Nanowire structured electrode for batteries

Abstract

Disclosed herein are various embodiments of electrodes using nanowire structures to increase the columbic efficiency and voltage output of a battery. The electrodes may include, for example, a copper foil layer and copper nanowires protruding from a surface of the copper foil layer or from both surfaces of the copper foil layer.

Description

Nanowire Structured Electrode for BatteriesRELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 532,433, filed August 14, 2023, the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entireties.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] Traditional lithium-ion batteries include a cathode, an anode, current collectors, and an electrolyte in contact with and between the cathode and anode. Typically, flat metal foils made from copper or aluminum are used as current collectors, on which the anode and cathode active materials are coated. There are also anode-free batteries without the coating of anode materials. The surface area of the current collector is critical to battery performance and lifespan. Enlarging the surface area of the current collector allows for a higher current density and reduces internal resistance, enabling the battery to deliver more power and mitigating the risk of overheating or damaging the battery components. Additionally, a battery made from the current collectors with larger surface area has a smaller specific current density under the same charging current. This benefits the battery by promoting more uniform deposition of the metal, mitigating the formation of metal dendrites or byproducts, and leading to higher coulombic efficiency and longer cycle life. Furthermore, increasing the surface area can reduce the overpotential during charging and discharging cycles, resulting in higher energy efficiency and cycle life. A larger current collector surface area ensures that the active materials in the electrodes are utilized more effectively, thereby improving the overall capacity and efficiency of the battery. The voltage of a battery is determined by the difference in electrical potential between the reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode. A larger potential difference results in a higher voltage. This potential difference is inherently determined by the nature of the electrode materials, making it challenging to further increase the voltage by conventional means. Higher voltage in a battery translates to better power and energy output, which is crucial forapplications requiring high energy density and performance. However, since the voltage is predominantly dictated by the intrinsic properties of the electrode materials, it is challenging to achieve significant improvements in the battery voltage with current technologies. Therefore, there is a pressing need for advanced electrode technologies that can effectively increase the battery voltage. Innovations in electrode material composition, structure, and design will provide new avenues to enhance the electrical potential difference, thereby improving the overall power and energy capacity of the battery.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The present application provides an electrode for use in a battery, the electrode comprising: an electrically conductive substrate layer; and a first plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer.

[0004] The first plurality of nanowires may be made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon- based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe2, CdTe, CulnSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0005] FIGS. 1 and 2 depict alternate views of an illustrative electrode comprising a substrate layer and a plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires in accordance with an embodiment.

[0006] FIG. 3 depicts an alternate illustrative electrode comprising a substrate layer and a plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically alignednanowires aligned on both sides of the substrate layer in accordance with an embodiment.

[0007] FIG. 4A-B depict illustrative batteries comprising a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte, wherein the anode is comprised of a substrate layer and a first plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer.

[0008] FIG. 5A-B depict illustrative batteries comprising of an anode, a first cathode, a first electrolyte, a second cathode, and a second electrolyte. The anode is comprised of a substrate layer with a first plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer and a second plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer. The anode forms two batteries with the two groups of cathodes and electrolytes.

[0009] FIGS. 6-8 depict various scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of an electrode comprising a substrate layer and nanowires in accordance with an embodiment.

[0010] FIGS. 9A-B and FIG. 10 depict various SEM images of an electrode comprising a substrate layer and nanowires with lithium deposits in accordance with an embodiment.

[0011] FIGS. 11A-B depict Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) graphs of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned copper nanowire anode tests in accordance with an embodiment.

[0012] FIG. 11C depicts a charge / discharge graph of an electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned copper nanowire anode test in accordance with an embodiment.

[0013] FIG. 12A depicts a cross-sectional view SEM image of an electrode comprising a substrate layer and a plurality of predominantly vertically aligned copper oxide (CuO) nanowires in accordance with an embodiment.

[0014] FIG. 12B depicts a top-view SEM image of an electrode comprising a substrate layer and CuO nanowires with lithium deposits in accordance with an embodiment.

[0015] FIG. 13 depicts a CV graph of a CuO nanowire anode test in accordance with an embodiment.

[0016] FIG. 14 depicts a CV graph of a bare copper anode test in accordance with an embodiment.

[0017] FIG. 15 depicts Columbic Efficiency test for Cu nanowire anode versus Cu anode without nanowire via Aurbach's method using IM LiPF6 electrolyte.

[0018] FIG. 16 depicts Columbic Efficiency test for Cu nanowire anode versus Cu anode without nanowire via Aurbach's method using M47 electrolyte.

[0019] FIG. 17 depicts Columbic Efficiency test for Cu nanowire anode versus Cu anode without nanowire via simple depositing-stripping method using M47 electrolyte.

[0020] FIGS. 18A-B depict CV graphs of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned copper nanowire anode tests in accordance with an embodiment.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0021] As used herein, a "filling ratio" means the ratio of the volume of the nanowires to the total volume of the nanowires and the space between the nanowires. For example, the filling ratio of a plurality of nanowires in an electrode can be 20%.

[0022] As used herein, "vertically aligned" means that the nanowires have a tilting degree of greater than 70°, preferably greater than 75°, and more preferably greater than 80° relative to the substrate layer.

[0023] As used herein, the term "predominantly" means that the amount of a subset subject, e.g., vertically aligned nanowires, is greater than 60%, preferably greater than 70%, more preferably greater than 80%, and particularly preferably greater than 90% relative to the amount of the whole subject, e.g., total amount of individual nanowires.

[0024] As used herein, the term "about" when immediately preceding a numerical value means a range of plus or minus 10% of that value, for example, "about 50" means 45 to 55, "about 25,000" means 22,500 to 27,500, etc., unless thecontext of the disclosure indicates otherwise, or is inconsistent with such an interpretation.

[0025] As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. Nothing in this disclosure is to be construed as an admission that the embodiments described in this disclosure are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention. As used in this document, the term "comprising" means "including, but not limited to."

[0026] While various compositions, methods, and devices are described in terms of "comprising" various components or steps (interpreted as meaning "including, but not limited to"), the compositions, methods, and devices can also "consist essentially of" or "consist of" the various components and steps, and such terminology should be interpreted as defining essentially closed-member groups.

[0027] With respect to the use of substantially any plural and / or singular terms herein, those having skill in the art can translate from the plural to the singular and / or from the singular to the plural as is appropriate to the context and / or application. The various singular / plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sake of clarity.

[0028] It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms used herein, and especially in the appended claims (for example, bodies of the appended claims) are generally intended as "open" terms (for example, the term "including" should be interpreted as "including but not limited to," the term "having" should be interpreted as "having at least," the term "includes" should be interpreted as "includes but is not limited to," etc.). It will be further understood by those skilled in the art that if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intent will be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of such recitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid to understanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of the introductory phrases "at least one" and "one or more" to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinite articles "a" or "an" limits any particular claim containingsuch introduced claim recitation to embodiments containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases "one or more" or "at least one" and indefinite articles such as "a" or "an" (for example, "a" and / or "an" should be interpreted to mean "at least one" or "one or more"); the same holds true for the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited, those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should be interpreted to mean at least the recited number (for example, the bare recitation of "two recitations," without other modifiers, means at least two recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in those instances where a convention analogous to "at least one of A, B, and C, etc." is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (for example, " a system having at least one of A, B, and C" would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and / or A, B, and C together, etc.). In those instances where a convention analogous to "at least one of A, B, or C, etc." is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (for example, " a system having at least one of A, B, or C" would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and / or A, B, and C together, etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that virtually any disjunctive word and / or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplate the possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, or both terms. For example, the phrase "A or B" will be understood to include the possibilities of "A" or "B" or "A and B."

[0029] In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are described in terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize that the disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group.

[0030] As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and all purposes, such as in terms of providing a written description, all ranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subranges and combinations ofsubranges thereof. Any listed range can be easily recognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range being broken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein can be readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third, etc. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art all language such as "up to," "at least," and the like include the number recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequently broken down into subranges as discussed above. Finally, as will be understood by one skilled in the art, a range includes each individual member. Thus, for example, a group having 1-3 cells refers to groups having 1, 2, or 3 cells. Similarly, a group having 1-5 cells refers to groups having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 cells, and so forth.

[0031] This disclosure is not limited to the particular systems, devices and methods described, as these may vary. The terminology used in the description is for the purpose of describing the particular versions or embodiments only and is not intended to limit the scope.

[0032] In accordance with a first embodiment of the present application, a battery may include an anode comprised of a plurality of nanowires protruding from a surface of a substrate layer.

[0033] In the first embodiment, the battery may further include a cathode and an electrolyte in contact with and disposed between the cathode and the anode.

[0034] In accordance with a second embodiment of the present application, the battery may include an anode having a first plurality of nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate and a second plurality of nanowires protruding from a second surface (which is opposite to the first surface) of the substrate layer.

[0035] In the second embodiment, the battery may further include a second cathode and a second electrolyte. The second plurality of nanowires and the substrate layer form a second anode. The second anode, the second cathode, and the second electrolyte form a second battery.

[0036] Nanowire structured electrodes may be assembled to increase the discharge voltage and columbic efficiency in a battery. In some embodiments, the electrode is an anode. In some embodiments, the anode comprises a substrate layer and a first plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowiresprotruding from the substrate layer. The first plurality of nanowires is configured to have a higher surface area than a substrate without the nanowires. In some embodiments, the nanowires are comprised of an electrically conductive material. The nanowires are configured to retain positive charge carriers during electrodeposition in the charging of a battery. The nanowires are configured to retain positive charge carriers between the nanowires as well as on the ends of the nanowires. The nanowire structure allows for an increase (with respect to traditional anodes) in the total amount of positive charge carriers deposited on the anode. In some embodiments, the nanowires are configured to create an alloy with positive charge carriers. In some embodiments, the anode may comprise a second plurality of nanowires protruding from the surface of the substrate layer opposite the first plurality of nanowires.

[0037] FIG. 1 depicts an illustrative electrode with a substrate layer 102 and a plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires 101 protruding from a surface of the substrate layer 102. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 and the substrate layer 102 are comprised of the same material. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greaterthan l.OxlO3S / m (Siemens per meter). In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe2, CdTe, CulnSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon- based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 is a foil.

[0038] Each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has a height 103 effective for retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has a height 103 of about 1 pm, 5 pm, about 10 pm, about 15 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, about 35 pm, about 40 pm, about 45 pm, about 50 pm, about 55 pm, about 60 pm, about 65 pm, about 70 pm, about 75 pm, about 80 pm, about 85 pm, about 90 pm, about 95 pm, about 100 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has a height 103 of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 has an average height 103 of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm.

[0039] The plurality of nanowires 101 may have any filling ratio effective for retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 has a filling ratio of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, or any value between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 101 has a filling ratio of about 5% to about 40% or about 15% to about 25%.

[0040] In some embodiments, the electrode has a thickness 104 of about 5 pm, 10 pm, about 15 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, about 35 pm, about 40 pm, about 45 pm, about 50 pm, about 55 pm, about 60 pm, about 65 pm, about 70 pm, about 75 pm, about 80 pm, about 85 pm, about 90 pm, about 95 pm, about 100 pm, about 105 pm, about 110 pm, about 115 pm, about 120 pm, about 125 pm, about 130 pm, about 135 pm, about 140 pm, about 145 pm, about 150 pm, about 155 pm, about 160 pm, about 165 pm, about 170 pm, about 175 pm, about 180 pm, about 185 pm, about 190 pm, about 195 pm, about 200 pm, about 205 pm, about 210 pm, about 215 pm, about 220 pm, about 225 pm, about 230 pm, about 235 pm, about 240 pm, about 245 pm, about 250 pm or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the electrode has a thickness 104 of about 10 pm to about 120 pm or of about 20 pm to about 100 pm. In some embodiments, the electrode is flexible.

[0041] FIG. 2 depicts the top surface of an illustrative electrode with a substrate layer 202 and a plurality of nanowires 201 protruding from a surface of the substrate layer 202. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has substantially the same diameter 203. In some embodiments, at least some of the plurality of nanowires 201 have a different diameter 203 than other nanowires of the plurality of nanowires 201. Each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has a diameter 203 effective for retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has a diameter 203 of about 0.01 pm, 0.02 pm, about 0.03 pm, 0.04 pm, about 0.05 pm, 0.06 pm, 0.07 pm, about 0.08 pm, 0.09 pm, about 0.1 pm, about 0.2 pm, about 0.3 pm, about 0.4 pm, about 0.5 pm, about 0.6 pm, about 0.7 pm, about 0.8 pm, about 0.9 pm, about 1 pm, about 2 pm, about 3 pm, about 4 pm, about 5 pm, about 6 pm, about 7 pm, about 8 pm, about 9 pm, about 10 pm, about 12 pm, about 14 pm, about 16 pm, about 18 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has a diameter 203 of about 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has an average diameter 203 of about 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm.

[0042] FIG. 3 depicts an illustrative electrode with a substrate layer 303, a first plurality of nanowires 301 protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer 303, and a second plurality of nanowires 302 protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer 303. In some embodiments, the second surface of the substrate layer 303 is opposite to the first surface of the substrate layer 303. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301, the second plurality of nanowires 302, and the substrate layer 303 are comprised of the same material. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe?, CdTe, CulnSe?, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, orthe alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon- based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe?, CdTe, CulnSe?, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 303 is a foil.

[0043] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a height 304 effective for the retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same average height. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have a different average height. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a height of about 1 pm, 5 pm, about 10 pm, about 15 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, about 35 pm, about 40 pm, about 45 pm, about 50 pm, about 55 pm, about 60 pm, about 65 pm, about 70 pm, about 75 pm, about 80 pm, about 85 pm, about 90 pm, about 95 pm, about 100 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a height of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has an average height of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a height 304 of about 1 pm, 5 pm, about 10 pm, about 15 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, about 35 pm, about 40 pm, about 45 pm, about 50 pm, about 55 pm, about 60 pm, about 65 pm, about 70 pm, about 75 pm, about 80 pm, about 85 pm, about 90 pm, about 95 pm, about 100 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a height 304 of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm. In some embodiments, the second plurality ofnanowires 302 has an average height 304 of about 1 pm to about 100 pm or of about 10 pm to about 25 pm.

[0044] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 may have any filling ratio effective for retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same filling ratio. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have a different filling ratio. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a filling ratio of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a filling ratio of about 10% to about 40% or about 15% to about 25%. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a filling ratio of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a filling ratio of about 10% to about 40% or about 15% to about 25%.

[0045] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter 306 effective for retaining positive charge carriers for use in a battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same average diameter. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have a different average diameter. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a diameter of about 0.01 pm, 0.02 pm, about 0.03 pm, 0.04 pm, about 0.05 pm, 0.06 pm, 0.07 pm, about 0.08 pm, 0.09 pm, about 0.1 pm, about 0.2 pm, about 0.3 pm, about 0.4 pm, about 0.5 pm, about 0.6 pm, about 0.7 pm, about 0.8 pm, about 0.9 pm, about 1 pm, about 2 pm, about 3 pm, about 4 pm, about 5 pm, about 6 pm, about 7 pm, about 8 pm, about 9 pm, about 10 pm, about 12 pm, about 14 pm, about 16 pm, about 18 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a diameter ofabout 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has an average diameter 203 of about 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter 306 of about 0.01 pm, 0.02 pm, about 0.03 pm, 0.04 pm, about 0.05 pm, 0.06 pm, 0.07 pm, about 0.08 pm, 0.09 pm, about 0.1 pm, about 0.2 pm, about 0.3 pm, about 0.4 pm, about 0.5 pm, about 0.6 pm, about 0.7 pm, about 0.8 pm, about 0.9 pm, about 1 pm, about 2 pm, about 3 pm, about 4 pm, about 5 pm, about 6 pm, about 7 pm, about 8 pm, about 9 pm, about 10 pm, about 12 pm, about 14 pm, about 16 pm, about 18 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter 306 of about 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has an average diameter 306 of about 0.05 pm to about 10 pm or about 0.2 pm to about 3 pm.

[0046] In some embodiments, the electrode has a thickness 305 of about 5 pm, 10 pm, 15 pm, about 20 pm, about 25 pm, about 30 pm, about 35 pm, about 40 pm, about 45 pm, about 50 pm, about 55 pm, about 60 pm, about 65 pm, about 70 pm, about 75 pm, about 80 pm, about 85 pm, about 90 pm, about 95 pm, about 100 pm, about 105 pm, about 110 pm, about 115 pm, about 120 pm, about 125 pm, about 130 pm, about 135 pm, about 140 pm, about 145 pm, about 150 pm, about 155 pm, about 160 pm, about 165 pm, of about 170 pm, about 175 pm, about 180 pm, about 185 pm, about 190 pm, about 195 pm, about 200 pm, about 205 pm, about 210 pm, about 215 pm, about 220 pm, about 225 pm, about 230 pm, about 235 pm, about 240 pm, about 245 pm, about 250 pm, about 255 pm, about 260 pm, about 265 pm, of about 270 pm, about 275 pm, about 280 pm, about 285 pm, about 290 pm, about 295 pm, about 300 pm, about 305 pm, about 310 pm, about 315 pm, about 320 pm, about 325 pm, about 330 pm, about 335 pm, about 340 pm, about 345 pm, about 350 pm, about 355 pm, about 360 pm, about 365 pm, about 370 pm, about 375 pm, about 380 pm, about 385 pm, about 390 pm, about 395 pm, about 400 pm, or within a range of values between any two of these values. In someembodiments, the electrode has a thickness 305 of about 10 pm to about 300 pm or of about 25 urn to about 60 urn. In some embodiments, the electrode is flexible.

[0047] Nanowire structured electrodes may be fabricated through a templated electrodeposition method comprising: (1) attaching a template with predominantly vertically aligned pores on a substrate having an conductive surface; (2) placing them in a electrochemical bath as the cathode, and putting an anode in parallel with them, which faces toward the template side, and an electrolyte filling the gap between anode and cathode, where the cathode and electrolyte are chosen correlated to the material of the to be grown nanowires; (3) electrodepositing a plurality of nanowires with desired length through pores defined in the template; (4) taking the anode out from the electrochemical bath followed by thorough cleaning and drying; (5) dissolving the template to release the plurality of nanowires. The electrode with both sides of predominantly vertically aligned nanowires may be fabricated through repeating the abovementioned steps (l)-(5) on both sides of the substrate.

[0048] The nanowire structured electrodes may be further coated with commonly used anode active materials that can reversibly intercalate with metal ions, and together act as the anodes for batteries. The to be coated material may be comprised of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxides, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxides, cobalt oxides, nickel oxides, manganese oxides, iron oxides, binder, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrenebutadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combination thereof. The active materials may be coated to wrap the nanowire surfaces, and / or deposited among the gaps of the nanowires, and / or deposited on top of the nanowires.

[0049] Batteries may be assembled using the above-described electrodes. FIG. 4A depicts an illustrative battery comprising a cathode 401, an anode 402, and an electrolyte 403. In some embodiments, the battery further comprises one or more of a separator 404. In some embodiments, a cathode 401 comprises a cathode current collector 405 and a cathode active material 406. In some embodiments, an anode 402 comprises an anode current collector 407 and an anode active material 408. In some embodiments, the anode comprises a conductive substrate layer as theanode current collector 407, and a plurality of nanowires 408 protruding from a surface of the substrate layer 407 as the anode active material. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 408 and the substrate layer 407 are comprised of the same material. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 408 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanowires 408 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe?, CdTe, CulnSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon- based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 is a foil. In some embodiments, the electrolyte 403 is infused into the plurality of nanowires 408.

[0050] As depicted in FIG. 4B, in some embodiments, an anode active material 409 may be coated on an anode current collector 407 with a plurality of nanowires 408 to form an anode 402. In some embodiments, the coated anode active material 409 may be comprised of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxides, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxides, cobalt oxides, nickel oxides, manganese oxides, iron oxides, binder, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrene-butadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the coated anode active material 409 may be coated to wrap the nanowire surfaces, and / or deposited among the gaps of the nanowires, and / or deposited on top of the nanowires.

[0051] FIG. 5A depicts an illustrative battery comprised of a first cathode 501, an anode 502, a first electrolyte 503, a second cathode 504, and a second electrolyte 505. In some embodiments, the battery further comprises one or more of a separator 506, 507. In some embodiments, cathodes comprise cathode current collectors 508, 509, and cathode active materials 510, 511. In some embodiments, an anode 502 comprises an anode current collector 512 and anode active materials 513, 514. In some embodiments, the anode 502 comprises a first plurality of nanowires 513 and a second plurality of nanowires 514 protruding from both surfaces of the substrate layer current collector 512 as the anode active materials. In some embodiments, the second surface of the substrate layer is opposite to the first surface of the substrate layer. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513, the second plurality of nanowires 514, and the substrate layer 512 are comprised of the same material. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbonbased material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSez, CdTe, CulnSez, NifOHh, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 514 is comprised of a material with a conductivity greater than l.OxlO3S / m. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 514 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe2, CdTe, CulnSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 512 is comprised of one of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tinoxides, conductive polymers, or the alloy or composite of the abovementioned materials.

[0052] In some embodiments, the combination of the first plurality of nanowires 513 and the substrate layer 512 form a first anode, and the first anode, the first cathode 501, and the first electrolyte 503 form a first battery. In some embodiments, the combination of the second plurality of nanowires 514 and the substrate layer 512 form a second anode, and the second anode, the second cathode 504, and the second electrolyte 505 form a second battery. The use of a single substrate layer 512 with a first plurality of nanowires 513 and a second plurality of nanowires 514 to form two anodes allows for a reduction in space in comparison to a traditional configuration comprising a first anode comprising a first substrate layer and a second anode comprising a second substrate layer. In some embodiments, the electrolytes 503, 505 are infused into the pluralities of nanowires 513, 514.

[0053] As depicted in FIG. 5B, in some embodiments, a first anode active material 515 may be coated on an anode current collector 512 with a first plurality of nanowire 513 to form a first anode for a first battery; in some embodiments, a second anode active material 516 may be coated on an anode current collector 512 with a second plurality of nanowire 514 to form a second anode for a second battery. In some embodiments, the coated anode active materials 515, 516 may be comprised of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxides, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxides, cobalt oxides, nickel oxides, manganese oxides, iron oxides, binder, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrenebutadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the coated anode active materials 515, 516 may be coated to wrap the nanowire surfaces, and / or deposited among the gaps of the nanowires, and / or deposited on top of the nanowires.

[0054] The battery may be any type of battery. In some embodiments, the battery is one of a lithium-based battery, a sodium-based battery, a solid-state battery, a potassium-based battery, an aluminum-based battery, a zinc-based battery, or a half solid-state battery.

[0055] Exemplary Embodiments - The following exemplary embodiments are provided merely as illustrations of possible embodiments of the invention and are not meant to imply that the invention is limited to these embodiments. As would be realized by one of skill in the art, different combinations of the features disclosed herein may be arranged in any configuration and all such configurations are intended to be within the scope of the invention.

[0056] Example 1: Single-Sided Cu Nanowire Anode - Copper nanowire anodes comprising a substrate layer and a plurality of nanowires were manufactured. The anodes were manufactured by templated electrodeposition as discussed above. FIG. 6 depicts a cross-sectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a copper anode comprising a substrate layer 602 comprising copper foil and copper nanowires 601 protruding from the substrate layer 602. The copper nanowires 601 had an average diameter of about 800 nm, an average height of about 22 pm, and a filling ratio of about 18%. The SEM image was taken at a magnification of 1532x with a voltage of 15.00 kV. FIG. 7 depicts an SEM image of the top surface of a copper anode. The image displays the copper nanowires 701 protruding from the surface of the substrate. The SEM image was taken at a magnification of 1055x with a voltage of 15 kV. The copper foil and copper nanowires 701 had an average diameter of about 800 nm, an average height of about 22 pm, and a filling ratio of about 18%.

[0057] Example 2: Double-Sided Cu Nanowire Anode - Copper nanowire anodes comprising a substrate layer, a first plurality of nanowires, and a second plurality of nanowires were manufactured. The anodes were manufactured by templated electrodeposition. FIG. 8 depicts a cross-sectional SEM image of a copper anode comprising a substrate layer 802 comprising copper foil and copper nanowires 801 protruding from the substrate layer 802. A first plurality of nanowires 801 had an average diameter of about 800 nm, an average height of about 15 pm, and a filling ratio of about 18%. A second plurality of nanowires 801 had an average diameter of about 800 nm, an average height of about 15 pm, and a filling ratio of about 18%. The SEM image was taken at a magnification of 1352x with a voltage of 15.00 kV.

[0058] Example 3: Single-Sided Cu Anode with Lithium - Lithium ions were deposited on copper nanowire anodes as described in Example 1. The deposition of the lithium comprised a charging process of the copper nanowire anode with either a lithium cobalt oxide cathode or a pure lithium cathode. A focused ion beam (FIB) was then used to remove a section of the anode. FIG. 9A depicts a SEM image of a copper anode deposited with lithium ions after charging comprising a substrate layer comprising copper foil and copper nanowires 901 protruding from the substrate layer and lithium ions 902 deposited on the anode that were able to fill the gaps between the copper nanowires 901 and even further deposited on top of the nanowire layer to cover the entire nanowire structure. The SEM image was taken at a magnification of 1860x with a voltage of 5.00 kV. FIG. 9B depicts a cross-sectional SEM image at the FIB-etched edge (tilted at 15°) of a copper nanowire anode deposited with lithium after charging comprising the composite or alloy of copper nanowires and lithium 903. The composite or alloy of copper nanowires and lithium 903 contain lithium ions deposited within the gaps between the copper nanowires that completely fill the gaps. It also shows the penetration of the lithium ions in the copper nanowire anode allowing a bottom-up deposition to form a bulk layer of composite or alloy copper nanowires and lithium 903. The SEM image was taken at a magnification of 25080x with a voltage of 5.00 kV. FIG. 10 depicts an SEM image of the top surface of a copper nanowire anode with lithium ions 1001 deposited on the copper nanowire anode. The original nanowire tips may still be observed, indicating that the lithium ions are deposited between the nanowire gaps but have not completely filled the gaps due to the controlled charging time.

[0059] Example 4: Comparison of Cu Nanowire Anode and Lithium Anode - The electrochemical performance of copper nanowire anodes as described in Example 1 was tested against a control of a pure lithium metal electrode. Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) testing was performed on a copper nanowire anode, a pure lithium metal electrode, a polyethylene membrane, and a standard 1.0M LiPFe electrolyte, and FIG. 11A depicts a CV graph of the results of the testing. The results show an oxidation peak 1101 from -3V due to the reaction of the copper with lithium. This result means that the copper nanowire structure provides an anode potential of about 2.5V lower than pure lithium metal, which means the overallbattery potential may be increased for about 2.5V when replacing the lithium metal anode with copper nanowire anode.

[0060] CV testing was also performed on a battery cell with a copper nanowire anode, a cathode comprising lithium cobalt oxide and graphene, a polyethylene membrane, and a standard 1.0M LiPFg electrolyte. FIG. 11B depicts the results from the testing in a CV graph. The graph shows a reduction peak 1102 from about 6.8V. This is indicative of a discharge voltage starting at around 6.8V when using copper nanowire anode, which is about 2.6V higher than the standard 4.2V from a traditional lithium-ion battery.

[0061] Charge and discharge testing was performed on a battery cell with a copper nanowire anode, a cathode comprising lithium cobalt oxide and graphene, a polyethylene membrane, and a standard 1.0M LiPFg electrolyte. FIG. 11C depicts the results from the testing in a charge / discharge graph. The graph shows a consistent discharge plateau of about 5V 1103. This is about 1.3V higher than the standard 3.7V from an anode used in a traditional lithium-ion battery.

[0062] Example 5: CuO Nanowire Anode - Copper nanowire anodes as described in Example 1 were annealed in air at a temperature of 400° C in air for 2 hours, resulting in the formation of a CuO nanowire anode. FIG. 12A depicts an SEM image of a CuO nanowire anode comprising CuO nanowires 1201 and a CuO substrate 1202. This image shows that the CuO nanowire anode keeps the same nanowire structure as shown in FIG. 6, however its crystalline copper structure has been transformed to CuO.

[0063] Lithium ions were then deposited on the CuO nanowire anodes. The deposition of the lithium comprised a charging process of the CuO nanowire anode with either a lithium cobalt oxide cathode or pure a lithium cathode in a standard 1.0M LiPFg electrolyte. FIG. 12B depicts an SEM image of the top surface of the CuO nanowire anode with lithium ions deposited on the CuO nanowire anode. The deposition of the lithium ions on the CuO nanowire anode resulted in a mesoporous structure, while the lithium ions deposited on the copper nanowire anode in FIG. 10 resulted in a dense composite / alloy film, indicating a completely different deposition mechanism of lithium when using Cu nanowire anode and CuO nanowire anode.

[0064] The electrochemical performance of CuO nanowire anodes was tested against a control of a purely lithium anode similar to the test in Example 1. FIG. 13 depicts a CV graph of the results of the testing. The graph shows an oxidation peak from 0V, which shows that only the lithium was reacting during the battery discharge. This result shows that even though the CuO nanowire anode has an inherited nanostructure from Cu nanowire anode, it does not have the same function of increasing the discharging potential.

[0065] Example 6: Cu Anode without Nanowires - The electrochemical performance of pure copper foils was tested against a control of a purely lithium anode similar to the test described in Example 1. FIG. 14 depicts a CV graph of the results of the testing. The graph shows an oxidation peak from 0V, which shows that only the lithium was reacting during the battery discharge. This result shows that the use of copper alone does not provide the beneficial electrochemical performance achieved using the copper nanowire anode.

[0066] The results from Examples 1, 5, and 6 indicate that the changed reaction potential of Cu nanowire anode as compared to pure lithium metal is a joint effect from both material and structure.

[0067] Example 7: Single-Sided Cu Nanowire Anode Versus Cu without Nanowires on Columbic Efficiency using Aurbach's method - The charge-discharge performance of a Cu nanowire anode was tested against pure Cu anode without nanowires, using the same half-cell battery structure described in Examples 5, 6 assembled with a pure lithium metal electrode, a polyethylene membrane, and a standard 1.0M LiPFs electrolyte, and FIG. 15 depicts Columbic Efficiency test via Aurbach's method using IM LiPF6 electrolyte. Single-sided Cu nanowire anode shows 93.54% (+ 1.10%) columbic efficiency, overperforming the Cu anode without nanowires of 92.38% (± 1.09%). Similar tests were conducted based on another electrolyte M47 consisting of Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide: Dimethoxyethane: Trifluorotoluene = 1: 1.2: 3, and the results are depicted in FIG. 16. Similarly, singlesided Cu nanowire anode shows 99.45% (± 0.01%) columbic efficiency, overperforming the Cu anode without nanowires of 99.29% (± 0.01%). Furthermore, a third group of tests were conducted on the same half-cell structures using M47electrolyte but a simple and typical direct depositing-stripping method, and the typical charge-discharge data and five-cycle columbic efficiencies of two batteries are depicted in FIG. 17. Similarly, single-sided Cu nanowire anode shows an average 98.7% (± 1.43%) columbic efficiency, overperforming the Cu anode without nanowires of 97.7% (± 4.74%).

[0068] The consistent trend for single-sided Cu nanowire anode overperforming Cu anode without nanowires on columbic efficiency provides a solid proof for the structural benefit of the anode with a plurality of nanowires. It is known that a higher columbic efficiency benefits batteries by providing a longer cycle life, an improved capacity retention, a slower degradation, an enhanced energy efficiency, and an improved safety for batteries. This indicates a significant advantage of the nanowire electrode over the commonly used electrode without nanowires.

[0069] Example 8: Copper Nano wire Morphology - The electrochemical performance of copper nanowire anodes with varying nanowire diameters was tested against a control of a purely lithium anode. CV testing was performed on a copper nanowire anode with an average diameter of 200 nm and a copper nanowire anode with an average diameter of about 800 nm. The results from the testing on the copper nanowire anode with an average diameter of 200 nm and the copper nanowire anode with an average diameter of about 800 nm are shown in FIG. 18A and FIG. 18B, respectively. The graphs show the starting points of oxidation 1501 and 1502 in similar regions. However, the reduction and oxidation peaks were observed to be moved by the different diameters. This result shows the effect of the copper nanowire morphology on the battery performance.

[0070] Various of the above-disclosed and other features and functions, or alternatives thereof, may be combined into many other different systems, methods or applications. Various presently unforeseen or unanticipated alternatives, modifications, variations or improvements therein may be subsequently made by those skilled in the art, each of which is also intended to be encompassed by the disclosed embodiments.

[0071] The present disclosure is not to be limited in terms of the particular embodiments described in this application, which are intended as illustrations ofvarious aspects. Many modifications and variations may be made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalent methods and apparatuses within the scope of the disclosure, in addition to those enumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the descriptions. Such modifications and variations are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. The present disclosure is to be limited only by the terms of the appended claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. It is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular methods, reagents, compounds, compositions or biological systems, which may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

Claims

CLAIMSWe Claim:

1. An electrode for use in a battery comprising: an electrically conductive substrate layer; and a first plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer, wherein the first plurality of nanowires are made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphenebased material, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CulnGaSe2, CdTe, CulnSez, Ni(OH)2, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof.

2. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the substrate layer is made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based material, carbon-based material, graphene-based material, indium doped tin oxides, fluorine doped tin oxides, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof.

3. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the first plurality of nanowires is made of copper.

4. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the electrode is capable of solely functioning as a current collector for further active material coating in a battery.

5. The electrode of claim 1 wherein the first plurality of nanowires have an average height in the range of about 1 / J.m to about 100 / j.m.

6. The electrode of claim 1 wherein the nanowires in the first plurality of nanowires have an average diameter in a range of about 0.01 m to about 30 gm.

7. The electrode of claim 1 wherein the first plurality of nanowires have a filling ratio in the range of about 5% to about 60%.

8. The electrode of claim 1 having a thickness in the range of about 5 gm to about 250 gm.

9. The electrode of claim 1, further comprises a second plurality of nanowires protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer, wherein the first surface is opposite to the second surface.

10. The electrode of claim 9 wherein the first and the second plurality of nanowires on the opposite surfaces of a substrate are capable of acting as two electrodes for two batteries.

11. The electrode of claim 10, wherein the substrate layer is capable of functioning as a current collector for both the first and the second batteries.

12. A battery comprising: a cathode; an anode; and an electrolyte in contact with and between the cathode and anode; wherein the anode is the electrode of claim 1.

13. The battery of claim 12, wherein the battery is one of a lithium-based battery, a sodium-based battery, a solid-state battery, a potassium-based battery, an aluminum-based battery, a zinc-based battery, or a half solid- state battery.

14. The battery of claim 12, wherein the anode is capable of solely functioning as a current collector for further active material coating in the battery.

15. The battery of claim 12 wherein ions of a metal are deposited on the anode, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, zinc, aluminum, and combinations thereof.

16. The battery of claiml5 wherein the metal ions occupy spaces between the nanowires in the first plurality of nanowires.

17. The battery of claim 12 wherein the metal ions are further deposited on tops of the nanowire layer.

18. The battery of claim 15 wherein the metal ions are lithium ions.

19. The battery of claim 15 wherein the metal ions are sodium ions.

20. Two batteries comprising a first battery and a second battery wherein:the first battery comprises a first cathode, an anode, and a first electrolyte in contact with and between the first cathode and the anode, and the anode is the electrode of claim 9; the second battery comprises a second cathode, the anode, and a second electrolyte in contact with and between the second cathode and the anode; the first battery and the second battery share the same anode; and the first and the second plurality of nanowires are capable of forming the two batteries, respectively, with the two groups of cathode and electrolyte.

Images