the electromagnetic field-free drift region, the beam is largely neutralized by background free electrons, and the space charge effect is significantly reduced. Under these conditions, the envelope of the beam extracted from the ion source can be approximated as a cone with a constant apex angle. Therefore, the diameter of the beam incident on the accelerator at the edge of the drift region can be determined by the length of the drift region in conjunction with this expansion angle.

[0112] Spherical aberration and space charge effects in accelerators depend on the beam diameter, making the length of the drift region between the ion source and the accelerator a crucial factor in system performance.

[0113] It should be noted that, for reliable operation, direct injection systems generally require a more finely tuned ion source, typically requiring a long commissioning process by a skilled operator. As described herein, automatic system tuning algorithms increase the speed and reliability of such processes. Any failures can also generally be handled automatically without operator intervention by the automatic recovery systems described herein. This can effectively minimize or eliminate any damage or downtime caused by such transient events.

[0114] Eliminating electron suppression components between the ion source and accelerator column generally allows any electrons generated in the accelerator, resulting from interactions with background neutrons or accelerator walls, to be transported back into the ion source at high energies. This can lead to damage to ion source components, shortening their lifetime and placing unnecessary loads on high-voltage power sources, increasing their costs.

[0115] In a well-optimized system, there will be very small levels of beam current that collide with any accelerator surface. Since the majority of harmful backflow electrons are thus generated by interaction with background neutrons, reducing the pressure within the accelerator (as discussed above) minimizes these problems. Increasing the vacuum pump capacity in the high-voltage region of a system with an electrostatic suppression lens (further described below) between the ion source and the accelerator has been found to be an effective way to reduce background pressure and thus reduce backflow electron flow while improving system reliability and stability. Adding a similar pump to the high-voltage end of a direct injection system should, in some embodiments, further improve overall stability and increase the lifetime of accelerator components. The adverse effects of backflow electrons reacting the ion source can be further mitigated using so-called reverse waveguides, which are discussed in detail herein.

[0116] Implementing direct ion implantation using the techniques discussed above can reduce beam diameter and improve beam transport for high-current ion beams. Tuning beam characteristics can enable smaller apertures on differential pump systems, longer beam transport distances, or better acceptance into downstream high-energy accelerators. Generally, smaller beam sizes and apertures are important for gas targets. Longer transport distances are important for targets that need to be located at a greater distance from the ion source, including, but not limited to, accelerator-driven subcritical assemblies. Acceptance into downstream accelerators is also important for high-energy physics laboratories.

[0117] (B. Active cooling water resistor) A high voltage power supply (HVPS) is used to power the components of an accelerator system. When testing such an HVPS, it is necessary to connect the output to a test load to ensure that the HVPS meets the specifications. The test load must withstand voltages up to 300 kV DC and dissipate heat up to a maximum of 30 kW, or approximately 3 kW, or approximately 5 kW. Constructing such a test load requires purchasing multiple expensive specialized resistors to operate at different loads.

[0118] Also, some accelerators use a resistor divider consisting of a series of resistors to evenly divide the voltage along the accelerator, prevent arc discharge, and provide a uniform electric field for properly accelerating the ion beam. Conventional resistors are rated for high voltages, are bulky, and have limited power dissipation, which limits the performance of the accelerator.

[0119] In one embodiment, a recirculating high-power high-voltage water resistor or test load is provided for testing an HVPS at voltages up to 300 kV and power levels up to 30 kW. The same concept is also used as a flexible high-voltage rated resistor for electrostatic accelerators (see Figure 13).

[0120] These systems and methods use recirculating controlled conductivity water as the resistive element. Insulating tubing (e.g., plastic tubing) is connected between the ground electrode and the high-voltage electrode. A water pump takes water from a reservoir, circulates it through the electrodes, removes the dissipated heat through a heat exchanger, and returns it to the reservoir.

[0121] Deionized (DI) resins are used to reduce the conductivity of water, and diluted metal salt solutions are used to increase conductivity as needed. By actively controlling the conductivity of water, the resistance can be varied over a wide range. The DI resins used are generally capable of producing deionized water with resistivity of 15 megaohms-cm or more. These resins are often commercially available as "mixed-bed" resins consisting of equal parts hydrogen-form strongly acidic cationic resin and hydroxide-form strongly basic anionic resin.

[0122] The voltage rating of a water resistor can be changed by adjusting the length of the insulating tube and increasing or decreasing the breakdown voltage as desired. The power capacity of the resistor is adjusted by selecting the diameter of the tubes and the water flow rate so that the water does not exceed its boiling point at the design power rating.

[0123] During the development of embodiments of this disclosure, it was found that flexible vinyl tubing could develop pinhole leakage due to high-voltage arcs. Suitable materials for non-conductive tubing include, but are not limited to, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyethylene. Metal salts that may be used include, but are not limited to, copper sulfate, sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and sodium thiosulfate.

[0124] Exemplary embodiments of these systems are as follows. The water resistor is first filled with deionized water. For this reason, the materials used in constructing the water resistor should be compatible with the DI water system. Generally, for best performance, all metals within the system should be the same, which can be, for example, either copper, aluminum, or stainless steel. Generally, mixing metal types promotes corrosion and shortens the lifespan of components. The metal salts used to reduce resistance should be compatible with the metal selected, for example, copper sulfate is used in combination with copper, ammonium chloride is used in combination with stainless steel, etc. A 15 or 18 MΩ-cm mixed bed DI resin is used to remove excess ions from the solution and increase resistance. In certain embodiments, the following, namely, stainless steel electrodes, stainless steel heat exchangers, magnesium sulfate salts, and 15 MΩ-cm color-changing DI resin are employed.

[0125] In an exemplary application operating for high power and high voltage loads, the system is as follows. The insulating tubing was two polycarbonate tubes with an inner diameter of 0.95 cm and a length of 90.0 cm. The DI resin was ResinTech MBD-30 indicator resin. Copper tubing was used to make the electrical connection to the dilute saline solution. The electrolyte was copper sulfate.

[0126] The resistance of the test load is calculated as R = rho * L / A, where rho is the resistivity, L is the tube length, and A is the tube area. Using pure DI water with a resistivity of 18 megaohm-cm, the test load resistance was R = 18e6 ohm-cm * 2 * 90 cm / 0.71 square cm. = 4.6e9 ohms. This high resistance was essentially a zero load, enabling a full voltage zero load test to be performed.

[0127] Copper sulfate was then added to reduce the resistivity to 2960 ohms-cm, resulting in a resistance of 750 kilohms. This allowed the test load to be operated at 150kV, 200mA. 30kW of power was dissipated to cool the water through the heat exchanger.

[0128] In one embodiment, PLC / software control would fully automate the system, allowing the operator to select resistances, and the system would automatically compensate for slight temperature or conductivity drifts. In addition, a sealed system or other method to prevent atmospheric oxygen or CO2 from coming into contact with water would increase chemical stability and extend the system's lifespan by requiring fewer consumables or increasing the time between service intervals.

[0129] (C. Lens Design) Electrostatic lens stacks are used to extract ions from a microwave plasma source and form them into a beam. The electrostatic lens stack consists of i) a plasma lens, ii) an extraction lens, iii) a suppression lens, and iv) an emission lens. The precise shape of the lenses affects the beam performance at a given source parameter and applied voltage in terms of current density, spot size, divergence, and emittance. These affect the system's robustness, total extraction current, and high-voltage requirements. Determining the appropriate lenses to obtain a beam of desired properties is required as the process propagates through downstream components (e.g., accelerator columns, focusing solenoids, or low-conductance apertures) subject to operational constraints such as maximum applied voltage and electric field.

[0130] In one embodiment, a lens design process is provided herein that begins with internal computer code to determine a nominally ideal profile for the plasma and extraction lens, taking into account the desired beam properties. This also inputs the calculated lens geometry into PBGUNS (Particle Beam Gun Simulation), a commercially available program used to generate files and stimulate ion beam transport through the extraction system and downstream components. Figure 14 shows an exemplary user interface for the lens design software application.

[0131] PBGUNS can be used to output beam trajectories and results, verify the suitability of the lens stack being designed, or suggest modifications that may be made to the geometry to optimize beam quality, and therefore the overall system performance. Figure 15 shows a sample beam trajectory plot from PBGUNS.

[0132] The inputs to the lens shape determination code are the beam current, extraction voltage, ion species ratio, maximum electric field, and ion current density at the plasma lens aperture. The code outputs a lens that satisfies the equation for zero charge outside the beam (Laplace's equation) and produces a solution that coincides between two regions at the edge of the beam, resulting in a spherically focused, space-charge-limited ion flow between the plasma and the extraction lens.

[0133] PBGUNS accepts many inputs beyond the system's geometry. These include grid accuracy, empirically determined beam neutralization factors, and electron and ion temperatures in the source plasma. The program outputs beam trajectory plots, as well as phase space plots and emittance calculations at specific axial locations. Certain limited beamlet data is also output for a single axial location per launch, which can be used for more detailed post-processing of the results.

[0134] In one embodiment, it is used to design lenses that allow other programs to simulate 3D configurations (for example, when considering a multiple aperture extraction system to increase the total current that can be extracted from a plasma source, which may be important for some applications). Other software packages such as IBSIMU also enable 3D configurations while starting up 2D geometric shapes faster than PBGUNS, but the overall calculations may not be as accurate.

[0135] (D. Implementation of Suppression Elements) High-energy ion beam generators may employ an extraction lens stack in which the extraction lens is negatively biased, followed by a suppression electrode located directly downstream therefrom, and then an output electrode that electrically contacts the extraction lens. The resulting drop in electrostatic potential prevents electrons created downstream (e.g., by ionization from a solid surface or secondary electron emission) from being accelerated to high energies and damaging the source components. The confined electrons also contribute more effectively to space charge compensation of the ion beam, which can reduce beam size, divergence, and emittance. Such a lens stack, therefore, increases the reliability of the system, improves beam quality, increases the total current that can be delivered to the target, resulting in further uptime and throughput.

[0136] Components used to withstand high voltages between electrodes within a lens stack while aligning and holding them together are provided herein. This mechanism is a complex set of criteria for being mechanically robust, providing electrical insulation, accommodating ultra-high vacuum, rated for high temperatures, and maintaining balance.

[0137] In some embodiments, insulating balls (e.g., ceramic balls) are pressed between conical recesses on each pair of electrodes stacked together, as shown, for example, in Figure 16. In some embodiments, for each lens gap, three insulating balls (e.g., ceramic balls) are spaced evenly in azimuthal coordinates to achieve mechanical contact on a perfectly defined plane. Given their high degree of spherical symmetry and diameter tolerances, the ceramic balls enable lens self-alignment, as the two electrodes firmly pressed against the opposite sides of the three ceramic balls have no residual degrees of freedom compared to other geometric shapes.

[0138] Ceramic balls are rated for ultra-high vacuum and very high temperatures, are extremely hard and rigid, possess high dielectric strength, and provide insulation for use at high voltages. In some embodiments, the entire lens stack is held by metal bolts between the extraction and output electrodes, as the extraction and output electrodes are held at the same electrostatic potential and electrical contact between them is desired. Metal bolts are also far more durable than ceramic bolts.

[0139] Ceramic balls can be readily manufactured or made available as off-the-shelf components at relatively low cost, with very high precision in diameter (approximately 0.1%) and sphericity (approximately 0.01%). While ceramic balls are often made primarily from alumina and rated for temperatures exceeding 1,000°C, other materials may also be used.

[0140] Before using precision ceramic balls, ceramic bolts, nuts, and washers were used. These can be rated for vacuum, high temperature, and high voltage operation. However, they are brittle and can easily break, especially when the axis of the lens stack is oriented horizontally, as they are susceptible to shear stress. Also, because the through-holes in the electrodes are necessarily larger than the outer diameter of the bolt threads, the lenses have at least two degrees of freedom, so self-alignment is not a feature of this type of assembly.

[0141] The use of precision ceramic balls enables mechanically robust assembly of extraction lens stacks using suppression electrodes, while adding inherent self-alignment between lenses, enabling use at high voltage, high temperature, and ultra-high vacuum. This component helps improve the overall system reliability in terms of mechanical stability, beam quality, and protection of source and beamline components, while increasing the total current that can be reliably transported to the target.

[0142] (IV. Neutron production target) Several advances have been made to the neutron-generating target system that contribute to its exemplary performance. These include A) active cooling for the solid target, B) an argon sputtering purification process, C) a mechanism for distributing the heat load onto the tube opening in the gaseous target system, D) reverse gas injection, and E) the implementation of a beam scraper.

[0143] (A. High power density solid target cooling) In accelerator-driven neutron generator systems, the majority of the ion beam energy is used to heat the target rather than to perform nuclear reactions. High-yield systems inevitably require high-power ion beams and the removal of the resulting large thermal load generated at the target.

[0144] Solid targets consist of reactive species, typically deuterium or tritium, embedded in a solid matrix of non-reactive material. Such non-reactive matrices generally further reduce the efficiency of the generator, as any interaction with the ion beam will generally result only in waste heat and will not lead to any desired nuclear reaction. In addition, the high density of the solid target generally leads to a short stopping distance for the incident ion beam and results in a high volumetric power density deposited within the target.

[0145] The volume in which the desired neutrons are produced through the nuclear fusion reaction is defined by the volume within the target into which the beam ions are deposited. For certain applications, including but not limited to fast neutron radiography, a point neutron source is desirable to provide higher quality images. This corresponds to a smaller ion beam spot size on the target.

[0146] With respect to a given total neutron yield, measured by the number of neutrons produced over a period of time, the neutron flux, measured by the number of neutrons per unit area per unit time, generally increases as the neutron production volume within the target decreases. High neutron flux is desirable for applications including, but not limited to, neutron activation analysis and material testing for reactor components.

[0147] For reasons including, but not limited to, those described above, depositing the energy of an ion beam into a small volume is desirable for the performance of accelerator-driven neutron generators. Beam focusing elements can be used to reduce the spot size on the target to an almost arbitrarily small area limited by space charge effects. In practice, the achievable spot size is limited by the high-power deposition of the ion beam into a solid target.

[0148] For applications in accelerator-driven neutron production via nuclear fusion reactions between hydrogen isotope nuclei, solid target materials with high hydrogen storage capacity, such as titanium, are desirable for high neutron yields. Deuterium or tritium is directly embedded in the target by the beam, either in situ or through an oven-fired process.

[0149] Aside from the physical destruction of solid targets through mechanisms including melting and ablation, solid target neutron generators utilizing deuterium or tritium nuclear reactions must be kept below temperatures where diffusion would lead to hydrogen loss from within the target material. Generally, the hydrogen vapor pressure of metal hydrides is very high at temperatures above approximately 250 degrees Celsius.

[0150] In general, there are two fundamental cooling requirements for ion beam targets. First, the total average power deposited by the beam should be removed to prevent bulk heating of the target assembly over a time series of approximately the thermal time constant. Second, the instantaneous power density of the beam incident on the target material should be low enough to prevent immediate localized material damage.

[0151] The average ion beam power is determined by the product of the beam current, beam energy, and duty cycle. This value is typically around several thousand to tens of thousands of watts in some of the exemplary systems described herein, but the same principle applies to higher power levels. The resulting steady-state bulk temperature rise is determined by the mass flux and specific heat of the coolant. This first requirement is readily met with a coolant of moderate mass flux (e.g., 10 to 100 gallons / min), including, but not limited to, water, glycol, or oil.

[0152] The second requirement regarding volumetric power density is generally more difficult to achieve for high-performance systems. The incident beam power is deposited into a narrow surface volume defined by the beam spot size and the stopping power of the beam within the target. This power must be transferred through the target material into the coolant before it is removed. Heat transfer at the interface is defined in part by the material, geometry, surface conditions, and coolant fluid dynamics.

[0153] The target temperature should be kept below approximately 250 degrees Celsius to prevent the loss of embedded hydrogen and hydrides required for the fusion reaction. This is achieved using minimized target wall thickness, high thermal conductivity materials, increased coolant surface area, turbulent coolant flow, and a clean coolant channel surface.

[0154] The performance of initial systems using open-loop water cooling was found to degrade over time. Considering the extremely low thermal conductivity of mineral deposits accumulating within the cooling channels, even extremely thin layers significantly affect heat transfer and the resulting target surface temperature. The inherently high temperatures at the target tend to increase mineral deposit precipitation, which can restrict coolant flow, reduce cooling capacity, and generate runaway failure modes.

[0155] Closed-loop cooling using actively filtered and deionized coolants prevents such deposits within the target while extending its lifespan and improving its performance.

[0156] One approach to reducing power density on solid targets is to position them at an angle so that the ion beam is deposited over an ellipse with high eccentricity and increased surface area. Many targets utilizing a single inclined surface, an array of inclined surfaces, or a cone have been tested. Such geometric shapes are used on high-power beam stop sections where neutron production is not the primary application. Targets using this method are necessarily larger, more expensive, and more complex, and generally require more auxiliary hardware. This makes such approaches undesirable for systems requiring a point neutron source or for compact and easily portable systems.

[0157] To reduce the target size, the beam spot size on the target must be reduced, resulting in a higher power density. More efficient heat transfer is required to maintain the target surface temperature requirements under these conditions. In some embodiments, the target wall is minimally thick (e.g., 0.005–0.020 inches, e.g., 0.010 inches). This dimension is limited by the structural integrity required to accommodate the coolant channel pressure. The temperature difference between the target surface and the coolant, which obstructs the beam's power, is proportional to the target wall thickness and the thermal conductivity of the wall material. Therefore, both the material and physical structure of the target and cooling channel wall determine the performance of the solid target. Reducing the target wall thickness, therefore, allows for lower target surface temperatures. Ideal wall materials have high thermal conductivity, high tensile strength, and high machinability. Such materials include, but are not limited to, copper, silver, gold, diamond, diamond-like carbon, or combinations thereof.

[0158] In addition, the effective surface area is increased through the addition of fins, ribs, or other vortices. Such features can increase the structural strength of the target, allowing for thinner walls. Features can be manufactured using multiple techniques, including, but not limited to, milling, casting, or additive manufacturing. An example of a turbulence-inducing structure includes multiple parallel fins with recessed holes to interrupt a smooth surface. An exemplary structure is shown in Figure 17.

[0159] In some embodiments, water is used as a coolant. This allows for the use of a wide range of low-cost and reliable commercial pumps, filters, and other auxiliary equipment to support the cooling system.

[0160] Other embodiments, though not limited to them, may utilize other coolants, including oils, gases, or liquid metals. Additives may be used to modify the properties of the coolant.

[0161] A high-quality closed-loop coolant system maintains a clean coolant channel surface. This sealed system prevents atmospheric oxygen or other substances from being available to react with the coolant channel surface. The coolant loop may also be further treated using techniques including, but not limited to, deionization and filtration.

[0162] Laminar flow creates an insulating layer at the fluid-solid interface of the cooling channel, limiting heat transfer. Irregular features such as intermittent dips and helical depressions, as illustrated in Figure 18, induce turbulence and, conversely, tend to improve heat transfer in the system. The fluid coolant channel is located in plane of the solid target assembly. This assembly is located at the end of the beamline. In some embodiments, the solid target is located at ground potential and does not require any special connection to the overall system. In some embodiments, the solid target is thermally isolated from the rest of the system. This allows for the measurement of the heat of the power deposited into the target by the ion beam by monitoring the temperature and flow rate of the coolant through the target. Since the energy of the ion beam is known, the deposited power can be used to determine the current carried into the target by the ion beam.

[0163] Other embodiments of solid target assemblies are electrically isolated from the overall system, allowing them to be biased to a high voltage to increase the effective ion beam energy and neutron yield. Such embodiments involve the use of a coolant transported to the high-voltage solid target from a pump located at ground potential or a fully closed-loop cooling system isolated at high voltage. Such methods are similar to those described herein for providing cooling or power to an ion source, which are also electrically biased to a high voltage relative to ground.

[0164] Turbulence also generally results in greater pressure loss. Coolant flow rate and pressure drop should be considered in the design of turbulence-induced features. Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to determine these values ​​and match them to the performance of the coolant pump system. The target operating flow rate and pressure drop are tuned by adjusting the number of parallel and series elements.

[0165] The heat transfer performance of a target is characterized by the temperature difference between the coolant and the target surface. The absolute temperature of the surface is therefore reduced with respect to a given system by reducing the inlet coolant temperature. Pre-cooling of a closed-loop coolant is achieved using a cooling device or other method. The minimum achievable coolant temperature is generally limited by the melting point of the coolant.

[0166] Pre-cooling of aqueous coolants is limited by their relatively high melting point. The use of other coolants, such as helium, allows for much lower temperatures when the coolant enters the target. This results in lower target surface temperatures for a given ion beam power density. Similarly, higher ion beam power densities, resulting in more point neutron sources and higher fluxes, can be achieved while maintaining the required low target surface temperature.

[0167] The low mass of hydrogen species results in a low sputtering rate on metal targets. The lifetime of the target surface is shortened if the beam contains heavier ionic contaminants that can be removed using analytical magnets or other mass filtration components in the beamline prior to the target.

[0168] High-power-density ion beam targets enable more physically compact and portable systems, more point neutron sources, and higher neutron fluxes.

[0169] (B. Purification of solid targets to maintain neutron yield) Neutron sources sometimes use beam targets plated with titanium metal. Titanium adsorbs a significant amount of deuterium, allowing the inflowing deuterium to trigger a nuclear fusion reaction and emit neutrons. However, titanium is an extremely reactive metal that also reacts with oxygen and nitrogen, forming a barrier to the deuterium beam and reducing neutron output. Trace contaminants in the vacuum system can be high enough to cause this problem.

[0170] In some embodiments, a small amount of argon gas (e.g., 1–10 cubic centimeters / minute) is introduced into the vacuum system while the beam is operating. The ion beam transfers some kinetic energy to the argon gas. The energized argon atoms then collide with the target surface, removing the contaminating oxide / nitride layer by sputtering. Argon is efficient at inducing sputtering because it is much heavier than the primary beam species, while its chemical inertness prevents it from forming titanium and other compounds on the target surface. Figure 19 shows the effect of titanium compound formation and the argon purification process on the neutron yield. The target is initially loaded with deuterium for up to 10,000 seconds, then the slow accumulation of titanium oxide / nitride reduces the neutron output. Short-duration argon purification occurs at 125,000 seconds, and longer-duration purification occurs at 150,000–175,000 seconds, returning the neutron output to its initial level.

[0171] Argon should be delivered into the vacuum system as close to the solid target as possible to maximize the local argon pressure near the target without excessively increasing the overall vacuum system pressure. In some embodiments, the argon gas source is connected to the vacuum system by a metal tube that resides inside the vacuum and delivers argon directly to the solid target location.

[0172] Other heavy inert gases such as krypton and xenon could also be used, but they are prohibitively more expensive.

[0173] The only previous method involved removing the target from the system and mechanically cleaning it to remove the titanium oxide / nitride layer. This was a time-consuming process, removing significantly more target plating than necessary and drastically shortening the target's lifespan. Furthermore, periodic replacement of the target reduced the system's uptime and, consequently, the total throughput for the user over time.

[0174] (C. Pipe opening) In gaseous target neutron generators, a large pressure gradient must be maintained between the target and the accelerator to maximize the total neutron yield. Therefore, the aperture separating the target gas from the ion beam accelerator is necessarily small (e.g., a diameter of a few millimeters). The ion beam power density, as it passes through the aperture, is correspondingly large (hundreds of MW / m³). 2 ), it cannot withstand contact with any solid surface during steady-state operation. Slight deviations in beam focusing and steering due to thermal / mechanical or electrical fluctuations in the accelerator system can result in significant damage to the target inlet opening. This can lead to system performance degradation if the pressure gradient cannot be maintained, or further to significant system damage due to vacuum loss and / or cooling water entering the vacuum system.

[0175] The ion beam, which has a diameter of several centimeters when exiting the accelerating stage, must be focused to several millimeters in order to pass through the entrance aperture to the gaseous target. The axial distance at which the beam is focused to its minimum diameter depends on the current in the focusing solenoid. Various adjustable focusing mechanisms, including electrostatic or magnetic quadrupole multiplet or permanent magnet / electromagnet hybrids, can also be used.

[0176] In some embodiments, the ion beam is deflected laterally in two orthogonal directions by varying the current in a pair of intersecting dipole electromagnets ("steering" magnets) so that the central axis of the beam aligns with the gas target aperture, thereby compensating for the accumulation of angular deviations due to mechanical tolerances in the alignment of the beamline components over the long beam transport distance between the plasma source and the gaseous target.

[0177] A system for sensing the distribution of ion beam power on a target aperture and using this information to actively control the focusing and steering of the ion beam through the aperture is provided herein. In some embodiments, this is accomplished using a four-quadrant thermal instrumentation embedded near the upstream surface of the gaseous target aperture, equally spaced at 90-degree intervals around the axis of the aperture. Exemplary implementations use copper-constantan thermocouples in a copper target aperture, which may also serve as copper legs for each thermocouple, or copper wires may be drawn out separately. Other embodiments use platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, or semiconductor temperature sensors.

[0178] The four-quadrant temperature signals are summed to provide the average target aperture temperature, which is used to maintain ion beam focusing. Adjusting the current within the focusing solenoid to minimize the target aperture temperature maintains optimal focusing against minor perturbations resulting from beam voltage or current fluctuations, or from overall beamline deflection or distortion due to thermal expansion or mechanical stress.

[0179] In this implementation, the sensors are arranged around the axis of the beam passing through the target aperture at a position where a steering dipole magnet deflects the beam laterally toward it. The temperature difference between a first pair of opposite temperature sensors is used to maintain the beam alignment between two of the sensors in the pair, which is also the center of the gas target aperture. Thus, the current in the first magnet can be varied to minimize the temperature difference between the first pair of sensors, corresponding to the direction in which the magnet deflects the ion beam. The difference between a second pair of opposite sensors, and the corresponding variation in the current in the second steering dipole magnet, can be used to center the beam in a direction perpendicular to the first pair of sensors. Figure 20 shows an exemplary embodiment of the system. The upper panel shows the location of the thermocouple measurement points on the target aperture. The lower panel shows the component in relation to the beam and the dipole steering magnet.

[0180] (D. Reverse gas injection) In a gaseous target neutron generator, the pressure inside the target should be as high as possible so that the beam stops completely at the smallest possible distance so that energy is not wasted and neutrons are generated in an area where they cannot be effectively used, and so that the pressure immediately in front of the target should be as low as possible.

[0181] Components for increasing the pressure difference across the final opening are provided herein. In particular, reverse gas injection for producing an increase in the pressure difference across the final opening is provided herein. An exemplary configuration of reverse gas injection is shown in Figure 21.

[0182] The modeling was performed using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program to generate a nozzle geometry that would increase the pressure difference across the target opening. Initial trials used a nozzle that did not operate at all at the target pressure and did not expand after convergence. Aspects such as the narrow-diameter gap, nozzle angle, nozzle length, and pressure in the plenum were varied. The plenum pressure was always kept below atmospheric pressure to keep gas leakage and gas retention at minimum. After considerable effort, the configuration shown in Figure 21 was developed to provide the desired pressure difference.

[0183] The opening around which the gas injection nozzles are located was selected to be 3 / 8 inch, based on other requirements such as the size of the beam passing through the opening (although other dimensions may be used). At this bore diameter, with the type of pump desired to drive the gas injection, a narrow gap of less than 0.01 inches was sufficient to maintain a pressure drop high enough to induce supersonic flow. An average nozzle angle of 12.5 degrees was found to be optimal using parameter studies.

[0184] (E. Beam Scraper) In some systems, a mechanism for inserting a solid target into the beam path, which can block arbitrary portions of the beam, is sometimes desirable to precisely control the total current delivered to the target. Such beam scrapers can also be used to determine the beam profile, which is useful information during the optimization of the overall system.

[0185] In some embodiments, a solid target is moved along a rail by a linear actuator consisting of a long screw attached to the rail feature and driven by a motor. Software measures the position of the target along the rail in real time using "home" and "limit" switches and adjusts its position based on feedback from the system.

[0186] The initial approach used a rotational feedthrough with a screw inside a vacuum. However, this required lubrication selection to be difficult, preventing wear in the vacuum, and coupling multiple shafts together in a tight quarter. Furthermore, the vacuum chamber was much larger and more expensive.

[0187] Attempts at alternative approaches were also successful. Motors for linear actuators are mounted outside the vacuum vessel to generate heat, requiring the use of air for cooling. This necessitated the use of linear vacuum feedthroughs. Since most linear vacuum feedthroughs are bellows-enclosed, they require forces to maintain balance with the vacuum forces applied to the bellows, thus adding more strain to the motor and overcoming these forces. Bellows-enclosed feedthroughs also have a limited number of compression cycles they can withstand before failure. For these reasons, magnetically coupled feedthroughs are more desirable as they do not have any of these problems.

[0188] Furthermore, due to the negative consequences of water leakage in vacuum systems, in some embodiments, all-metal hoses and fittings are used, and brazing is used to manufacture the entire target. This ensures that leakage is not possible without the metal itself failing. The target should also be designed so that no parts of the target, including rails, support structures, or tubing, are present in the beam path when fully retracted.

[0189] Figure 22 provides an exemplary configuration of a beam scraper. The motor and magnetic coupling are shown outside the vacuum boundary. The target and associated water hose are shown inside the vacuum boundary. Solid targets are used on beams with a diameter less than 6 inches. When fully retracted, the part closest to the beam is typically the face of the target that will be struck by the beam when extended, its edge located more than 3 inches from the beam's centerline.

[0190] An alternative embodiment involves mounting a solid target on a hinge so that it changes direction toward the beam path instead of linearly translating the target. This approach reduces the power density on the target until it is fully closed, lowers spatial requirements, and allows for a simpler and less expensive feedthrough design. As a trade-off, tubing may be more difficult to implement for this configuration. This approach is designed to allow for a typically closed / open configuration and to have faster closing / open times.

[0191] An alternative to systems requiring an axisymmetric beam reaching the primary target involves an iris-type beam scraper.

[0192] (V. Automatic control system) In some embodiments, the system and method employ one or more automatic control components. Such automatic control components include, but are not limited to, optical fiber interlocks, health monitoring systems, and automatic recovery systems after arc discharge events, as well as closed-loop controls for managing beam stability.

[0193] (A. Fiber optic interlock) High-energy ion beam generators incorporate one or more, typically several, high-voltage sources. For safety reasons, the user / controller station should be electrically isolated from the rest of the device / system, and furthermore, there should be components to connect the user station to the interlock system of the rest of the device / system. This creates a significant conflict between safety and operability. Approaches such as the use of isolation transformers to provide electrical isolation between the two subsystems are not technically or economically practical due to the presence of voltages up to tens of thousands of volts.

[0194] An interlock may consist of several normally closed switches in series that must remain closed to indicate that one device is safe to operate, or several normally open switches in parallel that must remain open to indicate that one device is safe to operate, or both series and parallel loops.

[0195] In some embodiments, the conflict between safety and operability is resolved by employing an optical fiber connection between the device interlock system and the user station interlock. This provides the necessary electrical isolation. To provide a robust connection unaffected by accidental bypasses, in some embodiments, a frequency generator is included within the optical fiber interlock, as detailed below. In some embodiments, a multiplexed signal verification procedure is also implemented to protect the system from generating false closure results with a single point of failure.

[0196] The first attempt to address the problem involved an optical fiber transmitter that generated light when the user station interlock was closed. This method was unsatisfactory because it did not properly include the user station, as the user station interlock closing signal did not depend on any earlier components in the interlock sequence.

[0197] To solve the problems in the first implementation, a bidirectional link was provided. When the upstream interlock switch is closed, light is transmitted through the optical fiber cable to the user station. The light is converted into a voltage signal that passes through the interlock switch at the user station. Once an optical signal is present from the device and all user station switches are in the "safe" position, the light is transmitted back to the device, thus closing the interlock loop. The problem presented by this solution was that it was simple to bypass the user station interlock device by simply connecting the transmitter and receiver on the device and thus closing the loop regardless of the state of the interlock switch in the user station.

[0198] The fiber optic interlock signal was made frequency-dependent to make it more difficult to bypass the interlock system. A small frequency generator triggers the fiber optic transmitter, causing the light to be pulsed at a set frequency. The receiver is configured to be sensitive to the frequency of the light pulse it detects, and if the appropriate frequency is not present, the receiver will not indicate that the interlock is secure.

[0199] Furthermore, to enable a single device to utilize multiple optical fiber interlocks, the printed circuit board (PCB) was configured, using appropriate tools, so that one of four different frequencies could be selected. This also allows for a single bidirectional link to use a different frequency for transmission than the one used for reception, thus reserving the obstacle of a way to circumvent the integrity of the interlock signal.

[0200] Figure 23 shows an exemplary block diagram of an optical fiber interlock system that may be used in conjunction with the system. Optical fiber transmission takes place between the transmitter and receiver via an electrically isolated portion of the interlock circuit. The transmitter may employ input from a standard copper interlock. This can be adapted to a single loop with N / O (normally open) or N / C (normally closed) switches, or a double loop with one of each type. When all interlock switches are in the correct position, a voltage reference is established. When a voltage reference is established, the voltage is scaled to a selectable level. A frequency converter generates a frequency proportional to the scaled voltage. An optical fiber drive circuit pulses the optical fiber output to the user station at the selected frequency.

[0201] At the receiving end, the optical fiber receiver converts the optical fiber pulses into a voltage square wave of the same frequency. In some embodiments, a frequency-voltage converter takes in the frequency received through the optical fiber transmission and converts it back to the original reference voltage. A window comparator verifies that the correct frequency is received. When the comparator verifies that the received frequency is correct, the driver circuit closes a pair of N / O contacts and opens a pair of N / C contacts so that they are integrated into one or more local wiring interlock loops. An output is made to a local interlock train that can be adapted to an N / C loop, an N / O loop, or both. In some embodiments, a missing pulse detector circuit provides a secondary detection source when a pulse train is missing from the optical fiber signal. When it is independently verified that rising and falling edges are present at the expected intervals, the driver circuit closes a pair of N / O contacts and opens a pair of N / C contacts so that they are integrated into a local wiring interlock circuit. An output is made to a local interlock train that can be adapted to an N / C loop, an N / O loop, or both. In some embodiments, a second frequency-voltage converter captures the frequency received through the optical fiber transmission and converts it back to the original reference voltage. A buffer stage then sends an analog signal to the controller, which is used as software verification that the correct frequency transmission is being received. This configuration increases system safety to the desired level while remaining technically and economically viable.

[0202] (B. Integrity Monitoring) Given the high power carried by the beam, it is crucial to ensure that it does not cause thermal damage to the system components. Damage can be caused by the beam interacting with system components under abnormal conditions. Specific material selections and cooling mechanisms are implemented for components that may interact with the beam, so that different protection schemes are implemented depending on the energy density that can be deposited on each component.

[0203] In some embodiments, instrumentation and multiple sensors are integrated into the system to measure temperature and cooling water flow rate. These measurements allow monitoring of the amount of power accumulating on various cooled system components. A combination of minimum flow rate, maximum temperature, and maximum power thresholds enables protection of the system hardware. These values ​​are continuously monitored by sensors covering all components that may be damaged by interaction with the beam. In some embodiments, each sensor has a configurable level, above or below which an alarm is triggered, causing an automatic control system action to intervene and ensure safe operation, minimizing or preventing damage.

[0204] In some embodiments, a sensor for the liquid level is integrated into the system to measure the presence of a neutron moderator required for safe operation. In some embodiments, a combination of signals from multiple sensors is used together to determine operation within safe parameters, such as voltage draw and current, and to determine the resistance in the magnetic coil.

[0205] In some embodiments, feedback signals from components are monitored to ensure operation within a desired safe range, for example, power draw on a turbomolecular pump and a forced-air cooling fan.

[0206] In some embodiments, feedback signals from integrated components such as a high-voltage power source, a gas flow controller, and a magnetron power source are monitored, and their outputs are compared to expected setpoints to determine safe operation.

[0207] In some embodiments, integrated components are prevented by a control algorithm from being set to dangerous values, for example, by preventing the user from commanding the microwave generator when the system is not in a state where microwaves can operate safely. Another embodiment involves preventing beam operation when no part of the system is in a state to safely transport or receive a beam.

[0208] In some embodiments, the health monitoring system has both “alerts” and “alarms.” A sensor can be configured to signal an “alert” condition and display a warning indicator to the user if the signal deviates from normal operating values. Larger deviations trigger an “alarm,” resulting in an automated control system response to the condition. In some embodiments, the “alarm” operates in a latching manner, prompting the user to reset the condition from the control system in order to remove the alarm status.

[0209] One of the challenges encountered when using health monitoring on particle accelerators is excluding false positives caused by short-lived transient currents that trigger unwanted alarm activations. High-voltage systems inherently generate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs), and therefore electromagnetic interference (EMI). Sensor and component data transmitted to the control system using analog voltage signals can be susceptible to EMI pickup. In some embodiments, raw signal data is processed to exclude EMI and prevent unwanted activations. In some embodiments, the alarm is not triggered until the duration of individual signals is longer than characteristic for EMI pickup. In one embodiment, a single transient current must exceed 75 milliseconds before triggering the alarm. In addition, in some embodiments, the system is configured to activate if multiple EMI pickup events occur within a certain period. In one embodiment, five transient events within a 3-second time window are considered invalid alarm activations. In some embodiments, both single events lasting longer than characteristic EMI pickups and multiple events occurring within a certain period are analyzed together so that the alarm is triggered when either one of the events occurs. This combination of counting EMI events and tracking them over time, without triggering alarms on individual EMI events, enables reliable continuous operation.

[0210] The control system's automatic response to an "alarm" can be either a safe shutdown or an automatic recovery. A safe shutdown is, for example, when the control system automatically turns off the accelerator and returns the components to a safe state. An automatic recovery is, for example, when the control system takes a predetermined series of actions to return the system to normal operation.

[0211] (C. Automatic recovery) Occasional "arc-down" events, where current finds a path from a high-voltage point to ground through undesirable routes, are not entirely avoidable within high-voltage accelerators. Preventing the system from remaining in an undesirable state after an arc-down initially required trained users to be attentive to the user interface to the control system and always ready to act. This is resource-intensive. Recovery from an arc-down required several components to be turned off and then turned back on in a sequence involving fault removal on certain components as part of the recovery sequence.

[0212] As an extension of the health monitoring system described in Section V(B) above, a certain “alarm” condition is used to indicate that an arc-down event has occurred. An automated recovery sequence is then executed to bring the system back into operation much faster than a human user, without user intervention. During extended continuous startup, this feature increased the system’s effective uptime from approximately 95% to over 98%.

[0213] In some embodiments, certain conditions are flagged in the system for automatic recovery, while others are flagged for human intervention. One embodiment is automatic recovery from an arc-down event on a high-voltage power source (HVPS). An HVPS arc-down event is identified by a voltage under-alert alarm on the HVPS and / or extraction power source. After detection of the fault condition, an automatic recovery sequence is executed, which includes disabling closed-loop feedback, disabling the magnetron power source, removing the system fault, resetting the HVPS, enabling the extraction power source, enabling the magnetron power source, and finally re-enabling closed-loop control. Any fault not identified as having an automatic recovery sequence triggers an automatic shutdown sequence. The automatic shutdown sequence includes disabling each component in a safe sequence. An embodiment of a safe shutdown sequence includes disabling closed-loop control, disabling the magnetron power source, and disabling all gas flow controllers and power sources.

[0214] In some embodiments, if the recovery sequence is executed more times than the number of times configurable within a time window (e.g., three recovery attempts within a 10-second period), the control system performs a safe shutdown instead of the recovery sequence.

[0215] The control system for the accelerator is responsible for monitoring components at high voltage and ground voltage and connecting to a user interface for human interaction. In some embodiments, communication between different locations is carried out over fiber optic connections to maintain electrical isolation. In some embodiments, the main system controller is directly connected to the high voltage and ion source microwave power supply, allowing these components to be deterministically set to a safe state. Due to the existence of non-deterministic communication protocols (Ethernet®, TCP / IP) between multiple locations of components, a watchdog architecture is used to monitor connectivity. In the event of connection loss, the system automatically and deterministically transitions to a safe state.

[0216] Due to the non-deterministic nature of the communication protocol, a certain amount of communication loss is expected. From time to time, watchdog resets may be delayed. In some embodiments, rules are configured based on the frequency to which the watchdog checks connectivity and the extent to which watchdog resets may be delayed. This configuration reduces false positives, allowing the watchdog to communicate a safe state to the system.

[0217] (D. Closed-loop control for beam stability) The specific application of the neutron generator requires the neutron flux output to be maintained within a 1% maximum amplitude of the flux setpoint, a variable spanning approximately five orders of magnitude. Open-loop control by a skilled operator is insufficient to ensure that the flux output remains within the required precision due to multiple variables affecting system dynamics.

[0218] Closed-loop control of either the high-voltage power source (HVPS) setpoint or beam scraper position demonstrated improved accuracy of flux output and the ability to compensate for physical variations such as thermal fluctuations or target load and signal noise. Controlling the HVPS setpoint provides a faster dynamic response in the measured flux output. Closed-loop control resulted in a visible and measurable improvement in the stability of neutron flux output over time. This also reduced operator interaction with the high-energy ion beam generator control system, thereby reducing the potential for operator error.

[0219] Open-loop control is used to raise the system to the initial neutron flux setpoint, after which closed-loop control is activated. The control gain is determined based on the selected neutron flux setpoint to ensure closed-loop control over smaller operating envelopes. While closed-loop control is active, additional limits are added to the control authority in the form of maximum and minimum HVPS setpoints for a given neutron flux setpoint.

[0220] The physics of a neutron generator is nonlinear when considered across mechanical operating systems and involves five-order-of-magnitude neutron output. The dynamics of a beam scraper, through which the circular beam collides with a flat plate with a straight edge, allowing a portion of the circular beam to pass, further contribute to the nonlinearity of the control problem.

[0221] A linear control strategy was applied to the system by performing the operation over a small linear portion of the system's operating envelope. Conventional control loop tuning methods can therefore be applied to generate gains specific to each operating point. While the HVPS setpoint was controlled actively, the scraper position was held steady, and vice versa. This eliminated the nonlinearity inherent in the scraper motion from the control problem.

[0222] Closed-loop control of neutron flux output via beam scraper position control was successful, but did not function as well as control of the HVPS setpoint. The ability of the beam scraper position to control the flux output depended on the initial position of the scraper. The use of a linear control algorithm for positioning, which exerts a nonlinear effect on the flux output, was not chosen as optimal in favor of applying a linear control loop using the HVPS voltage as the control variable.

[0223] Further features of the control system include, but are not limited to, an automatic adjustment algorithm to accelerate the generation of control gain, dynamic signal analysis of the physical system in either open or closed-loop configuration, modeling of an open-loop neutron generator system based on the first principle, enabling state-space or pole-placement control algorithms, full system simulation to enable in-loop hardware (HIL) methods for selecting control schemes, a fuzzy logic control algorithm to enable bumpless transfer between operating regimes, and the generation of protocols to enable fully automated operation of the neutron generator system, including automatic start, shut-off, and error handling.

[0224] (E. Closed-loop control for beam current) Specific applications of particle accelerators for ion implantation require the beam current to be maintained within + / - 1% of the current setpoint. Multiple signals are required to calculate the beam current, including high-voltage power source current, extraction power source resistor divider drain current, and current losses due to cooling water leakage. Real-time calculation of the beam current from these signals is performed by the control system. Open-loop control by skilled operators is insufficient to ensure that the beam current output remains within the required accuracy due to multiple variables that dynamically affect the system.

[0225] (VI. Exemplary Uses) (A. Thermal neutron radiography) Neutron radiography and tomography are proven techniques for non-destructive testing of manufactured components in the aerospace, energy, and defense sectors. However, they are currently underutilized due to the lack of accessible high-flux neutron sources. Like X-rays, neutrons provide information about the internal structure of an object as they pass through it. X-rays interact weakly with low-atomic-number elements (e.g., hydrogen) and strongly with high-atomic-number elements (e.g., metals). Consequently, their ability to provide information about low-density materials is very poor, especially in the presence of higher-density materials. Neutrons do not suffer from this limitation. They can easily pass through high-density metals and provide detailed information about the low-density materials within. This property is crucial for several components requiring non-destructive evaluation, including composite materials such as engine turbine blades, military supplies, spacecraft components, and wind turbine blades. For all of these applications, neutron radiography provides crucial information that X-rays cannot offer. Neutron radiography is a complementary, non-destructive evaluation technique that can provide missing information.

[0226] Phoenix Nuclear Labs (PNL) has designed and built a high-yield neutron generator that drives a subcritical assembly developed by SHINE Medical Technology to produce the medical radioactive isotope molybdenum-99 (abbreviated as "moly"). In some embodiments, such systems are adapted and modified for neutron radiography indication. In some embodiments, the system has one or more features described in Sections I through V above to provide efficient, cost-effective, robust, safe, and easy-to-use neutron generation. In some embodiments, the system is further modified as described below.

[0227] The neutron generator used in this embodiment is originally designed for the production of medical isotopes and therefore requires a relatively high neutron yield. The amount of neutron radiation generated exceeds acceptable levels for nearby personnel, and therefore the radiation-generating portion of the device should be installed underground. Because part of the device is then underground, there is very limited space available for constructing the radiography system.

[0228] While the neutron yield of a PNL generator is very high for its size and cost, it is several orders of magnitude lower than that of a typical neutron radiography setup, such as a nuclear reactor. Therefore, the neutron detection medium should be as close to the neutron source as possible. Conversely, in a nuclear reactor, the detection medium is typically several meters away from the neutron source, which can allow space to install filters to mitigate undesirable types of radiation, primarily stray gamma rays, that would partially blur the image during acquisition.

[0229] Regarding PNL systems, the proximity of neutron detectors is degraded by the limited space available underground within the PNL system, and while eliminating the need for sufficient gamma filtering materials such as lead or bismuth, it generally decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source, resulting in a large gamma radiation flux.

[0230] PNL systems use deuterium-deuterium fusion to generate neutrons, which do not produce gamma rays in the initial reaction. Subsequent reactions between the neutrons and the surrounding material are of interest. The radiography setup has a neutron guide (e.g., a collimator) layered inside with a cadmium sheet, which is a highly neutron-absorbing material. This ensures that neutrons not directed directly at the detector will be effectively excluded from the beam. Two gold foils are employed; in some embodiments, one is coated with cadmium to simulate standard neutron activation analysis techniques and determine the thermal and fast neutron composition in the beam. However, cadmium emits 550 keV gamma rays after the neutron absorption process. These gamma rays can strike the detector and cause some degree of image blurring. This is an unavoidable process and should be reduced as much as possible.

[0231] Outside the neutron guide (e.g., collimator), there exists a very large neutron population consisting of an energy spectrum from 0 to 2.45 MeV. Generally, since low-energy neutrons are used in the imaging process, it is desirable to reduce the neutron energy as much as possible. However, these low-energy neutrons are more likely to generate subsequent gamma rays when absorbed by the surrounding material, as in the case of cadmium. Low-energy neutrons cause these gamma-generation events whether they are inside or outside the neutron guide. Since only neutrons inside the guide are useful for image acquisition, neutrons outside the guide should also be absorbed. This is accomplished herein by a layer of polyethylene borate (BPE) that absorbs neutrons before they can cause gamma-generation events in cadmium. However, boron emits 478 keV gamma rays, which can be readily absorbed by a layer of lead between the BPE and the neutron guide wall. In some embodiments, the polyethylene borate (BPE) on the collimator is conical in shape, extends to the length of the collimator (e.g., about 40 inches), and is 1 inch thick. The BPE on the imaging box where the image is collected is rectangular in shape, surrounds the box on all sides except for the opening where the collimator ends are located, and is also 1 inch thick.

[0232] Some neutrons can traverse polyethylene borate and still generate gamma events in cadmium. These are known as epithermal neutrons and should also be mitigated. To slow these neutrons down to an energy that allows for absorption, a 6-inch layer of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is added surrounding the BPE layer. In some embodiments, the HDPE layer is 4 to 8 inches thick. The HDPE layer helps to relax the epithermal neutrons to thermal energy such that they are absorbed by the BPE by boron without even reaching the cadmium layer. Furthermore, a diffusion region of air is introduced, allowing thermal neutrons to enter the collimator aperture while increasing the distance that fast neutrons must traverse before entering. In some embodiments, the air diffusion region is 6 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. This longer path length for fast neutrons allows them more opportunities to scatter within the moderating medium and thus be slowed down to more thermal energy. While alternative materials such as water and graphite can be used instead of HDPE, HDPE offers a more cost-effective material that is easily machinable.

[0233] Ultimately, the collimator is offset so as not to be directly "facing" the fast neutron source. This ensures that the collimator "targets" the thermal neutron population rather than the fast neutron content passing through the aperture. In some embodiments, the collimator is offset both radially and tangentially from the neutron source, as it does not have a direct line of sight to the neutron source and to place moderating material between the collimator aperture and the neutron source. In some embodiments, this is offset by 17 cm radially and 14 cm tangentially. The position is found by observing where the highest concentration of thermal neutrons is located and then positioning the collimator aperture within that region. The positioning of the collimator then obstructs the population. Further offsets are carried out to find a location at the opposite end of the collimator that generates the highest concentration of thermal neutrons.

[0234] The MCNP (Monte Carlo N particle) transport code is used to simulate neutron transport and gamma ray generation from neutron trapping in various materials. The simulation utilizes a library of nuclear data from calculations of scattered and absorbed radiation and empirical data. The simulation software package has been available for decades and is continuously updated and improved.

[0235] Various moderating materials, including light water, heavy water, and graphite, have been tested in an attempt to increase the available thermal neutron flux on the gold foil, reduce the high-speed and thermal flux on the foil, and reduce gamma rays at the collimator edges. Foil measurements are being attempted to verify that the model itself is focused on accurate predictions.

[0236] The MCNP model has been optimized to determine the optimal thickness of the diffusion region for HDPE, BPE, lead, moderator material, and geometry. This optimization reveals a practical geometry in terms of size and weight. One major difficulty with such a highly shielded geometry is that neutron transport through the collimator aperture is very low, about seven orders of magnitude lower than neutron source generation. Very long simulations must be initiated or very clever particle quantifications must be performed to obtain sufficiently high count statistics for precise predictions.

[0237] The first test was conducted using only graphite blocks as the moderating material, without BPE or HDPE on the outer layer of the collimator. It was then found that many fast neutrons flowed through the interstitial space between the graphite blocks, increasing the fast neutron population on the image plane. It was also recognized that thermal neutrons outside the collimator generated a large population of gamma rays from the inner cadmium layer due to the lack of shielding outside the collimator.

[0238] Water was then added to the system to fill the cracks in the graphite and provide a 100% perfect moderator. However, because water is a relatively high absorber of thermal neutrons, the thermal neutron ensemble descended as well as the fast neutron flux.

[0239] A partial heavy water moderator was incorporated into the graphite stack. Heavy water exhibits both high neutron scattering and low neutron absorption, making it an excellent moderator. While the thermal neutron population was found to increase, the fast neutron population remained relatively constant. However, heavy water is extremely expensive, and the ideal configuration of this material for moderators is impractical, especially since it does not sink in light water.

[0240] As described above, the fast and thermal neutron populations are very large and, in particular, very close together, and therefore must be coordinated within the underground chamber. Due to this limitation, very carefully selected shielding must be used to both shield the thermal neutrons and thermalize the fast neutron population. The embodiments described herein achieve this result.

[0241] An exemplary configuration that provides an excellent solution for high heat / low fast neutron flux while reducing the gamma population in the image plane is shown in Figure 24. All geometric optimizations should be carried out to achieve the optimal thickness of the HDPE, BPE, lead, moderator and geometry, as well as the diffusion region. For one designed system, it has been determined that a large heavy water vessel should be used, surrounded by HDPE and BPE to optimize the moderator and shield the environment from unwanted radiation. This is configured as a ground system, but the image plane is still in the vicinity of the neutron source. With this configuration, the careful design described herein is required to enhance the desired radiation features while suppressing unwanted radiation such as gamma rays and fast neutrons.

[0242] (B. Semiconductor processing) The systems and methods described herein (e.g., using a hydrogen ion particle accelerator) find applications in semiconductor processing. Such systems find applications, for example, in the formation of thin films of material from a bulk substrate. The thin film of material is separated from the bulk substrate by generating cleavage regions formed by embedded particles from a hydrogen ion particle beam, and then cleaving along the cleavage regions. In some embodiments, the thin film is a wafer used in the production of solar panels (e.g., solar-grade photovoltaic (PV) wafers) or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The wafer can be any desired shape (e.g., circular, square, or rectangular). The wafer can be less than 100 micrometers thick. In some embodiments, the wafer has a thickness of 2 to 70 microns. In some embodiments, the wafer has a thickness of 4 to 20 microns.

[0243] Silicon wafers are conventionally produced by first creating a single crystalline cylindrical ingot of silicon (see, for example, U.S. Patent No. 9,499,921, which is incorporated herein by reference as a whole). In one embodiment, a circular wafer is sliced ​​from the end of a cylindrical ingot with a diamond-coated wire. The diamond-coated wire is typically about 20 micrometers in diameter. This method of producing wafers by slicing the wafer from the end of a cylindrical ingot generates waste the thickness of the diamond-coated wire, or about 20 micrometers, by grinding the thickness of the material down to dust. In other embodiments, a crystalline cylindrical ingot is cut into a square or rectangle by quartzing the ingot into an elongated rectangular box shape about 1.5 meters in length. In the process of quartzing the ingot, valuable material is removed as waste. Such waste and inefficiency can have a significant impact, as the cost of materials can dramatically affect the suitability of certain products and technologies.

[0244] The systems provided herein, due to their cost-effectiveness, efficiency, robustness, safety, and other desired parameters, enable the production of desired semiconductor materials at scales and efficiencies previously unattainable, reducing overall manufacturing costs and stimulating an expanded market for such materials. The high-energy ion beam systems described herein can be integrated into existing processing systems and processes as hydrogen ion sources. For example, existing systems employing high-energy ion beam generators integrated with wafer manufacturing components can substitute their ion beam generators for those described herein.Examples of such systems include, but are not limited to, U.S. Patent Applications No. 2015 / 0340279, 2015 / 0044447, and 2016 / 0319462, U.S. Patents No. 7,939,812, 7,982,197, 7,989,784, 8,044,374, 8,058,626, 8,101,488, 8,242,468, 8,247,260, 8,257,995, 8,268,645, 8,324,592, 8,324,599, 8,338,209, 9,404,198, and 9,499,921, as well as SIGEN. This includes the POLYMAX system (see, e.g., Kerf-less wafer production, Sigen, Photon's 4th PV Production Equipment Conference (March 4, 2009)), the SOITEC SMART CUT system (see, e.g., www.soitec.com / en / products / smart-cut), and the AXCELIS high-energy implantation system within the PURION, OPTIMA, and PARADIGM SERIES systems (see, e.g., www.axcelis.com / products / high-energy, and Felch et al., Ion implantation for semiconductor devices: The largest use of industrial accelerators, Proceedings of PAC2013, Pasadena, CA USA) (their disclosures are incorporated herein by reference as a whole).

[0245] All publications and patents provided herein are incorporated herein by reference as a whole. Various modifications and variations of the described composition and methods of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the present invention is described in relation to specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the claimed invention should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. In fact, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention, which will be apparent to those skilled in the art, are intended to be within the scope of the invention.

Claims

1. It is a system, An ion source plasma chamber, wherein the ion source plasma chamber has a source axis aligned with the direction of the beam emitted from the ion source plasma chamber, At least one ion source magnet, the at least one ion source magnet comprising an opening and at least one outer wall, the ion source plasma chamber comprising at least one ion source magnet extending through the opening, At least one receiving component, wherein the at least one receiving component is attached to the at least one outer wall of the at least one ion source magnet, or is integral with the at least one outer wall of the at least one ion source magnet, A ferromagnetic enclosure comprising at least one longitudinal opening, the at least one ion source magnet and the ion source plasma chamber located inside the ferromagnetic enclosure, the at least one ion source magnet being movable to a plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure along the source axis of the ion source plasma chamber, and the at least one longitudinal opening extending along the direction of the source axis and aligned with the at least one receiving component, At least one adjustment component, the at least one adjustment component configured to extend through the vertical opening and to be attached to the at least one receiving component, the at least one adjustment component capable of fixing the at least one ion source magnet at the plurality of different positions inside the ferromagnetic enclosure, and A system equipped with these features.

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one receiving component comprises a threaded metal connector.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one adjustment component comprises a threaded bolt.

4. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one receiving component is integral with the at least one ion source magnet.

5. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one ion source magnet is at least partially encased in epoxy.

6. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one ion source magnet comprises two ion source magnets.

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