Methods and systems for fuel production

Abstract

The present invention provides a method for producing one or more carbon products. [Solution] The method comprises (a) providing an airflow of air containing carbon dioxide (CO2), (b) in a contactor, bringing the airflow of air into contact with an electrolyte solution to capture at least a subset of the CO2 from the airflow into the electrolyte solution, thereby obtaining one or more carbonate ions or bicarbonate ions, (c) leading the electrolyte solution into an electrochemical stack including an anode and a cathode, wherein the electrolyte solution contains the one or more carbonate ions or bicarbonate ions, and (d) reducing the one or more carbonate ions or bicarbonate ions to produce the one or more carbon products while a voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode, wherein the airflow of air is not from an industrial source.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Cross-reference of related applications This application claims the interests of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 781,149, filed on 18 December 2018, and U.S. Patent Application No. 16 / 503,165, filed on 3 July 2019, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in whole for all purposes. [Background technology]

[0002] Levels of carbon-containing compounds such as carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are rising in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon-containing compounds can negatively impact global temperatures and potentially lead to global warming. [Overview of the project] [Problems that the invention aims to solve]

[0003] This specification recognizes the growing need for efficient methods of producing fuels and other chemicals from non-petroleum sources. Such processes utilize carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2) as carbon sources for the production of organic molecules, minimizing carbon dioxide emissions from the production and consumption of the fuels and chemicals produced. For products produced using atmospheric carbon monoxide and / or carbon dioxide, it may even be possible to create a final carbon sink by producing durable chemical products (e.g., polymers). [Means for solving the problem]

[0004] In one embodiment, a system is provided for producing carbon products (C1+ products) containing one or more carbon atoms, comprising a first compartment, a second compartment, and a separation unit separating the first compartment and the second compartment, wherein the separation unit comprises (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a membrane having a plurality of pores, the plurality of pores configured to fluidly communicate the first compartment with the second compartment, the cathode and anode configured to reduce a carbon-containing material to C1+ products in the first compartment while a voltage is applied between the cathode and anode, and the plurality of pores configured to guide the C1+ products from the first compartment to the second compartment.

[0005] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a gas contactor in fluid communication with the first compartment, the gas contactor configured to bring the carbon-containing material into contact with water to produce a solution containing the carbon-containing material. In some embodiments, the membrane comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

[0006] In some embodiments, the cathode further comprises a catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the metal nanoparticles comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold. In some embodiments, the catalyst is N-doped.

[0007] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a voltage source configured to supply voltage. In some embodiments, the voltage source comprises a renewable power source. In some embodiments, the voltage source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of photovoltaic, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, and nuclear power sources.

[0008] In some embodiments, the system further includes an ion exchange membrane between the cathode and the anode.

[0009] In some embodiments, the system is configured to have at least about 70% single-pass selectivity for C1+ products.

[0010] In some embodiments, the pores of the multiple pores have a pore diameter of about 5 micrometers or less. In some embodiments, the pore diameter is about 500 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pore diameter is about 100 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pore diameter is about 50 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pore diameter is about 10 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pore diameter is about 5 nanometers or less.

[0011] In some embodiments, the C1+ product comprises one or more substances selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

[0012] In some embodiments, the first compartment comprises a cathode and the second compartment comprises an anode. In some embodiments, the first compartment comprises a cathode and a membrane. In some embodiments, the separation unit further comprises an extractor. In some embodiments, the extractor comprises a second compartment and a membrane.

[0013] In another embodiment, a method is provided for producing carbon products (C1+ products) containing one or more carbon atoms using a carbon-containing material, comprising an electrochemical system comprising a first compartment; a second compartment; and a separation unit separating the first compartment and the second compartment, wherein the separation unit comprises (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a membrane having a plurality of pores, the plurality of pores configured to fluidly communicate the first compartment with the second compartment, and an electrolyte solution containing the carbon-containing material is introduced into the first compartment and brought into contact with the cathode, wherein the anode and cathode are electrically in communication with each other via the electrolyte solution, and a voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, and while the voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, the carbon-containing material in the electrolyte solution is reduced to produce C1+ products, and the C1+ products are introduced into the second compartment through the plurality of pores, and the C1+ products are recovered from the second compartment of the electrochemical system.

[0014] In some embodiments, the cathode further comprises a catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst is used to reduce a carbon-containing material in the electrolyte.

[0015] In some embodiments, the carbon-containing material includes carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2).

[0016] In some embodiments, the electrolyte solution includes aqueous species resulting from the interaction of a carbon-containing material with water. In some embodiments, the aqueous species includes one or more selected from the group consisting of bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, and formate ions.

[0017] In some embodiments, the method further includes introducing the carbon-containing material into water using a gas contactor before the second step. In some embodiments, the membrane comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

[0018] In some embodiments, the film further comprises a catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the metal nanoparticles comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold. In some embodiments, the (one or more) catalysts are N-doped.

[0019] In some embodiments, the voltage is supplied by a source comprising a renewable power source. In some embodiments, the renewable power source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of photovoltaic, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, and nuclear power.

[0020] In some embodiments, the method further includes introducing a carbon-containing material into an electrochemical system by using electrochemically generated hydroxides.

[0021] In some embodiments, the cathode operates at temperatures ranging from approximately 10°C to 40°C.

[0022] In some embodiments, the C1+ product is recovered from an electrochemical reduction system in the absence of a distillation unit.

[0023] In some embodiments, the electrochemical system further comprises an ion exchange membrane.

[0024] In some embodiments, the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system with at least about 70% single-pass selectivity.

[0025] In some embodiments, the cathode comprises pores having a pore diameter of about 5 micrometers or less.

[0026] In some embodiments, the C1+ product comprises one or more substances selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

[0027] In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 micrometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 500 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 100 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 50 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 10 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 5 nanometers or less.

[0028] In another embodiment, a method for producing carbon products (C1+ products) containing one or more carbon atoms using a carbon-containing material, the method comprising an electrochemical system comprising a first compartment, a second compartment, and a separation unit comprising (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a microstructured or nanostructured membrane having pores, wherein the cathode comprises (one or more) catalysts, the separation unit separates the first compartment and the second compartment, the first compartment is in fluid communication with the second compartment via pores, and the electrochemical system comprising a carbon-containing material. A method is provided comprising introducing a detoxification solution into a first compartment and bringing the electrolyte solution into contact with a cathode, where the anode and cathode are electrically connected to each other via the electrolyte solution, applying a voltage between the cathode and anode, and while the voltage is applied between the cathode and anode, using (one or more) catalysts to reduce a carbon-containing material in the electrolyte solution to produce a C1+ product, introducing this C1+ product through pores to a second compartment, and recovering the C1+ product from the second compartment of the electrochemical system.

[0029] In some embodiments, the carbon-containing material includes carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2).

[0030] In some embodiments, the anode includes (one or more) catalysts.

[0031] In some embodiments, the electrolyte solution includes aqueous species resulting from the interaction of a carbon-containing material with water. In some embodiments, the aqueous species includes one or more selected from the group consisting of bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, and formate ions.

[0032] In some embodiments, the method further includes introducing the carbon-containing material into water using a gas contactor before the second step. In some embodiments, the gas contactor comprises a membrane. In some embodiments, the membrane comprises one or more nanomaterials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

[0033] In some embodiments, the microstructured or nanostructured film comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

[0034] In some embodiments, the microstructured or nanostructured film further comprises a catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the metal nanoparticles comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold. In some embodiments, the (one or more) catalysts are N-doped.

[0035] In some embodiments, the voltage is supplied by a source comprising a renewable power source. In some embodiments, the renewable power source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of photovoltaic, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, and nuclear power.

[0036] In some embodiments, the method further includes introducing a carbon-containing material into an electrochemical system by using electrochemically generated hydroxides.

[0037] In some embodiments, the cathode operates at temperatures ranging from approximately 10°C to 40°C.

[0038] In some embodiments, the C1+ product is recovered from an electrochemical reduction system in the absence of a distillation unit.

[0039] In some embodiments, the electrochemical system further comprises an ion exchange membrane configured to minimize the distance between the cathode and the anode.

[0040] In some embodiments, the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system with at least about 70% single-pass selectivity.

[0041] In some embodiments, the cathode comprises pores having a pore diameter of approximately 5 microns or less.

[0042] In some embodiments, the C1+ product comprises one or more substances selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

[0043] In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 micrometers or less. In some embodiments, the average cross-sectional dimension is about 500 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 100 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 50 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 10 nanometers or less. In some embodiments, the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 nanometers or less.

[0044] Another aspect of this disclosure provides a non-temporary computer-readable medium comprising machine-executable code that implements any of the methods described above or elsewhere in this specification when executed by one or more computer processors.

[0045] Another aspect of this disclosure provides a system comprising one or more computer processors and computer memory coupled thereto. The computer memory comprises machine-executable code that implements any of the methods described above or elsewhere in this specification when executed by one or more computer processors.

[0046] Further aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which shows and describes only exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. As will be understood, other different embodiments of the present disclosure are possible, and some of their details can be modified in various obvious ways without departing from the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description should be considered illustrative and not restrictive in nature.

[0047] Embedding by reference All publications and patent applications referenced herein are incorporated herein by reference to the same extent as individual publications or patent applications are specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

[0048] Novel features of the present invention are described in detail in the appended claims. A good understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by referring to the following detailed description illustrating exemplary embodiments utilizing the principles of the present invention, and to the appended drawings (also referred to as “Figure” and “Fig” in this specification). [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0049] [Figure 1A] Schematic diagrams of the cross-section and plane orientation of microstructured or nanostructured film materials containing nanotubes are shown. Arrows indicate pore spaces that may allow selective passage of specific chemical species. [Figure 1B] Schematic diagrams of the cross-section and plane orientation of microstructured or nanostructured film materials containing nanoonions are shown. Arrows indicate pore spaces that may allow selective passage of specific chemical species. [Figure 1C] Schematic diagrams of the cross-section and plane orientation of microstructured or nanostructured film materials, including thermally decomposed porous materials. Arrows indicate pore spaces that may allow selective passage of specific chemical species. [Figure 1D] Schematic diagrams of the cross-section and plane orientation of microstructured or nanostructured film materials, including graphene-like materials. Arrows indicate pore spaces that may allow the selective passage of specific chemical species. [Figure 2] This diagram shows carbon nanotubes embedded in a film material. [Figure 3A] This shows a microstructured or nanostructured membrane (such as a hollow fiber) configured in a cylindrical shape. [Figure 3B] A detailed diagram of a small region on the surface of a film containing carbon nanotubes is shown. [Figure 4] This shows a typical graphene-like material of the present invention. [Figure 5] A diagram of catalyst nanoparticles related to carbon nanotubes provided in this disclosure is shown. [Figure 6] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 7] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 8] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 9] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 10] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 11] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 12]A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 13] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 14] A schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons is shown. [Figure 15] A schematic diagram of the computer system used in this invention is shown. [Figure 16A] A schematic diagram of a separation unit comprising a first compartment having a cathode and a second compartment having an anode is shown. [Figure 16B] A schematic diagram of a separation unit, which includes a first compartment for housing the cathode, is shown. [Figure 16C] A schematic diagram of a separation unit comprising an extractor unit with a membrane and a second compartment is shown. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0050] While various embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated in this specification, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided only as examples. Those skilled in the art will be able to conceive of numerous modifications, changes, and substitutions without departing from the present invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein can be used.

[0051] Whenever the terms “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precede the first number in a set of two or more numbers, the terms “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” apply to each number in that set. For example, 1, 2, or 3 or more is equivalent to 1 or more, 2 or more, or 3 or more.

[0052] Whenever the terms “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precede the first number in a set of two or more numbers, the terms “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” apply to each number in that set. For example, 3, 2, or 1 or less corresponds to 3 or less, 2 or less, or 1 or less.

[0053] As used herein, the terms “C1+” and “C1+ compound” generally refer to compounds containing one or more carbon atoms, e.g., one carbon atom (C1), two carbon atoms (C2), etc. C1+ compounds include, but are not limited to, alkanes (e.g., methane, CH4), alkenes (e.g., ethylene, C2H2), alkynes, and aromatics containing two or more carbon atoms. In some cases, C1'+ compounds include aldehydes, ketones, esters, and carboxylic acids. Examples of C1+ compounds include, but are not limited to, methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propane, propene, butane, and butylene.

[0054] As used herein, the term “unit” generally refers to a unit operation, which is a fundamental operation in a process. Unit operations may include, for example, physical or chemical changes such as separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization, transformation, and other reactions. In a given process, one or more unit operations may be required to obtain one or more desired products from one or more starting materials or raw materials.

[0055] As used herein, the term “carbon-containing material” generally refers to any material that contains at least one carbon atom. In some examples, a carbon-containing material is carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), or a mixture of CO and CO2. A carbon-containing material may also be a material derived from CO and / or CO2, such as bicarbonate or bicarbonate ions.

[0056] This specification provides systems and methods for producing a variety of chemical products, including hydrocarbon fuels, from a source containing carbon-containing materials such as carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2). The source may be a gaseous or liquid source. In some cases, the gaseous source containing CO or CO2 may be air drawn directly from the atmosphere. In other cases, the gaseous source containing CO or CO2 may be exhaust gas, such as flue gas from a combustion process. In this invention, a gaseous stream containing CO or CO2 may be drawn into an electrochemical reduction system that converts CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons. The described system may include one or more additional chemical conversion processes that enable the conversion of hydrocarbons derived from CO or CO2 into other valuable chemical products.

[0057] This specification also provides various configurations of electrochemical reduction systems that convert CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons. In some cases, the electrochemical reduction system may operate at ambient temperature. The electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more membranes containing microstructured or nanostructured materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene.

[0058] Microstructured materials may have dimensions of approximately 1 micrometer to 1000 micrometers, 1 micrometer to 100 micrometers, or 1 micrometer to 10 micrometers. Nanostructured materials may have dimensions of approximately 1 nanometer to 1000 nanometers, 1 nanometer to 100 nanometers, or 1 nanometer to 10 nanometers.

[0059] Microstructured materials may have dimensions of 1000 micrometers or less, 100 micrometers, 10 micrometers, 1 micrometer, or less. Nanostructured materials may have dimensions of 1000 nanometers or less, 100 nanometers, 10 nanometers, 1 nanometer, or less.

[0060] In some cases, microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be able to selectively separate CO or CO2 from a mixed gas stream. In other cases, microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be able to selectively separate specific hydrocarbons from a liquid or gaseous medium. This specification also provides microstructured or nanostructured membranes comprising catalysts for converting CO or CO2 to hydrocarbons. In some cases, microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be configured to have an anode or cathode within an electrochemical reduction system.

[0061] This specification provides various products that can be produced by the systems and methods described herein. Electrochemical reduction systems can produce alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, or other organic molecules of various chain lengths. Products of the electrochemical reduction systems described herein can be further processed into other fuels and chemicals, such as polymers. The selectivity of microstructured or nanostructured membranes utilized in the electrochemical reduction systems may allow for the production of chemicals having a controlled molecular weight range and for increased purity from processing by-products (e.g., metals, salts, and other undesirable inputs or products).

[0062] This specification also provides systems of various scales for generating chemicals from gaseous streams containing CO or CO2. In some cases, chemicals may be generated from a chemical plant comprising one or more CO or CO2 electrochemical reduction systems. In other cases, chemicals may be generated from CO or CO2 as a subsystem of a larger facility, for example, as a scrubber in a power generation facility. In other cases, chemicals may be generated using small-scale or micro-scale equipment. In some cases, electrochemical reduction systems utilizing gaseous sources containing CO or CO2 may be combined with renewable power sources (e.g., photovoltaic technology) to create a fully sustainable method of chemical production. In some cases, the systems and methods described herein may be net carbon negative (i.e., sequester more carbon than they generate). In some cases, the systems described herein may reduce the energy input of a chemical production process by at least about 50%.

[0063] chemical products This specification describes various chemical products and reaction mixtures produced by the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2 originating from a gaseous source. Chemical products may include any process flow discharged from a chemical processing system, or any process flow that does not undergo further reaction processes. Reaction mixtures may include any process mixture, reagents, or compounds within a chemical reactor, within a reactor system, or in a process flow between chemical reactors or reactor systems. The chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present invention may contain organic molecules in which one or more of the constituent carbon atoms originate from CO or CO2. In some cases, the chemical product or reaction mixture may contain only carbon atoms originating from CO or CO2. In other cases, the chemical product may contain carbon atoms originating from CO or CO2 and carbon atoms originating from other sources (e.g., fossil fuels). In some cases, the chemical products of the present invention may have unique carbon isotope properties that match the carbon isotope properties of CO or CO2 originating from the atmosphere. In some cases, the chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present invention may have unique carbon isotope properties that match the carbon isotope properties of CO or CO2 originating from a non-atmospheric source, such as the combustion of fossil fuels. The carbon isotope properties of a chemical product or reaction mixture are, 14 C: 12 C or 13 C: 12 It can be measured by the isotopic ratio of 1C. In some cases, the isotopic properties of a chemical product or reaction mixture can be measured as the percentage difference between the native isotopic ratio of carbon and the measured isotopic ratio. 14 C, Δ 14 In C, the percentage difference between the native isotope ratio and the measured isotope ratio can be calculated as follows:

[0064]

number

[0065] 13 C, Δ 13 In C, the percentage difference between the native isotope ratio and the measured isotope ratio can be calculated as follows:

[0066]

Number

[0067] The chemical product or reaction mixture can have a Δ 14 C of about -100%, -10%, 0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50% or about 100%. The chemical product or reaction mixture can have a Δ 13 C of about -40%, -35%, -30%, -28%, -26%, -24%, -22%, -20%, -15%, -10%, -8%, or about -5%.

[0068] The chemical products or reaction mixtures of the present invention can include gaseous, liquid or solid substances. The chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present invention can include one or more organic compounds. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can be miscible or immiscible with water. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can be polar or nonpolar. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can be acidic, basic or neutral. Organic compounds can include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkynes, substituted alkanes, substituted alkenes, substituted alkynes, alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids, ethers, amines, amides, aromatics, heteroaromatics, sulfides, sulfones, sulfates, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, amides and halogenated compounds. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can include branched or straight-chain compounds. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can include oxygen, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, butane, hexane, octane, decane, carbon monoxide, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, hexanol, octanol and formate. The chemical products and reaction mixtures can include organometallic compounds. The chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present disclosure can include compounds for consumer use or industrial applications such as fuels, solvents, additives, polymers, food additives, dietary supplements, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, pesticides, coatings, lubricants and building materials. The chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present disclosure can include precursors, components, substituents or substrates of products produced by subsequent processing.

[0069] The organic compounds of this disclosure may contain one or more carbon atoms. In some cases, the organic compounds may contain about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 carbon atoms. In some cases, organic compounds may contain at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 or more carbon atoms. In some cases, organic compounds may contain about 70 or fewer carbon atoms, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or fewer. The organic compounds of this disclosure may contain one or more carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2. In some cases, the organic compounds may contain about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2. In some cases, organic compounds may contain at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 or more carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2. In some cases, organic compounds may contain approximately 70 or fewer carbon atoms, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or fewer, derived from CO or CO2.

[0070] The chemical products or reaction mixtures of this disclosure may comprise multiple chemical species. The chemical products or reaction mixtures may be mixtures of about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or about 100 detectable chemical compounds. A chemical product or reaction mixture may be a mixture of at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or about 100 or more detectable chemical compounds. A chemical product or reaction mixture may be a mixture of detectable chemical compounds numbering approximately 100 or less, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, or approximately 3 or less.

[0071] The chemical products or reaction mixtures of this disclosure may contain certain compounds in specific weight percent or molar percent of the whole chemical product or reaction mixture. For example, a certain chemical product may contain at least about 50% by weight of ethanol. In another example, a certain chemical product may contain about 1% by weight or less of water. In some cases, on a weight or molar basis, at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more of the chemical product or reaction mixture may be certain chemical compounds. In some cases, certain chemical compounds constitute approximately 99% or less, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or approximately 10% or less of the chemical product or reaction mixture by weight or molar basis.

[0072] The chemical products or reaction mixtures of this disclosure may contain compounds within a specific molecular weight or carbon number range. In some cases, at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more of the chemical product or reaction mixture may contain compounds within a specific molecular weight or carbon number range. In some cases, a chemical product or reaction mixture may contain compounds within a specific molecular weight range or carbon number range in amounts of 99% or less, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or about 10% or less.Chemical products or reaction mixtures are available in the following concentrations: approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 30 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 60 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 100 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 200 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 400 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 600 g / mol, approximately 15 g / mol to approximately 1000 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 60 g / mol, and approximately 30 g / mol~about 100g / mol, about 30g / mol~about 200g / mol, about 30g / mol~about 400g / mol, about 30g / mol~about 600g / mol, about 30g / mol~about 10 00g / mol, about 60g / mol to about 100g / mol, about 60g / mol to about 200g / mol, about 60g / mol to about 400g / mol, about 60g / mol to about 600g / mol, about 60g / mol~about 1000g / mol, about 100g / mol~about 200g / mol, about 100g / mol~about 400g / mol, about 100g / mol~about 600g / mol, about 100g / mol~about 1000g / mol, about 200g / mol~about 400g / mol, about 200g / mol~about 600g / mol, about 200g / mol~about 1000g / mol, about 400g / mol It may contain compounds with molecular weights in the following ranges: 1 to approximately 600 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 1000 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 100 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 200 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 400 g / mol, approximately 30 g / mol to approximately 600 g / mol, approximately 400 g / mol to approximately 1000 g / mol, or approximately 600 g / mol to approximately 1000 g / mol.The chemical product or reaction mixture may contain compounds within a carbon number range of about C1 to about C2, about C1 to about C3, about C1 to about C4, about C1 to about C5, about C1 to about C6, about C1 to about C8, about C1 to about C10, about C1 to about C20, about C1 to about C30, about C1 to about C40, about C2 to about C3, about C2 to about C4, about C2 to about C5, about C2 to about C6, about C2 to about C8, about C2 to about C10, about C2 to about C20, about C2 to about C30, about C2 to about C40, about C3 to about C4, about C3 to about C5, about C3 to about C6, about C3 to about C8, about C3 to about C10, about C3 to about C20, about C3 to about C30, about C3 to about C40, about C4 to about C5, about C4 to about C6, about C4 to about C8, about C4 to about C10, about C4 to about C20, about C4 to about C30, about C4 to about C40, about C5 to about C6, about C5 to about C8, about C5 to about C10, about C5 to about C20, about C5 to about C30, about C5 to about C40, about C6 to about C8, about C6 to about C10, about C6 to about C20, about C6 to about C30, about C6 to about C40, about C8 to about C10, about C8 to about C20, about C8 to about C30, about C8 to about C40, about C10 to about C20, about C10 to about C30, about C10 to about C40, about C20 to about C30, about C20 to about C40, or about C30 to about C40.

[0073] The chemical products or reaction mixtures of this disclosure may contain one or more impurities. These impurities may originate from the flow of reactants, reactor contaminants, decomposition products of the resulting organic compounds, catalyst compounds, or side reactions within the electrochemical reduction system or other chemical transformation system described herein. The chemical products or reaction mixtures may contain one or more organic impurities, such as formates or high molecular weight alcohols. The chemical products or reaction mixtures may contain carbon or non-carbon nanomaterial impurities. The chemical products or reaction mixtures may contain one or more inorganic impurities, originating from sources such as catalyst decomposition or leaching and corrosion of the processing equipment. Inorganic impurities may include sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, and lead. Inorganic impurities may exist in an oxidized or reductively oxidized state. Inorganic impurities may exist in the form of organometallic complexes. Impurities in chemical products or reaction mixtures may be detectable by any common analytical technique, such as gas or liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, IR or UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, or other methods. One or more impurities may be detectable in amounts of at least about 1 ppb, 5 ppb, 10 ppb, 50 ppb, 100 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb, 750 ppb, 1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, or more. One or more impurities may be detectable at concentrations of approximately 100 ppm or less, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, 1 ppm, 750 ppb, 500 ppb, 250 ppb, 100 ppb, 50 ppb, 10 ppb, 5 ppb, or approximately 1 ppb or less.

[0074] Chemical products may have a specific level of purity. In some cases, chemical products may have a purity sufficient to achieve a specific grade or standard. Chemical products may be ACS grade, reagent grade, USP grade, NF grade, laboratory grade, purification grade, or technical grade. Chemical products may have a purity above the azeotropic composition, for example, >95% ethanol. The gaseous chemical products of the present invention may have purity grades of about N1.0, N2.0, N3.0, N4.0, N5.0, N6.0 or higher. Chemical products may achieve purity levels according to specified international standards, for example, ASTM D-1152 / 97 standard in the case of methanol purity.

[0075] In some cases, the chemical product or reaction mixture obtained from the electrochemical reduction system may not contain detectable amounts of certain impurities. In some cases, the chemical product or reaction mixture may not contain detectable amounts of biomolecules or their derivatives. The chemical product or reaction mixture may not contain detectable amounts of lipids, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids, spores, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, animal or plant cells, or any components thereof.

[0076] chemical supplies Electrochemical conversion systems and related systems may require one or more feed streams. The feed stream may include solids, liquids, or gases. The feed stream may include slurries, pastes, powders, particles, or floor materials. In some cases, the feed stream may include one or more chemical reactants. In other cases, the feed stream may include catalysts, co-catalysts, activators, inhibitors, buffers, or reaction scavengers. In some cases, the feed stream may include inert species.

[0077] The feedstream may contain gases or mixtures of gases. In some cases, the gasstream may contain CO, CO2, nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, oxygen, ozone, argon, hydrogen, helium, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur oxide, silane, aromatics, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, water vapor, and other gases. In some cases, the gasstream may contain air drawn directly from the atmosphere. In other cases, the gasstream may contain exhaust gases from industrial or other sources. In some cases, the gasstream may contain suspended particulate matter such as soot, pollen, spores, dust, and minerals or ash. The gasstream may contain aerosols. The gasstream may be filtered or scrubbed to remove particulate matter or undesirable chemical species. The gasstream may be subjected to one or more operations before entering a chemical transformation process or other process in order to change its composition or otherwise prepare the gasstream for use. The gas stream may be separated or purified to concentrate specific components (e.g., CO2) or remove undesirable components (e.g., hydrogen sulfide).

[0078] The feed stream may contain a liquid or a mixture of liquids. In some cases, the liquid stream may contain chemical reactants. In other cases, the liquid stream may contain a solvent that carries the chemical reactants. The liquid stream may contain a buffer, for example, a bicarbonate solution. The liquid stream may contain one or more of the following: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkynes, substituted alkanes, substituted alkenes, substituted alkynes, alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids, ethers, amines, amides, aromatics, heteroaromatics, sulfides, sulfones, sulfates, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, amides, and halogenated compounds.

[0079] The liquid feed stream may contain an aqueous solution. The aqueous solution may be buffered to maintain a specific pH. The feed stream may have a pH of about 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or about 14. The feed stream may have a pH of at least about 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or higher. The feed stream may have a pH of about 14 or less, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 or lower.

[0080] The feed flow may be a multiphase flow. The feed flow may include gas incorporated into a liquid, or solid incorporated into a liquid, such as a slurry. The feed flow may exist in phase equilibrium between solid and liquid, liquid and gas, or solid and gas.

[0081] The feedstream may contain one or more impurities or tracer compounds. Impurities in the feedstream may arise from the process that produced them, or from the transport method used to transport the feedstream material from its production to the system of this disclosure. Impurities may include organic or inorganic chemical species, particulate matter (e.g., sewage, dust, rust, or ash), and biological materials. Impurities may be detrimental to the performance of the electrochemical reduction system or related system. Inorganic impurities may include sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, and lead. Inorganic impurities may exist in an oxidized or reductively oxidized state. Inorganic impurities may exist in the form of organometallic complexes. The feed stream may be purified before use to remove one or more impurities before being used in an electrochemical reduction system or related system. Tracer compounds may contain chemical species present in the feed stream at low but detectable levels. Tracer compounds may be present in certain feed stream reagents or may be added to the feed stream before it enters conversion or other processes. Tracer compounds may be inert species. Tracer compounds may be compounds that are selectively converted, separated or altered in a particular process and are unaffected by other processes. Impurities or tracer compounds may have concentrations that can be measured in the feed stream. Impurities or tracer compounds in a chemical product may be detectable by any common analytical technique such as gas or liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, IR or UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, or other methods. One or more impurities or tracer compounds may be detectable in amounts of at least approximately 1 ppb, 5 ppb, 10 ppb, 50 ppb, 100 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb, 750 ppb, 1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm or more.One or more impurities or tracer compounds may be detectable at amounts of approximately 100 ppm or less, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, 1 ppm, 750 ppb, 500 ppb, 250 ppb, 100 ppb, 50 ppb, 10 ppb, 5 ppb, or approximately 1 ppb or less.

[0082] structured membrane This disclosure may provide reactors and separation systems comprising microstructured or nanostructured membranes. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be used to selectively separate one or more chemical species from a mixture containing multiple chemical species. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes may also provide additional utility to chemical processing systems that include electrocathode or anode components within an electrochemical system, including physical separation of product flow.

[0083] Microstructured or nanostructured films may contain one or more microscale or nanoscale material features (including positive features such as microscale or nanoscale structure, and / or negative features such as microscale and nanoscale pores or microscale and nanoscale depressions). In some cases, films may contain carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene-like materials, or pyrolyzed porous carbon materials (see Figures 2 and 4). Films may contain microstructured or nanostructured materials synthesized from non-carbon materials. Films may contain carbon nanomaterials doped with other elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, and boron. Microstructured or nanostructured materials may be embedded, immobilized, or otherwise bonded to one or more other substrates or materials to construct a film. Microstructured or nanostructured materials embedded in substrates or materials may create pores within the structured film. Pores may allow the selective passage of specific chemical species. Other substrates or materials within the film may be selected for their material properties, including stiffness, strength, and electrical conductivity. Other substrates or materials within the microstructured or nanostructured film may include polymers, such as polysulfones, metals, and ceramics. Microscale or nanoscale features may have maximum dimensions of at least approximately 0.4 nanometers (nm), 0.6 nm, 0.8 nm, 1 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.8 nm, 2.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 3.5 nm, 4.0 nm, 4.5 nm, 5.0 nm, 5.5 nm, 6.0 nm, 6.5 nm, 7.0 nm, 7.5 nm, 8.0 nm, 8.5 nm, 9.0 nm, 9.5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, 10 micrometers, 100 micrometers or larger.In some cases, the maximum dimensions may be approximately 100 micrometers, 10 micrometers, 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9.5 nm, 9.0 nm, 8.5 nm, 8 nm, 7.5 nm, 7.0 nm, 6.5 nm, 6.0 nm, 5.5 nm, 5.0 nm, 4.5 nm, 4.0 nm, 3.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.0 nm, 1.8 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.0 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.6 nm, or less than 0.4 nm.

[0084] Microstructured or nanostructured membranes may have specific shapes and structures depending on their application. In some cases, the membrane may have a cylindrical structure with, for example, a hollow fiber membrane form (see Figures 3A and 3B) or a substantially flat sheet structure. The membrane may partially or completely enclose a certain volume or void space. The surface area of ​​a membrane positioned toward a closed space or void space may be defined as the luminal side of the membrane. In some cases, mass transfer across the membrane may be facilitated by chemical potential, pressure difference, or temperature difference between the luminal and non-luminal sides of the membrane. The membrane may further comprise additional structures such as frames or fittings that secure the membrane to other parts of the system described.

[0085] Microstructured or nanostructured films may consist of micro or nanomaterials embedded to create pores within the film. Micro or nanomaterials may be selected based on the characteristic pore sizes they can create. While not wishing to be constrained by theory, a pore can be defined as an empty space or volume within a solid material through which liquid or gas molecules can flow or diffuse. Chemical species can pass through pores created by the inner diameter space within carbon nanotubes (see Figure 1A), nanoparticles, e.g., the spaces between densely packed nanotubes or nanoonions (see Figure 1B), pores in porous carbon (see Figure 1C), or interlayer spaces in graphene-like materials (see Figure 1D). Micro or nanomaterials may have characteristic length scales, such as diameter, pore size, or interlayer spacing, sufficient to allow chemical species to pass through the empty spaces within the material. In some cases, the characteristic length may be at least about 0.4 nanometers (nm), 0.6 nm, 0.8 nm, 1 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.8 nm, 2.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 4.0 nm, 5.0 nm or greater. In some cases, the characteristic length may be about 5.0 nm or less, 4.0 nm, 3.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.0 nm, 1.8 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.0 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.6 nm, or about 0.4 nm or less. Pores may have a diameter greater than their length. Pores may have a length greater than their diameter. Pores may have an aspect ratio of about 1:10, 1:5, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 100:1, or about 1000:1. Pores may have aspect ratios of at least approximately 1:10, 1:5, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 100:1, or approximately 1000:1. Pores may have aspect ratios of approximately 1000:1 or less, 100:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, or approximately 1:10 or less. Pores may have substantially straight pathways, such as carbon nanotubes, or interlayer spaces in horizontal graphene-like materials. In some materials, such as mesoporous or nanoporous carbon, pores may have inclined, oblique, or winding pathways.

[0086] The membrane may include a material having a characterized porous structure. The material may include nanopores, mesopores, and micropores. In some cases, nanopores may be characterized by having an average pore diameter of about 2 nm or less. In some cases, mesopores may be characterized by having an average pore diameter of about 2 nm to about 20 nm. In some cases, micropores may be characterized by having an average pore diameter of about 20 nm or more. The membrane may have a structure having pore diameters across a range of pore diameters (e.g., nanopores and mesopores). The membrane may have a structure having pore diameters from within a specific classification of pore diameters (e.g., mesopores only). Pores may have circular, elliptical, non-circular, or irregular pore shapes or pore cross-sectional profiles. Pore diameter may be characterized as an average characteristic cross-sectional dimension (e.g., pore diameter or cross-sectional area). The film may have pores (e.g., micropores or nanopores) with an average cross-sectional size of at least approximately 0.5 nm, 1 nm, 5 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 250 nm, 500 nm, 1 micron (μm), or at least approximately 5 μm. The film may have pores with an average cross-sectional size of approximately 5 μm or less, 1 μm, 500 nm, 250 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 1 nm, 0.5 nm, or less.

[0087] A membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may enable the transport of one or more chemical species across the membrane. A membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may be selective for certain species. In some cases, a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may selectively transport CO or CO2 from a gaseous flow. In some cases, a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may selectively transport gaseous ethylene or ethanol from a gaseous mixture. In some cases, a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may selectively transport hydrocarbons from an aqueous liquid mixture. A membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material may transport certain chemical species by diffusion or convection. In some cases, mass transfer may be enhanced by the application of an external force or field. In certain cases, mass transfer may be facilitated or enhanced by the application of a magnetic or electric field. In other cases, mass transfer may be facilitated by a pressure gradient (e.g., attracting a vacuum to one side of the membrane). In some cases, the selectivity of the membrane may be reversed by reversing the applied field or force. In other cases, the membrane may have unidirectional or invariant mass transfer selectivity.

[0088] Microstructured or nanostructured membranes may have optimal or preferred operating temperatures and pressures. In some cases, systems comprising microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be operated at ambient pressure or temperature. In some cases, systems comprising microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be operated under high pressure, or under vacuum or reduced pressure. Pressure gradients may be used to facilitate mass transfer across the membrane system. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes may be used in systems having operating temperatures of approximately -30°C, -20°C, -10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or approximately 80°C. Microstructured or nanostructured films may be used in systems with operating temperatures of at least approximately -30°C, -20°C, -10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or approximately 80°C or higher. Microstructured or nanostructured films may be used in systems with operating temperatures of approximately 80°C or lower, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, 10°C, 5°C, 0°C, -5°C, -10°C, -20°C, or approximately -30°C or lower.

[0089] Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can be used in systems with operating pressures of approximately 0 bar, 1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 15 bar, 20 bar, 30 bar, 40 bar, 50 bar or higher. Microstructured or nanostructured films can be used in systems with operating pressures of approximately 50 bar or less, 40 bar, 30 bar, 20 bar, 15 bar, 10 bar, 9 bar, 8 bar, 7 bar, 6 bar, 5 bar, 4 bar, 3 bar, 2 bar, 1 bar, or less.

[0090] Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can enable specific flow of CO or CO2 across the membrane. The flow of CO or CO2 can be facilitated by a pressure gradient across the membrane. In some cases, the pressure gradient can be facilitated by a gas flow containing CO or CO2 at a pressure higher than the ambient pressure. In other cases, the pressure gradient can exist by attracting a vacuum to one side of the membrane, for example, the tubular side. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle approximately 0.1 kilograms of gas per 1 m of membrane. 2 / hour(kg / m 2 / hr), 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 9kg / m 2 / hr, or approximately 10 kg / m 2 This can enable CO or CO2 flow at a rate of / hr. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle at least approximately 0.1 kg / m³. 2 / hr, 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 9kg / m 2 / hr, or at least about 10 kg / m³ 2 This can enable CO or CO2 flow at a rate of / hr. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle approximately 10 kg / m³ 2 / hr or less, 9kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, or approximately 0.1 kg / m 2 This may enable CO or CO2 flow at a rate of less than / hr.

[0091] Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can enable specific flow of hydrocarbons across the membrane. Hydrocarbon flow can be facilitated by a pressure gradient across the membrane. In some cases, the pressure gradient can be facilitated by a gaseous or liquid flow containing hydrocarbons at a pressure higher than the ambient pressure. In other cases, the pressure gradient can exist by attracting a vacuum to one side of the membrane, e.g., the tubular side. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle approximately 0.1 kilograms of hydrocarbons per 1 m of membrane. 2 / hour(kg / m 2 / hr), 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 9kg / m 2 / hr, or approximately 10 kg / m 2 This can enable hydrocarbon flow at a rate of / hr. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle at least about 0.1 kilograms / m³ 2 / hr, 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 9kg / m 2 / hr, or at least about 10 kg / m³ 2 This can enable hydrocarbon flow at a rate of approximately 10 kg / hr. Microstructured or nanostructured membranes can handle approximately 10 kg / m³. 2 / hr or less, 9kg / m 2 / hr, 8kg / m 2 / hr, 7kg / m 2 / hr, 6kg / m 2 / hr, 5kg / m 2 / hr, 4kg / m 2 / hr, 3kg / m 2 / hr, 2kg / m 2 / hr, 1kg / m 2 / hr, 0.5kg / m 2 / hr, or approximately 0.1 kg / m 2 This may enable hydrocarbon flow at speeds of less than / hr.

[0092] A membrane with improved selectivity for one or more chemical species may improve the chemical conversion rate or phase equilibrium of a conversion system. While not wishing to be constrained by theory, selective enrichment of one or more chemical species within the voids or pore spaces of the microstructured or nanostructured components of a membrane may increase the volume concentration of one or more chemical species within those voids or pore spaces. In some cases, an increase in the kinetic rate or a change in phase equilibrium of a particular chemical reaction may be facilitated by one or more chemical species having a higher volume concentration within the membrane than could be predicted by the bulk phase concentration on either side of the membrane. In certain cases, selective mass transfer of one or more chemical species across a membrane may increase the concentration of one or more chemical species in the boundary layer adjacent to the membrane surface. Increased boundary layer concentrations of one or more chemical species may increase the availability of one or more chemical species to a catalyst deposited on the membrane surface. In other cases, a catalyst may be deposited within the voids or pore spaces of the microstructured or nanostructured material within the membrane, allowing for direct transfer of increased mass of one or more chemical species to the catalyst via bulk flow.

[0093] The mass transfer selectivity of a membrane for one or more chemical species can cause a measurable increase in the reaction rate of one or more chemical reactions within a chemical conversion system comprising such a membrane. In some cases, the reaction rate of one or more chemical reactions can increase by at least about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 500%, or about 1000% or more. In some cases, the reaction rate of one or more chemical reactions may be higher than could be predicted by the use of measured reactant concentrations due to other synergistic effects, such as electric field enhancement of catalytic activity. In some cases, the mass transfer selectivity of a membrane for one or more chemical species can cause a measurable decrease in the reaction rate of one or more chemically undesirable reactions (e.g., side reactions, decomposition reactions) within a chemical conversion system comprising such a membrane. In some cases, the reaction rate of one or more undesirable chemical reactions may be reduced by at least about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 500%, or about 1000% or more.

[0094] A membrane containing a microstructured or nanostructured material may further contain one or more catalytic materials. The catalytic materials may be attached to, bound to, deposited, or functionalized on the surface of the microstructured or nanostructured material. In some cases, the catalyst may be positioned on the surface of the membrane. The catalyst may be localized within specific regions of the membrane or on specific regions of the microstructured or nanostructured material to control where catalytic chemical reactions may occur. The catalyst may be positioned within pores or pore-like structures of the membrane. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the catalyst may occur on specific regions of the membrane or within pores or pore-like spaces of the membrane. The catalyst may comprise metal atoms, metal complexes, or metal particles. The catalyst may include metals such as titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, or lead. In some cases, doped carbon nanomaterials may constitute the catalyst. In certain cases, N-doped carbon nanotubes may constitute the catalyst. In other cases, carbon nanotubes with electrodeposited platinum, nickel, or copper nanoparticles may constitute the catalyst (see Figure 5). The film may contain multiple catalysts. In some cases, one or more catalysts may be deposited in one or more regions or surfaces of the film, or one or more different catalysts may be deposited in one or more different regions or surfaces of the film. The film may catalyze one or more chemical reactions when mass transfer occurs across the film in a particular direction, or may catalyze one or more different chemical reactions when mass transfer occurs across the film in different directions.

[0095] Electrochemical reduction processes utilizing microstructured or nanostructured catalyst membranes may employ methods or components to minimize catalyst poisoning. The catalyst-containing microstructured or nanostructured membrane may be refreshed or regenerated to mitigate the effects of catalyst poisoning and the deposition of other undesirable species. In some cases, the membrane may be removed from the electrochemical reduction system for catalyst regeneration. In other cases, the membrane may be washed with acid to dissolve or remove catalyst particles, after which new catalyst particles may be deposited on the membrane surface or nanoparticle surface.

[0096] Films containing microstructured or nanostructured materials may have enhanced electrical properties. In some embodiments, the film may be conductive due to the electrical properties of the microstructured or nanostructured material. In some cases, the film may be semiconductor (e.g., carbon nanotubes of a specific chirality). The film may be configured to function as an electrode in an electrochemical system. The film may allow electric current to be transferred to one or more catalysts bonded to it. The electric current may enhance the reactivity of the catalyst to a particular catalytic chemical reaction. In some cases, selective mass transfer of specific chemical species across the microstructured or nanostructured film may increase the current density achieved at the film electrode.

[0097] Membranes containing microstructured or nanostructured materials can be used for a variety of purposes. In some cases, a membrane can enable the transfer of chemical species from a first gas mixture to a second gas mixture. In some cases, a membrane can enable the transfer of chemical species from a gas phase to a liquid phase. In some cases, a membrane can enable the transfer of chemical species from a first liquid mixture to a second liquid mixture. In some cases, a membrane can enable the transfer of chemical species to a catalytic site where a chemical reaction may occur. In some cases, a membrane may be used to perform both chemical separation and catalysis. In some cases, the membrane may be circulated between separation and catalysis by the application of an electric field or other directional field or force. In other cases, a membrane may perform catalysis and chemical separation simultaneously.

[0098] Chemical conversion system The inventions of this disclosure include chemical conversion systems for converting carbon dioxide to other chemical species (e.g., C1+ products) via electrochemical reduction. Numerous embodiments of the invention can be conceived across a wide range of processing scales. CO or CO2 conversion systems may include microscale fuel production equipment, standalone chemical production systems producing specific chemicals or fuels on a scale of tens to hundreds of kilograms per day, or industrial-scale production of chemicals or fuels on a scale of thousands of kilograms or more per day.

[0099] A chemical conversion system may utilize one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes to perform the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide. A chemical conversion system may include one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes to separate carbon dioxide from a gas stream and supply it to a chemical reactor. A chemical conversion system may include one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes to separate chemical mixtures resulting from the unit operation of the chemical conversion system. A chemical conversion system may include one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes to perform the catalytic electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to another chemical species (e.g., formate, methanol, ethanol). A chemical conversion system may include one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes to perform one or more catalytic conversion reactions of one or more species formed by the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (e.g., formate to methanol or ethanol, methanol and ethanol to propanol, ethanol to butanol, etc., including additional reduction of CO or CO2 reduction products; dehydration of ethanol to ethylene).

[0100] A chemical conversion system may include one or more unit operations for separating chemical species using a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material. A chemical conversion system may include one or more unit operations for reacting one or more chemical species using a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material. In some cases, a chemical conversion system may utilize a microstructured or nanostructured membrane unit operation for separate operations such as the reaction or separation of one or more chemical species. In some cases, a chemical conversion system may utilize a single microstructured or nanostructured membrane unit operation for multiple operations such as the simultaneous reaction and separation of one or more chemical species. In some cases, a chemical conversion system may include multiple unit operations involving a membrane containing microstructured or nanostructured material. In some cases, multiple unit operations may overlap for a particular process, e.g., multiple chemical reactors from CO or CO2 to formate. In other cases, multiple unit operations may perform various processes, e.g., chemical reactors tuned to produce hydrocarbons with varying molecular weight ranges.

[0101] In a chemical conversion system, any unit operation may be designed to operate in batch, semi-batch, or continuous mode. In a chemical conversion system, any unit operation may have one or more feed flows. In a chemical conversion system, any unit operation may have one or more product flows. In a chemical conversion system, a unit operation may utilize one or more recycle or purge flows to control its function. In some cases, a unit operation capable of multiple processes (e.g., reaction and separation) may operate continuously. In some cases, a unit operation capable of multiple processes may operate periodically between operating modes.

[0102] The chemical conversion system of the present invention may include any number of additional operations beyond membrane-based unit operations. The chemical conversion system may include one or more unit operations for separation. Separation unit operations may include additional catalytic operations using distillation columns, reaction distillation columns, gas absorption columns, stripping columns, etc., catalyst-packed columns, flash tanks, humidifiers, leaching units, liquid-liquid extraction units, dryers, adsorption systems, ion exchange columns, membrane separation units, filtration units, precipitation units, and crystallization units. The chemical conversion system may include one or more unit operations for heat transfer. Heat transfer unit operations may include mantle heaters, cartridge heaters, tape heaters, pad heaters, resistance heaters, radiant heaters, fan heaters, shell-and-tube heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, extended surface heat exchangers, scraped surface heat exchangers, condensers, vaporizers, and evaporators. The chemical conversion system may include one or more unit operations for fluid transfer. Fluid transfer devices may include piping, capillaries, fittings, valves, pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, stirrers, agitators, and blenders. Pumping devices may be operated at pressures exceeding atmospheric pressure or used to draw a vacuum. Chemical conversion systems may comprise one or more chemical reaction units, separate from electrochemical reduction reactors. Chemical reaction units may include plug flow reactors, continuous stirred-tank reactors, packed-bed towers, fluidized-bed reactors, and batch reactors. Chemical reactors may be used for a variety of quality improvement and conversions, including dehydrogenation, hydrogenation, cracking, dehydration, decarboxylation, carboxylation, amination, deamination, alkylation, dealkylation, oxidation, reduction, polymerization, and depolymerization.

[0103] A chemical conversion system may have one or more devices for process control or process safety. A chemical conversion system may include one or more thermocouples, temperature gauges, pressure gauges, rotometers, mass flow controllers, pH probes, chemical analyzers, speed gauges, infrared sensors, flow sensors, PID control devices, PLC control devices, purge valves, purge lines, and recycling lines. A chemical conversion system may be under operational control by one or more computers or computer systems.

[0104] Any unit operation within a chemical conversion system including a central electrochemical reduction unit may have at least one feed or input flow. Any unit operation within a chemical conversion system including a central electrochemical reduction unit may have at least one product or outlet flow. Any feed or input flow and product or outlet flow may comprise one or more inline unit operations for processes such as fluid transfer, heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reaction, or process control.

[0105] A chemical transformation system incorporating one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes can reduce or eliminate the energy consumption associated with one or more unit operations. For example, a gas separator incorporating one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes can eliminate the need for a distillation column or a separate adsorption system to separate CO or CO2 from air. In some cases, by utilizing unit operations involving microstructured or nanostructured membranes, one or more pumps, compressors, heat exchangers, separators, or reactors can be eliminated from an electrochemical reduction system. By utilizing one or more microstructured or nanostructured membranes, the energy consumption of a processing step or processing component can be reduced by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more.

[0106] A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more energy generating devices. These energy generating devices may include renewable or clean energy generators such as photovoltaic cells, solar concentrators, wind turbines, hydroelectric turbines, biomass combustion systems, and biomass gasifiers. The chemical conversion system may be directly electrically connected to an energy source such as a nuclear power source or a geothermal power source. The renewable or clean energy source may provide the electrical energy necessary to electrochemically reduce CO or CO2 to other chemical substances. The renewable or clean energy source may also provide the electrical energy necessary to perform any other unit operations required to produce chemical products. Renewable or clean energy sources may include solar power (e.g., photovoltaic cells), geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, tidal power, wind power, biomass power, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the chemical conversion system may be completely self-sufficient, i.e., it may not require an external power source. In other cases, the chemical conversion system may reduce the external power demand of the chemical product production process compared to conventional production methods. In some cases, power generation systems may be used to generate electricity that can be used in electrochemical processes by utilizing non-targeted byproducts, such as fuel cells for converting hydrogen, methane, or CO with oxygen.

[0107] Chemical conversion systems can reduce the external power demand of chemical processes by at least approximately 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more. In some cases, chemical conversion systems can produce fuels with a greater energy content than the total external energy consumed to produce the fuel. Chemical conversion systems can reduce carbon dioxide emissions for producing one or more chemicals.

[0108] Chemical conversion systems can reduce the net carbon emissions of chemical production processes. The total carbon emissions of chemical production processes can be reduced by at least approximately 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more. In some cases, a chemical production process can be net-negative, meaning more carbon is sequestered in the product than is released during production. Chemical conversion systems may be used to reduce the net carbon emissions of another chemical process. In some cases, chemical conversion systems may be coupled to an exhaust gas source (e.g., a flue gas flow in a power plant) to minimize total carbon dioxide emissions from the exhaust gas source. A chemical conversion system can reduce the total carbon emissions of another system or source by at least approximately 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more.

[0109] Chemical reduction systems and methods This disclosure provides a chemical conversion system that converts CO or CO2 to other chemical substances (e.g., C1+ products) via an electrochemical reduction system. In some cases, the electrochemical conversion system may produce hydrocarbons in the liquid phase via the electrochemical reduction of bicarbonate ions produced by the reaction of CO or CO2 with water. The electrochemical reduction system may produce bicarbonate ions via the capture of CO or CO2 from various sources, including atmospheric carbon dioxide and exhaust gases from industrial or chemical processes. In some cases, the chemical reduction system may reduce the energy consumption of the CO or CO2 reduction process by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more. In some cases, the CO or CO2 reduction system may utilize a feed stream containing carbon dioxide without requiring subsequent purification. In some cases, a CO or CO2 reduction system may utilize a feedstream containing CO or CO2 without requiring an additional separation process to concentrate the CO or CO2 composition of the feedstream. The feedstream to an electrochemical reduction system may contain approximately 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, 90%, 95%, or more carbon dioxide on a molar basis. The feedstream to the electrochemical reduction system may contain at least approximately 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, 90%, 95%, or more carbon dioxide on a molar basis. The feedstream to the electrochemical reduction system may contain approximately 95% or less, 90%, 50%, 20%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.5%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.09%, 0.08%, 0.07%, 0.06%, 0.05%, 0.04%, 0.03%, 0.02%, or 0.01% or less carbon dioxide on a molar basis.

[0110] An electrochemical reduction system can produce hydrocarbons at a specific rate based on the surface area available for electrochemical reduction. The electrochemical reduction system can produce hydrocarbons at a rate of about 10 kilograms per square meter per hour (kg / m 2 / hr), 20 kg / m 2 / hr, 30 kg / m 2 / hr, 40 kg / m 2 / hr, 50 kg / m 2 / hr, 60 kg / m 2 / hr, 70 kg / m 2 / hr, 80 kg / m 2 / hr, 90 kg / m 2 / hr, 100 kg / m 2 / hr, 150 kg / m 2 / hr, or about 200 kg / m 2 / hr. The electrochemical reduction system can produce hydrocarbons at a rate of about 10 kg / m 2 / hr, 20 kg / m 2 / hr, 30 kg / m 2 / hr, 40 kg / m 2 / hr, 50 kg / m 2 / hr, 60 kg / m 2 / hr, 70 kg / m 2 / hr, 80 kg / m 2 / hr, 90 kg / m 2 / hr, 100 kg / m 2 / hr, 150 kg / m 2 / hr, or about 200 kg / m 2 / hr or more. The electrochemical reduction system can produce hydrocarbons at a rate of about 200 kg / m 2 / hr or less, 150 kg / m 2 / hr, 100 kg / m 2 / hr, 90 kg / m 2 / hr, 80 kg / m 2 / hr, 70 kg / m 2 / hr, 60 kg / m 2 / hr, 50 kg / m 2 / hr, 40 kg / m 2 / hr, 30 kg / m 2 / hr, 20 kg / m 2 / hr, or 10 kg / m 2Hydrocarbons can be produced at a rate of less than / hr.

[0111] Electrochemical reduction systems may have selectivity for converting CO or CO2 into one or more chemical species (e.g., C1+ products). In some cases, selectivity may be defined as the proportion of carbon atoms entering the reactor, system, or unit that are converted into product species. For example, 50% selectivity may indicate that 50% of the incoming CO or CO2 molecules are converted into hydrocarbon species within the reactor, system, or unit. In some cases, selectivity may be defined as the proportion of carbon atoms entering the reactor, system, or unit that are converted into chemical species within a specific class, weight range, carbon number range, or other characteristic range. For example, 50% C1-C4 selectivity may indicate that 50% of the incoming CO or CO2 molecules are converted into C1-C4 hydrocarbon products. Selectivity can be single-pass selectivity. Single-pass selectivity can be defined as the proportion of carbon atoms entering the reactor, system, or unit that pass through the reactor, system, or unit once and are converted into hydrocarbon products. Selectivity can also be recycle selectivity. Recycle selectivity can be defined as the proportion of carbon atoms entering a reactor, system, or unit that are converted into hydrocarbon products by passing through the reactor, system, or unit two or more times.

[0112] An electrochemical reduction system may have selectivity of approximately 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or approximately 99%. An electrochemical reduction system may have selectivity of at least approximately 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or approximately 99% or more. An electrochemical reduction system may have selectivity of 99% or less, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10% or less.

[0113] An electrochemical reduction system for converting CO or CO2 to other chemical substances may comprise various components that may be necessary for the reduction of CO or CO2. These components may include a cathode, anode, contactor, extractor, pump, gas-liquid separator, and ion-exchange membrane. Depending on a preferred embodiment of the apparatus, some components may be included in or excluded from the chemical reduction system. In some cases, the chemical reduction system may be a single standalone or fully integrated system that performs the entire process of the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2. In other cases, the electrochemical reduction system may comprise at least two or more operablely coupled unit operations that collectively perform the processes necessary in the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2.

[0114] An electrochemical reduction system may include a housing. The housing can provide the electrochemical reduction system with a variety of functions, including, but not limited to, securing components (e.g., membranes), physical containment of fluids, separation of different fluids within a single unit, temperature or pressure retention, and / or insulation. The housing may include any suitable material, including metal, ceramic, refractory, thermal insulation, plastic, and glass. The housing may contain one unit of the electrochemical reduction system (e.g., the cathode). The housing may contain two or more units of the electrochemical reduction system (e.g., the cathode and anode). A complete electrochemical reduction system may be housed within a single housing.

[0115] The housing may include one or more walls. The housing may include one or more compartments or chambers. The housing may have a cross-section that is circular, triangular, square, rectangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, or a partial shape, or a combination of these shapes. The housing may be a single piece or formed from multiple pieces (e.g., pieces welded together). The housing may include a coating inside. Such a coating may prevent corrosion or reactions with the internal surfaces of the housing, such as oxidation / reduction reactions with the surface.

[0116] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise a cathode, anode, and electrolyte solution that collectively provide the components necessary to reduce carbon dioxide to other chemical species. The electrolyte may include an aqueous salt solution configured to have optimal ionic strength and pH for the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2. The electrolyte may include an aqueous salt solution containing bicarbonate ions. In some cases, the electrolyte may include an aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. In some cases, the bicarbonate ions may dissociate in the presence of one or more catalysts to produce CO or CO2 molecules for the reduction reaction. Dissolution of CO or CO2 into the electrolyte solution may regenerate or maintain the optimal concentration of bicarbonate ions.

[0117] An electrochemical reduction system may be configured to operate at an optimal processing temperature. An electrochemical reduction system or any of its components may have an operating temperature of at least -30°C, -20°C, -10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or at least 80°C. An electrochemical reduction system or any component thereof may have an operating temperature of approximately 80°C or less, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, 10°C, 5°C, 0°C, -5°C, -10°C, -20°C, or approximately -30°C or less.

[0118] An electrochemical reduction system may be configured to operate at the optimal voltage for reducing CO or CO2 to reduction products. Electrochemical reduction systems may be arranged in a stack or series configuration to adjust the system voltage to an optimal value. An electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage of approximately 0.1 volts (V), 0.2V, 0.3V, 0.4V, 0.5V, 0.75V, 1.0V, 2.0V, 3.0V, 4.0V, 5.0V, 10V, 15V, or approximately 20V. An electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage of at least approximately 0.1 volts (V), 0.2V, 0.3V, 0.4V, 0.5V, 0.75V, 1.0V, 2.0V, 3.0V, 4.0V, 5.0V, 10V, 15V, or approximately 20V or higher. The electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage of approximately 20V or less, 15V, 10V, 5.0V, 4.0V, 3.0V, 2.0V, 1.0V, 0.75V, 0.5V, 0.4V, 0.3V, 0.2V, or approximately 0.1V or less.

[0119] An electrochemical reduction system may have an optimal cathode current density. In some cases, the cathode current density can determine the reduction rate of CO or CO2 at the cathode. The cathode can be characterized by its overall electrochemical efficiency. Overall electrochemical efficiency can be defined as the proportion of electrical energy converted into chemical energy. The cathode has an electrochemical efficiency of approximately 10 milliamperes / cm² (mA / cm²). 2 ), 50mA / cm 2 , 100mA / cm 2 , 150mA / cm 2 , 200mA / cm 2 , 250mA / cm 2 , 300mA / cm 2 , 350mA / cm 2 , 400mA / cm 2 , 450mA / cm 2 , 500mA / cm 2 , 600mA / cm 2 700mA / cm 2 , 800mA / cm 2 , 900mA / cm 2 , or approximately 1000mA / cm² 2It may have a cathode current density of at least about 10 mA / cm². 2 , 50mA / cm 2 , 100mA / cm 2 , 150mA / cm 2 , 200mA / cm 2 , 250mA / cm 2 , 300mA / cm 2 , 350mA / cm 2 , 400mA / cm 2 , 450mA / cm 2 , 500mA / cm 2 , 600mA / cm 2 700mA / cm 2 , 800mA / cm 2 , 900mA / cm 2 , or approximately 1000mA / cm² 2 It can have the above cathode current density. The cathode current density is approximately 1000 mA / cm². 2 Below, 900mA / cm 2 , 800mA / cm 2 700mA / cm 2 , 600mA / cm 2 , 500mA / cm 2 , 450mA / cm 2 , 400mA / cm 2 , 350mA / cm 2 , 300mA / cm 2 , 250mA / cm 2 , 200mA / cm 2 , 150mA / cm 2 , 100mA / cm 2 , 50mA / cm 2 , 10mA / cm 2 It may have a cathode current density of or less.

[0120] A cathode in an electrochemical reduction system may have an overall electrochemical efficiency. A cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more. A cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more. The cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of approximately 95% or less, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or less.

[0121] Electrolytes may contain solutions having a specific ionic strength or molar concentration. Electrolytes may have ionic strengths of approximately 0.01 mol / liter (M), 0.05 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.1 M, 1.2 M, 1.3 M, 1.4 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or approximately 3.0 M. Electrolytes may have ionic strengths of at least approximately 0.01 M, 0.05 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.1 M, 1.2 M, 1.3 M, 1.4 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or at least approximately 3.0 M. Electrolytes may have ionic strengths of approximately 3.0 M or less, 2.5 M, 2.0 M, 1.5 M, 1.4 M, 1.3 M, 1.2 M, 1.1 M, 1.0 M, 0.9 M, 0.8 M, 0.7 M, 0.6 M, 0.5 M, 0.4 M, 0.3 M, 0.2 M, 0.1 M, 0.05 M, or approximately 0.01 M or less. The salt in the electrolyte may have a molar concentration of approximately 0.01 mol / liter (M), 0.05 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.1 M, 1.2 M, 1.3 M, 1.4 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or approximately 3.0 M. The salt in the electrolyte may have a molar concentration of at least approximately 0.01 M, 0.05 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.1 M, 1.2 M, 1.3 M, 1.4 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or at least approximately 3.0 M or more. The salt in the electrolyte may have a molar concentration of approximately 3.0 M or less, 2.5 M, 2.0 M, 1.5 M, 1.4 M, 1.3 M, 1.2 M, 1.1 M, 1.0 M, 0.9 M, 0.8 M, 0.7 M, 0.6 M, 0.5 M, 0.4 M, 0.3 M, 0.2 M, 0.1 M, 0.05 M, or approximately 0.01 M or less.The salts in the electrolyte may have molar concentrations in the range of approximately 0.01M to 0.1M, 0.01M to 0.2M, 0.01M to 0.5M, 0.01M to 1.0M, 0.01M to 3.0M, 0.1M to 0.2M, 0.1M to 0.5M, 0.1M to 1.0M, 0.1M to 3.0M, 0.2M to 0.5M, 0.2M to 1.0M, 0.2M to 3.0M, 0.5M to 1.0M, 0.5M to 3.0M, or 1.0M to 3.0M.

[0122] Electrolytes may have a pH that is optimal for the electrochemical reduction of CO2. Electrolytes may have a pH of approximately 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or approximately 14. Electrolytes may have a pH of at least approximately 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or higher. Electrolytes may have a pH of approximately 14 or less, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 or lower. Electrolytes may have pH values ​​in the range of approximately 0 to approximately 2, approximately 0 to approximately 3, approximately 0 to approximately 4, approximately 0 to approximately 5, approximately 0 to approximately 7, approximately 0 to approximately 10, approximately 0 to approximately 14, approximately 2 to approximately 3, approximately 2 to approximately 4, approximately 2 to approximately 5, approximately 2 to approximately 7, approximately 2 to approximately 10, approximately 2 to approximately 14, approximately 3 to approximately 4, approximately 3 to approximately 5, approximately 3 to approximately 7, approximately 3 to approximately 10, approximately 3 to approximately 14, approximately 4 to approximately 5, approximately 4 to approximately 7, approximately 4 to approximately 10, approximately 4 to approximately 14, approximately 5 to approximately 7, approximately 5 to approximately 10, approximately 5 to approximately 14, approximately 7 to approximately 10, approximately 7 to approximately 14, or approximately 10 to approximately 14.

[0123] The electrolyte in an electrochemical reduction system may be a non-aqueous electrolyte. In some cases, the electrolyte may include an ionic liquid containing a dissolved salt. Ionic liquids may include, but are not limited to, 34-midazolium-based fluorinated anionic liquids, 34-midazolium acetate, 34-midazolium fluoroacetate, pyrrolidinium ionic liquids, or any combination thereof.

[0124] The anode may contain elemental metals such as nickel, tin, or gold. The anode may comprise a wire mesh, metal foam, or other permeable structure of the selected anode material. The anode material may be operably in contact with an anion exchange membrane material or another physical separator that prevents contact with the cathode.

[0125] The cathode may contain any suitable material. In some cases, the cathode may contain copper nanoparticles and / or N-doped carbon nanomaterials. In some cases, the cathode may contain microstructured or nanostructured membrane materials. In some cases, the cathode may contain one or more catalysts for the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2, or for other chemical reactions. The cathode material may be operably in contact with an anion exchange membrane material or another physical separator that prevents contact with the cathode. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and the anode may be minimized to reduce resistance. In some cases, forced convection of the electrolyte between the electrodes may further reduce electrical resistance and / or further increase the distance between the electrodes. In some cases, the electrodes may be in different housings. In some cases, the anode and cathode may have the minimum distance between them using an ion-selective membrane. In some cases, an ion-selective membrane may not be used.

[0126] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more extractor units. Each extractor unit may comprise any unit operation or separation unit for selectively separating one or more chemical species from a feed stream. In some cases, the extractor may comprise a membrane separator. In some cases, the extractor may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the extractor may extract one or more chemical species derived from the reduction of carbon dioxide. In some cases, the extractor may extract one or more chemical species derived from the reduction of CO or CO2 from an electrolyte solution. In other cases, the extractor may separate one or more chemical species derived from subsequent reactions of the electrochemical reduction products of carbon dioxide.

[0127] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more contactor units. Each contactor unit may comprise any unit operation or separation unit for selectively separating one or more chemical species from a feedstream. In some cases, the contactor may comprise a gas adsorption tower. In other cases, the contactor may comprise packing for increasing the liquid solution surface area and a fan for increasing gas passage at the liquid interface. Such a contactor may share design functions with a cooling tower. In other cases, the extractor may comprise a membrane separator. In some cases, the extractor may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the contactor may extract one or more chemical species from the feedstream. In some cases, the contactor may extract carbon dioxide from the feedstream. In some cases, the contactor may separate CO or CO2 from the feedstream and dissolve CO or CO2 in an electrolyte solution. In some cases, the feedstream may be air. In some cases, the feedstream may be filtered before use. Such filtration may remove particulate matter and / or volatile organic compounds and / or various kinds of undesirable substances. The uptake of CO or CO2 into the gas contactor can be enhanced by the presence of hydroxide ions generated in the electrochemical reduction system.

[0128] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more ion exchange membranes. The ion exchange membranes may comprise cation exchange membranes, anion exchange membranes, or bipolar membranes. The ion exchange membranes may be in operable contact with the cathode, anode, or both the cathode and anode. In some cases, the electrochemical reduction system may not comprise any ion exchange membranes. In some cases, the ion exchange membranes may be configured to minimize the distance between the anode and the cathode. The ion exchange membranes may have thicknesses of approximately 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 125 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, 1 mm, or greater than 1 mm. The ion exchange membrane may have a thickness of at least approximately 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 125 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, 1 millimeter (mm), or greater. The ion exchange membrane may have a thickness of approximately 1 mm or less, 750 μm, 500 μm, 400 μm, 300 μm, 250 μm, 200 μm, 150 μm, 125 μm, 100 μm, 50 μm, 25 μm, 10 μm, 5 μm, 1 μm, or less.

[0129] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more compartments or chambers. A compartment or chamber can be defined as a closed volume within the electrochemical reduction system where mass transfer occurs. For example, an electrochemical reduction system may comprise a first compartment or chamber where C1+ products are generated, and a second compartment or chamber where C1+ products are extracted, separated, or otherwise transferred from the first compartment. Figures 16A to 16C show various exemplary configurations of compartments or chambers within the scope of the present invention. Figure 16A shows a schematic diagram of an electrochemical reduction system 1000 in which the first compartment or chamber 100 comprises a cathode 140, and the second compartment or chamber 200 comprises an anode 160, with the anode 140 and cathode 160 being electrically coupled by a voltage source 130. The first compartment or chamber 100 is separated from the second compartment or chamber 200 by a microstructured or nanostructured film 150, thereby controlling the movement of C1+ products from the first compartment or chamber 100 to the second compartment or chamber 200. Figure 16B shows a schematic diagram of the electrochemical reduction system 1000 housing the cathode unit 210 and the anode unit 220. The cathode unit 210 comprises a first compartment or chamber 100 housing a cathode 140 electrically coupled to an anode 160 in the anode unit 220 by a voltage source 130. The first compartment or chamber 100 is separated from the second compartment or chamber 200 by a microstructured or nanostructured film 150, thereby controlling the movement of C1+ products from the first compartment 100 to the second compartment or chamber 200 in the cathode unit 210. Figure 16C shows a schematic diagram of an electrochemical reduction system 1000 comprising a cathode unit 210, an anode unit 220, and an extractor 230. The cathode unit comprises a cathode 140 and a first compartment 100. The cathode 140 is electrically coupled to an anode 160 in the anode unit 220 by a voltage source 130. The C1+ product is generated in the first compartment or chamber of the cathode unit 210 and transferred by the C1+ flow to an extractor comprising a second compartment or chamber 200.The C1+ product is transferred from the flow C1+ to the second compartment or chamber 200 by passing through the microstructured or nanostructured film 150.

[0130] Various embodiments of chemical reduction systems utilizing microstructured or nanostructured membranes can be conceived. In one embodiment shown in Figure 6, an electrolyte solution (1) having an optimal pH may be introduced into a chemical reduction unit (2), where CO2 is introduced into the electrolyte and reduced by a catalyst to a useful reduced carbon product (RCP). In some cases, CO2 is captured in a separate unit operation and introduced into the chemical reduction unit as a gas. In some cases, CO2 is captured in a separate unit operation and introduced as a component of the electrolyte. In some cases, the chemical reduction unit may consist of various housings, tanks, pumps or other elements used to operate the unit. In some cases, separate cathode and anode reservoirs may be used. In some cases, pumps may be used to circulate the cathode and anode liquids to the electrolytic stack. In some cases, the cathode reservoir may also be a gas-liquid separator. In some cases, heat exchangers and cooling or heating systems may be used to maintain the desired temperature within the various reservoirs, stacks or other unit elements. In some cases, the chemical reduction unit (2) may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. The microstructured or nanostructured membrane may comprise one or more catalysts. In other cases, the catalytic process may comprise a conventional electrochemical "stack" comprising an anode and a cathode in the same housing. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane may be used. In some cases, various catalytic membranes may be used, or the desired reduction of CO2 may be achieved by other reduction methods. Oxygen or other oxidizing species may also be produced by such a process and released into the atmosphere or directed to beneficial uses. The stream (3) containing RCP is led to an extractor (4) from which the RCP is extracted. In some cases, the RCP stream is a liquid electrolyte. In some cases, the RCP stream is a vapor. In some cases, the RCP stream is a vapor collected from a gas space above the electrolyte. In some cases, the gas space is integrated with the chemical reduction unit. In some cases, the gas space is part of a gas-liquid separator which may be in a separate casing. In some cases, the gas-liquid separator may also be a cathode liquid reservoir. In some cases, the extractor may be equipped with a membrane extractor.The membrane extractor may include a microstructured or nanostructured membrane material. The RCP may be extracted through the pores or channels of the microstructured or nanostructured membrane due to a pressure or chemical potential difference (e.g., generated by a vacuum downstream on the luminal or back side of the membrane), producing an RCP product stream (5) which is condensed or otherwise collected by a collector unit. The collector unit may comprise a condenser. In some cases, the collector unit may comprise a heat exchange condenser, an adsorption unit, or other capture process. In other cases, the collector system may be understood to mean any of a variety of product capture and / or additional processing steps, which may include, in non-limiting examples, condensation, adsorption, repressurization, or additional reactions (e.g., additional catalysis for polymerization, or other formation of long-chain hydrocarbons). The collected RCP may be led to subsequent processing or use in the stream (7). Any non-condensable, non-collectible, or intentionally uncollected gas stream (8) may be recompressed by a vacuum pump (9) and discharged into the environment or collected for further use in the product stream (10). In some cases, the uncollected gas may include reducing agents such as H2, CO, CH4, or other gases including alcohols. In some cases, the uncollected gas may be used for beneficial purposes. In some cases, beneficial uses may include power generation in fuel cells or other unit operations, which may utilize the O2 produced by the chemical reduction process. In some cases, the uncollected gas may be used before the vacuum pump. In some cases, the uncollected gas may be sold or used in the manufacture of secondary products. After RCP extraction, an RCP-containing stream, which may be substantially depleted of RCP or have a baseline recirculation concentration of RCP (e.g., as may be required to optimize various functions or operations of the process such as extraction), is returned to the chemical reduction unit as a feed stream (1).

[0131] In another embodiment shown in Figure 7, the electrolyte solution (1) may be led to a chemical reduction unit (2) in which CO or CO2 is reduced to RCP. The electrolyte solution (3) containing RCP is led to an extractor (4) in which RCP is extracted. In some cases, the extractor may use a gas-liquid separator so that RCP can be extracted from a vapor stream above the electrolyte. In some cases, the extractor may comprise a membrane extractor. The membrane extractor may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane material. Due to a pressure or chemical potential difference (such as one generated by a vacuum downstream on the luminal or back side of the membrane), the RCP may be extracted through the pores or channels of the microstructured or nanostructured membrane, generating an RCP product stream (5) that is condensed or otherwise collected by a collector unit. The collector unit may comprise a condenser. In some cases, the collector unit may comprise a heat exchange condenser, an adsorption unit or other capture process. In other cases, the collector system may be understood to mean any of the various product capture and / or additional processing steps, which may include, in non-limiting examples, condensation, adsorption, repressurization, and additional reactions (e.g., additional catalysis for polymerization, or other formation of long-chain hydrocarbons). The collected RCP may be led to subsequent processing or use in the flow (7). A flow of non-condensable or non-collectible gas (8) may be recompressed by a vacuum pump (9) and discharged into the environment or collected for further use in the product flow (10). An electrolyte flow in which the RCP is largely depleted or which may have some recirculation concentration of it is led to a contactor (12). The contactor may have a membrane for separating one or more gases from the gas feed stream, or may utilize any other approach to bring the gas into contact with the electrolyte flow. The contactor membrane may be a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. The gas feed stream may include air, exhaust gas, or any other gas stream including CO or CO2 (13). In some cases, hydroxides formed in the electrolyte within the chemical reduction unit may be the primary adsorbent species in the electrolyte for capturing CO or CO2. In some cases, the pH of the electrolyte flow in the contactor can be controlled for optimal CO or CO2 adsorption by adding hydroxide species such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.The CO or CO2-depleted airflow may be directed to an atmospheric purge for another use. An electrolyte solution having the desired pH and concentration of the carbonate species may be returned as a feed stream (1) for reuse within the chemical reduction system.

[0132] In another embodiment shown in Figure 8, the electrolyte flow is directed to a cathode unit. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane comprising nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterials containing copper nanoparticles (this may include additional deposition of NCM on the membrane surface during manufacturing or thereafter to promote improved electrical conductivity or other properties). In the cathode unit, CO or CO2 may be reduced to RCP. RCPS may be extracted by a membrane (2) (through the membrane to a backing layer or to a lumen), generating an RCP product flow (3), which is collected in a condenser (4) and produced as an RCP product flow (5). Any non-condensable gas (6) may be recompressed by a vacuum pump (7) to maintain the vacuum of the system, or otherwise processed and discharged into the environment or subsequently used for some other purpose (8). The cathode electrolyte outlet flow (9) is led to a contactor (10), which may bring the electrolyte solution into contact with air, exhaust gas, or any other gas flow (11) containing CO or CO2, allowing the electrolyte to adsorb CO or CO2. The CO or CO2-depleted air is led to an outlet flow (12). The electrolyte flow (13) containing the adsorbed CO or CO2 is led to an anode unit (14). In some cases, the anode unit is located in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and the anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and the anode. The anode may comprise a membrane. In some cases, the anode may comprise any type of microstructured or nanostructured material, such as a membrane containing carbon nanomaterials having reduced nanoparticle platinum or similar catalysts (e.g., nickel, indium oxide, or others with similar performance characteristics). The electrolyte solution may be introduced from one side of the membrane to the other to increase mass transfer to the catalytic site. Oxygen and hydrogen (in the form of hydronium, lowering the pH) are generated within the anode unit, completing the electrocatalytic circuit. The anode unit and the cathode may be electrically connected.In some cases, the anode and cathode units may be incorporated within a single chemical reduction unit. If any residual RCP is present in the flow (13), it may be oxidized within the anode unit. In some cases, to optimize the cost or performance of the system, it may be optimal to have a certain amount of oxidized RCP species available in the electrolyte flow after the anode. An electrolyte solution (15) containing oxygen and any CO or CO2 that may have been released by lowering the pH of the solution may be led to a gas-liquid separator unit (VLS) (16), where the gas is led to the flow (17) and the liquid to the flow (18). The liquid produced from the VLS unit may be returned to the cathode unit for reuse. In this embodiment and other embodiments in which an anode and contactor are present, the relative order of these two operations is often interchangeable, in that the contactor may come before or after the anode as desired. If the contactor comes after the anode, oxygen release and CO or CO2 capture may be achieved within the same unit operation.

[0133] In another embodiment shown in Figure 9, the electrolyte solution (1) is led to a cathode unit (2). The cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. The cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane comprising nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterial containing copper nanoparticles. The cathode unit membrane may have an external electric field applied axially in the direction of water transport within the nanopores or channels, resulting in the substantial rejection of RCP by the membrane, thereby leading to a flow (3) of electrolyte with significantly depleted RCP, and generating an electrolyte flow with increased RCP concentration as flow (4). The RCP concentration in flow (4) may be further increased by a longer cathode membrane supply channel (removing the electrolyte solution while retaining RCP continuously generated at the membrane surface). The RCP (4) containing the electrolyte flow may be led to an extractor (5). The extractor may comprise a membrane extractor. The membrane extractor may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane material. The RCP may generate an RCP product stream (5) which is extracted through pores or channels of a microstructured or nanostructured membrane and condensed, or otherwise collected by a collector unit, due to a pressure or chemical potential difference (e.g., generated by a vacuum downstream on the luminal or back side of the membrane), and an RCP product stream (8). Any non-condensable gas (9) may be recompressed by a vacuum pump (10) to maintain the vacuum of the system, or subjected to any other processing method and discharged into the environment, or subsequently used for some beneficial purpose (11). The extractor electrolyte product stream (12) is led to an anode (13), where oxygenation and pH reduction may occur. In some cases, the anode unit is in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and anode. The oxygen-containing flow (14) is directed to the VLS (15), which can generate a gas outlet flow (16) and a liquid outlet flow (17).The electrolyte flow (3) depleted of RCP may be led to a contactor (18), where it comes into contact with air and any other gaseous flow (19) containing exhaust gas or CO2, causing the adsorption of CO or CO2 onto the electrolyte, facilitated by the increase in pH that occurs during the reduction of CO or CO2. The air with reduced or depleted CO or CO2 may be led to an outlet flow (20). The electrolyte solution (21) containing RCP and adsorbed CO or CO2 may be combined with or mixed with a flow (17) to form an electrolyte flow (1) for reuse in the cathode unit.

[0134] In another embodiment shown in Figure 10, an electrolyte stream (1) is led to a cathode unit comprising a membrane (2). In some cases, the cathode may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. A gas supply stream (3) containing CO or CO2 is introduced into the electrolyte from the back of the membrane, making it readily available to the catalyst at the membrane surface. The CO or CO2 may be substantially pure and, if desired, may originate from a variety of sources, including a combustion source, a geothermal source, direct air capture, or capture from other sources. The RCP-containing electrolyte stream (4) may be led to an extractor (5), where the RCP (6) is drawn into a collector (7) and produced as a stream (8). A non-condensable gas (NCG) (9) is led to a vacuum pump (10) and into a stream (11). The post-extractor electrolyte solution (12) may be led to an anode (13). In some cases, the anode unit is located in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and the anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and the anode. The oxygen-containing solution (14) generated at the anode is led to a VLS (15) which can generate outlet gas streams (16) and outlet liquid streams (17), which can be recycled back to the cathode unit.

[0135] In another embodiment shown in Figure 11, the electrolyte solution (1) can be introduced into a cathode unit equipped with a membrane from the back or luminal side. In some cases, the cathode unit membrane may be a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. The electrolyte solution can flow onto the surface of the activated catalyst where CO or CO2 is reduced to RCP. In this way, by directly introducing reactants of an ideal pH to the catalytic site, highly efficient utilization of the catalyst can be predicted. The RCP-containing electrolyte stream (3) is led to an extractor (4), where the RCP (5) is extracted into a collector (6) and produced as an RCP product stream (7). The non-condensable gas (NCG) (8) is led to a vacuum pump (9) and then to an outlet stream (10). The electrolyte solution after the extractor (11) is led to an anode unit (12). In some cases, the anode unit is located in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and the anode. The oxygen-containing solution that may be generated within the anode unit (13) is led to the VLS (14), which generates a gas outlet flow (15) and a liquid outlet flow (16), which become a recycled feed flow (1) for reuse.

[0136] In another embodiment shown in Figure 12, an electrolyte solution (1) containing CO or CO2 is led to an extraction catalyst membrane (2), where RCP may be generated. The RCP-containing electrolyte stream (3) is led to a condenser (4), where it may be generated as an RCP product stream (5). The NCG (6) is led to a vacuum pump (7), which becomes an outlet stream 8. The post-extractor electrolyte solution, which may have significantly depleted RCP or have a desired minimum recirculation concentration of RCP, is led to an ion exchange membrane (10) to allow the exchange of either OH- anions (in the case of an anion exchange membrane) or H+ ions (in the case of a proton (or cation) exchange membrane) from the stream (11) to equilibrate the pH necessary for the continuous operation of the catalytic circuit and protect the RCP in the stream (9) from oxidation that may occur upon contact with the anode or its immediate environment. The ion-exchanged electrolyte stream may be led to an anode unit (17). In some cases, the anode unit is located in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and the anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and anode. In some cases, the indicated flow is diffusive. In some cases, the indicated flow is a recirculating flow intended to aid boundary layer reduction and improve mass transport. This configuration allows for a higher circulating concentration of RCP if desired, thereby improving RCP extraction and / or other benefits. The pH equilibration flow (13) is led to a contactor (14) where CO or CO2 is adsorbed from air, exhaust gas, or other gas flow (15) containing CO or CO2. The CO or CO2-depleted air may be led to an outlet flow (16). The reconstituted electrolyte flow (1) may be led for reuse within the cathode unit. In the anode system, oxygen may be produced and the pH may decrease. The oxygen-containing solution (18) is led to a VLS (19) to produce outlet product gas (20) and outlet liquid (21), which can be recycled as a flow (11) for reuse. In this embodiment and other embodiments in which both contactors and ion exchange membranes are used, the relative order of these operations may be changed, for example, to have the contactor before ion exchange, or vice versa, so as to be beneficial for system optimization.

[0137] In another embodiment shown in Figure 13, an electrolyte solution (1) is led to a cathode unit (2) from which RCP can be generated. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a catalyst comprising nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterial containing copper nanoparticles. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane comprising nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterial containing copper nanoparticles. The RCP (3) containing the electrolyte stream is led to an extractor (4). The substantially purified RCP stream (5) is led to a collector to produce a product stream (7). NCG or other uncollected material (8) is led to a subsequent (one or more) separation unit or process, such as a vacuum pump (9), to become an outlet stream (10). The extractor-derived electrolyte solution (11) is led to an ion-exchange (IX) membrane (12), where the pH is equilibrated between flows (11) and (13), generating electrolyte flows (14) (cathode side) and (15) (anode side). Flow (15) is led to an anode unit (16) which can generate an oxidized species-rich flow (17), which is led to a separator device (indicated here as VLS) (18) that separates the oxidized species from the electrolyte flow (20), and the electrolyte flow (20) is reused as flow (13). Flow (14) is led to a contactor, where it comes into contact with a CO or CO2 source (22), resulting in a CO or CO2-depleted outlet flow (23) and an electrolyte flow (24) with desired properties for recycling to the cathode unit. In some cases, the anode unit is located in the same casing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and anode. In some cases, the flow described is diffusive. In some cases, the flow described is a recirculating flow intended to aid in boundary layer reduction and improve mass transport.

[0138] In another embodiment shown in Figure 14, an electrolyte solution (1) is led to a cathode unit (2) where RCP can be generated. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the cathode unit may comprise a microstructured or nanostructured membrane comprising nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterials containing copper nanoparticles. The RCP (3) containing the electrolyte stream may be led to an extractor (4). The substantially purified RCP stream (5) may be led to a collector (6) to generate an RCP product stream (7). NCG or other uncollected material (8) may be led to a subsequent (one or more) separation unit or process, such as a vacuum pump (9), to become an outlet stream (10). The post-extractor electrolyte stream (11) may be led to an ion exchange (IX) membrane (12), where the pH is equilibrated between streams (11) and (13) to generate streams (14) (cathode side) and (15) (anode side). The flow (15) may be directed to an anode unit (16) that generates an oxidized species-rich flow (17), the oxidized species-rich flow (17) may be directed to a separator device (indicated here as VLS) (18) that separates the oxidized species from the electrolyte flow (20), and the electrolyte flow (20) may be reused as flow (13). The flow (14) may become an electrolyte flow (14) with desired properties for reuse. A CO or CO2 source (21) that may be substantially pure may be introduced into the cathode membrane so as to be introduced into the active catalytic site from the back of the membrane or the luminal side, which may result in high availability and efficient utilization of reactants at the catalytic site. In some cases, the anode unit is in the same housing as the cathode unit. In some cases, the distance between the cathode and the anode is minimized. In some cases, an ion exchange membrane is used between the cathode and the anode. In some cases, the indicated flow is diffusive. In some cases, the flow shown is a recirculation flow intended to aid in boundary layer reduction and improve mass transport.

[0139] It should be understood that the systems and processes for any described embodiment of a chemical reduction system may be applicable to any other embodiment of the chemical reduction system. For example, certain cathodes, anodes, collectors, extractors, contactors, or gas-liquid systems may be applied to any embodiment of the chemical reduction system where appropriate. In some cases, differences in the system configurations of various embodiments may work to the advantage of selecting different system components to produce optimal system performance and processing conditions.

[0140] Computer system This disclosure provides a computer system programmed to implement the method of this disclosure. Figure 15 shows a computer control system 1501 programmed or otherwise configured to control a chemical reduction system or a process within a chemical reduction system (e.g., controlling and equilibrating the pH of an electrolyte flow). The computer control system 1501 can coordinate various aspects of the method of this disclosure, such as a method for producing reduced carbon products or a method for monitoring potentially hazardous operating conditions. The computer control system 1501 can be implemented on a user's electronic device or on a computer system remotely located relative to the electronic device. The electronic device may be a portable electronic device.

[0141] The computer system 1501 includes a central processing unit (CPU, "processor" and "computer processor" as used herein) 1505, the central processing unit may be a single-core or multi-core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer control system 1501 also includes memory or memory locations 1510 (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage units 1515 (e.g., hard disks), a communication interface 1520 for communication with one or more other systems (e.g., a network adapter), and peripheral devices 1525, e.g., a cache, other memory, data storage, and / or an electronic display adapter. The memory 1510, storage units 1515, interface 1520, and peripheral devices 1525 communicate with the CPU 1505 via a communication bus (solid line), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 1515 may be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer control system 1501 may be operably coupled to a computer network ("network") 1530 with the help of the communication interface 1520. Network 1530 may be the Internet, the Internet and / or an extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet communicating with the Internet. In some cases, network 1530 may be a telecommunications and / or data network. Network 1530 may include one or more computer servers that can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. In some cases, network 1530 may implement a peer-to-peer network with the help of computer system 1501, which may allow devices coupled to computer system 1501 to act as clients or servers.

[0142] The CPU 1505 can execute a series of machine-readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as memory 1510. The instructions may be directed to the CPU 1505, which can then be programmed or configured to implement the methods of this disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1505 include fetching, decoding, executing, and writing back.

[0143] CPU 1505 may be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of system 1501 may be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0144] The storage unit 1515 can store files such as drivers, libraries, and saved programs. The storage unit 1515 can also store user data, such as user preferences and user programs. In some cases, the computer system 1501 may include one or more additional data storage units located outside the computer system 1501, such as on a remote server that communicates with the computer system 1501 via an intranet or the internet.

[0145] Computer system 1501 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems via network 1530. For example, computer system 1501 can communicate with a user's (e.g., a user controlling the manufacture of slurry-coated substrates) remote computer system. Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PCs), slate or tablet PCs (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, smartphones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android devices, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. Users can access computer system 1501 via network 1530.

[0146] The methods described herein can be implemented by machine-executable code (e.g., a computer processor) stored in an electronic storage location of the computer system 1501, such as memory 1510 or an electronic storage unit 1515. The machine-executable code or machine-readable code may be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor 1505. In some cases, the code may be retrieved from the storage unit 1515 and stored in memory 1510 for easy access by the processor 1505. In some situations, the electronic storage unit 1515 may be omitted, and machine-executable instructions are stored in memory 1510.

[0147] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having a processor configured to run the code, or it can be compiled at runtime. The code may be supplied in a programming language that can be chosen to make the code executable in either a pre-compiled or as-compiled form.

[0148] Embodiments of systems and methods provided herein, such as computer system 401, can be embodied in programming. Various embodiments of this technology can typically be considered “products” or “manufactured goods” in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and / or related data contained in or embodied on some type of machine-readable medium. Machine-executable code can be stored in memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or electronic storage units such as hard disks. “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of a computer, processor, or related modules thereof, e.g., various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives, etc., that can provide non-temporary storage for software programming at any time. All or part of the software may sometimes be communicated over the Internet or other various telecommunication networks. Such communication may, for example, enable the loading of software from one computer or processor to another computer or processor, e.g., from a management server or host computer to an application server computer platform. Therefore, other types of media that may carry software elements include optical waves, radio waves, and electromagnetic waves used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical fixed telephone networks, and through various air links. For example, physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links and optical links, may also be considered media carrying software. As used herein, unless limited to non-temporary tangible “storage” media, terms such as computer or machine-readable media refer to any medium involved in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0149] Therefore, machine-readable media such as computer executable code can take many forms, but are not limited to, tangible storage media, carrier media, or physical transmission media. Non-volatile storage media include optical or magnetic disks, such as any storage device of any (one or more) computers, which may be used to implement, for example, a database as shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as the main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include copper wires and optical fibers, including coaxial cables, i.e., wiring that makes up buses in computer systems. Carrier media can take the form of electrical or electromagnetic signals, or sound waves or light waves, such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Therefore, common forms of computer-readable media include, for example, floppy disks, flexible disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes, any other magnetic media, CD-ROMs, DVDs or DVD-ROMs, any other optical media, punched card paper tape, any other physical storage media having a pattern of holes, RAM, ROMs, PROMs and EPROMs, FLASH-EPROMs, any other memory chips or cartridges, carriers that carry data or instructions, cables or links that carry such carriers, or any other media from which a computer can read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer-readable media can be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0150] The computer system 1501 includes, or can communicate with, an electronic display 1535, which has, for example, a user interface (UI) 1540 for providing parameters for generating reduced carbon products. Examples of UIs include, but are not limited to, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and web-based user interfaces.

[0151] The methods and systems of this disclosure can be implemented by one or more algorithms. The algorithms can be implemented by software during execution by the central processing unit 1505. For example, the algorithms can optimize the pH or bicarbonate concentration of the electrolyte solution by adjusting the flow rate of a CO2-containing gas flow through a contactor unit. As another example, the algorithms can adjust the electric field applied to a microstructured or nanostructured membrane to control the membrane's selectivity for a particular chemical species.

[0152] Preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, but it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided only as examples. The present invention is not intended to be limited by any particular example provided herein. The present invention has been described with reference to the above specification, but the descriptions and examples of embodiments herein are not intended to be construed as limiting. Hereinafter, numerous modifications, changes and substitutions will come to mind to those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. Furthermore, it should be understood that all aspects of the present invention are not limited to the particular figures, configurations or relative proportions described herein, which depend on various conditions and variables. It should be understood that various substitutes for embodiments of the present invention described herein may be used when carrying out the present invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention also encompasses any such substitutes, modifications, variations or equivalents. The appended claims define the scope of the present invention, and the methods and structures within these claims, as well as their equivalents, are intended to be encompassed by the claims.

Claims

1. A system for producing carbon products (C1+ products) containing one or more carbon atoms, The first section, The second section, and The first compartment and the second compartment are separated by a separation unit, the separation unit comprising (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a membrane having a plurality of pores, the plurality of pores being configured to allow fluid communication between the first compartment and the second compartment, The cathode and the anode are configured to reduce the carbon-containing material to the C1+ product within the first compartment while a voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode. A system in which the plurality of pores are configured to guide the C1+ product from the first compartment to the second compartment.

2. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a gas contactor in fluid communication with the first compartment, wherein the gas contactor is configured to bring the carbon-containing material into contact with water to produce a solution containing the carbon-containing material.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the film comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

4. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a catalyst in the cathode.

5. The system according to claim 4, wherein the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles.

6. The system according to claim 5, wherein the metal nanoparticles include a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold.

7. The system according to claim 4, wherein the catalyst is N-doped.

8. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a voltage source configured to supply the aforementioned voltage.

9. The system according to claim 8, wherein the voltage source comprises a regenerative power supply.

10. The system according to claim 8, wherein the voltage source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of a photovoltaic power source, a wind power source, a geothermal power source, a hydroelectric power source, a tidal power source, and a nuclear power source.

11. The system according to claim 1, further comprising an ion exchange membrane between the cathode and the anode.

12. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system is configured to have at least about 70% single-pass selectivity for the C1+ product.

13. The system according to claim 1, wherein the pores of the plurality of pores have a pore diameter of about 5 micrometers or less.

14. The system according to claim 13, wherein the pore diameter is approximately 500 nanometers or less.

15. The system according to claim 14, wherein the pore diameter is approximately 100 nanometers or less.

16. The system according to claim 15, wherein the pore diameter is approximately 50 nanometers or less.

17. The system according to claim 16, wherein the pore diameter is approximately 10 nanometers or less.

18. The system according to claim 17, wherein the pore diameter is approximately 5 nanometers or less.

19. The system according to claim 1, wherein the C1+ product comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

20. The system according to claim 1, wherein the first section comprises the cathode and the second section comprises the anode.

21. The system according to claim 1, wherein the first compartment comprises the cathode and the film.

22. The system according to claim 1, wherein the separation further comprises an extractor.

23. The system according to claim 22, wherein the extractor comprises the second compartment and the membrane.

24. A method for producing a carbon product (C1+ product) containing one or more carbon atoms using a carbon-containing material, (a) To provide an electrochemical system comprising a first compartment; a second compartment; and a separation unit for separating the first compartment and the second compartment, wherein the separation unit comprises (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a membrane having a plurality of pores, the plurality of pores for fluid communication between the first compartment and the second compartment, (b) Introducing the electrolyte solution containing the carbon-containing material into the first compartment and bringing the electrolyte solution into contact with the cathode, where the anode and the cathode are electrically in communication with each other via the electrolyte solution. (c) While a voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, the carbon-containing material in the electrolyte solution is reduced to produce the C1+ product, and the C1+ product is guided through the plurality of pores to the second compartment, and (d) Recovering the C1+ product from the second compartment of the electrochemical system, A method that includes this.

25. The method according to claim 24, wherein the cathode further comprises a catalyst.

26. The method according to claim 25, wherein the carbon-containing material in the electrolyte is reduced using the catalyst.

27. The carbon-containing material contains carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO). ２ The method according to claim 24, including )

28. The method according to claim 24, wherein the electrolyte solution includes aqueous species resulting from the interaction between the carbon-containing material and water.

29. The method according to claim 28, wherein the aqueous species comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, and formate ions.

30. The method according to claim 24, further comprising introducing the carbon-containing material into water using a gas contactor before (b).

31. The method according to claim 24, wherein the film comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

32. The method according to claim 24, wherein the film further comprises a catalyst.

33. The method according to claim 32, wherein the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles.

34. The method according to claim 33, wherein the metal nanoparticles include a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold.

35. The method according to claim 32, wherein the catalyst is N-doped.

36. The method according to claim 24, wherein the voltage is applied by a power source having a renewable power supply.

37. The method according to claim 36, wherein the renewable power source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of photovoltaic power, wind power, geothermal power, hydroelectric power, tidal power, and nuclear power.

38. The method according to claim 24, further comprising introducing the carbon-containing material into the electrochemical system by using electrochemically generated hydroxides.

39. The method according to claim 24, wherein the cathode operates at a temperature of approximately 10 degrees Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius.

40. The method according to claim 24, wherein the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system in the absence of a distillation unit.

41. The method according to claim 24, wherein the electrochemical system further comprises an ion exchange membrane.

42. The method according to claim 24, wherein the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system with at least about 70% single-pass selectivity.

43. The method according to claim 24, wherein the cathode comprises pores having a pore diameter of about 5 micrometers or less.

44. The method according to claim 24, wherein the C1+ product comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

45. The method according to claim 24, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 micrometers or less.

46. The method according to claim 45, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is approximately 500 nanometers or less.

47. The method according to claim 46, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is approximately 100 nanometers or less.

48. The method according to claim 47, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is approximately 50 nanometers or less.

49. The method according to claim 48, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is about 10 nanometers or less.

50. The method according to claim 49, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is approximately 5 nanometers or less.

51. A method for producing a carbon product (C1+ product) containing one or more carbon atoms using a carbon-containing material, (a) to provide an electrochemical system comprising a first compartment, a second compartment, and a separation unit comprising (i) an anode, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a microstructured or nanostructured membrane having pores, wherein the cathode comprises (one or more) catalysts, the separation unit separates the first compartment and the second compartment, and the first compartment is in fluid communication with the second compartment via the pores. (b) Introducing the electrolyte solution containing the carbon-containing material into the first compartment and bringing the electrolyte solution into contact with the cathode, where the anode and the cathode are electrically in communication with each other via the electrolyte solution. (c) While a voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode, the catalyst (one or more) is used to reduce the carbon-containing material in the electrolyte solution to produce the C1+ product, and to guide the C1+ product through the pore to the second compartment, and (d) Recovering the C1+ product from the second compartment of the electrochemical system, A method that includes this.

52. The carbon-containing material contains carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO). ２ The method according to claim 51, including )

53. The method according to claim 51, wherein the anode comprises (one or more) catalysts.

54. The method according to claim 51, wherein the electrolyte solution includes aqueous species resulting from the interaction between the carbon-containing material and water.

55. The method according to claim 54, wherein the aqueous species comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, and formate ions.

56. The method according to claim 51, further comprising introducing the carbon-containing material into water using a gas contactor before (b).

57. The method according to claim 56, wherein the gas contactor comprises a membrane.

58. The method according to claim 57, wherein the film comprises one or more nanomaterials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

59. The method according to claim 51, wherein the microstructured or nanostructured film comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nanoonions, graphene, and porous pyrolysis carbon.

60. The method according to claim 59, wherein the microstructured or nanostructured film further comprises a catalyst.

61. The method according to claim 60, wherein the catalyst comprises metal nanoparticles.

62. The method according to claim 61, wherein the metal nanoparticles include a metal selected from the group consisting of copper, nickel, platinum, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, tin, silver, and gold.

63. The method according to claim 51, wherein the (one or more) catalysts are N-doped.

64. The method according to claim 51, wherein the voltage is applied by a power source having a renewable power source.

65. The method according to claim 64, wherein the renewable power source comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of photovoltaic power, wind power, geothermal power, hydroelectric power, tidal power, and nuclear power.

66. The method according to claim 51, further comprising introducing the carbon-containing material into the electrochemical system by using electrochemically generated hydroxides.

67. The method according to claim 51, wherein the cathode operates at a temperature of approximately 10 degrees Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius.

68. The method according to claim 51, wherein the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system in the absence of a distillation unit.

69. The method according to claim 51, wherein the electrochemical system further comprises an ion exchange membrane configured to minimize the distance between the cathode and the anode.

70. The method according to claim 51, wherein the C1+ product is recovered from the electrochemical reduction system with at least about 70% single-pass selectivity.

71. The method according to claim 51, wherein the cathode comprises pores having a pore diameter of about 5 micrometers or less.

72. The method according to claim 51, wherein the C1+ product comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

73. The method according to claim 51, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 micrometers or less.

74. The method according to claim 73, wherein the average cross-sectional dimension is approximately 500 nanometers or less.

75. The method according to claim 74, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 100 nanometers or less.

76. The method according to claim 75, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 50 nanometers or less.

77. The method according to claim 76, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 10 nanometers or less.

78. The method according to claim 77, wherein the pores have an average cross-sectional dimension of about 5 nanometers or less.

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