Fuel composition

Abstract

A gasoline fuel composition for a spark ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a) renewable naphtha at a level from 40 to 60% v / v, (b) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level from 15% v / v to 25% v / v, and (c) aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, 5 wherein the gasoline fuel composition has a RON of 87 or greater. While the low octane number of renewable naphtha would normally severely restrict its blendability in gasoline to low levels, the fuel composition of the 10 present invention allows the use of renewable naphtha in significant levels while maintaining a good octane rating for the overall composition.

Description

[0001]SP3053 - 1 - FUEL COMPOSITION Field of the Invention The present invention is in the field of fuel formulations, particularly gasoline-type fuel formulations for spark ignition internal combustion 5 engines comprising renewable naphtha. Background of the Invention Fuels are conventionally produced by refining crude oil (petroleum). This typically involves separating various fractions of crude oil by distillation. One such 10 fraction is naphtha, which is a volatile liquid fraction distilled between the light gaseous components of crude oil and the heavier kerosene fraction. Naphtha contains a mixture of hydrocarbons (linear alkanes, branched alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons) having a 15 boiling point between about 30°C and about 200°C. The density of naphtha is typically 750-785 kg / m3. Naphtha has many uses, one of which is as an automotive fuel. Whereas the longer chain molecules in gasoil have a high cetane number and can be blended into diesel, 20 naphtha has historically not been used in gasoline, or has only been used in low amounts, because of its poor octane rating. This has been the case despite the fact that naphtha has comparable distillation properties to those of gasoline. 25 Renewable fuels derived from biological matter (‘biofuels’) are increasingly being used as a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Due to an increase in production volumes of renewable naphtha in recent years, it would be advantageous to be able to 30 blend renewable naphtha in gasoline, particularly in high blend ratios. The use of higher blend ratios of renewable naphtha has the advantage of enabling higher CO2 reduction and can help to meet regulated reduction targets, as stipulated in the Paris Agreement (2016). At 5 the same time, it would be desirable to be able to formulate gasoline fuel compositions which comply with existing gasoline fuel specifications, such as, but not limited to, EN228 and North American specifications, e.g. ASTM D4814-13b, US Conventional, CaRFG Phase 3, Federal 10 RFG Phase II, CAN / CGSB-3.5. WO2017 / 093203 discloses a liquid fuel composition for a spark ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a) gasoline blending components, (b) Fischer- Tropsch derived naphtha at a level of up to 50% v / v and 15 (c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level less than 50% v / v. US2009 / 300971 discloses a naphtha composition produced from a renewable feedstock wherein the naphtha has a boiling range of about 70°F to about 400°F and a specific gravity at 20°C of from about 0.680 to about 20 0.740. In one embodiment, the renewable naphtha is used as an alternative gasoline fuel for combustion engines when blended between 1% and 85% by volume with ethanol. WO2018 / 234187 relates to a process for the production of renewable base oil, diesel and naphtha from 25 a feedstock of biological origin. However there is no disclosure in WO2018 / 234187 of specific gasoline fuel formulations containing the renewable naphtha produced in said process. WO2018 / 069137 relates to a process for preparing an 30 alkylate gasoline composition comprising renewable naphtha and iso-octane and iso-pentane. The Examples of the alkylate gasolines in Table 2 contain up to 5 vol% of renewable naphtha. The gasoline compositions in this application do not contain oxygenated hydrocarbons and the focus is on small utility engines used in various portable gasoline powered tools, such as chainsaws and lawnmowers. 5 US9885000B2 relates to a renewable hydrocarbon composition obtainable from a renewable biological feedstock. The composition can be used as a fuel component. WO2009 / 148909 relates to a method for producing a 10 naphtha product from a renewable feedstock. The renewable naphtha product can be used as fuel, or as fuel blend stock. While the low octane number of renewable naphtha would normally severely restrict its blendability in 15 gasoline to low levels, attempts have been made to include renewable naphtha in, for example, ethanol- containing gasoline fuel compositions. To this end, WO2022017912 relates to a gasoline fuel composition for a spark ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a) 20 gasoline blending components, (b) renewable naphtha at a level of 10 to 30% v / v and (c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level of 20% v / v or less, wherein the gasoline blending components comprise (a) from 0% v / v to 30% v / v of alkylate, (b) from 0% v / v to 25 15% v / v of isomerate, (c) from 0% v / v to 20% v / v of catalytic cracked tops (CCT) naphtha; and (d) from 20% v / v to 40% v / v of heavy reformate, wherein the total amount of alkylate, isomerate, catalytic cracked tops (CCT) naphtha and heavy reformate is at least 50% v / v, 30 based on the gasoline fuel composition, and wherein the gasoline fuel composition meets the EN228 fuel specification. It would be desirable to provide alternative solutions to this problem. Summary of the Invention According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a gasoline fuel composition for a spark 5 ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a) renewable naphtha at a level from 40 to 60% v / v, (b) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level from 15% v / v to 25% v / v, and (c) aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, wherein the gasoline fuel composition has a 10 RON of 87 or greater. According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a process for preparing a gasoline fuel composition comprising blending (a) renewable naphtha at a level of 40 to 60% v / v and (b) oxygenated hydrocarbon 15 at a level of 15% v / v to 25% v / v, and (c) aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, based on the gasoline fuel composition. It has surprisingly been found by the present inventors that renewable naphtha can be included in, for 20 example, ethanol-containing gasoline fuel compositions in surprisingly and significantly high amounts, while still providing a fuel composition having high octane numbers and preferably meeting as many elements of gasoline fuel specifications as possible, such as but not limited to25 EN228 and North American specifications, e.g. ASTM D4814- 22, US Conventional, CaRFG Phase 3, Federal RFG Phase II, CAN / CGSB-3.5. The present invention can therefore provide a significant new outlet for renewable naphtha fuel. 30 It has surprisingly been found that by blending various selected gasoline blending components in certain concentrations and ratios, the limitations normally experienced due to the low octane of the renewable naphtha can be overcome. In addition, the fuel compositions of the present invention have the advantage of meeting the requirements of prevailing gasoline fuel specifications. 5 It has also surprisingly been found that the fuel compositions of the present invention have higher RON values than expected, higher than would be expected than linear by volume blending rules. The liquid fuel compositions of the present 10 invention also provide excellent fuel economy, emissions and power benefits, as required by, for example, the EN228 specification. Detailed Description of the Invention The liquid fuel composition of the present invention 15 is a gasoline fuel composition comprising at least three components. The term “comprises” as used herein is intended to indicate that as a minimum the recited components are included but that other components that are not specified 20 may also be included as well. A first component of the liquid fuel compositions herein is renewable naphtha. The person skilled in the art would know what is meant by the term “naphtha”. Typically, the term “naphtha” means a mixture of 25 hydrocarbons generally having between 5 and 12 carbon atoms and having a boiling point in the range of 30 to 200° C. The liquid fuel compositions herein comprise a naphtha which is a renewable naphtha, also known as a renewable naphtha distillate, or biorenewable naphtha. 30 Renewable fuels, such as renewable naphtha distillate, are derived from resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, as opposed to fossil fuels, such as petroleum gasoline, which are derived from the refining of crude oil. According to the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II), renewable fuels are any fuels that are produced from biomass. Suitable feedstocks for producing renewable fuels include, for 5 example, edible and non-edible vegetable oils, animal fats, agricultural waste products and residues, municipal solid waste algae oil, purpose grown crops, and woody biomass. By the term renewable naphtha as used herein is meant a naphtha fraction which contains bio-based carbon 10 atoms as determined according to ASTM method D6866-10 entitled "Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous samples using Radiocarbon Analysis". The renewable content may then be determined by isotopic distribution involving 1514C,13C and / or12C as described in ASTM D6866. As used herein, renewable fuel components such as renewable naphtha shall be considered as renewable if the biogenic content (bio-based carbon atom content) is above 97%. A renewable naphtha distillate may be produced by a 20 variety of processes and the process by which it is produced is not critical to the present invention. In one embodiment, the renewable naphtha can be produced as part of the refining process that results in the manufacture of renewable diesel and renewable 25 kerosene. Both renewable diesel and renewable kerosene may be obtained from the processing of fatty acid containing materials, such as animal fats, algae, and plant material. Plant material may comprise both vegetable based material, such as vegetable oils as well 30 as oils obtained from other plants, such as oils from trees, e.g. tall oil. Renewable diesel, renewable kerosene and renewable naphtha distillate may be obtained from the hydrotreatment of fatty acids, and derivatives thereof, such as triglycerides. The hydrotreatment of fatty acids and derivatives thereof involves deoxygenation reactions, such as hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), and may also involve other hydroprocessing 5 reactions, such as isomerisation (for example hydroisomerisation) and cracking (for example hydrocracking). When producing renewable diesel and renewable kerosene, a renewable naphtha is also obtained. It may have an initial boiling point (IBP) of about 30°C 10 or higher and a final boiling point (FBP) of about 200°C or lower. The hydrocarbons present in that distillation range usually range from those containing 4 or 5 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 or 12 carbon atoms. 15 Another method of obtaining renewable naphtha is the manufacture from renewable natural gas via a Fischer- Tropsch process. By “Fischer-Tropsch” is meant that the naphtha is, or is derived from, a product of a Fischer- Tropsch synthesis process (or Fischer-Tropsch 20 condensation process). One example of a Fischer-Tropsch derived naphtha is a GTL (Gas-to-Liquid) naphtha. Further details of GTL naphtha can be found in WO2017 / 093203, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 25 The Fischer-Tropsch reaction converts carbon monoxide and hydrogen (synthesis gas or syngas) into longer chain, usually paraffinic, hydrocarbons: n(CO+2H2)=(—CH2—)n+nH2O+heat, in the presence of an appropriate catalyst and typically 30 at elevated temperatures (e.g., 125 to 300° C., preferably 175 to 250° C.) and / or pressures (e.g., 5 to 100 bar, preferably 12 to 50 bar). Hydrogen:carbon monoxide ratios other than 2:1 may be employed if desired. In order to produce renewable naphtha via the Fischer-Tropsch process, the carbon monoxide and hydrogen (syngas) may themselves be derived from renewable 5 sources. For example, in one embodiment, the renewable naphtha can be manufactured from renewable natural gas from agricultural, industrial and household wastes via a Fischer-Tropsch process. In another embodiment, the renewable naphtha is manufactured from renewable syngas 10 via a Fischer-Tropsch process, wherein the syngas is derived from ‘green’, ‘blue’ or ‘pink’ hydrogen, and the carbon dioxide is captured from either an industrial process or directly from the air. In one embodiment, the syngas is derived from ‘green’ hydrogen which is produced 15 via electrolysis of water by which an electrical current is used to separate the hydrogen from the oxygen in water. In another embodiment, the syngas is derived from ‘blue’ hydrogen which is a common term for decarbonised hydrogen which is hydrogen that is manufactured by 20 natural has reforming coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Examples of processes used for this are the Shell Blue Hydrogen Process (SBHP), steam methane reforming (SMR) and autothermal reforming (ATR). In another embodiment, the syngas is derived from ‘pink’ 25 hydrogen which refers to hydrogen which is produced through electrolysis powered by nuclear energy. In yet another embodiment, the renewable naphtha is manufactured from renewable syngas via a Fischer-Tropsch process, wherein the syngas is derived from the gasification of 30 waste biomass or other waste material. The Fischer-Tropsch derived naphtha may be obtained directly from the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, or derived indirectly from the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, for instance by fractionation of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis products and / or by hydrotreatment of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis products. Other methods of producing renewable naphtha include 5 the methanol-to-gasoline process, the ethanol-to-gasoline process, and the Shell IH2(RTM) process, an integrated process of hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion at moderate pressures (250-500 psi) and temperatures ranging from 350 to 450°C,. 10 In a preferred embodiment herein, the renewable naphtha is obtained from the processing of fatty acid containing materials, such as animal fats and plant material, in which case the renewable naphtha distillate is paraffinic with very little naphthenes and virtually 15 no aromatics or oxygenates. Renewable naphtha distillate is preferably mainly comprised of paraffins (alkanes), which can be straight chain n-paraffins or branched chain iso-paraffins. The renewable naphtha may comprise an iso-paraffin / n-paraffin 20 ratio of more than 1, such as more than 1.2, for example between 1 and 2. In one embodiment herein, the renewable naphtha used herein has a total paraffins content of at least 90 mass%, an iso-paraffins content of at least 60 mass%, an n-paraffins content of at most 30 mass%, based25 on the renewable naphtha, and an iso-paraffins to n- paraffins ratio of 3:1 or greater. In another embodiment, the renewable naphtha comprises 92 wt% or greater of paraffinic molecules, by weight of the renewable naphtha. 30 In another embodiment, the renewable naphtha has 90 vol% or more C5-C12 paraffins, such as 95 vol% or more C5- C12 paraffins, or 98 vol% or more C5-C12 paraffins, based on the renewable naphtha. When the renewable naphtha distillate has been produced as part of the refining of renewable diesel as described above, it may comprise 30 vol% or more C5-C6 paraffins, such as 40 vol% or more C5-C6 paraffins, based 5 on the renewable naphtha distillate. In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the renewable naphtha distillate also has a low content of naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which are alkanes with at least one non-aromatic ring structure, where the ring 10 typically has 5 or 6 carbon atoms. Renewable naphtha distillate may have 5 mass% or less of naphthenes, such as 4 mass% or less of naphthenes, or 3.4 mass% or less of naphthenes, or 1 vol% or less of naphthenes or 0.5 vol% or less of naphthenes, based on the renewable naphtha 15 distillate. In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the renewable naphtha distillate also has a very low content of aromatics. Aromatic compounds contain a benzene ring or other ring structure that is aromatic. Renewable 20 naphtha distillate may have 1 vol% or less of aromatics, such as 0.5 vol% or less of aromatics, or 0.4 mass% or less, or 0.1 vol% or less of aromatics (as measured according to ASTM D6729), based on the renewable naphtha distillate. 25 In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the renewable naphtha distillate also has a very low content of oxygenates. Oxygenates are organic molecules that contain oxygen as part of their chemical structure, and are usually employed as gasoline additives to reduce 30 carbon oxides and soot created during the burning of the fuel. Common oxygenates include alcohols, ethers and esters. Renewable naphtha distillate may have 1 vol% or less of oxygenates, such as 0.5 vol% or less of oxygenates, or 0.1 vol% or less of oxygenates, based on the renewable naphtha, although it is preferably essentially free of oxygenates. In one embodiment herein, the renewable naphtha used herein comprises: 90 vol% or more of C5-C12paraffins, 30 vol% or more C5-C6 paraffins, 5 vol% or less of naphthenes, 1 vol% of less of aromatics, 1 vol% or less of oxygenates, based on the renewable naphtha. The renewable naphtha used herein typically has a low octane number, i.e. for example having a RON and / or a MON of from 35 to 70, such as from 35 to 60 or from 35 to 50 or from 35 to 45, or from 38 to 42. It has surprisingly been found that despite the low octane quality of the renewable naphtha, it can be included in the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention at a relatively high level, and the final gasoline fuel composition has a higher than expected octane number (RON). The renewable naphtha distillate may have a vapour pressure below 30 kPa. In one embodiment, the renewable naphtha distillate used herein has a Reid Vapour Pressure (as measured according to ASTM D5191) in the range from 8 to 30 kPa, more preferably in the range from 10 to 28 kPa, even more preferably in the range from 25 to 28 kPa. In one embodiment, the renewable naphtha used herein comprises: 90 vol% or more of C5-C12 paraffins, 30 vol% or more C5-C6 paraffins, 5 vol% or less of naphthenes, 1 vol% of less of aromatics, 1 vol% or less of oxygenates, based on the renewable naphtha. The renewable naphtha distillate may have a boiling range of from 30 to 200°C, such as 90 to 200°C, or 40 to 180°C. In a preferred embodiment herein, the renewable naphtha is selected from a Fischer-Tropsch derived renewable naphtha. As such, the naphtha will be typically close to 100% paraffinic, for example 95 wt% or more, preferably 98 wt% or more, more preferably 99 wt% 5 or more, paraffinic. The amount of renewable naphtha present in the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention is from 40 vol% to 60 vol%, preferably from 40 vol% to 50 vol%, even more preferably from 45 vol% to 50 vol%, based 10 on the gasoline fuel composition. It is preferred to be able to add as much renewable naphtha as possible in order to increase the renewable part of the gasoline composition of the present invention. The renewable naphtha component used in the fuel 15 compositions of the present invention can, for example, be prepared according to the methods provided in WO2018 / 069137, WO2018 / 234187 US9885000B2 and WO2009 / 148909, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 20 These references also provide further details of chemical and physical properties of the renewable naphtha component. Examples of commercially available renewable naphtha components include Neste renewable naphtha, also known as 25 NexNaphtha, from Neste Oyj, Finland, BioVerno Naphtha from UPM, and heavy naphtha from World Energy AltAir Paramount plant in California, USA under the tradename AltAir Paramount Renewable Naphtha, Heavy grade, which utilizes beef tallow and small amounts of non-edible 30 vegetable oils as feedstock. In the gasoline fuel composition herein, the renewable naphtha component of the present invention may include a mixture of two or more renewable naphthas, or a mixture of renewable naphtha with petroleum-derived naphtha and / or Fischer-Tropsch derived naphtha. In addition to the renewable naphtha, the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention comprises 5 oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level from 15 to 25% v / v, preferably from 20 to 25% v / v, even more preferably 20% v / v oxygenated hydrocarbon, based on the gasoline fuel composition. The amount of oxygenated hydrocarbon defined by 10 these ranges is the amount of oxygenated hydrocarbon added to the fuel composition over and above any oxygenate which is already present in the naphtha which is normally free of oxygenates. Examples of suitable oxygenated hydrocarbons that 15 may be incorporated into the gasoline include alcohols, ethers, esters, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, and oxygen containing heterocyclic compounds, and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment of the present invention, the oxygenated hydrocarbon is 20 selected from alcohols, ethers and esters, and mixtures thereof. Suitable alcohols for use herein include methanol, ethanol, propanol, 2-propanol, butanol, tert-butanol, iso-butanol, 2-butanol and mixtures thereof. Suitable 25 ethers for use herein include ethers containing 5 or more carbon atoms per molecule, e.g., methyl tert-butyl ether and ethyl tert-butyl ether, and mixtures thereof. A preferred ether for use herein is ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE). Suitable esters for use herein include esters 30 containing 5 or more carbon atoms per molecule. The oxygenated hydrocarbon is preferably selected from alcohols, ethers and mixtures thereof. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the oxygenated hydrocarbon is selected from alcohols. A particularly preferred oxygenated hydrocarbon for use herein is ethanol. In one embodiment of the present invention, ethanol is present as the sole oxygenated 5 hydrocarbon. When both the oxygenated hydrocarbon and the naphtha are of renewable origin, the share of renewable content in the gasoline composition is increased. For example, bio-ethanol may be used as the oxygenated hydrocarbon10 herein. Preferably, the ethanol is so-called ‘second- generation’ ethanol. As used herein, the term ‘second- generation’ ethanol means ethanol that is produced from cellulose, a plant fiber, which is an inedible part of agricultural plants such as corn and sugar cane. 15 A third essential component of the fuel composition herein is an aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, preferably from 30% v / v to 40% v / v, more preferably from 35% v / v to 40% v / v, based on the gasoline fuel composition. 20 The amount of aromatic hydrocarbon defined by the ranges above is the amount of aromatic hydrocarbon, such as toluene, added to the fuel composition over and above any aromatic hydrocarbon, such as toluene, which is already present in the naphtha. 25 Suitable aromatic hydrocarbons are preferably selected from those having 6-9 carbon atoms. Preferably the aromatic hydrocarbon is selected from toluene, xylene (including ortho-xylene, meta-xylene and para-xylene), benzene, alkyl benzenes such as methyl benzene, 30 ethylbenzene and trimethylbenzene, and mixtures thereof. A particularly preferred aromatic hydrocarbon for use herein is toluene. Preferably the aromatic hydrocarbon for use herein comprises 95% v / v or greater of toluene, based on the aromatic hydrocarbon. Toluene occurs naturally at low levels in crude oil and is usually produced in the processes of making gasoline via a catalytic reformer, in an ethylene cracker 5 or making coke from coal. Final separation, either via distillation or solvent extraction, takes place in one of the many available processes for extraction of the BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene and xylene). The aromatic hydrocarbon used in the invention is preferably a grade 10 of toluene that has a RON of 120 or greater and a MON of at least 107 and which contains less than 1 vol% of C8 aromatics. In a preferred embodiment herein, the toluene is renewable toluene. An example of a commercially 15 available aromatic hydrocarbon for use herein is the Bio p-Xylene, Toluene and Benzene produced using Annellotech’s Bio-TCat(RTM) technology. Preferably the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention comprises 65% v / v or greater, more 20 preferably 75% v / v or greater, even more preferably 95% v / v or greater of renewable fuel components, based on the gasoline fuel composition. In an especially preferred embodiment, the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention comprises 100% v / v of renewable fuel 25 components. In one preferred embodiment herein, the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention comprises from 40 to 50 %v / v renewable naphtha, from 20 to 25% v / v oxygenated hydrocarbon and from 30 to 40 %v / v aromatic 30 hydrocarbon, all amounts being based on the total gasoline fuel composition. In another preferred embodiment herein, the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention comprises from 45 to 50 %v / v renewable naphtha, from 20 to 25% v / v oxygenated hydrocarbon, especially 20% v / v oxygenated hydrocarbon, and from 30 to 35% v / v of aromatic hydrocarbon, all amounts being based on the total 5 gasoline fuel composition. In addition to the essential components described above, the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention can optionally comprise one or more other gasoline blending components at a level from 0% v / v to 10 20% v / v, preferably from 0% v / v to 10% v / v, more preferably from 0% v / v to 5% v / v, which may be in the form of a gasoline base fuel. Suitable gasoline blending components can be petroleum derived or derived from renewable sources. 15 Examples of suitable gasoline blending components other than those described above are well-known to those skilled in the art and include, for example, alkylate, isomerate, heavy reformate, catalytic cracked tops, and the like. 20 The liquid fuel composition according to the present invention has a Research Octane Number (RON) of 87 or greater, preferably in the range from 87 to 105, for example meeting the European specifications of 95 or greater or premium product grade of 98 or greater. The 25 liquid fuel composition used in the present invention preferably has a Motor Octane Number in the range of from 75 to 90, for example 85 or greater. The fuel composition of the present invention preferably has an AKI of 85 or greater, more preferably 87 or greater 30 (where AKI = (RON+MON) / 2). Whilst not critical to the present invention, the gasoline composition of the present invention may conveniently include one or more optional fuel additives. The concentration and nature of the optional fuel additive(s) that may be included in the gasoline blending components or the gasoline composition of the present invention is not critical. Non-limiting examples of 5 suitable types of fuel additives that can be included in the gasoline blending components or the gasoline composition of the present invention include anti- oxidants, corrosion inhibitors, detergents, dehazers, antiknock additives, metal deactivators, valve-seat 10 recession protectant compounds, dyes, solvents, carrier fluids, diluents and markers. Examples of suitable such additives are described generally in US Patent No. 5,855,629. Conveniently, the fuel additives can be blended with 15 one or more solvents to form an additive concentrate, the additive concentrate can then be admixed with the gasoline blending components or the gasoline composition of the present invention. The (active matter) concentration of any optional 20 additives present in the gasoline composition of the present invention is preferably up to 1% m / m, more preferably in the range from 5 to 2000mg / kg, advantageously in the range of from 300 to 1500 mg / kg, such as from 300 to 1000 mg / kg. 25 The liquid fuel composition of the present invention can be produced by admixing the renewable naphtha, the oxygenated hydrocarbon and the aromatic hydrocarbon. The fuel composition of the present invention is 30 suitable for use in a spark-ignition internal combustion engine, such as used in passenger cars. Hence, according to another aspect of the present invention there is provided the use of a gasoline composition as described hereinabove for fuelling a spark ignition internal combustion engine in a passenger car. The fuel composition of the present invention is also suitable for use in a spark-ignition internal 5 combustion engine, when used in the powertrain of a hybrid electric vehicle, in particular a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). Hence, according to another aspect of the present invention there is provided the use of a gasoline composition as described hereinabove for 10 fuelling a spark ignition internal combustion engine when used in the powertrain of a hybrid electric vehicle, in particular a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. The invention is further described by reference to the following non-limiting examples. 15 Examples 1-4 The fuel compositions of Examples 1 – 3 are shown in Table 1 below and comprise ethanol, renewable naphtha and toluene ion various quantities. The renewable naphtha was a bionaphtha which was sourced from Shell Rotterdam and 20 comprised bionaphthas which were available on the market. A surrogate fuel blend (Example 4) is representative of a fuel containing Fischer-Tropsch naphtha in addition to ethanol and toluene. The composition of Example 4 is shown in Table 2. The predominantly paraffinic FT naphtha 25 is represented by a mixture of isopentane and n-heptane with a calculated RON and MON of 53.8 and 51.5 respectively. Table 1: Fuel compositions of Examples 1 – 3. Renewable Toluene Blend Ethanol [vol%] naphtha [vol%] [vol%] 1 20.00 50.00 30.00 2 20.00 45.00 35.00 3 20.00 40.00 40.00 Table 2: Fuel compositions of Example 4. Ethanol Isopentane n-Heptane Toluene Blend [vol%] [vol%] [vol%] [vol%] 4 25.00 23.85 21.15 30.00 The RON, MON, AKI and DVPE of the four blends are 5 presented in Table 3. The RON, MON, AKI and DVPE of Examples 1 – 3 were measured using standard test methods. The RON, MON, AKI and DVPE of Example 4 are calculated using a set of equations taken from F. Kaliafetis and R. F. Cracknell, "Explicit equations for 10 designing surrogate gasoline formulations containing ethanol, isopentane, n-heptane, isooctane and toluene," in 2023 JSAE / SAE Powertrains, Energy and Lubricants International Meeting, Kyoto, Japan, 2023, and reproduced below (Equations 1-3). 15 ^^ ^^ ^^ =^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^(1) Where ^^^, ^^^ 20 to allow for the non-linearity, and ^^^is the mole fraction of each component. The presented in this paper were parameterised experimental data and provide a very good approximation for RON, MON and DVPE of surrogate blends with an ethanol content of 10, 20 or 25 vol%. The parameters ^^^, ^^^and ^^^are shown in Table 3 below. Table 3 Ethanol Iso- n-Heptane Iso- Toluene pentane octane ^^^1.081 0.983 1.000 1.031 0.956 ^^^ (E10)2.186^^^ (E20)1.5020.674 1.000 0.597 0.656 ^^^ (E25)1.359^^^3.797 1.340 0.000 1.346 0.418 Table 4: RON, MON and DVPE of Examples 1 – 4. Example RON MON AKI DVPE [kPa] 1 88.6 81.7 85.2 48.2 2 91.2 83.3 87.3 45.5 3 94.5 84.6 89.6 42.2 4 95.1 85.0 90.1 59.2 The measured RONs of Examples 1 and 2 were compared with their calculated RONs using linear volume-based blending. These results are shown in Table 5 below. Table 5 Example 1 Example 2 RON Naphtha 53.8 53.8 v% Naphtha 50 45 RON ethanol 108.6 108.6 v% ethanol 20 20 RON toluene 120 120 v% toluene 30 35 RON 84.6 87.9 calculated by linear-by- volume Actual RON 88.6 91.2 For the avoidance of doubt, the simple linear-by- volume calculation is different to the methodology described in Equations 1-3 above in which the parameters account for the inherent non-linearity in blending. Discussion All four fuel blends in Examples 1-4 have a RON higher than 88, a MON higher than 81 and a DVPE value within the range of 40 and 65 kPa, and demonstrate show that renewable naphtha can be blended with an aromatic 5 hydrocarbon (toluene) and an oxygenated hydrocarbon (ethanol) in certain concentrations / ratios to give a fuel composition which meets prevailing fuel specifications. Further, as shown in Table 5, the measured RON values for the fuel compositions of 10 Examples 1 and 2 were unexpectedly higher than the calculated RON values when using the linear volume-based blending method. The fuel compositions of the present invention therefore provide a successful new outlet for renewable naphtha.

Claims

SP3053 - 22 - C L A I M S 1. A gasoline fuel composition for a spark ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a) renewable naphtha at a level from 40 to 60% v / v, (b) oxygenated 5 hydrocarbon at a level from 15% v / v to 25% v / v, and (c) aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, wherein the gasoline fuel composition has a RON of 88 or greater.

2. A gasoline fuel composition according to Claim 1 10 wherein the gasoline fuel composition comprises 65% v / v or greater of renewable components.

3. A gasoline fuel composition according to Claim 1 or 2 wherein the gasoline fuel composition comprises 95% v / v or greater of renewable fuel components. 15 4. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 3 wherein the gasoline fuel composition comprises 100% v / v of renewable fuel components.

5. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 4 wherein the aromatic hydrocarbon comprises 20 95% v / v or greater of toluene.

6. A gasoline composition according to Claim 5 wherein the toluene is renewable toluene.

7. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 6 wherein the renewable naphtha comprises 92 25 wt% or greater of paraffinic molecules, by weight of the renewable naphtha.

8. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 7 wherein the renewable naphtha is derived from the hydrotreatment of vegetable oils or fatty acids. 30 9. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 7 wherein the renewable naphtha isSP3053 - 23 - manufactured from renewable natural gas via a Fischer Tropsch process.

10. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 9 wherein the gasoline fuel composition has a 5 RON of 95 or greater and a MON of 85 or greater.

11. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 10 having an AKI of 87 or greater.

12. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 11 wherein the oxygenated hydrocarbon is an 10 alcohol.

13. A gasoline fuel composition according to Claim 12 wherein the alcohol is selected from methanol, ethanol, propanol, 2-propanol, butanol, tert-butanol, iso-butanol and 2-butanol, and mixtures thereof. 15 14. A gasoline fuel composition according to Claim 13 wherein the alcohol is ethanol, preferably second- generation ethanol.

15. A gasoline fuel composition according to Claim 14 where the ethanol is present at a level from 20%v / v to 20 25%v / v, based on the gasoline fuel composition.

16. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 15 wherein the aromatic hydrocarbon is present at a level from 30% v / v to 40% v / v, based on the gasoline fuel composition. 25 17. A gasoline fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 16 wherein the renewable naphtha is present at a level from 40% v / v to 50% v / v, based on the gasoline fuel composition.

18. Process for preparing a gasoline fuel composition 30 comprising blending (a) renewable naphtha at a level of 40 to 60% v / v and (b) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level of 15% v / v to 25% v / v, and (c) aromatic hydrocarbon at a level from 25% v / v to 45% v / v, based on the gasoline fuelSP3053 - 24 - composition.

19. Use of a gasoline composition according to any of Claims 1 to 17 for fuelling a spark ignition internal combustion engine, such as in a passenger car. 5

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