Functionalized carbon as an emulsifying agent

Abstract

The disclosure relates to a cement-containing material enhanced with a small dose of functionalized carbon that acts as a smart emulsifying agent in the mix. By stabilizing and uniformly dispersing water, admixtures, and fine particles, the additive drives more even hydration and creates a denser, stronger cement matrix. In some aspects, this results in higher compressive and flexural strength, fewer cracks from shrinkage, and improved durability against freeze-thaw, salts, and chemicals. The material may also show better workability and finishability, reduced permeability and porosity, and more consistent quality batch-to-batch. The additive can be introduced as a drop-in component compatible with existing ready-mix and precast operations. In certain configurations, the carbon can provide electrical pathways for self-sensing capability, enabling condition monitoring of slabs and structures over time. This approach offers a practical path to longer-lasting roads, bridges, buildings, and precast products with measurable performance and lifecycle benefits.

Description

DOCKET: LYT1P105P / LYTEP287WOFUNCTIONALIZED CARBON AS AN EMULSIFYING AGENTRELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 736,339, titled “Functionalized Carbon as an Emulsifying Agent,” filed December 19, 2024, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The present disclosure relates to emulsifying agents, and more particularly to a functionalized carbon material used as an emulsifying agent for stabilizing emulsions and enhancing material properties.BACKGROUND

[0003] Currently, emulsions are widely used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food processing, and materials science. These systems consist of two or more immiscible liquids, where one liquid is dispersed as droplets within another continuous phase. Emulsions play a crucial role in many applications, from drug delivery systems to the production of composite materials. Traditional emulsifying agents may be used to stabilize the interface between dispersed and continuous phases. However, current emulsifying agents suffer from instability, environmental concerns (including potential toxicity), and limited functionality.

[0004] As such, there is thus a need for addressing these and / or other issues associated with the prior art.SUMMARY

[0005] The present disclosure relates to materials and lubricants incorporating functionalized carbon materials as emulsifying agents. The functionalized carbon materials act to stabilize emulsions and control various physical properties of the materials or lubricants.

[0006] In some aspects, the material comprises at least one of a polymer, a nanofluid, or heavy oil, along with the functionalized carbon material. The functionalized carbon material may comprise ozonated carbon, graphene, or carbon nanotubes, and may be present in amounts of 0.1 to 10 wt% of the material. The functionalized carbon material can enhance properties such as electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, or viscosity of the material. Insome embodiments, the electrical conductivity or mechanical strength may be improved by at least 50% or 25%, respectively, compared to materials without the functionalized carbon material.

[0007] The functionalized carbon material may control droplet size in emulsions, typically between 100 nm and 10 pm. It can improve dispersion of nanoparticles in nanofluids, reduce viscosity of heavy oils, and enhance compatibility between immiscible components. The material may be formed by emulsion polymerization, with the functionalized carbon material forming a protective barrier around emulsion droplets.

[0008] In lubricant applications, the functionalized carbon material acts as an emulsifying agent in a liquid to control properties such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and wear resistance. The functionalized carbon material may have a hierarchical porous structure including micropores, mesopores, and macropores, and may be doped with elements like nitrogen, boron, sulfur, or phosphorus. The lubricant may exhibit improved friction reduction, self-healing effects, reduced sedimentation, and enhanced load-bearing capacity.

[0009] In cement matrix applications, the functionalized carbon material enhances mechanical strength and various other properties of the cement. These improvements include compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile strength, durability, crack resistance, workability, water resistance, chemical resistance, and freeze-thaw resistance. The functionalized carbon material can reduce porosity, improve bonding between cement particles, accelerate hydration, improve dispersion of cement particles, reduce shrinkage during curing, and enhance thermal and electrical conductivity of the cement matrix. It may also provide self-sensing capabilities to the cement matrix.

[0010] The functionalized carbon material is typically obtained through a specific ozonation process and may include surface functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, and epoxy groups. In various embodiments, the functionalized carbon material is biocompatible and may be used to encapsulate bioactive agents.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0011] Non-limiting and non-exhaustive examples are described with reference to the following figures.

[0012] FIG. 1 illustrates an emulsion system for creating an emulsified solution, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0013] FIG. 2 illustrates an emulsion system for stabilizing a material and enhancing its physical properties, according to an embodiment.

[0014] FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic view of an emulsion structure, in accordance with example embodiments.

[0015] FIG. 4 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an emulsion structure, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0016] FIG. 5 illustrates an emulsifying system comprising a container containing an emulsified material, according to an embodiment.

[0017] FIG. 6 illustrates a microscopic image of a composite material comprising multiple components, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0018] FIG. 7 illustrates two microscopic images of a material structure, in accordance with example embodiments.

[0019] FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic view of an emulsifying agent bio system, according to an embodiment.

[0020] FIG. 9 illustrates various applications of emulsifying agents in bioprosthetics, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0021] FIG. 10 illustrates two views related to concrete mixing and curing with an emulsifying agent, in accordance with example embodiments.

[0022] FIG. 11 illustrates an emulsifying agent configuration table, according to an embodiment.

[0023] FIG. 12 illustrates a graph showing the relationship between emulsifying agent amount and droplet size, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0024] FIG. 13 illustrates an ink system for producing cohesive ink droplets containing multiple types of graphene ink particles, in accordance with example embodiments.

[0025] FIG. 14 illustrates three orthogonal views of different composite structures incorporating emulsifying agents, according to an embodiment.

[0026] FIG. 15 illustrates three views of nanofluid properties based on an emulsifying agent, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0027] FIG. 16 illustrates a side view of a heavy oil system for processing heavy oil using an emulsifying agent, in accordance with example embodiments.

[0028] FIG. 17 illustrates a separated mixture resulting from a liquid-liquid extraction process, according to an embodiment.

[0029] FIG. 18 illustrates a photographic view of an emulsified mixture, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0030] FIG. 19A through FIG. 19Y depict structured carbons, various carbon nanoparticles, various carbon-containing aggregates, and various three-dimensional carbon- containing structures that are grown over other materials, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0031] The following description sets forth exemplary aspects of the present disclosure. It should be recognized, however, that such description is not intended as a li ini t at i on on the scope of the present disclosure. Rather, the description also encompasses combinations and modifications to those exemplary aspects described herein.

[0032] The present disclosure provides a method and composition for using a functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent. The functionalized carbon material, obtained by subjecting carbonaceous material to a specific ozonation process, exhibits unique properties that make it effective in stabilizing emulsions.

[0033] In some aspects, the functionalized carbon material may be used as an emulsifying agent and configured such that properties of the emulsifying agent become physical properties of the material in which the functionalized carbon material is embedded and / or used.

[0034] In some aspects, the functionalized carbon material may be dispersed in a first liquid phase and mixed with a second liquid phase that is immiscible with the first, resulting in a stable emulsion where the functionalized carbon material acts as the emulsifying agent.

[0035] In some aspects, the functionalized carbon material may be used in emulsion polymerization, where it not only stabilizes the emulsion but also imparts beneficial properties to the resulting polymer. The polymerization process may be initiated by heat or microwave energy, and the concentration of the functionalized carbon material may be adjusted to control the size of the dispersed phase droplets.

[0036] In other aspects, the functionalized carbon material may be incorporated into composite materials, enhancing their properties, including but not limited to electrical conductivity and mechanical strength. The composite material may comprise a polymer and the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent, with the electrical conductivity of the composite material being significantly improved as compared to a composite material without the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent.

[0037] Furthermore, the functionalized carbon material may find applications in various industries, including but not limited to, the production of conductive polymers, composite materials, nanofluids, heavy oil extraction, amongst others. The functionalized carbon materialmay also be used in biocompatible applications, such as in bio prosthetics and medication delivery, due to its inherent biocompatibility.

[0038] The present disclosure further provides for variations in the ozonation process parameters, the carbon precursor material, the functionalization methods, the emulsion composition, and the polymerization initiation methods, thereby offering flexibility and adaptability in the use of the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent.

[0039] The present disclosure further provides in developing novel emulsifying agents that can offer improved stability, multifunctionality, and biocompalibilily. In some aspects, these emulsifying agents can enhance the stability of emulsions while simultaneously imparting additional beneficial properties to the resulting materials. Such advancements could lead to improvements to advanced materials, drug delivery systems, and industrial processes. As such, the emulsifying agents may be used to not only stabilize emulsions but also enhance the physical, chemical, or biological properties of the resulting materials.Definitions and Use of Figures

[0040] Some of the terms used in this description are defined below for easy reference. The presented terms and their respective definitions are not rigidly restricted to these definitions — a term may be further defined by the term’s use within this disclosure. The term “exemplary” is used herein to mean serving as an example, instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects or designs. Rather, use of the word exemplary is intended to present concepts in a concrete fashion. As used in this application and the appended claims, the term “or” is intended to mean an inclusive “or” rather than an exclusive “or”. That is, unless specified otherwise, or is clear from the context, “X employs A or B” is intended to mean any of the natural inclusive permutations. That is, if X employs A, X employs B, or X employs both A and B, then “X employs A or B” is satisfied under any of the foregoing instances. As used herein, at least one of A or B means at least one of A, or at least one of B, or at least one of both A and B. In other words, this phrase is disjunctive. The articles “a” and “an” as used in this application and the appended claims should generally be construed to mean “one or more” unless specified otherwise or is clear from the context to be directed to a singular form.

[0041] Various embodiments are described herein with reference to the figures. It should be noted that the figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, and that elements of similar structures or functions are sometimes represented by like reference characters throughout the figures. It should also be noted that the figures are only intended to facilitate the description of the disclosed embodiments — they are not representative of an exhaustive treatment of all possible embodiments, and they are not intended to impute any limitation as to the scope of theclaims. In addition, an illustrated embodiment need not portray all aspects or advantages of usage in any particular environment.

[0042] An aspect or an advantage described in conjunction with a particular embodiment is not necessarily limited to that embodiment and can be practiced in any other embodiments even if not so illustrated. References throughout this specification to “some embodiments” or “other embodiments” refer to a particular feature, structure, material or characteristic described in connection with the embodiments as being included in at least one embodiment. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in some embodiments” or “in other embodiments” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment or embodiments. The disclosed embodiments are not intended to be limiting of the claims.Descriptions of Exemplary Embodiments

[0043] FIG. 1 illustrates an emulsion system 100 for creating an emulsified solution, in accordance with one embodiment.

[0044] As shown, an emulsion system 100 is illustrated. The emulsion system 100 includes an oil phase 102, an emulsifying agent 104, and a water phase 106. In some aspects, the oil phase 102 may be a hydrophobic liquid, such as a hydrocarbon or an oil-based monomer. The water phase 106, on the other hand, may be a hydrophilic liquid, such as water or an aqueous solution. The emulsifying agent 104 may be a functionalized carbon material, such as a carbon material that has been subjected to a specific ozonation process.

[0045] In some cases, the emulsifying agent 104 is dispersed in the oil phase 102 to form a first liquid phase. This dispersion may be achieved through various methods, such as stirring, shaking, or sonication. The first liquid phase containing the dispersed emulsifying agent 104 is then mixed with the water phase 106, which is immiscible with the oil phase 102. The mixing process 108 may involve agitation, shear mixing, or other suitable methods to create an emulsion.

[0046] The resulting emulsion is represented as an emulsified solution 110. In the emulsified solution 110, the emulsifying agent 104 acts as a stabilizer, reducing the surface tension at the interface between the oil phase 102 and the water phase 106. This allows the oil phase 102 to be dispersed as droplets within the water phase 106, forming a stable emulsion.

[0047] A detailed view of the emulsified solution 110 is provided, showing the structure of the emulsion at a microscopic level. The emulsifying agent 104 surrounds a material 112. The emulsifying agent 104 forms a barrier between the material 112 and the surrounding solution, which is presumably a mixture of the oil phase 102 and water phase 106. This encapsulation of the material 112 by the emulsifying agent 104 helps to stabilize the emulsion, preventing the oil droplets from coalescing and maintaining their dispersion within the water phase 106.

[0048] In some aspects, the size of the droplets of the material 112 in the emulsified solulion 110 can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of the emulsifying agent 104. Higher concentrations of the emulsifying agent 104 may result in smaller droplet sizes, while lower concentrations may lead to larger droplet sizes. This ability to control droplet size can be advantageous in various applications, for example, such as in the production of nanofluids or in emulsion polymerization processes.

[0049] In other cases, the emulsifying agent 104 may be functionalized with specific chemical groups to enhance its emulsifying properties. For example, the carbon material may be functionalized with hydrophilic groups to improve its compatibility with the water phase 106, or with hydrophobic groups to enhance its interaction with the oil phase 102. This functionalization can be achieved through various methods, such as ozonation, acid treatment, or chemical grafting, and can be tailored to suit specific applications or requirements.

[0050] In various embodiments, ozonation may be employed to functionalize emulsifying agents. For example, ozonation may include wet ozonation (not done in liquid but in water vapor), dry ozonation (not done in the presence of water), ozone gas treatment, ozone-based oxidation process, ozone injection, ozonation for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), etc. In one embodiment, the ozonation process may be used to maximize an oxidation reaction. It is to be appreciated that some ozonation processes (e.g. dry ozonation, wet ozonation, etc.) may be used specifically for the emulsifying agent 104 desired. For example, dry ozonation may, in particular, be used to maximize oxidation for an emulsifying agent made of carbonaceous material. It is to be appreciated that ozonation may affect the electrical properties of the resulting carbonaceous material. To overcome such potential limitations, the carbonaceous material be used in a two- stage process, wherein the first stage functionalizes the carbonaceous material to function as an emulsifying agent. In a second stage, unfunctionalized carbon may be additionally added to the resulting solution (containing the functionalized carbonaceous material functioning as an emulsifying agent). In this manner, the resulting solution may include both functionalized carbonaceous material (functioning as an emulsifying agent), as well as unfunctionalized carbonaceous material (to further increase properties of the resulting material, such as electric conductivity).

[0051] In various embodiments, carbonaceous may refer to materials containing or formed of one or more types or configuration of carbon. In various implementations, a carbonaceous structure may include a relatively high-density outer shell region and a relatively low-density core region. In some aspects, the core region may be formed within an interior portion of the outer shell region. The outer shell region may have a carbon density between approximately 1.0 grams per cubic centimeter (g / cc) and 3.5 g / cc. The core region may have a carbon density ofbetween approximately 0.0 g / cc and 1.0 g / cc or some other range lower than the first carbon density. In other implementations, each carbonaceous structure may include an outer shell region and core region having the same or similar densities, for example, such that the carbonaceous structure does not include a graded porosity.

[0052] In various embodiments, acid treatment may be employed to functionalize emulsifying agents. For example, acid treatment may involve modifying the chemical structure of emulsifiers, such as surfactants or polymers, to introduce new functional groups (such as but not limited to carboxylic or sulfonic acids). In one embodiment, such modifications can increase the polarity of the emulsifying agent (thereby improving its interaction with both water and oil phases), enhances the interfacial activity of emulsifiers (thereby reducing surface tension at the oil-water interface), etc.

[0053] In various embodiments, chemical grafting may be employed to functionalize emulsifying agents. For example, chemical grafting may involve chemically bonding new functional groups or polymer chains to the emulsifying agent’s backbone structure. This process may involve the introduction of reactive sites on the emulsifying agent, which can then react with other molecules or polymers, creating a graft copolymer. By attaching different functional groups through grafting, the emulsifying agent's properties can be tailored to improve its performance (such as but not limited to hydrophilicity, lipophilicity, molecular weight, viscosity, etc.) in stabilizing emulsions.

[0054] In various embodiments, the specific process used to functionalize the emulsifying agent could be varied to produce different surface chemistries. For example, parameters (such as ozone concentration, exposure time, temperature, pressure, etc.) could be adjusted to optimize the carbon's emulsifying properties. For example, increasing ozone concentration or exposure time might lead to a higher degree of surface oxidation, potentially enhancing hydrophilicity and emulsion stability. Further, attaching amine groups could enhance the carbon material's ability to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions, while grafting fluorinated groups might improve stabilization of water-in-oil emulsions.

[0055] As a point of specific distinction, it is to be noted that unlike conventional emulsifying agents, properties of the emulsifying agent 104 can become physical properties of a resulting material to which or on which the emulsifying agent is bound (such as the material 112), or in which the emulsifying agent is provided (such as the emulsified solution 110). Such distinction will be elaborated upon more fully hereinbelow. By way of one example, the emulsifying agent 104 may be configured to have specific electrical conductivity in addition to be configured to have effective emulsifying properties. Such specific electrical conductivity property of the emulsifying agent may therefore become a property of the material or solution inwhich the emulsifying agent is found. In this manner, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used to emulsify a solution, and / or add specifically configured properties to the resulling solulion and / or material.

[0056] It is to be appreciated that the emulsifying agent 104 may be applied to any number of scenarios (e.g. fluid, bio, semi-fluid, etc.). For example, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used in stabilizing mixtures of immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, and are utilized across various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and more. In fluid applications, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used in products like salad dressings, sauces, and dairy items such as mayonnaise. In the pharmaceutical sector, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used facilitate the creation of stable liquid formulations, enhancing the delivery and absorption of drugs. In paint and coalings, the emulsifying agent 104 may contribute to maintaining stability and consistency, ensuring even application. In biological contexts, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used to develop drug delivery systems that encapsulate hydrophobic drugs within emulsions. The emulsifying agent 104 may be used also enhance skin absorption and stability in cosmetic formulations, such as lotions and creams, and assist in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins in nutritional supplements. In semi-fluid scenarios, the emulsifying agent 104 may stabilize products like creams, ointments, and gels.

[0057] Further, in other embodiment, the emulsifying agent 104 may be used in the oil and gas sector, including enhancing the recovery of heavy oil. In refining processes, the emulsifying agent 104 may help stabilize emulsions. Additionally, in environmental applications, the emulsifying agent 104 can aid in the remediation of oil spills by dispersing oil in water and promoting biodegradation. As such, the emulsifying agent 104 may have wide applicability to a number of industries.

[0058] In one embodiment, it has been found that the emulsified material (to which the emulsifying agent 104 has been applied) is very stable, and maintains an homogeneous soludon even years after initial mixing.

[0059] It is recognized that a variety of carbon precursors could be used as an emulsifying agent. For example, carbon precursors could include various forms of graphene, carbon nanotubes, activated carbons, etc. Each precursor material could impart unique properties to the final emulsifying agent, such as different aspect ratios or surface areas, which could influence emulsion characteristics.

[0060] More illustrative information will now be set forth regarding various optional architectures and uses in which the foregoing method may or may not be implemented, per the desires of the user. It should be strongly noted that the following information is set forth for illustrative purposes and should not be construed as limiting in any manner. Any of the followingfeatures may be optionally incorporated with or without the exclusion of other features described.

[0061] FIG. 2 illustrates an emulsion system 200 for stabilizing a material and enhancing its physical properties, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the emulsion system 200 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the emulsion system 200 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0062] As shown, an emulsion system 200 is illustrated. The system 200 includes a material 202 surrounded by an emulsifier 204. In the context of the present disclosure, the material 202 may include a medium to which the emulsifier 204 may be added. For example, the material 202 may include liquid mediums (such as oil and water), semi-solid mediums (such as gels, pastes, ointments, etc.), solid medium (such as solid dispersions), aerosols, gels and pastes, foams, etc.

[0063] In one particular embodiment, the material 202 may include any substance that can be dispersed in a liquid medium, such as a hydrophobic liquid, a hydrophilic liquid, a polymer, a monomer, a nanoparticle, or a combination thereof. The emulsifier 204 may be a functionalized carbon material, such as a carbon material that has been subjected to a specific ozonation process.

[0064] The emulsion system 200 illustrates that the emulsifier 204 may be used to bring about multiple effects, including functioning to stabilize a soludon (shown as the stabilized emulsion 204) and to add a physical property to the solution (shown as a physical property of material 206). In one embodiment, the emulsifier 204 may be configured for specific mechanical properties (such as increased tensile strength), and also configured as an effective emulsifying agent.

[0065] As such, the resulting emulsion may have various properties, depending on the nature of the material 202 and the emulsifier 204. For example, the emulsifier 204 may be configured as a functionalized carbon material and as a conductive polymer, and the resulting emulsion solution (into which the emulsifier 204 is added) may exhibit enhanced electrical conductivity. In another embodiment, the emulsifier 204 may be a biocompatible carbon material and be configured for biocompatible benefits, and the resulting emulsion may be suitable for biomedical applications.

[0066] In one embodiment, the biocompatible carbon material may have use in biomedical applications (including but not limited to drug delivery, tissue engineering, etc.). Additionally, surface functionalization of the biocompatible carbon material may play a role in improving theinteraction between the biocompatible carbon material and biological systems, including improving cell attachment, reducing toxicity, etc. In particular, hydrophilic modifications can improve biocompatibility, while impurities or additives may provoke negative biological responses.

[0067] As such, an emulsifying agent may be configured and used to emulsify a solution as well as to add physical properties to the solution and / or material.

[0068] It is to be appreciated that the emulsifier 204 may be the result of carbonaceous growth. As can be appreciated, the carbonaceous growth may impart properties such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, and chemical stability. The carbonaceous growth can improve heat dissipation, increase durability, and provide adsorptive capabilities for filtration and catalysis. Further, the carbonaceous growth (such as graphene in particular) may contribute to lightweighting and flexibility while offering protection against corrosion and electromagnetic interference. Moreover, the porous nature and surface properties of carbonaceous growth may be used for energy storage, and / or enhance tribological performance, reducing friction and wear in mechanical applications. It is to be appreciated that, within the context of the present disclosure, any property of the carbonaceous material may be a property of the emulsifier 204, and the material and / or solution into which the emulsifier 204 is added may inherit such property of the emulsifier 204.

[0069] In one embodiment, the emulsifier 204 may be functionalized with specific chemical groups to enhance its emulsifying properties. For example, the carbon material may be functionalized with hydrophilic groups to improve its compatibility with a hydrophilic material 202, or with hydrophobic groups to enhance its interaction with a hydrophobic material 202. This functionalization can be achieved through various methods, such as ozonation, acid treatment, or chemical grafting, and can be tailored to suit specific applications or requirements.

[0070] In some cases, the concentration of the emulsifier 204 in the emulsion may be adjusted to control the size of the dispersed phase droplets. Higher concentrations of the emulsifier 204 may result in smaller droplet sizes, while lower concentrations may lead to larger droplet sizes.

[0071] In yet other aspects, the emulsifier 204 may be used in combination with other emulsifying agents to create multi-component emulsions. For example, a first emulsifying agent may be used to stabilize a first material, and the emulsifier 204 may be used to stabilize a second material. The two stabilized materials may then be mixed together to form a multi-component emulsion. This approach can be used to create complex emulsions with tailored properties, such as emulsions with multiple phases or emulsions with gradient properties.

[0072] FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic view 300 of an emulsion structure, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the schematic view 300 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the scheinalic view 300 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0073] As shown, an emulsion structure is illustrated. The emulsion structure may include a composition comprising an emulsified material 302 and a second material 304. The emulsified material 302 is represented by cross-hatched circular shapes of varying sizes dispersed throughout the structure. The second material 304 is depicted by plain circular shapes, also of varying sizes, interspersed between the emulsified material 302.

[0074] It is noted that although FIG. 3 (and later below FIG. 4) shows a collection of droplets, the emulsion structure may alternatively be shown as a continuous phase. For example, the emulsion structure could be depicted with the second material 304 or the second material 404 as a continuous phase rather than a collection of droplets.

[0075] In some aspects, the emulsified material 302 may be a hydrophobic substance, such as an oil or a hydrophobic polymer, while the second material 304 may be a hydrophilic substance, such as water or an aqueous soludon. The emulsified material 302 and the second material 304 are immiscible, meaning they do not mix or combine to form a single phase. Instead, they form a heterogeneous mixture where the emulsified material 302 is dispersed as droplets within the second material 304.

[0076] In some cases, the emulsified material 302 may be stabilized by an emulsifying agent, such as a functionalized carbon material. The emulsifying agent may be dispersed within the emulsified material 302, forming a protective barrier around the droplets and preventing them from coalescing or aggregating. This results in a stable emulsion where the droplets of the emulsified material 302 remain dispersed amongst the second material 304.

[0077] As has been discussed hereinabove, the size of the droplets of the emulsified material 302 in the emulsion structure 300 can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of the emulsifying agent.

[0078] FIG. 4 illustrates a cross-sectional view 400 of an emulsion structure, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the cross-sectional view 400 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the cross-sectional view 400 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0079] As shown, a cross-section view 400 of an emulsion structure is depicted, comprising an emulsified material 402 and a second material 404. The emulsified material 402 is represented by cross-hatched circular shapes dispersed throughout the structure. The second material 404 is depicted by plain circular shapes interspersed throughout the emulsified material 402.

[0080] In some aspects, the emulsified material 402 may be a carbon-based material, such as functionalized carbon, that has been processed to act as an emulsifying agent. The second material 404 may include any medium (e.g. liquid, semi-solid, solid, aerosol, etc.) in which the emulsified material 402 is dispersed. The emulsified material 402 and the second material 404 are distributed throughout the emulsion structure 400 in a manner that suggests a stable emulsion has been formed.

[0081] In various embodiments, the concentration of the emulsified material 402 may be optimized to achieve a homogeneous solution. A higher concentration of the functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agent may result in extremely small droplet sizes (including but not limited to in the nanometer range), leading to a more stable and uniform emulsion. This fine dispersion would contribute to the homogeneity of the solution, ensuring consistent properties throughout the entire volume.

[0082] In various embodiments, the type of second material 404 and the type of emulsified material 402 used in the homogeneous soludon may be selected to achieve specific properties. Additionally, the interaction between the functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agent and the chosen material may result in a solution with consistent viscosity, thermal properties, and other characteristics throughout.

[0083] In various embodiments, the ability to tailor the properties of the homogeneous solution by adjusting the type and concentration of the emulsified material 402 and the second material 404 would allow for precise control over the final product's characteristics, meeting the specific requirements of diverse applications. Further it is recognized that the emulsified material may form a single phase comprising a homogenous mixture comprising at least in part the emulsified material 402.

[0084] In comparing FIG. 3 and FIG. 4, it is to be appreciated that FIG. 3 represents one configuration of a heterogenous emulsified mixture, and FIG. 4 represents one configuration of a homogenous emulsified mixture. In either configuration, it is to be recognized that the distribution (at a molecular level) of the emulsifier and the desired material may cause the resulting emulsified material to be heterogenous or homogenous. In one embodiment, the concentration of the emulsifier may be configured to control properties of the resulting mixture, including how well two immiscible substances mix, how stable the emulsified mixture is, theextent of the dispersal of droplets within the emulsified mixture, etc. Further, FIG. 3 illustrates an emulsion made with an emulsifier with a broad distribution of surface area while FIG. 4 is made with an emulsifier having a narrow distribution of surface area.

[0085] FIG. 5 illustrates an emulsifying system 500 comprising a container containing an emulsified material, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the emulsifying system 500 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the emulsifying system 500 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0086] As shown, the system 500 shows a container having emulsified material 502. The emulsified material 502 contains emulsified particles 504, which are shown in an enlarged view. The emulsified particles 504 consist of oil material 506 surrounded by water 508. At the interface between the oil material 506 and water 508 are emulsifying agents 510 and biosurfactants 512. The emulsifying agents 510 are depicted as circular shapes with attached wavy lines, while the biosurfactants 512 are represented by wavy lines alone. This arrangement demonstrates how the emulsifying agents 510 and biosurfactants 512 stabilize the interface between the oil material 506 and water 508, creating a stable emulsion of oil droplets dispersed in water. In one embodiment, the biosurfactants 512 may be found naturally (based on the oil material 506).

[0087] In some aspects, the oil material 506 may be a hydrophobic substance, such as a hydrocarbon (including but not limited to heavy oil), an oil-based monomer, etc.. The water 508, on the other hand, may be a hydrophilic substance, such as water or an aqueous soludon. The emulsifying agents 510 may be functionalized carbon materials, such as carbon materials that have been subjected to a specific ozonation process.

[0088] In some cases, the emulsifying agents 510 and biosurfactants 512 may be dispersed within the oil material 506, forming a protective barrier around the oil droplets and preventing them from coalescing or aggregating. This may result in a stable emulsion where the oil droplets remain dispersed within the water 508. Additionally, the emulsifying agents 510 and biosurfactants 512 may be functionalized with specific chemical groups to enhance their emulsifying properties. For example, the carbon material may be functionalized with hydrophilic groups to improve its compatibility with the water 508, or with hydrophobic groups to enhance its interaction with the oil material 506.

[0089] FIG. 6 illustrates a microscopic image 600 of a composite material comprising multiple components, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the microscopic image 600 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in anyprevious and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the microscopic image 600 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0090] As shown, the microscopic image 600 provides a detailed view of three distinct materials, first material 602, second material 604, and third material 606, within a composite. In one embodiment, the microscopic image 600 shows the need to separate out each of the three dislincl materials. In parlicular, a functionalized carbon acting as an emulsifying agent may be used to separate out each of the first material 602, second material 604, and third material 606.

[0091] In various embodiments, the separation of the three distinct materials obtained after CO2 etching of CNOs (carbon nano-onions) may be achieved through a process that exploits the differences in physical and chemical properties of each of the first material 602, the second material 604, and the third material 606. For example, a liquid-liquid extraction process may be employed to separate the different types of materials, using, for example, utilizing a functionalized carbon based emulsifying agent.

[0092] In various embodiments, the first material 602 may have a higher affinity for the aqueous phase containing the emulsified material, while the third material 606 may preferentially migrate to the organic phase. The second material 604 may distribute between both phases or concentrate at the interface. It is to be appreciated that such a configuration is but one example of how the materials (and separation thereof) may be configured. Further, in various embodiments, the concentration of the emulsifying agent may be adjusted to optimize the separation process.

[0093] It is noted that the description of FIG. 6 may assume that the emulsion process itself separates the three materials. In an alternative embodiment, the separation may not occur if the bond between the three types is strong, or if no additional energy (such as but not limited to sonication) is provided to the system. If the separation does not occur, FIG. 6 may illustrate additionally the bipolar nature of an emulsifier (such as the circular shapes and wavy lines of the emulsifying agents 510).

[0094] FIG. 7 illustrates two microscopic images 702, 704 of a material structure, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the two microscopic images 702, 704 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the two microscopic images 702, 704 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0095] As shown, the two microscopic images 702, 704 provide a detailed view of the microstructural characlcrislics of the graphene ink. The first focus of graphene ink mixture 702 and the second focus of graphene ink mixture 704 illustrate focus points of the graphene ink.

[0096] For example, the first focus of graphene ink mixture 702 shows in focus the graphene islands (corresponding to the conductive material associated with the carbon material). Additionally, the second focus of graphene ink mixture 704 shows in focus the interstitial space (corresponding to conductive interstitial sites). Again, to note, the image displayed for FIG. 7 is the same for the first focus of graphene ink mixture 702 and the second focus of graphene ink mixture 704 (with altering focus points shown for each).

[0097] In one embodiment, the images of FIG. 7 may relate to an emulsifying agent based on carbon material. In various embodiments, the second focus of graphene ink mixture 704 exemplifies, in particular, the bridging from one graphene island to another graphene island. Such a bridging serves to not only electrically connect the graphene islands (thereby ensuring conductivity) but to also increase the elasticity of the material.

[0098] In some aspects, the particles or structures depicted in the microscopic images 702 and 704 may be droplets of a dispersed phase in an emulsion, such as oil droplets in an oil-in- water emulsion or polymer particles in a polymer dispersion. The size, shape, and surface texture of these droplets or particles can significantly influence the properties of the resulting emulsion or dispersion, such as its stability, viscosity, or optical properties. Therefore, controlling these parameters through the choice of emulsifying agent and processing conditions can be crucial in tailoring the properties of the emulsion or dispersion for specific applications.

[0099] In various embodiments, it is noted that the electromagnetic properties of the emulsion, particularly its permittivity, may play a role in the battery function and efficiency. For example, permittivity may affect electrolyte behavior, electric field distribution within the battery, capacitive effects, interfacial phenomena at electrode-electrolyte boundaries, dielectric losses, and / or frequency response to alternating fields. The emulsion's permittivity may indirectly impact the specific energy and cycle life of the batteries. As such, careful tuning of the emulsion's permittivity, potentially through the use of functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent, may contribute to improved performance and enhanced battery performance.

[0100] In other embodiments, the conductive material (of the carbon material) may form a network of interconnected paths. In one embodiment, such interconnected paths may facilitate efficient charge transport and signal transmission. The conductive material may comprise large or small conductive islands of carbon material, which may in turn be used as an emulsifying agent.

[0101] Within this network, conductive interstitial may be positioned to bridge gaps between the conductive material. It is to be appreciated that the conductive interstitial may be the result of formation of the carbon material, such as that used for the conductive material. In oneembodiment, the conductive interstitial 304 may include an insulating zone (such as air) around the conductive material.

[0102] In conventional graphene ink formation, the conductive inlerslilial would often be the location of degradation of the graphene ink (due to breakage between the islands) and form discontinuities. Conversely, using the techniques disclosed herein, the graphene islands may continue to provide high conductivity due to the fact that breakage specifically does not occur (or with reduced occurrence) between the graphene of the conductive material.

[0103] It is to be appreciated that the conducli ve inlerslilial may comprise low conductivity high elastic graphene material, which may serve a dual function in the sensor's graphene ink composition. Firstly, the low conductivity high elastic graphene material may provide a connection between the large, conductive patches of graphene, ensuring continuous electrical conductivity throughout the structure. Secondly, the low conductivity high elastic material may serve to enhance the sensor's durability by resisting deformation and cracking under stress.

[0104] In some aspects, the low conductivity high elastic carbon material (such as graphene material) may be specifically configured to serve as a bridge between the large, conductive patches of graphene of the conductive material. Further, the low conductivity high elastic graphene material may include carbon-based filler material. For example, carbon-based filler materials may refer to various carbon forms used to enhance composite materials' properties when incorporated into a matrix. These fillers may include graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), etc. In various embodiments, incorporating these fillers into matrices may enhance a material’s mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and barrier properties. Further, these properties may be integrated within the emulsifying agent such that the emulsifying agent may function to emulsify and add such properties to the resulting solution / material.

[0105] In some cases, the conductive interstitial may be strategically positioned within the network of interconnected paths formed by the conductive material. This arrangement may allow for a non-overlapping pattern of the large, conductive patches of graphene and the low conductivity inlerslilial carbon material. Such a non-overlapping pattern may enhance the sensor's overall conductivity and durability, as it allows for efficient charge transport across the large, conductive patches of graphene, while also providing a robust bridge for maintaining electrical continuity.

[0106] In other cases, the conductive interstitial may be arranged in different configurations within the material growth. For instance, the conductive inlerslilial may be arranged in a layered configuration, a mixed configuration, or any other suitable configuration, depending on the specific requirements of the sensor application. Regardless of the specificconfiguration, the combination of the conductive patches of graphene and the low conductivity high elastic interstitial carbon material in the graphene ink may provide the sensor with enhanced conductivity and wear and tear resistance.

[0107] FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic view 800 of an emulsifying agent bio system, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the schematic view 800 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the schematic view 800 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0108] As shown, the system 800 depicts a vascular system 802, which represents a biological structure such as a blood vessel or capillary. Within the vascular system 802, several circular structures are depicted, representing drug delivery mechanisms 804. Each drug delivery mechanism 804 consists of a central core, which could be a therapeutic agent, such as a drug, a growth factor, a gene, or a cell, surrounded by smaller spherical particles. These smaller particles represent the emulsifying agent 806, which encapsulates and stabilizes the drug delivery mechanisms 804 within the vascular environment.

[0109] In some aspects, the emulsifying agent 806 may be a functionalized carbon material, such as a carbon material that has been subjected to a specific ozonation process. The functionalized carbon material may exhibit unique properties that make it effective in stabilizing the drug delivery mechanisms 804 within the vascular system 802. For example, the functionalized carbon material may have a high surface area, which allows it to encapsulate a large amount of the therapeutic agent. Additionally, the functionalized carbon material may have a high degree of surface functionality, which allows it to interact with the biological environment and enhance the stability of the drug delivery mechanisms 804.

[0110] In some cases, the emulsifying agent 806 may be functionalized with specific chemical groups to enhance its biocompatibility and its interaction with the therapeutic agent.

[0111] In other aspects, the emulsifying agent 806 may be used to control the release of the therapeutic agent from the drug delivery mechanisms 804. For instance, by adjusting the concentration or the degree of functionalization of the emulsifying agent 806, the rate of release of the therapeutic agent can be controlled. As such, the emulsifying agent may be used for targeted drug delivery, where a controlled and sustained release of the therapeutic agent is desired.

[0112] In yet other aspects, the emulsifying agent 806 may be used in combination with other emulsifying agents or biosurfactants to create multi-component drug delivery mechanisms. For example, a first emulsifying agent may be used to stabilize a first therapeutic agent, and theemulsifying agent 806 may be used to stabilize a second therapeutic agent. The two stabilized therapeutic agents may then be mixed together to form a multi-component drug delivery mechanism. This approach can be used to deliver multiple therapeutic agents simultaneously, potentially enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of the treatment.

[0113] As such, the emulsifying agent 806 can be utilized in biological applications to facilitate drug delivery and improve biocompatibility of therapeutic agents in the bloodstream.

[0114] FIG. 9 illustrates various applications 900A - 900D of emulsifying agents in bioprosthetics, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the various applications 900A - 900D may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the various applications 900A - 900D may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0115] As shown, various applications of emulsifying agents in bioprosthetics are illustrated through four orthogonal views of different implant configurations. The emulsifying agents may be used, in various embodiments, to enhance biocompatibility, tissue integration, and potential therapeutic delivery in these applications. It is to be appreciated that the various applications shown in FIG. 9 are intended merely as possible examples of applicability, and it is recognized that other examples of applicability may likewise exist.

[0116] It is recognized that in bioprosthetics, emulsifying agents can play a crucial role in the preparation and stabilization of biological materials used for implants or tissue replacements. Additionally, emulsifying agents may be used in processes involving the creation, treatment, and delivery of biocompatible materials. For example, when creating bioprosthetic devices (such as but not limited to tissue scaffolds or artificial skin), biological tissues or proteins may need to be blended with other substances (such as but not limited to polymers or lipids), to form a stable material. Emulsifying agents ensure that these materials stay mixed uniformly, preventing separation and ensuring consistency in the structure of the bioprosthetic. Additionally, the emulsifying agent may assist in stabilizing collagen-based or decellularized tissue matrices, helping to preserve the functionality and structural integrity of the tissue during processing.

[0117] In other embodiments, the emulsifying agent may be used for drug delivery in bioprosthetics. For example, with respect to implants used for tissue regeneration or drug-eluting scaffolds, emulsifying agents may be used to encapsulate therapeutic agents (such as but not limited to drugs, growth factors, or stem cells) in a biocompatible matrix. Emulsifying agents may ensure these therapeutic agents are evenly dispersed throughout the scaffold and can aid in their controlled release. Emulsifying agents used in this context can ensure that hydrophobic(water-repelling) and hydrophilic (water-attracting) substances are evenly distributed, optimizing the release of drugs or bioactive compounds that assist in tissue healing or regenerarion.

[0118] In other embodiments, the emulsifying agent may be used for forming biocompatible coatings. For example, the emulsifying agent may be used to apply biocompatible coatings on the surface of bioprosthetic devices to reduce immune responses or improve tissue integration. In one embodiment, lipids or polymer coatings can be emulsified and evenly applied to prosthetic surfaces to improve compatibility with human tissue.

[0119] Further, nanoparticles may be used to enhance properties (such as but not limited to strength or bioactivity). The emulsifying agent, as disclosed herein, may be used to keep these nanoparticles evenly suspended in biological materials, as well as providing additional enhanced properties (based on the configuration of the emulsifying agent).

[0120] Additionally, the emulsifying agent may be used in the storage and preservation of bioprosthetic tissues, thereby maintain the structural integrity of tissues during long-term storage, ensuring that bioprosthetics remain functional and biocompatible when needed for surgery.

[0121] In comparing the many uses of emulsifying agents within the context of biocompatible applications, it is recognized that the emulsifying agents may be used to improve material stability, enhance biocompatibility, control drug release, prevent phase separation, reduce immune reactions, control the release of therapeutic agents, as well as provide additional enhanced physical properties based on the configuration of the carbon material of the emulsifying agent.

[0122] With respect to FIG. 9, the first configuration, labeled box 900A, shows a bone implant with a biocompatible surface coating 902. In some aspects, the biocompatible surface coating 902 may be formed from an emulsifying agent, such as a functionalized carbon material. The emulsifying agent may be applied to the surface of the implant to enhance its integration with surrounding tissue. This coating may also provide a protective barrier that reduces the immune response to the implant, potentially improving its biocompatibility and longevity.

[0123] The second configuration, labeled as box 900B, depicts a bone implant containing nanoparticles 906 suspended in an emulsifying suspension 904. In some cases, the nanoparticles 906 may be therapeutic agents, such as drugs, growth factors, or stem cells, that are encapsulated within the emulsifying suspension 904. The emulsifying suspension 904, which may comprise an emulsifying agent, helps to stabilize the nanoparticles 906 within the implant structure. This configuration allows, in one particular embodiment, for the controlled release of the therapeutic agents from the implant, potentially enhancing its therapeutic efficacy.

[0124] The third configuration, labeled as box 900C, shows biological tissue 908. In some aspects, the biological tissue 908 may be stabilized by an emulsifying agent. The emulsifyingagent may form a protective barrier around the biological tissue 908, helping to preserve its functionality and structural integrity during the implantation process. This configuration may be particularly useful in tissue engineering applications, where the integration of biological tissue with an implant can promote tissue regeneration and healing.

[0125] The fourth configuration, labeled as box 900D, illustrates an implant 910 embedded within a biocompatible matrix 912. In some cases, the biocompatible matrix 912 may comprise an emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent may help to stabilize the biocompatible matrix 912, enhancing its mechanical properties and biocoinpalibilily. The implant 910, which is embedded within the matrix, may be released in a controlled manner as the biocompatible matrix 912 degrades over time.

[0126] In various embodiments, boxes 900A, 900B, 900C, and / or 900D illustrate various ways in which emulsifying agents can be utilized in bioproslhelic applications. The use of emulsifying agents in these applications can enhance the biocompatibility, tissue integration, and therapeutic delivery capabilities of the implants, etc.

[0127] FIG. 10 illustrates two views 1000A, 1000B related to concrete mixing and curing with an emulsifying agent, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the two views 1000A, 1000B may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the two views 1000 A, 1000B may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0128] As shown, the first view 1000A shows a side orthogonal view of a concrete mixer truck. The truck includes a truck drum 1002 for mixing and transporting concrete. Inside the truck drum 1002 is a concrete slurry 1004, which is mixed with an emulsifying agent 1006. The emulsifying agent 1006 is added to the concrete slurry 1004 to improve the properties of the resulting concrete, and / or improve the transporting and moving of the concrete.

[0129] In various embodiments, integrating functionalized carbon materials (as the emulsifying agent 1006) into concrete can significantly enhance its properties and overall performance. For example, the functionalized carbon material may be configured, in particular, to increase tensile strength and ductility (thereby causing the concrete to withstand greater loads and resist cracking under stress), enhance the mechanical properties of the concrete including compressive strength, flexural strength, impact resistance, conductivity, etc., and / or improve electrical conductivity of the concrete, etc. In other embodiments, the functionalized carbon material may be configured to enhance environmental performance, including the ability to absorb harmful pollutants and improve air quality.

[0130] In various embodiments, functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be used to create stable emulsions of water and additives (which can improve the mixing process of concrete). By enhancing the dispersion of these additives, functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may lead to a more uniform mixture, making the concrete easier to work with and place.

[0131] In various embodiments, functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be used to improve the dispersion of fine particles, such as cement and aggregates, leading to a more efficient use of water in the mix. This reduction in water demand may increase the concrete's strength and durability while minimizing the risk of shrinkage and cracking. Further, the functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be configured to stabilize the mixture by preventing segregation of the components. This stability ensures that the concrete maintains its integrity during transportation and placement.

[0132] In various embodiments, functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be used to improve the bond between the cement matrix and aggregates. This improved bond may lead to better resistance against environmental factors (including but not limited to freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, etc.). In one embodiment, the functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be configured to create small air bubbles within the concrete mix. These airentrained bubbles may improve the freeze-thaw resistance of the concrete, providing additional protection against cracking and structural damage in cold climates.

[0133] In various embodiments, the functionalized carbon-based emulsifying agents may be used to improve the effectiveness of other additives (such as superplasticizers and retarders) by promoting better dispersion and interaction within the concrete matrix, thereby leading to greater compressive strength and flexibility.

[0134] In one embodiment, the functionalized carbon material of the emulsifying agent 1006 may have a high surface area, which may allow it to encapsulate a large amount of the cement particles. Additionally, the functionalized carbon material of the emulsifying agent 1006 may have a high degree of surface functionality, which allows it to interact with the cement particles and enhance the stability of the concrete slurry 1004.

[0135] In some cases, the emulsifying agent 1006 may be dispersed within the concrete slurry 1004, forming a protective barrier around the cement particles and preventing them from coalescing or aggregating. This results in a stable concrete slurry where the cement particles remain dispersed within the water, forming a stable emulsion.

[0136] In one embodiment, the emulsifying agent 1006 may also improve the workability of the concrete slurry 1004, making it easier to mix, pour, and shape during the construed on process.

[0137] The second image 1000B depicts an isometric view of a concrete slab. This slab represents cured concrete 1008 that has been mixed with the emulsifying agent. In some aspects, the emulsifying agent 1006 may be used for cement reinforcement. The functionalized carbon material may form a network within the cement matrix, providing mechanical reinforcement and enhancing the strength and durability of the cured concrete 1008.

[0138] In other aspects, the concentration of the emulsifying agent 1006 in the concrete slurry 1004 can be adjusted to control the size of the cement particles in the emulsion. Higher concentrations of the emulsifying agent 1006 may result in smaller cement particle sizes, while lower concentrations may lead to larger cement particle sizes. This ability to control particle size can be advantageous for cement applicability, such as in the production of high-strength concrete or in the creation of specific concrete textures.

[0139] In various embodiments, the emulsifying agent 1006 may be used to increase the solubility of the concrete slurry 1004, decrease the viscosity of the concrete slurry 1004, and / or affect a physical property of the resulling cured concrete 1008. In particular, the emulsifying agent 1006 may remain and be present in the cured concrete 1008 even after the concrete has fully cured. Further, the diffusion of the carbonaceous material within the concrete may be controlled and / or improved by the emulsifying agent 1006.

[0140] In various embodiments, an example cement composition may include ordinary Portland cement, a secondary cementitious material (SCM) including pozzolan, in an amount corresponding to up to approximately 70% replacement level of ordinary Portland cement, and aggregates of carbon nanoparticles having graphene nanoplatelets such as 3 -dimensional graphene (3DG carbons). The graphene nanoplatelets may include graphene nanoplatelets which may be orthogonally joined to each other to form a 3D porous graphene scaffold structure. The amount of 3DG carbons may be between about 0.05% bwoc and 2% bwoc. The graphene nanoplatelets may include one or more of single layer graphene (SLG), few layer graphene (FLG), or many layer graphene (MLG). The aggregates may be further defined by an interconnected porous network disposed within and between the aggregates.

[0141] In various embodiments, the pozzolan may include between approximately 50 wt% and approximately 70 wt% SiO2, between approximately 10 wt% and 20 wt% A12O3, and less than approximately 10 wt% each of Fe2O3 and MgO. The loss on ignition (LOI) of the pozzolan may be less that approximately 10 wt%. The 3DG carbons may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.95 and approximately 1.05. The SCM may include one or more of metakaolin, slag, fly ash, pyroclastic ash, or limestone. The 3DG carbons may be surface functionalized with one or more of silicatecompounds or nano-silica. In various embodiments, the 3DG carbons may be functionalized carbons and further configured as an emulsifying agent.

[0142] In various embodiments, the silicate compounds or nanosilica may be anchored to the surface of the 3DG carbons, micro-confined within the interconnected porous open scaffold structure of the aggregates in 3DG carbons, or nanoconfined in the scaffold structure formed by orthogonally joined graphene nanoplatelets in 3DG carbons. The 3DG carbons may be surface functionalized with one or more of silicon, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, silicon, lithium, sodium or potassium. The 3DG carbons surface functionalized with nano-silica may include between approximately 20 at. wt% and approximately 65 at. wt% Si, and between approximately 15 at. wt% and approximately 40 at. wt% O. The O / Si ratio of the 3DG carbons surface functionalized with nano-silica may be between approximately 1.5 and approximately 3.

[0143] In various embodiments, an example cement composition may include ordinary Portland cement, a SCM including one or more of metakaolin, limestone, or gypsum, in an amount corresponding to up to approximately 70% replacement level of ordinary Portland cement, a superplasticizer in a concentration range of between approximately 0.05% by weight of cement (bwoc) and approximately 2% bwoc, and 3DG carbons. The amount of gypsum may be between about 0.5 wt% and approximately 3.5 wt%. The superplasticizer may include a polycarboxylate ether, for example, Arkema's Ethacryl product or BASF's Liquiment product. The superplasticizer may be added to the cement paste during hydration as a dispersant. The example cement composition may further include rheology modifiers, that include, but are not limited to, hydroxy ethylcellulose in a concentration range of between approximately 0.05% bwoc and approximately 1.0% bwoc.

[0144] In various embodiments, the SCM may include approximately 65 wt% metakaolin (or generally pozzolan), approximately 32 wt% limestone, and approximately 3 wt% gypsum. The SCM may include approximately 97 wt% of one or more of metakaolin or limestone, and approximately 3 wt% gypsum. The 3DG carbons may include aggregates of carbon nanoparticles including graphene nanoplatelets. The carbon nanoparticles may be characterized by a plurality of porous concentric shells including graphene, where each shell may enclose a porous carbon region. An interconnected porous network may be disposed in each carbon region and in fluid communication with contiguous carbon regions.

[0145] In various embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles in the 3DG carbons may feature a complex structure characterized by porous concentric shells of graphene, each enclosing a porous carbon region. These regions may be interconnected through a porous network, allowing for fluid communication between contiguous carbon regions. This unique structure contributes to the enhanced properties of the cement composition, potentially improving its strength, durability,and other physical characteristics. The specific properties of the cement composition can be tailored by adjusting the type and concentration of the 3DG carbons and other components to meet the requirements of various applications in construction and engineering.

[0146] FIG. 11 illustrates an emulsifying agent configuration table 1100, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the emulsifying agent configuration table 1100 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the emulsifying agent configuration table 1100 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0147] As shown, the table 1100 outlines various physical properties that may be enhanced by the functionalized carbon material when used as an emulsifying agent in the resulting material. The table is divided into five categories of properties: electrical properties 1102, mechanical properties 1104, thermal properties 1106, chemical properties 1108, and other properties 1110.

[0148] In some aspects, the functionalized carbon material may enhance the electrical properties 1102 of the resulting material. For instance, the functionalized carbon material may increase the electrical conductivity of the material, potentially making it suitable for applications in electronics or energy storage. The functionalized carbon material may also enhance electron mobility, which could improve the performance of electronic devices. Furthermore, the functionalized carbon material may allow for tunable conductivity, enabling the electrical properties of the material to be adjusted for specific applications.

[0149] In other cases, the functionalized carbon material may enhance the mechanical properties 1104 of the resulting material. For example, the functionalized carbon material may increase the tensile strength and Young's modulus of the material, potentially improving its mechanical stability and resistance to deformation. The functionalized carbon material may also enhance the toughness and durability of the material, potentially making it more resistant to wear and tear. Further, carbon-based materials provide a high strength-to-weight ratios, offering mechanical reinforcement without significantly increasing the material's weight. Further, carbonbased materials enhance the toughness of composites by improving crack resistance, making materials more durable under stress and reducing failure rates.

[0150] In yet other aspects, the functionalized carbon material may enhance the thermal properties 1106 of the resulting material. For instance, the functionalized carbon material may increase the thermal conductivity of the material, potentially improving its heat dissipation capabilities. The functionalized carbon material may also enhance the thermal stability of the material, potentially making it more resistant to thermal degradation.

[0151] In some cases, the functionalized carbon material may enhance the chemical properties 1108 of the resulting material. For example, the functionalized carbon material may increase the corrosion resistance of the material, potentially making it more durable in harsh chemical environments. As such, carbonaceous materials may act as a protective barrier, enhancing a material’s resistance to chemical corrosion. The functionalized carbon material may also act as a catalyst or adsorbent, potentially enhancing the chemical reactivity of the material. In other embodiments, catalysts and adsorbents may relate to catalytic activity and / or absorption properties.

[0152] In yet other aspects, the functionalized carbon material may enhance other properties 1110 of the resulting material. For instance, the functionalized carbon material may increase the energy storage capabilities of the material, potentially making it suitable for applications in batteries or supercapacitors. The functionalized carbon material may also enhance the flexibility and ductility of the material, potentially improving its performance in flexible electronics or materials that need to withstand deformation without breaking. The functionalized carbon material may also form conductive networks within the material, potentially enhancing its electromagnetic interference shielding capabilities. Furthermore, the functionalized carbon material may modify the ophcal properties of the material, such as light absorption, potentially making it suitable for applications in solar cells or photodetectors.

[0153] In various embodiments, carbon-based materials (including functionalized carbon based emulsifying agents) can significantly enhance the electrical and mechanical properties of electrodes in lithium-ion and lithium-sulfur batteries. The carbon-based structures, such as 3D graphene scaffolds, can provide high electrical conductivity along contact points between graphene sheets while also creating interconnected porous networks for efficient ion transport. This unique hierarchical structure allows for both high electronic conductivity and rapid ionic diffusion, addressing key challenges in battery performance.

[0154] In various embodiments, the carbon-based materials can enable much higher specific capacities compared to conventional graphite anodes. While graphite anodes are typically limited to a theoretical maximum of 372 mAh / g, the disclosed 3D graphene structures can achieve specific capacities over 1000 mAh / g. This dramatic increase is attributed to the ability to intercalate more lithium ions between the graphene layers, as well as store lithium in the engineered porous structure. The high surface area and tunable pore sizes allow for greater lithium storage capacity while maintaining good electrical contact.

[0155] In various embodiments, the carbon scaffolds can be synthesized with graded electrical conductivity, providing optimized electron and ion transport through the electrode thickness. By controlling the concentration and arrangement of graphene sheets duringfabrication, the electrical conductivity can be tailored from highly conductive near the current collector to more ionically conductive near the electrolyte interface. This graded structure facilitates efficient charge transfer while also accommodating volume changes during cycling.

[0156] In various embodiments, the carbon materials can be engineered to confine sulfur and polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries, addressing a key challenge for that chemistry. The hierarchical porous structure with tunable pore sizes allows for physical confinement of sulfur within small micropores, while larger mesopores facilitate ion transport. This multi-modal pore structure helps prevent polysulfide shuttling while maintaining high active material utilization, enabling lithium-sulfur batteries with much higher energy density than conventional lithium-ion batteries.

[0157] In various embodiments, the carbon-based electrodes can be fabricated without traditional binders or inactive additives, maximizing the active material content and energy density. The interconnected graphene sheets provide mechanical integrity and electrical conductivity without requiring polymer binders. This binder-free approach, combined with the high specific capacity, allows for electrodes with dramatically improved gravimetric and volumetric energy density compared to conventional slurry-cast electrodes. The carbon scaffolds can be directly grown or deposited using scalable methods like plasma spray deposition, enabling industrial-scale production of high-performance battery electrodes.

[0158] In various embodiments, the carbon-based structures (including functionalized carbon based emulsifying agents), such as 3D graphene scaffolds, can provide high electrical conductivity along contact points between graphene sheets while also creating interconnected porous networks for efficient ion transport. This unique hierarchical structure allows for both high electronic conductivity and rapid ionic diffusion, addressing key challenges in battery performance.

[0159] In various embodiments, the carbon-based materials can enable much higher specific capacities compared to conventional graphite anodes. While graphite anodes are typically limited to a theoretical maximum of 372 mAh / g, the disclosed 3D graphene structures can achieve specific capacities over 1000 mAh / g. This dramatic increase is attributed to the ability to intercalate more lithium ions between the graphene layers, as well as store lithium in the engineered porous structure. The high surface area and tunable pore sizes allow for greater lithium storage capacity while maintaining good electrical contact.

[0160] In various embodiments, the carbon scaffolds can be synthesized with graded electrical conductivity, providing optimized electron and ion transport through the electrode thickness. By controlling the concentration and arrangement of graphene sheets during fabrication, the electrical conductivity can be tailored from highly conductive near the currentcollector to more ionically conductive near the electrolyte interface. This graded structure facilitates efficient charge transfer while also accommodating volume changes during cycling.

[0161] In various embodiments, the carbon materials can be engineered to confine sulfur and polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries, addressing a key challenge for that chemistry. The hierarchical porous structure with tunable pore sizes allows for physical confinement of sulfur within small micropores, while larger mesopores facilitate ion transport. This multi-modal pore structure helps prevent polysulfide shuttling while maintaining high active material ulilizalion, enabling lithium-sulfur batteries with much higher energy density than conventional lithium-ion batteries.

[0162] In various embodiments, the carbon-based electrodes can be fabricated without traditional binders or inactive additives, maximizing the active material content and energy density. The interconnected graphene sheets provide mechanical integrity and electrical conductivity without requiring polymer binders. This binder-free approach, combined with the high specific capacity, allows for electrodes with dramatically improved gravimetric and volumetric energy density compared to conventional slurry-cast electrodes. The carbon scaffolds can be directly grown or deposited using scalable methods like plasma spray deposition, enabling industrial-scale production of high-performance battery electrodes.

[0163] As such, FIG. 11 illustrates how the functionalized carbon material, when used as an emulsifying agent, can enhance various physical properties of the resulting material across different domains of a variety of material science and engineering applications. Further, it is to be appreciated that the properties indicated herein (with specific reference to FIG. 11) are not intended to limit scope of properties capable by functionalized carbon material.

[0164] FIG. 12 illustrates a graph 1200 showing the relationship between emulsifying agent amount and droplet size, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the graph 1200 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the graph 1200 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0165] As shown, the graph 1200 shows the inverse relationship between the amount of emulsifying agent 1202 and droplet size formation 1204 in an emulsion. The vertical axis represents the amount of emulsifying agent 1202, while the horizontal axis represents the droplet size formation 1204. The graph 1200 shows a downward sloping curve, indicating an inverse relationship between the amount of emulsifying agent 1202 and the droplet size formation 1204. As the amount of emulsifying agent 1202 increases, the droplet size formation 1204 decreases.

[0166] In various embodiments, the size of droplets in an emulsion can be precisely controlled by adjusting the concentration of the functionalized carbon material acting as an emulsifying agent. This relationship between emulsifier concentration and droplet size arises from the fundamental physics of emulsion formation and stabilization. For example, at higher concentrations of the functionalized carbon material, smaller droplet sizes can be achieved. As more emulsifying agent is present, it can more effectively coat the interface between the two immiscible phases, reducing interfacial tension. This allows for the formation and stabilization of a larger number of smaller droplets. The increased surface area of the emulsifier at higher concentrations enables it to stabilize a greater total interfacial area, resulting in a finer emulsion with smaller average droplet diameters.

[0167] In various embodiments, lower concentrations of the functionalized carbon material tend to produce larger droplets. With less emulsifier available, there is reduced coverage of the interface between phases. This leads to higher interfacial tension and promotes coalescence of smaller droplets into larger ones to minimize surface energy. The limited amount of emulsifier can only stabilize a smaller total interfacial area, resulting in fewer, larger droplets.

[0168] In various embodiments, the relationship between emulsifier concentration and droplet size may not be necessarily linear. For example, there may be a critical concentration below which stable emulsions cannot form, and above which further increases in concentration have diminishing effects on droplet size reduction. The exact nature of this relationship can depend on factors such as the specific properties of the functionalized carbon material, the types of phases being emulsified, processing conditions, etc.

[0169] As such, the size of the droplet may be dependent on the concentration of the functionalized carbon material of the emulsifying agent within a soludon and / or material.

[0170] FIG. 13 illustrates an ink system 1300 for producing cohesive ink droplets containing multiple types of graphene ink particles, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the ink system 1300 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the ink system 1300 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0171] As shown, the system 1300 includes two containers of graphene ink: graphene ink 1 1302 and graphene ink 2 1304. Each ink contains graphene particles, represented by graphene ink 1 particle 1306 and graphene ink 2 particle 1310, respectively.

[0172] In some aspects, the system utilizes emulsifying agents 1308 and 1312 to stabilize and combine the graphene ink particles. In particular, the emulsifying agents 1308 and 1312 aredepicted as surrounding the graphene ink 1 particle 1306 and graphene ink 2 panicle 1310, respectively, creating stable emulsions of each ink type.

[0173] The ink printer 1314 may receive each of the emulsified graphene ink 1 particle 1306 and the emulsified graphene ink 2 particle 1310. As each of the emulsified graphene ink 1 particle 1306 and the emulsified graphene ink 2 particle 1310 pass through the printer, they may be combined to form cohesive ink droplets 1316. In another embodiments, the emulsified graphene ink 1 particle 1306 and the emulsified graphene ink 2 particle 1310 may be combined as cohesive ink solution prior to being provided to the ink printer 1314. These cohesive ink droplets 1316 may contain a mixture of graphene ink 1 particles and graphene ink 2 particles, held together by the emulsifying agents.

[0174] In other aspects, the cohesive ink droplets 1316 are shown being ejected from the bottom of the ink printer 1314. This arrangement allows for the creation of composite ink droplets that incorporate properties from both types of graphene ink, potentially offering enhanced performance or unique characteristics in the printed output.

[0175] It is to be appreciated that the ink droplets may include mulliplc types of configured carbon material. Such multiple types of configured carbon material may be combined prior to application. For example, in one embodiment, a first type of graphene for conductivity may be applied as a layer, and the second type of graphene for wear and tear resistance may be applied as another layer. In this particular configuration, the benefits of the first type of graphene for conductivity (namely increased conductivity) and the benefits of the second type of graphene for wear and tear resistance (namely increased durability) may be combined via the application of multiple layers. It is recognized that any number of layers may be added, where each layer may, in particular, be configured for a specific benefit. For purposes of clarity, the aggregation of all layers may create a symbiotic benefit (where the benefit of one layer works in conjunction with the benefit of another layer). Further, the use of singular or multiple types of carbon based ink may function within the context of an emulsifying agent.

[0176] Further), the mixture (or application via multiple discrete layers where each layer is configured for a specific benefit) is then processed to produce a final graphene ink with enhanced properties. For example, the result may include highly conductive graphene ink with low degradation. In another embodiment, the first type of graphene for conductivity may be configured to enhance the electrical conductivity of the resulting solution / material. Such a graphene may be characterized by its high electron mobility, which allows for efficient charge transport.

[0177] In one embodiment, a second type of graphene ink for wear and tear resistance may be configured to enhance the durability of the sensor. Such a graphene may be characterized byits high mechanical strength and flexibility, which can help resist deformation and cracking under stress.

[0178] As such, carbon based ink (and graphene ink in particular) may be configured to have one or more specific physical properties, and such carbon based material may be used as an emulsifying agent to provide emulsifying benefits and physical properties to the resulting solution / material.

[0179] It is recognized that graphene ink may be applied to a variety of types of sensors. For example, in electrochemical sensors, graphene ink may facilitate the detection of chemical and biological analytes. In some instances, these sensors can target specific molecules, such as glucose or DNA, through functionalization with biorecognition elements (such as enzymes and antibodies). Additionally, graphene ink may be used in gas sensors, allowing the detection of gases such as ammonia and nitrogen dioxide through changes in electrical resistance.

[0180] Further, graphene ink may be used for rcal-liinc monitoring of physiological parameters. For example, strain sensors may be used for monitoring mechanical deformation or in wearable health monitors for tracking vital signs (such as heart rate and body temperature), and water quality or air quality sensors may be used for environmental monitoring (including providing real-time data on pollutants, such as heavy metals in water and volatile organic compounds in the air).

[0181] As such, graphene ink may be used by vapor and / or gas sensors (for analyte detection), bio sensors (for enzyme, molecule detection, etc.), resonant sensors (for changes in environment, etc.), and / or any other sensor. Using the disclosure herein would allow for multiple preconfigured benefits that could be used within such sensors, thereby allowing for sensors that can be configured for ensuring electrical continuity and increasing wear and tear resistance (and / or any other preconfigured benefit).

[0182] In one embodiment, graphene ink enables high sensitivity and selectivity (thereby detecting minute changes in analyte presence). Notwithstanding such great impact on a variety of markets and sensors, graphene ink-based sensors, especially those used in flexible and wearable devices, are often subjected to repeated mechanical stresses such as bending, stretching, and Iwisling. Over time, these mechanical deformations can lead to the cracking or delamination of the graphene layers from the substrate, compromising the sensor’s performance and reliability.

[0183] The disclosure disclosed herein remedies such deficiencies. In particular, using a conventional graphene ink, such ink is often configured for a single benefit (such as conductivity, durability, etc.). In contrast, as disclosed herein, the mixture or layering approach of two different types of graphene ink enables a first benefit in combination with a second benefit (at a minimum). As such, the present disclosure shows that it is possible to achieve onebenefit (such as increased conductivity) while also achieve a second benefit (such as increased durability).

[0184] Based on the foregoing description, it is to be appreciated that an emulsifying agent may be applied to a first type of graphene ink, and a second emulsifying agent may be applied to a second type of graphene ink, and the combination thereof may include each graphene ink respectively. In an alternative arrangement a first graphene ink may be combined with a second graphene ink, and the resulting mixture may then have an emulsifying agent added. As such, the emulsifying agent may be added individually to each type of graphene ink, or in some combination thereof of the underlying graphene inks.

[0185] FIG. 14 illustrates three orthogonal views 1400A, 1400B, 1400C of different composite structures incorporating emulsifying agents, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the three orthogonal views 1400A, 1400B, 1400C may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the three orthogonal views 1400A, 1400B, 1400C may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0186] As shown, the three orthogonal views of different composite structures incorporating emulsifying agents are illustrated. These views demonstrate how the emulsifying agent may be integrated with fibers, layers, and particles to form different composite configurations.

[0187] In the first view, composite fibers 1400A are shown. The composite fibers 1400A comprise fibers 1402 surrounded by an emulsifying agent 1404. In some aspects, the fibers 1402 may be made of a material such as a polymer, a metal, or a ceramic. The emulsifying agent 1404 may include a functionalized carbon material, consistent with the description herein. The emulsifying agent 1404 may form a coating around the fibers 1402, potentially enhancing their compatibility with a matrix material and improving the dispersion of the fibers 1402 within the matrix.

[0188] In the second view, composite layers 1400B are depicted. The composite layers 1400B consist of layers 1406 surrounded by an emulsifying agent 1408. In some cases, the layers 1406 may be made of a material such as a polymer, a metal, or a ceramic. In one embodiment, the emulsifying agent 1408 may form a barrier between each layer 1406, potentially enhancing the compatibility between the layers and improving the stability of the composite.

[0189] In the third view, composite particles 1400C are presented. The composite particles 1400C contain nanoparticles 1410 dispersed within a matrix. Each nanoparticle 1410 is surrounded by an emulsifying agent 1412. In some aspects, the nanoparticles 1410 may be madeof a material such as a metal, a ceramic, or a carbon-based material. The emulsifying agent 1412 may form a coating around the nanoparticles 1410, potentially enhancing their compatibility with a matrix material and improving the dispersion of the nanoparticles 1410 within the matrix.

[0190] In each configuration, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may serve to stabilize and integrate the respective components (fibers 1402, layers 1406, nanoparticles 1410) within the composite structure. The different arrangements demonstrate various ways the emulsifying agent can be incorporated into composite materials to potentially enhance their properties (e.g. mechanical, electrical, thermal, chemical, etc.) or performance.

[0191] In various embodiments, FIG. 14 provides possible configurations for composite materials. Within such context, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may be used to improve the mixing and stability of two or more phases that would otherwise not blend well, typically involving a dispersed phase (e.g., fibers, layers, particles, etc.) and a continuous matrix (e.g., resin, polymer). The emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may help in forming a stable emulsion, ensuring proper distribution of the different phases within the composite, as well as import possible physical properties into the composite.

[0192] It is to be appreciated that composites often involve the combination of materials with vastly different properties, such as hydrophobic resins and hydrophilic fillers or fibers. Due to differences in polarity or surface energy, these materials may not naturally mix well. The emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may assist in reducing the surface tension between these phases, thereby enhancing their compatibility and improving the overall blending of the materials. For instance, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) can modify the surface properties of fibers or particles, making them more compatible with the surrounding matrix. Additionally, as welling agents, they improve the resin's ability to coat reinforcing fibers or particles, leading to better adhesion and load transfer between components.

[0193] With respect to composite materials containing multiple liquid or semi-liquid components, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may be used to stabilize the dispersion of one phase, such as droplets or fibers, within another. This prevents phase separation or agglomeration during processing or curing. By maintaining a uniform distribution of the dispersed phase, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may allow precise control over the composite's microstructure, which directly influences its mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Such influence is in addition to the physical properties with which the emulsifying agent may be configured to, and which physical property may then be imported into the resulting composite.

[0194] Additionally, achieving optimal mechanical properties in composites requires an even distribution of the reinforcing phase within the matrix material. The emulsifying agent(1404, 1408, 1412) may help maintain this dispersion throughout the manufacturing process, leading to enhanced strength and reduced defects. Proper distribution facilitates better stress transfer between the matrix and reinforcement, while minimizing voids or agglomerations that could weaken the material.

[0195] During the production of composites, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may also serve as processing aids, making materials easier to handle and mix. For example, when working with viscous polymers or resins, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may improve flow properties, ensuring even penetration of resin throughout reinforcing fibers or particles. This can significantly reduce processing time in manufacturing methods such as molding, extrusion, or casting.

[0196] In some polymer composites, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may be used in emulsion polymerization, where monomers dispersed in water may be polymerized to create the matrix material. The emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may stabilize the monomer droplets, resulting in a uniform polymer matrix, which enhances the composite's mechanical and thermal properties.

[0197] In various embodiments, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may indirectly aid the production process, particularly when resins or other matrix materials are involved. For example, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may stabilize resin emulsions, allowing water-based resin formulations to coat fibers like carbon, glass, or aramid more uniformly. The emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may also improve wettability by reducing the surface tension of resins, ensuring even distribution over fibers. Additionally, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may act as processing aids in fiber spinning or prepregging, promoting even resin adhesion and enhancing mechanical properties. In some cases, they are used in surface treatments, such as dispersing silane coupling agents to improve fiber-matrix bonding.

[0198] In various embodiments, with respect to composite layer manufacturing, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may assist in laminating or layering operations involving fiber reinforcement (such as carbon, glass, or aramid fibers) and matrix materials like resins. The emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may stabilize resin emulsions during preparation, ensuring uniform distribution across the fiber layers to prevent resin-rich or deficient areas that could compromise structural integrity. By reducing surface tension between fibers and resins, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may improve fiber-matrix bonding, promoting smooth layer consolidation during processes like vacuum bagging or autoclaving. Additionally, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may assist in surface treatment by dispersing chemicals that enhance adhesion between laminates. Further, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may also act as release agents in processes like Resin Transfer Molding (RTM), preventingcomposite layers from adhering to molds during curing. Additionally, with respect to nanocomposites, the emulsifying agent (1404, 1408, 1412) may help evenly disperse nanoparticles or nanofibers within the matrix, leading to uniform mechanical properties.

[0199] It is to be recognized that the benefits of an emulsifying agent, as described herein, may be to not only facilitate the composite preparation process and resulling stability and function of the composite, but in addition, the configuration of the emulsifying agent (containing carbon material) may allow physical properties to be imported into the resulting composite as well.

[0200] FIG. 15 illustrates three views 1500A, 1500B, 1500C of nanofluid properties based on an emulsifying agent, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the three views 1500A, 1500B, 1500C may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the three views 1500A, 1500B, 1500C may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0201] As shown, FIG. 15 comprises three diagrams: a viscosity diagram 1500A, a dispersion diagram 1500B, and a thermal conductivity diagram 1500C.

[0202] In the viscosity diagram 1500A, a nanofluid is shown, which includes a base fluid 1502, nanoparticles 1504, and an emulsifying agent 1506. The emulsifying agent 1506 is depicted as surrounding the nanoparticles 1504, which are dispersed throughout the base fluid 1502. In some aspects, the base fluid 1502 may be a liquid, such as water, oil, or a polymer soludon. It is recognized that the base fluid 1502 may be selected for a particular application (such as water due to its specific heat and thermal conductivity, glycol (such as ethylene glycol or propylene glycol) due to its antifreeze properties, oils (such as mineral or synthetic oils) due to its ability to withstand high temperature systems, alcohols due to its ability for withstand cryogenic environments, glycerol due to its viscous properties, silicone oil due to its thermal stability, air and / or refrigerants due to its phase-change systems, polyethylene glycol due to its biocompatibility, etc.

[0203] The nanoparticles 1504 may be solid particles, such as metal nanoparticles, ceramic nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles, etc. It is to be appreciated that the nanoparticle selected may be tailored to fit the industrial, biomedical, energy, chemical needs of the nanofluid. Further, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be consistent with the emulsifying agent disclosed herein (such as the emulsifying agent 104). In one embodiment, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured to improve and / or decrease the viscosity of the solution.

[0204] The dispersion diagram 1500B illustrates an improved dispersion of nanoparticles in the nanofluid. It shows the same components as 1500A: the base fluid 1502, nanoparticles 1504, and emulsifying agent 1506. However, in this diagram, the nanoparticles 1504 appear more evenly distributed throughout the base fluid 1502, with the emulsifying agent 1506 surrounding each nanoparticle. This improved dispersion may be attributed to the stabilizing effect of the emulsifying agent 1506, which reduces the tendency of the nanoparticles 1504 to aggregate or settle out of the base fluid 1502.

[0205] As such, in one embodiment, as displayed in the viscosity diagram 1500A, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured to improve and / or decrease the viscosity of the soludon, and in another embodiment, as displayed in the dispersion diagram 1500B, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured to control and / or influence the dispersion of the nanoparticle 1504 within the base fluid 1502. In this manner, therefore, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be used to control one or more aspects and / or properties of the base fluid 1502.

[0206] In addition to influencing the viscosity and dispersion of the nanoparticles, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured in a manner to provide a physical property. For example, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured to increase an electric conductivity of the base fluid 1502. It is to be appreciated that, as disclosed herein, the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured in a variety of ways to add physical properties to the solution to which it is added.

[0207] The thermal conductivity diagram 1500C presents a graph showing the relationship between the amount of emulsifying agent in the nanofluid 1508 and the thermal conductivity 1510 of the nanofluid. The graph indicates an increasing trend, suggesting that as the amount of emulsifying agent 1508 increases, the thermal conductivity 1510 of the nanofluid also increases. This may be due to the high thermal conductivity of the functionalized carbon material used as the emulsifying agent 1508. By increasing the concentration of the functionalized carbon material in the nanofluid, the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid may be enhanced, potentially improving its heat transfer capabilities.

[0208] It is to be appreciated that other similar proportional graphs, similar to the thermal conductivity diagram 1500C may be shown, as it relates to other physical properties of the emulsifying agent 1506. As discussed hereinabove, the carbonaceous material of the emulsifying agent 1506 may be configured for thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, density, porosity, optical properties, hardness, thermal expansion, chemical stability, anisotropy, etc. Further, by adjusting the concentration of the emulsifying agent 1506 within the base fluid 1502, the properties of the resulting nanofluid can be tailored for specific applications, such as in heat transfer, lubrication, or drug delivery systems, where the physical properties ofthe emulsifying agent 1506 may, in turn, influence and add to physical properties of the nanofluid.

[0209] In various embodiments, it is recognized that nanofluids may contain suspended nanoparticles, designed to enhance properties such as thermal conductivity, heat transfer, and viscosity. Such inherent and configured properties of the nanoparticles may be further amplified by use of an emulsifying agent (based on a carbon material) configured with similar or other physical properties. Additionally, as is expected, the emulsifying agent may be used to prevent phase separation, especially when the nanoparticles and the base fluid are immiscible. In particular, it is acknowledged that due to the high surface energy of nanoparticles, nanoparticles tend to cluster together. Such an issue may be reduced by using an emulsifying agent which may form a protective layer around the particles, reducing their attraction to one another (thereby preventing clumping and ensuring long-term stability).

[0210] Additionally, in another embodiment, the emulsifying agent may be used to enhance nanoparticle dispersion. By lowering the surface tension between the nanoparticles and the base fluid, the emulsifying agent may enable a uniform distribution of the particles, which may assist with maintaining the improved thermal and rheological properties of the nanofluid. Further, as has been discussed, the emulsifying agent may be configured as well to contribute to such properties of the nanofluid. In one embodiment, the emulsifying agent may facilitate the dispersion of nanoparticles even in immiscible fluids.

[0211] It is recognized that the emulsifying agent may reduce the interfacial tension between nanoparticles and the base fluid, improving nanoparticle interaction and helping create a stable, homogeneous nanofluid. This reduction in tension may enhance the performance of the nanofluid, including suspending nanoparticles seamlessly with the fluid. Furthermore, the emulsifying agent may be used to optimize the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, and / or affect the fluid’s viscosity, etc.

[0212] In various embodiments, emulsifiers may be used to chemically modify the surface of nanoparticles as a result of functionalization. Such functionalization may improve the compatibility between the nanoparticles and the base fluid, and functional groups on the molecules of the emulsifying agent may interact with both the nanoparlicles and the fluid (which may promote better dispersion, stability, etc.).

[0213] In various embodiments, emulsifier-stabilized nanofluids may be used for drug delivery. For example, the emulsifier-stabilized nanofluid may be used to facilitate the controlled release of drug-loaded nanoparticles, enhanced penetration into tissues, improved cellular uptake, controlled release of a drug at a target site, reduce degradation, increase solubility, etc.Inother embodiments, a carbon based emulsifier may be used to assist with the digestion process of fat in animals and humans.

[0214] As such, the emulsifying agent may be used to stabilize nanoparticles, prevent agglomeration, ensure uniform dispersion, etc., as well as enhance and add to physical properties of nanofluids (such as by not limited to thermal, chemical, mechanical, electrical, flexibility, rheological, elasticity, etc.).

[0215] FIG. 16 illustrates a side view 1600 of a heavy oil system for processing heavy oil using an emulsifying agent, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the side view 1600 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the side view 1600 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0216] As shown, the side view 1600 shows a process for modifying the properties of heavy oil droplets using an emulsifying agent. At the bottom of the system, heavy oil droplets 1602 are shown, surrounded by an emulsifying agent 1604, which is introduced to interact with the heavy oil. In one embodiment, the emulsifying agent 1604 may be used to decrease the viscosity of the heavy oil droplets 1602. As the emulsifying agent 1604 disperses water or other fluids into the oil, it may form stable emulsions such as oil-in-water or water-in-oil.

[0217] In some aspects, the emulsifying agent 1604 may create water-in-oil emulsions within the processed heavy oil droplets 1606. This configuration may improve the combustion characteristics of the heavy oil by aiding in the breakdown of oil droplets during combustion, potentially leading to more efficient burning and reduced emissions in downstream processes.

[0218] The side view 1600 may also be part of an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) setup. In such cases, the emulsifying agent 1604 may play a key role in mobilizing heavy oil trapped in rock formations. The emulsified heavy oil droplets 1606 may represent oil that has been extracted more easily due to the stable dispersions created with injected water or steam.

[0219] In various embodiments, the heavy oil droplets 1602 and 1606 may be dispersed within water and treated with the emulsifying agent 1604 to decrease viscosity.

[0220] In some cases, the emulsifying agent 1604 may be dispersed within the heavy oil droplets 1602, forming a protective barrier around the droplets and preventing them from coalescing or aggregating. In one embodiment, this emulsion may result in a stable dispersion where the heavy oil droplets 1602 remain dispersed within the emulsion.

[0221] The upper portion of the system shows the processed heavy oil droplets 1606, which are surrounded on the piping by an emulsifying coating 1608. In various embodiments, the heavy oil droplets 1606 may likewise be surrounded by an emulsifying agent. Theemulsifying coating 1608 may be applied on the inside of pipelines or in process equipment and be used to stabilize the emulsion (between the heavy oil droplets and another liquid, such as water), preventing the oil from separating and maintaining a lower overall viscosity for smoother flow.

[0222] In various embodiments, the emulsifying coating 1608 coating may prevent phase separation and maintain the properties of the emulsion over time as it moves through the industrial architecture. In some cases, it is to be appreciated that the side view 1600 may be designed to allow for adjustments in the amount of emulsifying agent 1604 used. This flexibility may enable operators to fine-tune the properties of the resulting emulsion based on specific transportation or processing requirements.

[0223] FIG. 17 illustrates a separated mixture 1700 resulting from a liquid-liquid extraction process, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the separated mixture 1700 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the separated mixture 1700 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0224] As shown, a separated mixture 1700 resulting from a liquid-liquid extraction process is illustrated. The separated mixture 1700 is contained within a transparent vessel, allowing visualization of the distinct phases. The separated mixture 1700 comprises two clearly defined layers: a hexane phase 1702 and a water phase 1704.

[0225] In various aspects, the carbon particles in the water phase 1704 may be stabilized by an emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent may be a functionalized carbon material, such as a carbon material that has been subjected to a specific ozonation process. The emulsifying agent may form a protective barrier around the carbon particles, preventing them from coalescing or aggregating. This results in a stable dispersion where the carbon particles remain dispersed within the water phase 1704.

[0226] In some aspects, the hexane phase 1702 may be a hydrophobic liquid, such as a hydrocarbon or an oil-based monomer. The water phase 1704, on the other hand, may be a hydrophilic liquid, such as water or an aqueous solution. The hexane phase 1702 and the water phase 1704 may be immiscible (i.e. the two phases do not mix or combine to form a single phase). Instead, they form a heterogeneous mixture where the hexane phase 1702 is separated from the water phase 1704. In particular, the separated mixture 1700 shows the result if the emulsifying agent (as disclosed herein) is not applied to the mixture. A solution with the emulsifying agent is disclosed in FIG. 18, discussed in more detail hereinbelow.

[0227] FIG. 18 illustrates a photographic view 1800 of an emulsified mixture, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the photographic view 1800 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the photographic view 1800 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0228] As shown, a photographic view 1800 of an emulsified mixture 1802 is illustrated. The image shows a close-up view of the emulsified mixture 1802 contained within a container. The emulsified mixture 1802 exhibits a uniform, textured appearance. The texture and appearance of the emulsified mixture 1802 indicate the formation of an emulsion, where two or more immiscible liquids have been combined with the aid of an emulsifying agent.

[0229] In comparing FIG. 17 to FIG. 18, the photographic view 1800 shows the result of adding the emulsifying agent, resulting in the homogenous emulsified mixture 1802.

[0230] In various embodiments, the emulsified mixture 1802 may be created using a functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent. In one embodiment, the functionalized carbon material may effectively reduce the surface tension between two immiscible liquids (such as oil and water). As such, the functionalized carbon material may enable the formation of tiny droplets of one liquid evenly distributed throughout the other, resulting in a smooth, consistent appearance without visible separation of phases.

[0231] In various embodiments, the stability of the homogeneous emulsified solution may be enhanced by adjusting the concentration of the functionalized carbon material. By carefully controlling the amount of emulsifying agent, the droplet size in the emulsion may be tailored to fall within the nanometer to micrometer range. This fine control over droplet size may contribute to the overall uniformity and stability of the solution, preventing coalescence or separation of the dispersed phase over extended periods. In particular, the emulsifying agent as applied to the emulsified mixture 1802 may increase the stability of the emulsified mixture 1802 such that it remains in a single-phase state without degrading down back into two phases.

[0232] In various embodiments, the homogeneous emulsified solution may exhibit consistent texture and viscosity throughout the emulsified mixture 1802. The functionalized carbon material may interact with both the dispersed and continuous phases, creating a network that maintains the uniform distribution of components. This network may contribute to the solution's flow behavior.

[0233] In various embodiments, the optical clarity of the emulsified mixture 1802 may be controlled by adjusting the properties of the functionalized carbon material. The ozonation process used to functionalize the Lyten carbon may be modified to alter the surface chemistry ofthe material, potentially affecting its light-scattering properties. This may allow for the creation of emulsions with varying degrees of transparency or opacity, depending on the specific application requirements. It is to be appreciated that any physical property (such as ophcal clarity just discussed) of the emulsifying agent may likewise be modified and / or altered to enhance a physical property of the emulsified mixture 1802.

[0234] In various embodiments, the emulsifying agent may be functionalized with specific chemical groups to enhance its emulsifying properties. For example, the carbon material may be functionalized with hydrophilic groups to improve its compatibility with the second liquid phase, or with hydrophobic groups to enhance its interaction with the first liquid phase. This functionalization can be achieved through various methods, such as ozonation, acid treatment, or chemical grafting, and can be tailored to suit specific applications or requirements.

[0235] In various embodiments, the functionalized carbonaceous material as an emulsifying agent may be utilized in emulsion polymerization processes. In one embodiment, the functionalized carbonaceous material may act as the surfactant, stabilizing the emulsion and facilitating the polymerization process.

[0236] In one embodiment, it has been found that an emulsifying agent made of a carbonaceous material is more effective as a surfactant compared to conventional surfactants in terms of emulsion stability, droplet size control, configuration of physical properties of the resulting emulsion, etc.

[0237] In various embodiments, the emulsifying agent may be configured to affect a solution based on a time-release. For example, the time -release aspects of an emulsifying agent may relate to its capacity to control the gradual release of active ingredients within a mixture over an extended period. By forming a protective barrier around droplets of active ingredients, the emulsifying agent may prevent premature interaction with the external environment, ensuring a sustained release. Additionally, in one embodiment, the emulsifying agent may regulate the release kinetics, allowing the active compounds to be released at a controlled rate, optimizing their function over time. As such, the emulsifying agent may be configured for a time-release capacity.

[0238] In various embodiments, the ratio of oil to water in the emulsion could be varied to create different types of emulsions, from oil-in-water to water-in-oil, and even multiple emulsions. The concentration of the functionalized carbon emulsifying agent may also be adjusted to control droplet size and emulsion stability as discussed hereinabove. Additionally, the type of oil phase could be varied, including different hydrocarbons, silicone oils, biodegradable oils, etc. for specific applications. Further, for emulsion polymerization applications, various methods could be used, including heat initiation, microwave initiation,redox initiators, ultrasound, etc. Each of these different initiation methods may allow for greater control over the polymerization process or enable polymerization under milder conditions.

[0239] In some cases, the functionalized carbonaceous material may be dispersed in a first liquid phase containing the monomer. This dispersion may be achieved through various methods, such as stirring, shaking, or sonication. The first liquid phase containing the dispersed functionalized carbonaceous material is then mixed with a second liquid phase that is immiscible with the first. The functionalized carbonaceous material acts as an emulsifying agent, stabilizing the resulting emulsion.

[0240] The polymerization of the monomer in the emulsion may be initiated by various methods. In some aspects, heat or microwave energy may be used to initiate the polymerization process. The heat or microwave energy provides the necessary activation energy for the monomer molecules to react and form polymer chains. The functionalized carbonaceous material, being present in the emulsion, may also participate in the polymerization process, potentially imparting beneficial properties to the resulting polymer.

[0241] In some cases, the functionalized carbonaceous material may contribute to the electrical, chemical, mechanical, etc. properties of the resulting solution / material / polymer. For instance, the functionalized carbonaceous material may enhance the electrical conductivity of the material, making it suitable for applications in electronics or energy storage. The functionalized carbonaceous material may also enhance the mechanical strength and toughness of the material, potentially improving its durability and resistance to deformation.

[0242] In other aspects, the concentration of the functionalized carbonaceous material in the emulsion may be adjusted to control the size of the dispersed phase droplets. Higher concentrations of the functionalized carbonaceous material may result in smaller droplet sizes, while lower concentrations may lead to larger droplet sizes.

[0243] In various embodiments, and with respect to a context of battery configuration, various regions of the cathode composed of carbonaceous material may include microporous channels, mesoporous channels, and macroporous channels interconnected to each other to form a porous network extending from the outer shell region to the core region. For example, in some aspects, the porous network may include pores that each have a principal dimension of approximately 1.5 nm.

[0244] In some implementations, one or more portions of the porous network may temporarily micro-confine electroactive materials such as (but not limited to) elemental sulfur within the cathode, which may increase battery specific capacity by complexing with lithium ions. In some aspects, the ternary solvent package may have a tunable polarity, a tunablesolubility, and be capable of transporting lithium ions. In addition, the ternary solvent package may at least temporarily suspend polysulfides (PS) during charge-discharge cycles of the battery.

[0245] In one implementation, carbonaceous materials may be grafted with fluorinated polymer chains and deposited on one or more exposed surfaces of the anode. The fluorinated polymer chains can be cross-linked into a polymeric network on contact with Lithium metal from the anode surface via the Wurtz reaction. The cross-linked polymeric network formation may, in turn, suppress Lithium metal dendrite formation associated with the anode, and may also generate Lithium fluoride. Fluorinated polymers within the polymeric network may participate in chemical reactions during battery operational cycling to yield Lithium fluoride. Formation of the lithium fluoride may involve the chemical binding of lithium ions from the electrolyte with fluorine ions.

[0246] In addition, or the alternative, the polymeric network may be combined with any of the electrolyte chemistries and / or compositions disclosed herein and / or a protective sheath disposed on the cathode. In one implementation, the protective sheath can be formed by combining compounds containing di-functional, or higher functionality Epoxy and Amine or Amide compounds. Their intermolecular cross-linking would result in formation of 3D network with high chemical resistance to dissolution in electrolyte. Composition, for example, may include a tri-functional epoxy compound and a di-amine oligomer-based compound, which may react with each other to produce a protective lattice that can bind to polysulfides generated in the cathode and prevent their migration or diffusion into the electrolyte. In addition, the protective lattice may diffuse through one or more cracks that may form in the cathode due to battery cycling. The protective lattice, when diffused throughout such cracks formed in the cathode, may increase the structural integrity of the cathode and reduce potential rupture of the cathode associated with volumetric expansion.

[0247] In various implementations, the cathode may include aggregates including a multitude of carbonaceous particles joined together, and may include agglomerates including a multitude of the aggregates joined together. In one implementation, the carbonaceous materials used to form the cathode (and / or the anode) may be tuned to define unique pore sizes, size ranges, and volumes. In like manner, the carbonaceous material used to form the emulsifying agent may be tuned to define unique pore sizes, size ranges, and volumes. In some implementations, the carbonaceous particles may include non-tri-zone particles with and without tri-zone particles. In other implementations, the carbonaceous particles may not include tri-zone particles. Each tri-zone particle may include micropores, mesopores, and macropores, and both the non-tri-zone and tri-zone particles may each have a principal dimension in an approximate range of 20 nm to 300 nm. Each of the carbonaceous particles may include carbonaceousfragments nested within each other and separated from immediate adjacent carbonaceous fragments by mesopores. In some aspects, each of the carbonaceous particles may have a deformable perimeter that changes in shape and coalesces with adjacent materials.

[0248] Some of the pores may be distributed throughout the plurality of carbonaceous fragments and / or the deformable perimeters of the carbonaceous particles. In various implementations, mesopores may be interspersed throughout the aggregates, and macropores may be interspersed throughout the plurality of agglomerates. In one implementation, each mesopore may have a principal dimension between 3.3 nanometers (nm) and 19.3 nm, each aggregate may have a principal dimension in an approximate range between 10 nm and 10 micrometers (pm), and each agglomerate may have a principal dimension in an approximate range between 0.1 pm and 1,000 pm. As further described below, specific combinations of pore sizes matched with unique electrolyte formulations and protective layers can be used to reduce or mitigate the harmful effects of unwanted polysulfide diffusion, which may further increase battery performance.

[0249] In some implementations, the carbonaceous materials may include (but not limited to) flaky graphene, few layer graphene (FLG), carbon nano onions (CNOs), graphene nanoplatelets, or carbon nanotubes (CNTs).

[0250] In various embodiments, a layer of carbonaceous materials may be grafted with fluorinated polymer chains and deposited over one or more exposed surfaces of an electrode and / or another material. The grafting may be based on (e.g., initiated by) activation of carbonaceous material with one or more radical initiators, for example, benzoyl peroxide (BPO) or azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), followed by reaction with monomer molecules. The polymeric network may be based on the fluorinated polymer chains cross-linked with one another and carbonaceous materials of the layer such that the layer is consumed during generation of the polymeric network.

[0251] In some implementations, the pores in carbonaceous structures may have a width or dimension between approximately 0.0 nm and 0.5 nm, between approximately 0.0 and 0.1 nm, between approximately 0.0 and 6.0 nm, or between approximately 0.0 and 35 nm. Each carbonaceous structures 956 may also have a second concern ration at or near the core region that is different than the first concentration.

[0252] In various embodiments, carbonaceous materials may include or otherwise be formed from one or more instances of graphene, which may include a single layer of carbon atoms with each atom bound to three neighbors in a honeycomb structure. The single layer may be a discrete material restricted in one dimension, such as within or at a surface of a condensed phase. For example, graphene may grow outwardly only in the x and y planes (and not in the zplane). In this way, graphene may be a two-dimensional (2D) material, including one or several layers with the atoms in each layer strongly bonded (such as by a plurality of carbon-carbon bonds) to neighboring atoms in the same layer.

[0253] FIG. 19A through FIG. 19Y depict structured carbons, various carbon nanoparticles, various carbon-containing aggregates, and various three-dimensional carbon- containing structures that are grown over other materials, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0254] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates are characterized by a high “uniformity” (i.e., high mass fraction of desired carbon allotropes), a high degree of “order” (i.e., low concentration of defects), and / or a high degree of “purity” (i.e., low concentration of elemental impurities), in contrast to the lower uniformity, less ordered, and lower purity particles achievable with conventional systems and methods.

[0255] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles produced using the methods described herein contain multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs and have a high uniformity (e.g., a ralio of graphene to MWSF from 20% to 80%), a high degree of order (e.g., a Raman signature with an ID / IG ralio from 0.95 to 1.05), and a high degree of purity (e.g., the ralio of carbon to other elements (other than hydrogen) is greater than 99.9%). In some embodiments, the nanoparticles produced using the methods described herein contain MWSFs or connected MWSFs, and the MWSFs do not contain a core composed of impurity elements other than carbon. In some cases, the particles produced using the methods described herein are aggregates containing the nanoparticles described above with large diameters (e.g., greater than 10 pm across).

[0256] Conventional methods have been used to produce particles containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes with a high degree of order, but the conventional methods lead to carbon products with a variety of shortcomings. For example, high temperature synthesis techniques lead to particles with a mixture of many carbon allotropes and therefore low uniformity (e.g., less than 20% fullerenes to other carbon allotropes) and / or small particle sizes (e.g., less than 1pm, or less than 100 nm in some cases). Methods using catalysts lead to products including the catalyst elements and therefore have low purity (e.g., less than 95% carbon to other elements) as well. These undesirable properties also often lead to undesirable electrical properties of the resulting carbon particles (e.g., electrical conductivity of less than 1000 S / m).

[0257] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are characterized by Raman spectroscopy that is indicative of the high degree of order and uniformity of structure. In some embodiments, the uniform, ordered and / or pure carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using relatively high speed, low costimproved thermal reactors and methods, as described below. Addilional advantages and / or improvements will also become apparent from the following disclosure.

[0258] In the present disclosure, the term “graphene” refers to an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale, hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. The carbon atoms in graphene are sp2-bonded. Additionally, graphene has a Raman spectrum with two main peaks: a G-mode at approximately 1580 cm'1and a D-mode at approximately 1350 cm1(when using a 532 nm excitation laser).

[0259] In the present disclosure, the term “fullerene” refers to a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or other shapes. Spherical fullerenes can also be referred to as Buckminsterfullerenes, or buckyballs. Cylindrical fullerenes can also be referred to as carbon nanotubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings. Fullerenes may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

[0260] In the present disclosure, the term “multi-walled fullerene” refers to fullerenes with multiple concentric layers. For example, multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) contain multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphene. Multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) contain multiple concentric spheres of fullerenes.

[0261] In the present disclosure, the term “nanoparticle” refers to a particle that measures from 1 nm to 989 nm. The nanoparticle can include one or more structural characteristics (e.g., crystal structure, defect concentration, etc.), and one or more types of atoms. The nanoparticle can be any shape, including but not limited to spherical shapes, spheroidal shapes, dumbbell shapes, cylindrical shapes, elongated cylindrical type shapes, rectangular prism shapes, disk shapes, wire shapes, irregular shapes, dense shapes (i.e., with few voids), porous shapes (i.e., with many voids), etc.

[0262] In the present disclosure, the term “aggregate” refers to a plurality of nanoparticles that are connected together by electrostatic forces (e.g., Van der Waals forces, London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, etc.) by covalent bonds, by ionic bonds, by metallic bonds, or by other physical or chemical interactions. Aggregates can vary in size considerably, but in general are larger than about 500 nm.

[0263] In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle, as described herein, includes two or more connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle, as described herein, includes two or more connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs where the MWSFs do not contain a core composed of impurity elements other than carbon. In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle, as described herein,includes two or more connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs where the MWSFs do not contain a void (i.e., a space with no carbon atoms greater than approximately 0.5 nm, or greater than approximately 1 nm) at the center. In some embodiments, the connected MWSFs are formed of concentric, well-ordered spheres of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, as contrasted with spheres of poorly-ordered, non- uniform, amorphous carbon particles.

[0264] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles containing the connected MWSFs have an average diameter in a range from 5 to 500 nm, or from 5 to 250 nm, or from 5 to 100 nm, or from 5 to 50 nm, or from 10 to 500 nm, or from 10 to 250 nm, or from 10 to 100 nm, or from 10 to 50 nm, or from 40 to 500 nm, or from 40 to 250 nm, or from 40 to 100 nm, or from 50 to 500 nm, or from 50 to 250 nm, or from 50 to 100 nm. Of course, nanoparticles containing connected MWSFs may have an average diameter characterized by having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or an average diameter characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0265] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles described herein form aggregates, wherein many nanoparticles aggregate together to form a larger unit. In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate includes a plurality of carbon nanoparticles. A diameter across the carbon aggregate is in a range from 10 to 500 pm, or from 50 to 500 pm, or from 100 to 500 pm, or from 250 to 500 pm, or from 10 to 250 pm, or from 10 to 100 pm, or from 10 to 50 pm. Of course, carbon aggregates may have an average diameter characterized by having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or an average diameter characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0266] In some embodiments, the aggregate is formed from a plurality of carbon nanoparticles, as defined above. In some embodiments, aggregates contain connected MWSFs. In some embodiments, the aggregates contain connected MWSFs with a high uniformity metric (e.g., a ratio of graphene to MWSF from 20% to 80%), a high degree of order (e.g., a Raman signature with an ID / IG ratio from 0.95 to 1.05), and a high degree of purity (e.g., greater than 99.9% carbon).

[0267] One benefit of producing aggregates of carbon nanoparticles, particularly with diameters in the ranges described above, is that aggregates of particles greater than 10 pm are easier to collect than particles or aggregates of particles that are smaller than 500 nm. The ease of collection reduces the cost of manufacturing equipment used in the production of the carbonnanoparticles and increases the yield of the carbon nanoparticles. Additionally, particles greater than 10 pm in size pose fewer safety concerns compared to the risks of handling smaller nanoparticles, e.g., potential health and safety risks due to inhalation of the smaller nanoparticles. The lower health and safety risks, thus, further reduce the manufacturing cost.

[0268] In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle has a ratio of graphene to MWSFs from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate has a ratio of graphene to MWSFs is from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. Of course, carbon nanoparticles may have a graphene -to- MWSF ratio characterized by having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or an average graphene-to-MWSF ratio characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0269] In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle has a ratio of graphene to connected MWSFs from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate has a ratio of graphene to connected MWSFs is from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. Of course, carbon nanoparticles may have a graphene-to-connected MWSF ratio characterized by having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or an average graphene-to-connected MWSF ratio characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0270] In some embodiments, Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize carbon allotropes to distinguish their molecular structures. For example, graphene can be characterized using Raman spectroscopy to determine information such as order / disorder, edge and grain boundaries, thickness, number of layers, doping, strain, and thermal conductivity. MWSFs have also been characterized using Raman spectroscopy to determine the degree of order of the MWSFs.

[0271] In some embodiments, Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize the structure of MWSFs or connected MWSFs. The main peaks in the Raman spectra are the G-mode and theD-mode. The G-mode is atributed to the vibration of carbon atoms in sp2-hybridized carbon networks, and the D-mode is related to the breathing of hexagonal carbon rings with defects. In some cases, defects may be present, yet may not be detectable in the Raman spectra. For example, if the presented crystalline structure is orthogonal with respect to the basal plane, the D-peak will show an increase. On the other hand, if presented with a perfectly planar surface that is parallel with respect to the basal plane, the D-peak will be zero.

[0272] When using 532 nm incident light, the Raman G-mode is typically at 1582 cm1for planar graphite, however can be downshifted for MWSFs or connected MWSFs (e.g., down to 1565cm1or down tol580 cin ' j. The D-mode is observed at approximately 1350 cm1in the Raman spectra of MWSFs or connected MWSFs. The ratio of the intensities of the D-mode peak to G-mode peak (i.e., the ID / IG) is related to the degree of order of the MWSFs, where a lower ID / IG indicates a higher degree of order. An ID / IG near or below 1 indicates a relatively high degree of order, and an ID / IG greater than 1.1 indicates a lower degree of order.

[0273] In some embodiments, a carbon nanoparticle or a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as described herein, has a Raman spectrum with a first Raman peak at about 1350 cm'1and a second Raman peak at about 1580 cm'1when using 532 nm incident light. In some embodiments, the ratio of an intensity of the first Raman peak to an intensity of the second Raman peak (i.e., the ID / IG) for the nanoparticles or the aggregates described herein is in a range from 0.95 to 1.05, or from 0.9 to 1.1, or from 0.8 to 1.2, or from 0.9 to 1.2, or from 0.8 to 1.1, or from 0.5 to 1.5, or less than 1.5, or less than 1.2, or less than 1.1, or less than 1, or less than 0.95, or less than 0.9, or less than 0.8. Of course, carbon nanoparticles or aggregates including MWSFs or connected MWSFs may be characterized by a ratio of first and second Raman peak intensities having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or a ratio of first and second Raman peak intensities characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0274] In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high purity. In some embodiments, the carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs has a ratio of carbon to metals of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.8%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%. In some embodiments, the carbon aggregate has a ratio of carbon to other elements of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%, or greater than 90%, or greater than 80%, or greater than 70%, or greater than 60%. In some embodiments, the carbon aggregate has a ratio of carbon to otherelements (except for hydrogen) of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.8%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%, or greater than 90%, or greater than 80%, or greater than 70%, or greater than 60%. Of course, carbon aggregates including MWSFs or connected MWSFs may be characterized by a ratio of carbon to metal having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or a ratio of carbon to metal having value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0275] In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high specific surface area. In some embodiments, the carbon aggregate has a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area from 10 to 200 m2 / g, or from 10 to 100 m2 / g, or from 10 to 50 m2 / g, or from 50 to 200 m2 / g, or from 50 to 100 m2 / g, or from 10 to 1000 m2 / g. Of course, carbon aggregates including MWSFs or connected MWSFs may be characterized by a BET specific surface area having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or a BET specific surface area characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0276] In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high electrical conductivity. In some embodiments, a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, is compressed into a pellet and the pellet has an electrical conductivity greater than 500 S / m, or greater than 1000 S / m, or greater than 2000 S / m, or greater than 3000 S / m, or greater than 4000 S / m, or greater than 5000 S / m, or greater than 10000 S / m, or greater than 20000 S / m, or greater than 30000 S / m, or greater than 40000 S / m, or greater than 50000 S / m, or greater than 60000 S / m, or greater than 70000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 100000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 1000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 10000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 20000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 100000 S / m, or from 1000 S / m to 10000 S / m, or from 1000 S / m to 20000 S / m, or from 10000 to 100000 S / m, or from 10000 S / m to 80000 S / m, or from 500 S / m to 10000 S / m. Of course, carbon aggregates including MWSFs or connected MWSFs may be characterized by an electrical conductivity having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or an electrical conductivity characterized by having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0277] In some cases, the density of the pellet is approximately 1 g / cm3, or approximately 1.2 g / cm3, or approximately 1.5 g / cm3, or approximately 2 g / cm3, or approximately 2.2 g / cm3, orapproximately 2.5 g / cm3, or approximately 3 g / cm3. Of course, pellets may be characterized by a density having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or a density having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0278] Additionally, tests have been performed in which compressed pellets of the carbon aggregate materials have been formed with compressions of 2000 psi and 12000 psi and with annealing temperatures of 800°C and 1000°C. The higher compression and / or the higher annealing temperatures generally result in pellets with a higher degree of electrical conduct! vity, including in the range of 12410.0 S / m to 13173.3 S / m.HIGH PURITY CARBON ALLOTROPES PRODUCED USING THERMAL PROCESSING SYSTEMS

[0279] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using thermal reactors and methods, such as any appropriate thermal reactor and / or method. Further details pertaining to thermal reactors and / or methods of use can be found in U.S. Patent No. 9,862,602, issued January 9, 2018, titled “CRACKING OF A PROCESS GAS”, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Additionally, precursors (e.g., including methane, ethane, propane, butane, and natural gas) can be used with the thermal reactors to produce the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein.

[0280] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using the thermal reactors with gas flow rates from 1 slm to 10 slm, or from 0.1 slm to 20 slm, or from 1 slm to 5 slm, or from 5 slm to 10 slm, or greater than 1 slm, or greater than 5 slm. In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using the thermal reactors with gas resonance times from 0.1 seconds to 30 seconds, or from 0.1 seconds to 10 seconds, or from 1 seconds to 10 seconds, or from 1 seconds to 5 seconds, from 5 seconds to 10 seconds, or greater than 0.1 seconds, or greater than 1 seconds, or greater than 5 seconds, or less than 30 seconds. Of course, carbon nanoparticles and aggregates may be produced using thermal reactors with gas flow rates having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or gas flow rates having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0281] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using the thermal reactors with production rates from 10 g / hr to 200 g / hr, or from 30 g / hr to 200 g / hr, or from 30 g / hr to 100 g / hr, or from 30 g / hr to 60 g / hr, or from 10 g / hr to 100 g / hr, or greater than 10 g / hr, or greater than 30 g / hr, or greater than 100 g / hr. Of course, carbonnanoparticles and aggregates may be produced using thermal reactors with production rates having any of the foregoing values or being within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or production rates having a value or being within a range between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0282] In some embodiments, thermal reactors or other cracking apparatuses and thermal reactor methods or other cracking methods can be used for refining, pyrolizing, dissociating or cracking feedstock process gases into its constituents to produce the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein, as well as other solid and / or gaseous products (e.g., hydrogen gas and / or lower order hydrocarbon gases). The feedstock process gases generally include, for example, hydrogen gas (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), Ci to C10 hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and / or other hydrocarbon gases such as natural gas, methane, ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, saturated / unsaturated hydrocarbon gases, ethene, propene, etc., and mixtures thereof. The carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates can include, for example, multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs), connected MWSFs, carbon nanospheres, graphene, graphite, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite, single-walled nanotubes, mulli-wallcd nanotubes, other solid carbon products, and / or the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein.

[0283] Some embodiments for producing the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein include thermal cracking methods that use, for example, an elongated longitudinal heating element optionally enclosed within an elongated casing, housing or body of a thermal cracking apparatus. The body generally includes, for example, one or more tubes or other appropriate enclosures made of stainless steel, titanium, graphite, quartz, or the like. In some embodiments, the body of the thermal cracking apparatus is generally cylindrical in shape with a central elongate longitudinal axis arranged vertically and a feedstock process gas inlet at or near a top of the body. The feedstock process gas flows longitudinally down through the body or a portion thereof. In the vertical configuration, both gas flow and gravity assist in the removal of the solid products from the body of the thermal cracking apparatus.

[0284] The heating element generally includes, for example, a heating lamp, one or more resistive wires or filaments (or twisted wires), metal filaments, metallic strips or rods, and / or other appropriate thermal radical generators or elements that can be heated to a specific temperature (i.e., a molecular cracking temperature) sufficient to thermally crack molecules of the feedstock process gas. The heating element is generally disposed, located or arranged to extend centrally within the body of the thermal cracking apparatus along the central longitudinal axis thereof. For example, if there is only one healing element, then it is placed at or concentricwith the central longitudinal axis, and if there is a plurality of the heating elements, then they are spaced or offset generally symmetrically or concentrically at localions near and around and parallel to the central longitudinal axis.

[0285] Thermal cracking to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein is generally achieved by passing the feedstock process gas over, or in contact with, or within the vicinity of, the heating element within a longitudinal elongated reaction zone generated by heat from the heating element and defined by and contained inside the body of the thermal cracking apparatus to heat the feedstock process gas to or at a specific molecular cracking temperature.

[0286] The reaction zone is considered to be the region surrounding the heating element and close enough to the heating element for the feedstock process gas to receive sufficient heat to thermally crack the molecules thereof. The reaction zone is thus generally axially aligned or concentric with the central longitudinal axis of the body. In some embodiments, the thermal cracking is performed under a specific pressure. In some embodiments, the feedstock process gas is circulated around or across the outside surface of a container of the reaction zone or a heating chamber in order to cool the container or chamber and preheat the feedstock process gas before flowing the feedstock process gas into the reaction zone.

[0287] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein and / or hydrogen gas are produced without the use of catalysts. In other words, the process is catalyst free.

[0288] Some embodiments to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein using thermal cracking apparatuses and methods to provide a standalone system that can advantageously be rapidly scaled up or scaled down for different production levels as desired. For example, some embodiments are scalable to provide a standalone hydrogen and / or carbon nanoparticle producing station, a hydrocarbon source, or a fuel cell station. Some embodiments can be scaled up to provide higher capacity systems, e.g., for a refinery or the like.

[0289] In some embodiments, a thermal cracking apparatus for cracking a feedstock process gas to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein include a body, a feedstock process gas inlet, and an elongated heating element. The body has an inner volume with a longitudinal axis. The inner volume has a reaction zone concentric with the longitudinal axis. A feedstock process gas is flowed into the inner volume through the feedstock process gas inlet during thermal cracking operations. The elongated heating element is disposed within the inner volume along the longitudinal axis and is surrounded by the reaction zone. During the thermal cracking operations, the elongated heating element is heated by electrical power to a molecular cracking temperature to generate the reaction zone, the feedstock process gas is heatedby heat from the elongated heating element, and the heat thermally cracks molecules of the feedstock process gas that are within the reaction zone into constituents of the molecules.

[0290] In some embodiments, a method for cracking a feedstock process gas to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein includes: (1) providing a thermal cracking apparatus having an inner volume that has a longitudinal axis and an elongated heating element disposed within the inner volume along the longitudinal axis; (2) heating the elongated heating element by electrical power to a molecular cracking temperature to generate a longitudinal elongated reaction zone within the inner volume; (3) flowing a feedstock process gas into the inner volume and through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone (e.g., wherein the feedstock process gas is heated by heat from the elongated heating element); and (4) thermally cracking molecules of the feedstock process gas within the longitudinal elongated reaction zone into constituents thereof (e.g., hydrogen gas and one or more solid products) as the feedstock process gas flows through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone.

[0291] In some embodiments, the feedstock process gas to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein includes a hydrocarbon gas. The results of cracking include hydrogen (e.g., H2) and various forms of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein. In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates include two or more MWSFs and layers of graphene coating the MWSFs, and / or connected MWSFs and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. In some embodiments, the feedstock process gas is preheated (e.g., to 100°C to 500°C) by flowing the feedstock process gas through a gas preheating region between a heating chamber and a shell of the thermal cracking apparatus before flowing the feedstock process gas into the inner volume. In some embodiments, a gas having nanoparticles therein is flowed into the inner volume and through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone to mix with the feedstock process gas, and a coating of a solid product (e.g., layers of graphene) is formed around the nanoparticles.POST-PROCESSING HIGH PURITY STRUCTURED CARBONS

[0292] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing multiwalled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs described herein are produced and collected, and no post-processing is done. In other embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs described herein are produced and collected, and some post-processing is done. Some examples of post-processing involved in the present disclosure include mechanical processing such as ball milling, grinding, attrition milling, micro fluidizing, and other techniques to reduce the particle size without damaging the MWSFs. Some further examples of post-processing include exfoliation processes such as sheer mixing, chemical etching, oxidizing (e.g., Hummer method),thermal annealing, doping by adding elements during annealing (e.g., sulfur, nitrogen), steaming, filtering, and lyophilizing, among others. Some examples of post-processing include sintering processes such as spark plasma sintering (SPS), direct current sintering, microwave sintering, and ultraviolet (UV) sintering, which can be conducted at high pressure and temperature in an inert gas. In some embodiments, multiple post-processing methods can be used together or in a series. In some embodiments, the post-processing produces functionalized carbon nanoparticles or aggregates containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs.

[0293] In some embodiments, the materials are mixed together in different combinations. In some embodiments, different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein are mixed together before post-processing. For example, different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs with different properties (e.g., different sizes, different compositions, different purities, from different processing runs, etc.) can be mixed together. In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein can be mixed with graphene to change the ratio of the connected MWSFs to graphene in the mixture. In some embodiments, different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein can be mixed together after post-processing. For example, different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs with different properties and / or different post-processing methods (e.g., different sizes, different compositions, different functionality, different surface properties, different surface areas) can be mixed together.

[0294] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently processed by mechanical grinding, milling, and / or exfoliating. In some embodiments, the processing (e.g., by mechanical grinding, milling, exfoliating, etc.) reduces the average size of the particles. In some embodiments, the processing (e.g., by mechanical grinding, milling, exfoliating, etc.) increases the average surface area of the particles. In some embodiments, the processing by mechanical grinding, milling and / or exfoliation shears off some fraction of the carbon layers, producing sheets of graphite mixed with the carbon nanoparticles.

[0295] In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill, a planetary mill, a rod mill, a shear mixer, a high-shear granulator, an autogenous mill, or other types of machining used to break solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing or cutting. In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding, milling and / or exfoliating is performed wet or dry. In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding is performed by grinding for some period of time, then idling for some period of time, and repeating the grinding andidling for a number of cycles. In some embodiments, the grinding period is from 1 minute to 20 minutes, or from 1 minute to 10 minutes, or from 3 minutes to 8 minutes, or approximately 3 minutes, or approximately 8 minutes. In some embodiments, the idling period is from 1 minute to 10 minutes, or approximately 5 minutes, or approximately 6 minutes. In some embodiments, the number of grinding and idling cycles is from 1 minute to 100 minutes, or from 5 minutes to 100 minutes, or from 10 minutes to 100 minutes, or from 5 minutes to 10 minutes, or from 5 minutes to 20 minutes. In some embodiments, the total amount of time of grinding and idling is from 10 minutes to 1200 minutes, or from 10 minutes to 600 minutes, or from 10 minutes to 240 minutes, or from 10 minutes to 120 minutes, or from 100 minutes to 90 minutes, or from 10 minutes to 60 minutes, or approximately 90 minutes, or approximately 120 minutes. Of course, grinding, milling, or idling times within the scope of the presently disclosed inventive embodiments may have any of the foregoing values or be within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0296] In some embodiments, the grinding steps in the cycle are performed by rotating a mill in one direction for a first cycle (e.g., clockwise), and then rotating a mill in the opposite direction (e.g., counterclockwise) for the next cycle. In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill, and the grinding steps are performed using a rotation speed from 100 to 1000 rpm, or from 100 to 500 rpm, or approximately 400 rpm, or any value or range of values therebetween. In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill that uses a milling media with a diameter from 0.1 mm to 20 mm, or from 0.1 mm to 10 mm, or from 1 mm to 10 mm, or approximately 0.1 mm, or approximately 1 mm, or approximately 10 mm, or any value or range of values therebetween. In some embodiments, the mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill that uses a milling media composed of metal such as steel, an oxide such as zirconium oxide (zirconia), yttria stabilized zirconium oxide, silica, alumina, magnesium oxide, or other hard materials such as silicon carbide or tungsten carbide.

[0297] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently processed using elevated temperatures such as thermal annealing or sintering. In some embodiments, the processing using elevated temperatures is done in an inert environment such as nitrogen or argon. In some embodiments, the processing using elevated temperatures is done at atmospheric pressure, or under vacuum, or at low pressure. In some embodiments, the processing using elevated temperatures is done at a temperature from 500°C to 2500°C, or from 500°C to 1500°C, or from 800°C to 1500°C, or from 800°C to 1200°C, or from 800°C to 1000°C, or from 2000°C to 2400°C, or approximately 800°C, orapproximately 1000°C, or approximately 1500°C, or approximately 2000°C, or approximately 2400°C. Of course, processing using elevated temperatures may be performed at any of the foregoing temperatures, or at a temperature within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or between any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.

[0298] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently, in post processing steps, additional elements or compounds are added to the carbon nanoparticles, thereby incorporating the unique properties of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates into other mixtures of materials.

[0299] In some embodiments, either before or after post-processing, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are added to solids, liquids or slurries of other elements or compounds to form addilional mixtures of materials incorporating the unique properties of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates. In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are mixed with other solid particles, polymers or other materials.

[0300] In some embodiments, either before or after post-processing, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are used in various applications beyond applications pertaining to the present disclosure. Such applications including but not limited to transportation applications (e.g., automobile and truck tires, couplings, mounts, elastomeric o-rings, hoses, sealants, grommets, etc.) and industrial applications (e.g., rubber additives, functionalized additives for polymeric materials, addilives for epoxies, etc.).

[0301] FIG. 19 A and 19B show transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles. The carbon nanoparticles of FIG. 19A (at a first magnification) and FIG. 19B (at a second magnification) contain connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes 1902 (MWSFs) with graphene layers 1904 that coat the connected MWSFs. The ratio of MWSF to graphene allotropes in this example is approximately 80% due to the relatively short resonance times. The MWSFs in FIG. 19A are approximately 5 nm to 10 nm in diameter, and the diameter can be from 5 nm to 500 nm using the conditions described above. In some embodiments, the average diameter across the MWSFs is in a range from 5 nm to 500 nm, or from 5 nm to 250 nm, or from 5 nm to 100 nm, or from 5 nm to 50 nm, or from 10 nm to 500 nm, or from 10 nm to 250 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm, or from 10 nm to 50 nm, or from 40 nm to 500 nm, or from 40 nm to 250 nm, or from 40 nm to 100 nm, or from 50 nm to 500 nm, or from 50 nm to 250 nm, or from 50 nm to 100 nm. Of course, average MWSF diameter within the scope of the presently disclosed inventive embodiments may have any of the foregoing values or be within any of the foregoing exemplary ranges, or between any of the foregoing exemplaryranges, without limitation and without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts. No catalyst was used in this process, and therefore, there is no central seed containing contaminants. The aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 10 pm to 100 pm, or approximately 10 pm to 500 pm.

[0302] FIG. 19C shows the Raman spectrum of the as-synthesized aggregates in this example taken with 532 nm incident light. The ID / IG for the aggregates produced in this example is from approximately 0.99 to 1.03, indicating that the aggregates were composed of carbon allotropes with a high degree of order.

[0303] FIG. 19D and FIG. 19E show example TEM images of the carbon nanoparticles after size reduction by grinding in a ball mill. The ball milling was performed in cycles with a 3 minute counter-clockwise grinding step, followed by a 6 minute idle step, followed by a 3 minute clockwise grinding step, followed by a 6 minute idle step. The grinding steps were performed using a rotation speed of 400 rpm. The milling media was zirconia and ranged in size from 0.1 mm to 10 mm. The total size reduction processing time was from 60 minutes to 120 minutes. After size reduction, the aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 1 pm to 5 pm. The carbon nanoparticles after size reduction are connected MWSFs with layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs.

[0304] FIG. 19F shows a Raman spectrum from these aggregates after size reduction taken with a 532 nm incident light. The ID / IG for the aggregate particles in this example after size reduction is approximately 1.04. Additionally, the particles after size reduction had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 40 m2 / g to 50 m2 / g.

[0305] The purity of the aggregates produced in this sample were measured using mass spectrometry and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. The ratio of carbon to other elements, except for hydrogen, measured in 16 different batches was from 99.86% to 99.98%, with an average of 99.94% carbon.

[0306] In this example, carbon nanoparticles were generated using a thermal hot-wire processing system. The precursor material was methane, which was flowed from 1 slm to 5 slm. With these flow rates and the tool geometry, the resonance time of the gas in the reaction chamber was from approximately 20 seconds to 30 seconds, and the carbon particle production rate was from approximately 20 g / hr.

[0307] Further details pertaining to such a processing system can be found in the previously mentioned U.S. Patent 9,862,602, titled “CRACKING OF A PROCESS GAS.”

[0308] FIG. 19G, FIG. 19H and FIG. 191 show TEM images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles of this example. The carbon nanoparticles contain connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) with layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. The ratioof multi-walled fullerenes to graphene allotropes in this example is approximately 30% due to the relatively long resonance times allowing thicker, or more, layers of graphene to coat the MWSFs. No catalyst was used in this process, and therefore, there is no central seed containing contaminants. The as-synthesized aggregate particles produced in this example had particle sizes of approximately 10 pm to 500 pm. FIG. 19J shows a Raman spectrum from the aggregates of this example. The Raman signature of the as-synthesized particles in this example is indicative of the thicker graphene layers which coat the MWSFs in the as-synthesized material. Additionally, the as-synthesized particles had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 90 m2 / g to 100 m2 / g.

[0309] FIG. 19K and FIG. 19L show TEM images of the carbon nanoparticles of this example. Specifically, the images depict the carbon nanoparticles after performance of size reduction by grinding in a ball mill. The size reduction process conditions were the same as those described as pertains to the foregoing FIG. 19G through FIG. 19 J. After size reduction, the aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 1 pm to 5 pm. The TEM images show that the connected MWSFs that were buried in the graphene coating can be observed after size reduction. FIG. 19M shows a Raman spectrum from the aggregates of this example after size reduction taken with 532 nm incident light. The ID / IG for the aggregate particles in this example after size reduction is approximately 1, indicating that the connected MWSFs that were buried in the graphene coating as-synthesized had become detectable in Raman after size reduction, and were well ordered. The particles after size reduction had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 90 m2 / g to 100 m2 / g.

[0310] FIG. 19N is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of carbon aggregates showing the graphite and graphene allotropes at a first magnification. FIG. 190 is a SEM image of carbon aggregates showing the graphite and graphene allotropes at a second magnification. The layered graphene is clearly shown within the distortion (wrinkles) of the carbon. The 3D structure of the carbon allotropes is also visible.

[0311] The particle size distribution of the carbon particles of FIG. 19N and FIG. 190 is shown in FIG. 19P. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1906 corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q3(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1908 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ3(x) [%]). The median particle size is approximately 33 pm. The 10th percentile particle size is approximately 9 pm, and the 90th percentile particle size is approximately 103 pm. The mass density of the particles is approximately 10 g / L.

[0312] The particle size distribution of the carbon particles captured from a multiple-stage reactor is shown in FIG. 19Q. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1914corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q3(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1916 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ3(x) [%]). The median particle size captured is approximately 11 pm. The 10th percentile particle size is approximately 3.5 pm, and the 90th percentile particle size is approximately 21 pm. The graph in FIG. 19Q also shows the number basis cumulative particle size distribution 1918 corresponding to the left y-axis in the graph (Q°(x) [%]). The median particle size by number basis is from approximately 0.1 pm to approximately 0.2 pm. The mass density of the particles collected is approximately 22 g / L.

[0313] Returning to the discussion of FIG. 19P, the graph also shows a second set of example results. Specifically, in this example, the particles were size-reduced by mechanical grinding, and then the size -reduced particles were processed using a cyclone separator. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1910 of the size -reduced carbon particles captured in this example corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q3(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass basis particle size distribution 1912 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ3(x) [%]). The median particle size of the size -reduced carbon particles captured in this example is approximately 6 pm. The 10th percentile particle size is from 1 pm to 2 pm, and the 90th percentile particle size is from 10 pm to 20 pm.

[0314] Further details pertaining to making and using cyclone separators can be found in U.S. Patent Application 15 / 725,928, filed October 5, 2017, titled “MICROWAVE REACTOR SYSTEM WITH GAS-SOLIDS SEPARATION”, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.HIGH PURITY CARBON ALLOTROPES PRODUCED USING MICROWAVE REACTOR SYSTEMS

[0315] In some cases, carbon particles and aggregates containing graphite, graphene and amorphous carbon can be generated using a microwave plasma reactor system using a precursor material that contains methane, or contains isopropyl alcohol (IP A), or contains ethanol, or contains a condensed hydrocarbon (e.g., hexane). In some other examples, the carbon-containing precursors are optionally mixed with a supply gas (e.g., argon). The particles produced in this example contained graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon and no seed particles. The particles in this example had a ratio of carbon to other elements (other than hydrogen) of approximately 99.5% or greater.

[0316] In one particular example, a hydrocarbon was the input material for the microwave plasma reactor, and the separated outputs of the reactor comprised hydrogen gas and carbon particles containing graphite, graphene and amorphous carbon. The carbon particles were separated from the hydrogen gas in a multi-stage gas-solid separation system. The solids loading of the separated outputs from the reactor was from 0.001 g / L to 2.5 g / L.

[0317] FIG. 19R, FIG. 19S, and FIG. 19T are TEM images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles. The images show examples of graphite, graphene and amorphous carbon allotropes. The layers of graphene and other carbon materials can be clearly seen in the images.

[0318] The particle size distribution of the carbon particles captured is shown in FIG. 19U. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1920 corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q3(X) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1922 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ3(x) [%]). The median particle size captured in the cyclone separator in this example was approximately 14 pm. The 10th percentile particle size was approximately 5 pm, and the 90th percentile particle size was approximately 28 pm. The graph in FIG. 19U also shows the number basis cumulative particle size distribution 1924 corresponding to the left y-axis in the graph (Q°(x) [%]). The median particle size by number basis in this example was from approximately 0.1 pm to approximately 0.2 pm.

[0319] FIG. 19V, FIG. 19W, and FIG. 19X, and 19Y are images that show three- dimensional carbon-containing structures that are grown onto other three-dimensional structures. FIG. 19V is a 100X magnification of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers, whereas FIG. 19W is a 200X inagnil'icalion of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. FIG. 19X is a 10000X inagnil'icalion of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. The three-dimensional carbon growth over the fiber surface is shown. FIG. 19 Y is a 10000X inagnil'icalion of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. The image depicts growth onto the basal plane as well as onto edge planes.

[0320] More specifically, FIGs. 19V-19Y show example SEM images of 3D carbon materials grown onto fibers using plasma energy from a microwave plasma reactor as well as thermal energy from a thermal reactor. FIG. 19V shows an SEM image of intersecting fibers 1931 and 1932 with 3D carbon material 1930 grown on the surface of the fibers. FIG. 19W is a higher magnification image (the scale bar is 300 pm compared to 500 pm for FIG. 19V) showing 3D carbon growth 1930 on the fiber 1932. FIG. 19X is a further magnified view (scale bar is 40 pm) showing 3D carbon growth 1930 on fiber surface 1935, where the 3D nature of the carbon growth 1930 can be clearly seen. FIG. 19Y shows a close-up view (scale bar is 500 nm) of the carbon alone, showing interconnection between basal planes 1936 and edge planes 1934 of numerous sub-particles of the 3D carbon material grown on the fiber. FIGs. 19V-19Y demonstrate the ability to grow 3D carbon on a 3D fiber structure according to some embodiments, such as 3D carbon growth grown on a 3D carbon fiber.

[0321] In some embodiments, 3D carbon growth on fibers can be achieved by introducing a plurality of fibers into the microwave plasma reactor and using plasma in the microwave reactor to etch the fibers. The etching creates nucleation sites such that when carbon particlesand sub-particles are created by hydrocarbon disassociation in the reactor, growth of 3D carbon structures is initiated at these nucleation sites. The direct growth of the 3D carbon structures on the fibers, which themselves are three-dimensional in nature, provides a highly integrated, 3D structure with pores into which resin can permeate. This 3D reinforcement matrix (including the 3D carbon structures integrated with high aspect ratio reinforcing fibers) for a resin composite results in enhanced material properties, such as tensile strength and shear, compared to composites with conventional fibers that have smooth surfaces and which smooth surfaces typically delaminate from the resin matrix.FUNCTIONALIZING CARBON

[0322] In some embodiments, carbon materials, such as 3D carbon materials described herein, can be functionalized to promote adhesion and / or add elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, silicon, or hardening agents. In some embodiments, the carbon materials can be functionalized in situ - that is, within the same reactor in which the carbon materials are produced. In some embodiments, the carbon materials can be functionalized in post-processing. For example, the surfaces of fullerenes or graphene can be functionalized with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing species which form bonds with polymers of the resin matrix, thus improving adhesion and providing strong binding to enhance the strength of composites.

[0323] Embodiments include functionalizing surface treatments for carbon (e.g., CNTs, CNO, graphene, 3D carbon materials such as 3D graphene) utilizing plasma reactors (e.g., microwave plasma reactors) described herein. Various embodiments can include in situ surface treatment during creation of carbon materials that can be combined with a binder or polymer in a composite material. Various embodiments can include surface treatment after creation of the carbon materials while the carbon materials are still within the reactor.

[0324] The use of the terms "a" and "an" and "the" and similar referents in the context of describing the subject matter (particularly in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. Furthermore, the foregoing description is for the purpose of illustration only, and not for the purpose of limitation, as the scope of protection sought is defined by the claims as set forth hereinafter together with any equivalents thereof entitled to. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., "such as") provided herein, is intended merely to better illustrate the subject matter and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the subject matter unless otherwise claimed. The use of the term “based on” and other likephrases indicating a condition for bringing about a result, both in the claims and in the written description, is not intended to foreclose any other conditions that bring about that result. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention as claimed.

[0325] The embodiments described herein included the one or more modes known to the inventor for carrying out the claimed subject matter. Of course, variations of those embodiments will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventor expects skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventor intends for the claimed subject matter to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this claimed subject matter includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A material comprising: a cement-containing material; and a functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent, wherein the emulsifying agent stabilizes an emulsion and enhances mechanical strength of the cement-containing material.

2. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises ozonated carbon.

3. The material of claim 2, wherein the ozonated carbon has a surface area of at least 1000 m2 / g.

4. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises 0.1 to 10 wt% of the material.

5. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material controls a droplet size of the emulsion.

6. The material of claim 5, wherein the droplet size is between 100 nm and 10 pm.

7. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises graphene.

8. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises carbon nanotubes.

9. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material is biocompatible.

10. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material forms a protective barrier around droplets in the emulsion.

11. The material of claim 1 , wherein the functionalized carbon material enhances compatibility between immiscible components in the material.

12. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material is obtained by subjecting carbon to a specific ozonation process.

13. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises surface functional groups selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, hydroxyl, epoxy, and combinations thereof.

14. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved compressive strength compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

15. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved flexural strength compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

16. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved tensile strength compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

17. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved durability compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

18. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved resistance to crack propagation compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

19. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved workability compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

20. The material of claim 1 , wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved water resistance compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

21. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved chemical resistance compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

22. The material of claim 1, wherein the cement-containing material exhibits improved freezethaw resistance compared to a cement-containing material without the functionalized carbon material.

23. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material reduces porosity of the cement-containing material.

24. The material of claim 1 , wherein the functionalized carbon material improves bonding between cement particles in the cement-containing material.

25. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material accelerates hydration of the cement-containing material.

26. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material improves dispersion of cement particles in the cement-containing material.

27. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material reduces shrinkage of the cement-containing material during curing.

28. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material improves thermal conductivity of the cement-containing material.

29. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material improves electrical conductivity of the cement-containing material.

30. The material of claim 1, wherein the functionalized carbon material provides self-sensing capabi lilies to the cement-containing material.

31. A material comprising: at least one of a polymer, a nanofluid, or heavy oil; and a functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent, wherein the emulsifying agent acts to stabilize an emulsion and controls a physical property of the material.

32. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises ozonated carbon.

33. The material of claim 31, wherein the polymer comprises a conductive polymer.

34. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises 0.1 to 10 wt% of the material.

35. The material of claim 31, wherein the physical property comprises electrical conductivity.

36. The material of claim 35, wherein the electrical conductivity of the material is at least 50% improved as compared to a material without the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent.

37. The material of claim 31, wherein the physical property comprises mechanical strength.

38. The material of claim 37, wherein the mechanical strength of the material is at least 25% improved as compared to a material without the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent.

39. The material of claim 31, wherein the physical property comprises thermal conductivity or viscosity.

40. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises graphene.

41. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material is biocompatible.

42. The material of claim 41, further comprising a bioactive agent encapsulated within the polymer.

43. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material controls a droplet size of the emulsion.

44. The material of claim 43, wherein the droplet size is between 100 nm and 10 pm.

45. The material of claim 31, wherein the nanofluid comprises a base fluid and nanoparticles.

46. The material of claim 45, wherein the functionalized carbon material improves dispersion of the nanoparticles in the base fluid.

47. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material reduces a viscosity of the heavy oil.

48. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material is obtained by subjecting carbonaceous material to a specific ozonation process.

49. The material of claim 31, wherein the emulsion comprises an oil phase and a water phase.

50. The material of claim 31, wherein the material is formed by emulsion polymerization.

51. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material forms a protective barrier around droplets in the emulsion.

52. The material of claim 31, wherein the functionalized carbon material enhances compatibility between immiscible components in the material.

53. A lubricant, comprising: a liquid; and functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent, wherein the emulsifying agent acts to stabilize an emulsion and controls a physical property of the lubricant.

54. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises ozonated carbon.

55. The lubricant of claim 54, wherein the ozonated carbon has a surface area of at least 1000 m2 / g.

56. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises 0.1 to 10 wt% of the lubricant.

57. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the physical property comprises viscosity.

58. The lubricant of claim 57, wherein the viscosity of the lubricant is at least 25% improved as compared to a lubricant without the functionalized carbon material as an emulsifying agent.

59. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the physical property comprises thermal conductivity.

60. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the physical property comprises wear resistance.

61. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises graphene.

62. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises carbon nanotubes.

63. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material is biocompatible.

64. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material controls a droplet size of the emulsion.

65. The lubricant of claim 64, wherein the droplet size is between 100 nm and 10 pm.

66. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the emulsion comprises an oil phase and a water phase.

67. The lubricant of claim 66, wherein the functionalized carbon material stabilizes the interface between the oil phase and the water phase.

68. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material forms a protective barrier around droplets in the emulsion.

69. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material enhances compatibility between immiscible components in the lubricant.

70. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material is obtained by subjecting carbon to a specific ozonation process.

71. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises surface functional groups selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, hydroxyl, epoxy, and combinations thereof.

72. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the lubricant exhibits improved friction reduction properties compared to a lubricant without the functionalized carbon material.

73. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material comprises a hierarchical porous structure.

74. The lubricant of claim 73, wherein the hierarchical porous structure includes micropores, mesopores, and macropores.

75. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material is doped with at least one element selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, boron, sulfur, and phosphorus.

76. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the liquid comprises a synthetic oil.

77. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the liquid comprises a mineral oil.

78. The lubricant of claim 53, further comprising at least one additive selected from the group consisting of antioxidants, anti-wear agents, extreme pressure additives, and viscosity index improvers.

79. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material is chemically bonded to molecules of the liquid.

80. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material provides a self-healing effect to surfaces lubricated by the lubricant.

81. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material reduces sedimentation of solid particles in the lubricant.

82. The lubricant of claim 53, wherein the functionalized carbon material enhances the loadbearing capacity of the lubricant.

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