Compositions and methods for treating inflammatory neuropathies

Abstract

This application relates to methods and compositions for treating conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS). The methods involve administering to a subject in need of treatment for enhanced inflammation in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. The compositions of the invention relate to compositions comprising an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, which are formulated for direct administration to the CNS of a mammal. [Selection diagram] None

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Portions of the work conducted during the development of this invention utilized United States Government funding under National Institutes of Health Grant Numbers 5R21NS091890-02 and 1R01NS107523-01. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention.

[0002] This application relates to methods and compositions for treating conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS). The methods and compositions involve the use of inhibitors of amino acid transporters in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. [Background technology]

[0003] Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the CNS characterized by demyelination, axonal injury, and progressive neurodegeneration. Interestingly, in the early stages of the disease, oligodendrocytes are able to spontaneously regenerate and restore myelin after injury. This process, called "remyelination," is possible because oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), which are abundant and widely distributed in the adult CNS, can migrate to the damaged area, differentiate into oligodendrocytes, and remyelinate around previously demyelinated axons. However, in the advanced stages of the disease, remyelination becomes increasingly inefficient and ultimately fails. The inability to regenerate myelin leads to impaired axonal function and progressive neurodegeneration, resulting in the accumulation of irreversible disability in patients.

[0004] Current immunomodulatory therapies targeting peripheral immune cell infiltration into the CNS can be effective in reducing relapses and disease severity in relapsing-remitting disease. However, these therapies are largely ineffective in progressive disease, where CNS inflammation appears to be "confined" within brain compartments behind a closed blood-brain barrier. Indeed, there are clear differences in inflammation occurring in the CNS compared to inflammation in the periphery. For example, CNS inflammation involves activation of microglia / macrophages and T-cell lymphocytes, whereas peripheral inflammation involves activation of circulating monocytes / macrophages and lymphocytes.

[0005] In advanced forms of MC, such as primary progressive MS (PPMS) and secondary progressive MS (SPMS), smoldering inflammation, characterized by slow expansion of lesions due to microglia / macrophage activation, contributes to disease progression. Indeed, analysis of postmortem brain sections from progressive MS patients reveals slowly expanding plaques exhibiting high inflammation, active demyelination, incomplete remyelination, and severe axonal loss. The exact reasons for failure to remyelinate during advanced stages of MS remain poorly understood. There are several possible reasons why remyelination is impaired in MS, including advanced age, uncontrolled inflammation, inefficient cell / myelin debris clearance, axonal dystrophy, or inability of OPCs to differentiate.

[0006] Several previous studies have demonstrated that CNS inflammation plays a key role in successful remyelination, i.e., via microglia / macrophage activation. For example, macrophage depletion by injection of clodronate-liposomes or minocycline in mouse models of demyelination significantly inhibits remyelination by preventing progression of oligodendrocyte lineage cells in the lesion. Furthermore, inflammation is induced in chronically demyelinated axons, leading to OPC differentiation and remyelination. Paradoxically, inflammation is also implicated in failure to remyelinate. Notably, high-grade or chronic inflammation has been frequently observed in advanced MS lesions that exhibit insufficient mature oligodendrocytes and remyelination. Furthermore, it has been shown that transplantation of lymphocytes from MS patients into demyelinated mouse CNS enhances microglia / macrophage activation, leading to OPC proliferation, but unable to differentiate into oligodendrocytes for remyelination. Indeed, chronic MS lesions show abundant OPCs that are recruited to the lesion in response to demyelinating injury, but may fail to differentiate into remyelinating oligodendrocytes in an inflammatory milieu. Collectively, these studies suggest that despite the beneficial effects of inflammation in recruiting and proliferating OPCs to the lesion, inflammation must ultimately be resolved to ensure efficient oligodendrocyte lineage progression and remyelination. Summary of the Invention

[0007] The present application relates to methods and compositions for treating conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS, comprising administering to a subject in need of treatment for enhanced inflammation in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS.

[0008] The present application also relates to a composition comprising an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in proinflammatory cells, or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof, which is formulated for direct administration to the CNS of a mammal. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0009] [Figure 1] 1 shows the expression of Slc7a5 in immune cells in CNS lesions. [Diagram 2] 1 shows the administration of JPH203 by intraperitoneal injection to mice with induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) for 5 consecutive days. [Diagram 3] Pharmacological inhibition of Slc7a5 by JPH203 in CNS lesions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0010] Enhanced inflammation, often referred to in the art as "unresolved inflammation", is an imbalance between the two opposing pathways of acute inflammation, i.e., anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory pathways, resulting in the destruction of the overall protective properties of the immune system. The terms "enhanced inflammation" and "unresolved inflammation" are used interchangeably herein. Persistent unresolved inflammation can lead to chronic inflammation, which in turn can lead to complications or pathologies. Those skilled in the art will readily understand the terms unresolved inflammation or enhanced inflammation as used herein.

[0011] However, inflammation can take different forms depending on the location of the anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory responses. Thus, unresolved inflammation and chronic inflammation can also take different forms depending on the site of inflammation. For example, inflammation within the CNS involves microglia, a distinct immune cell found only in the CNS. On the other hand, inflammation outside the CNS cannot involve microglia because microglia are only found in the CNS.

[0012] Microglia are the "resident immune cells" of the CNS and are not found outside the CNS. They are phenotypically and functionally distinct from other types of immune cells outside the CNS. For example, microglia typically do not express, or express at low levels, mRNA transcripts typically expressed in other macrophage populations outside the CNS. However, microglia typically exhibit aberrantly high mRNA expression levels for genes related to oxidative metabolism. See Perry, V. and Teeling, J., Semin. Immunopathol., 35(5): 601-612 (2013), incorporated by reference.

[0013] The role of microglia in CNS inflammation is not fully understood, and there are conflicting data regarding the beneficial or detrimental effects of microglia during CNS inflammation. For example, Yin, J, et al., J. Immunology Res., Vol. 2017, Article ID 5150678, (doi: 10.1155 / 2017 / 5150678) reported in a recent review that activated microglia can have a neuroprotective effect during MS. See Bogie, F., et al., Acta Neuro-Pathologica, 128(2):191-213 (2014). On the other hand, activated microglia may also exert neurotoxic effects during MS progression. At present, it remains unclear whether inhibiting microglial activity or promoting microglial proliferation and / or activation will provide therapeutic relief to patients suffering from inflammation in the CNS.

[0014] The present application relates to methods (therapeutics) and compositions for treating conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS. The therapy comprises administering to a subject in need of treatment for enhanced inflammation in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. In one particular embodiment, the therapy comprises administering to a subject in need of treatment for enhanced inflammation in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in microglial cells.

[0015] In one embodiment, the condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS is characterized by demyelination of neurons in either white or gray matter of the CNS. The process of demyelination is well known in the art and is a pathology associated with the degradation, damage, or loss of integrity of the myelin sheath that surrounds neurons. In one embodiment, demyelination is a demyelination myelin-destructive disease in which normal, healthy myelin loses its integrity and / or is destroyed by insults such as, but not limited to, chemical toxins, viral or bacterial infections, or immune system imbalances. In any demyelination myelin-destructive disease, there is at least initially an inflammatory response that then becomes unresolved or intensifies, resulting in more widespread demyelination.

[0016] In selected embodiments, conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS where demyelination occurs that may be treated using the methods of the invention include MS, including, but not limited to, clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), relapsing-progressive MS, primary progressive MS, secondary progressive MS, mass forming MS, MS with cavitary lesions, myelocortical MS, Devic's disease, Baroconcentric sclerosis, Schilder's diffuse sclerosis, and Marburg MS.

[0017] Other conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS where demyelination occurs that may be treated using the methods of the invention include inflammatory demyelinating diseases, such as, but not limited to, neuromyelitis optica (NMO), neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), autoimmune encephalitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated demyelination (Anti-MOG), HTLV-I associated myelopathy (HAM), transverse myelitis, chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuritis (CRION), and other inflammatory demyelinating diseases discussed in Hoftberger, R. and Lassmann, H., “Inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system” in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Kovacs, G. and Alafuzoff, I., Eds., Vol 145, pp. 263-283 (2018), which is incorporated by reference.

[0018] Other conditions characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS that may be treated using the methods of the invention include conditions in which demyelination does not necessarily occur, such as, but not limited to, radiation-induced injury following cancer therapy, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), viral infection, spinal cord injury, optic nerve injury, and cerebral palsy. Of course, demyelination may occur in any of the conditions listed for underlying inflammation in the CNS.

[0019] The present invention also relates to a method for reducing the effect of enhanced inflammation in the CNS of a subject (prophylactic method).Prophylactic method comprises administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS to a subject who needs treatment to reduce the effect of enhanced inflammation in the CNS.In one particular embodiment, prophylactic method comprises administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter in microglial cells to a subject who needs treatment to reduce the effect of enhanced inflammation in the CNS.

[0020] The invention further relates to methods of reducing inflammation in the CNS of a subject, increasing remyelination of neurons in the CNS of a subject having a condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS, and increasing differentiation of oligodendrocytes into remyelinating oligodendrocytes in the CNS of a subject having a condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS, comprising administering to a subject an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS, according to embodiments of the invention.

[0021] In additional embodiments, therapeutic and / or prophylactic methods include administering to a subject in need of treatment for enhanced inflammation in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in other types of inflammatory cells present in the CNS, including, but not limited to, macrophages, T cells, B cells, and endothelial cells. These types of macrophages, T cells, B cells, and endothelial cells present in the CNS are readily identifiable by one of skill in the art with respect to their phenotype and function.

[0022] In certain embodiments, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters only in microglial cells. In another particular embodiment, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters in microglia and at least one other type of inflammatory cells present in the CNS, such as, but not limited to, macrophages, T cells, B cells, and endothelial cells. In another particular embodiment, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters in microglia and macrophages present in the CNS. In another particular embodiment, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters in microglia and T cells present in the CNS. In another particular embodiment, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters in microglia and B cells present in the CNS. In another particular embodiment, the compound or composition administered to the subject inhibits amino acid transporters in microglia and endothelial cells present in the CNS.

[0023] In one embodiment, the therapeutic and / or prophylactic method of the present invention comprises administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter to inflammatory cells present in the CNS, and the subject or patient is a mammal. In this specification, the terms subject and patient are used interchangeably. In one particular embodiment, the therapeutic and / or prophylactic method of the present invention comprises administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter to inflammatory cells present in the CNS, and the subject or patient is a human, a non-human primate, a mouse, a rat, a dog or a cat. The non-human subject to which the inhibitor of amino acid transporter is administered is generally an animal in which inflammation is induced in an animal model study.

[0024] Therapeutic and / or prophylactic methods of the invention include administering to inflammatory cells present in the CNS an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter, in one embodiment, the amino acid transporter inhibited is the small subunit of the large amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1).

[0025] The LAT1 protein is a sodium-independent, high-affinity transporter of "large" neutral amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, leucine, arginine, and tryptophan, encoded by the Slc7a5 gene. See UniProt record Q01650, available on the World Wide Web at uniprot.org / uniprot / Q01650, which is incorporated by reference. The LAT1 protein is abundantly expressed in "adult lung, liver, brain, skeletal muscle, placenta, bone marrow, testis, resting lymphocytes, monocytes, and fetal liver." UniProt record Q01650. The LAT1 protein is also expressed to a much lesser extent in "thymus, cornea, retina, peripheral leukocytes, spleen, kidney, colon, and lymph nodes." UniProt record Q01650. The LAT1 protein is not expressed in oligodendrocytes, and there are currently no known reports or data demonstrating expression of the LAT1 protein in microglia. Furthermore, there are no known reports demonstrating expression of LAT1 protein in macrophages, T cells, or B cells located in the CNS.

[0026] Of course, when the therapeutic and / or prophylactic methods are practiced in non-human mammals, the methods include administering an inhibitor of an orthologue of human LAT1.

[0027] In one embodiment, the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter administered to a subject in need of treatment or prevention is JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof. The JPH203 compound is (S)-2-amino-3-(4-((5-amino-2-phenylbenzo[d]oxazol-7-yl)methoxy)-3,5-dichlorophenyl)propanoic acid, C 23 H 19Cl2N3O4. The JPH203 compound may also occur in the form of a hydrochloride salt. In one embodiment, the amino acid transporter inhibitor administered to the subject in need of treatment is JPH203. In one embodiment, the amino acid transporter inhibitor administered to the subject in need of treatment is a JPH203 salt. In one particular embodiment, the amino acid transporter inhibitor administered to the subject in need of treatment is JPH203 hydrochloride. As used herein, the term "JPH203" is understood to mean a compound or a pharmaceutical salt thereof.

[0028] The compound or its salt used in the therapeutic and / or prophylactic method of the present invention can be administered systemically or locally to the CNS. In one particular embodiment, JPH203 or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is administered systemically or locally to the CNS. When the compound or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is administered systemically, the method of the present invention includes administering the compound or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt via an administration route including, but not limited to, intravenous, oral, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, intrathecal, subcutaneous, and intranasal. In one particular embodiment, JPH203 or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is administered systemically via an administration route including, but not limited to, intravenous, oral, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, intrathecal, subcutaneous, and intranasal.

[0029] As used herein, "treatment" or "treating" refers to the improvement of inflammation in the CNS or at least one detectable symptom thereof. Alternatively, "treatment" or "treating" refers to the improvement of at least one measurable physical parameter, not necessarily discernible by the patient, that is brought about by inflammation in the CNS, such as, but not limited to, demyelination of neurons. In another embodiment, "treatment" or "treating" refers to inhibiting the progression of a disease or disorder, either physically, e.g., by stabilizing discernible symptoms, physiologically, e.g., by stabilizing physical parameters, or both.

[0030] In certain embodiments, the composition of the present invention is administered to a patient, for example, a human, as a preventive measure against the effects of inflammation in the CNS.As used herein, the term "prevent" refers to administering an active compound to a subject to at least partially inhibit the effects associated with inflammation in the CNS, or to reduce the possibility that the subject will be affected by inflammation in the CNS.Of course, the term "prevent" also encompasses completely preventing the appearance of symptoms associated with inflammation in the CNS from being detectably manifested.

[0031] When compound(s) is administered to a subject for therapeutic purposes, the subject has already been diagnosed with a condition characterized by inflammation in the CNS, for example, MS. The therapeutic method is aimed at at least slowing down the progression of inflammation in the CNS or the effects of inflammation in the CNS. The phrase "slowing down" in relation to inflammation in the CNS is used to mean a procedure designed to at least partially inhibit the detectable appearance of one or more symptoms in a patient who already exhibits one or more symptoms of inflammation in the CNS, and is also used to mean at least partially inhibiting the already existing symptoms of inflammation in the CNS from worsening in a subject. Of course, the therapeutic method of the present invention can also be aimed at stopping or even reversing the progression of inflammation in the CNS or the effects of inflammation in the CNS.

[0032] When the compound(s) is administered to a subject for prophylactic purposes, the compound(s) is generally administered before the onset of detectable symptoms of demyelination.Thus, the subject can be "pretreated" by administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter to proinflammatory cells present in the CNS.Thus, the present invention also relates to a method of pretreating the effects of enhanced inflammation in the CNS of a subject, comprising administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS to a subject in need of pretreatment of enhanced inflammation in the CNS.

[0033] The pretreatment method of the present invention generally comprises administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter, for example, JPH203 or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, when the subject does not show symptoms of inflammation in the CNS.In selected embodiments, the administration of the inhibitor of amino acid transporter, for example, JPH203 or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, can occur after the subject suffers from an injury known to induce inflammation in the CNS, i.e., before administering the inhibitor of amino acid transporter, the subject suffers from an injury known to induce inflammation in the CNS.

[0034] In selected embodiments of the pretreatment method, the injury known to induce inflammation in the CNS may be one of: radiation-induced injury following cancer treatment, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), viral infection, spinal cord injury, and optic nerve injury.

[0035] In selected embodiments of the pretreatment method, an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter, such as JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered to the subject within about 7 days of injury. In more specific embodiments, an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter, such as JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered to the subject within about 6 days of injury, within about 5 days of injury, within about 4 days of injury, within about 3 days of injury, within about 48 hours of injury, within about 36 hours of injury, within about 24 hours of injury, within about 12 hours of injury, within about 6 hours of injury, within about 2 hours of injury, or within about 1 hour of injury.

[0036] The mechanism of action of JPH203 or its salt is not critical to the treatment and / or pretreatment method of the present invention. However, in one particular embodiment, JPH203 or its pharma- ceutically acceptable salt, when administered to a subject in need of treatment or pretreatment of inflammation in the CNS, selectively inhibits mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) signaling in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. However, in one particular embodiment, JPH203 or its salt, when administered to a subject in need of treatment or pretreatment of inflammation in the CNS, selectively inhibits mTOR signaling in microglia. As those skilled in the art will recognize, mTOR is a kinase involved in the regulation of cell cycle, proliferation, and cell survival. The effect of activating mTOR is cell type specific, but mTOR activation requires amino acids.

[0037] Thus, in one particular embodiment, the treatment and / or pretreatment method of the present invention comprises inhibiting the activity of mTOR kinase in inflammatory cells present in the CNS in a subject in need of treatment for inflammation in the CNS by administering JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject. In a more particular embodiment, the method of the present invention comprises inhibiting the activity of mTOR kinase in microglia of the CNS in a subject in need of treatment for inflammation in the CNS by administering JPH203 or a salt thereof to the subject. In an additional particular embodiment, the method of the present invention comprises inhibiting the activity of mTOR kinase in macrophages, T cells, B cells, and / or endothelial cells of the CNS in a subject in need of treatment for inflammation in the CNS by administering JPH203 or a salt thereof to the subject.

[0038] By administering an inhibitor of amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells of CNS to a subject who needs treatment or pretreatment, the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) (or oligodendrocyte precursor cells) into remyelinating oligodendrocytes in the CNS of the subject can be increased or promoted. Oligodendrocyte cells are well known to those skilled in the art and are involved in the production of myelin that covers nerve axons. Most oligodendrocytes are formed during embryogenesis, but in adults, OPCs can be recruited to lesions in the CNS and differentiate into more mature myelin-producing oligodendrocytes.

[0039] However, in the case of chronic inflammation or persistent unresolved inflammation, OPCs may not be able to differentiate into myelin-producing oligodendrocytes even if they are recruited to the lesion. Activated microglia or other activated inflammatory cells present in the CNS appear to block OPCs from differentiating into mature oligodendrocytes. Thus, in one particular embodiment, the method of the present invention comprises promoting the differentiation of OPCs into remyelinating oligodendrocytes in the CNS in a subject in need of treatment of inflammation in the CNS by administering JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject.

[0040] It follows that the treatment and / or pretreatment method of the present invention may also include promoting remyelination of neurons in the CNS in a subject in need of treatment of inflammation in the CNS by administering JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject. Measuring or visualizing myelin content in the brain and spinal cord includes, but is not limited to, myelin water fraction, magnetization transfer ratio (MTR), restricted proton fraction f (obtained from quantitative MTR), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) metrics, and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. These techniques for measuring myelin content in terms of assessing the level and extent of demyelination and / or remyelination are well known in the art. See Mallik, S., et al., J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 85:1396-1404 (2014) (doi: 10.1136 / jnnp-2014-307650), incorporated by reference.

[0041] As is well known in the art, remyelination of nerve axons reduces neurodystrophy and / or reduces neurodegeneration.Therefore, in one particular embodiment, the treatment and / or pretreatment method of the present invention comprises administering JPH203 or its pharmacologic acceptable salt to the subject in need of treatment or pretreatment of inflammation in the CNS, thereby reducing neurodystrophy and / or reducing neurodegeneration in the CNS.

[0042] The present application also relates to a composition comprising an inhibitor of amino acid transporters in proinflammatory cells, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, which is formulated for administration to the CNS of a mammal.In one particular embodiment, the inhibitor of amino acid transporters in proinflammatory cells of the CNS is JPH203 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.As used herein, the term "compound" is used to mean an active inhibitor of amino acid transporters, such as JPH203, and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts.

[0043] As used herein, the phrase "administration to the CNS" can refer to local administration of an active compound directly to the CNS, or it can refer to systemic administration of a compound, provided that the active compound can cross the blood-brain barrier to enter the CNS. For example, JPH203 and its pharmacologic acceptable salts can cross the blood-brain barrier.

[0044] Regardless of the route of administration, a suitable dosage range for the active compounds of the present invention is generally about 0.0001 milligrams to 2000 milligrams of the compound of the present invention per kilogram of body weight. In one particular embodiment, the dosage is about 0.001 milligrams to about 1500 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, more specifically about 0.01 milligrams to about 1000 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, more specifically about 0.1 milligrams to about 500 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, and even more specifically about 1 milligram to about 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.

[0045] The compounds and compositions of the present invention may also be administered by any route, for example, by infusion or bolus injection, by absorption through epithelial or mucocutaneous linings (e.g., oral mucosa, rectal and intestinal mucosa, etc.), and they may be administered together with another biologically active agent. Administration may be systemic or local. Various delivery systems, for example, encapsulation in liposomes, microparticles, microcapsules, capsules, etc., are known and can be used to administer the compounds or compositions of the present invention.

[0046] In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to administer one or more compounds or compositions of the present invention locally to the area that needs treatment.This can be achieved, for example, but not limited to, by local injection, such as epidural injection; by local application that can be absorbed through skin or mucous membrane layer; by injection through catheter or the like; by suppository; or by implant, which is a porous, non-porous or gelatinous material, including but not limited to membrane, such as silastic membrane, or fiber.

[0047] Pulmonary administration can also be employed, for example, by use of an inhaler or nebulizer, and formulation with an aerosolizing agent, or via perfusion in a fluorocarbon or synthetic pulmonary surfactant. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention can be formulated as a suppository, with traditional binders and vehicles, such as triglycerides.

[0048] The compositions contain a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter, such as JHP203, or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof, together with a suitable amount of a pharma- ceutically acceptable vehicle to provide the form for proper administration to a patient.

[0049] The term "pharmaceutical acceptable" means approved by a federal or state government regulatory agency or listed in the United States Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopoeias for use in animals, more particularly in humans. The term "vehicle" refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or carrier with which the compound of the present invention is administered. Such pharmaceutical vehicles can be liquids, such as, for example, water and oils, including those derived from petroleum, animal, vegetable, or synthetic oils, such as, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, or sesame oil. Pharmaceutical vehicles can be saline, gum arabic, gelatin, starch paste, talc, keratin, colloidal silica, urea, and the like. In addition, auxiliary, stabilizing, thickening, lubricating, and coloring agents may be used. When administered to a patient, the compound of the present invention and the pharmaceutical acceptable vehicle are preferably sterile. When the compound of the present invention is administered intravenously, sterile water can be the vehicle. Physiological saline and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can also be used as liquid vehicles, particularly for injections.Suitable pharmaceutical vehicles also include excipients such as starch, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, talc, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene, glycol, water, ethanol, etc.The present composition can also contain, if desired, minor amounts of wetting or emulsifying agents, or pH buffering agents.

[0050] The formulations can take the form of solutions, suspensions, emulsions, tablets, pills, pellets, capsules, capsules containing liquids, powders, sustained release formulations, suppositories, emulsions, aerosols, sprays, suspensions, or any other form suitable for use.

[0051] In another embodiment, the compounds and / or compositions of the present invention are formulated according to routine procedures as pharmaceutical compositions adapted for intravenous administration to humans. Typically, the compounds and / or compositions of the present invention for intravenous administration are in solution in a sterile aqueous isotonic buffer. If necessary, the composition can also include a solubilizing agent. Compositions for intravenous administration can optionally include a local anesthetic, such as lignocaine, to ease pain at the injection site. Generally, the components of the formulations of the present invention are supplied separately or mixed together in unit dosage form, for example as a dry lyophilized powder or water-free concentrate in a hermetically sealed container, such as an ampoule or sachet indicating the quantity of active agent. When the compounds of the present invention are administered by injection, they can be dispensed, for example, with an infusion bottle containing sterile pharmaceutical grade water or saline. When the compounds of the present invention are administered by injection, an ampoule of sterile water for injection or saline can be provided so that the components can be mixed prior to administration.

[0052] In one particular embodiment, the compositions of the present invention can be administered orally. Formulations for oral delivery can be in the form of tablets, lozenges, aqueous or oily suspensions, granules, powders, emulsions, capsules, syrups, or elixirs. Orally administered compositions may contain one or more optional agents to provide a pharma-ceutically palatable formulation, such as sweeteners, such as fructose, aspartame, or saccharin; flavoring agents, such as peppermint, wintergreen oil, or cherry; coloring agents; and preservatives. Furthermore, in tablet or pill form, the compositions may be coated to delay disintegration and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby providing a sustained action over an extended period of time. Selectively permeable membranes surrounding the osmotically active driving compound are also suitable for the orally administered compounds of the present invention. In one particular platform, fluid from the environment surrounding the capsule is imbibed by the driving compound, which swells and displaces the drug or drug composition through an opening. These delivery platforms can provide an essentially zero order delivery profile, as opposed to the spiked profiles of immediate release formulations. A time delay material such as glycerol monostearate or glycerol stearate can also be used.Oral compositions can include standard vehicles such as mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, cellulose, magnesium carbonate, etc.

[0053] The amount of the compound of the present invention that is effective in treating inflammation in the CNS depends on the nature or extent of the inflammation and can be determined by standard clinical techniques. In addition, in vitro or in vivo assays can be used to identify optimal dosage ranges. The precise dose employed in the formulations of the present invention will also depend on the route of administration and the extent of the condition, and dosing should be determined according to the judgment of the practitioner and each patient's circumstances. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the oral dose of an inhibitor of amino acid transporter in proinflammatory cells of the CNS is at least about 0.01 milligrams to about 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, or about 0.1 milligrams to about 50 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, or about 0.5 milligrams to about 20 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, or about 1 milligram to about 10 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.

[0054] Suitable dosage ranges of active compounds for parenteral administration, e.g., intravenous administration, may be 0.01 milligrams to 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, 0.1 milligrams to 35 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, and 1 milligram to 10 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Suitable dosage ranges of active compounds for intranasal administration are generally about 0.01 pg / kg body weight to 1 mg / kg body weight. Suppositories generally contain 0.01 milligrams to 50 milligrams of the active compounds of the invention per kilogram of body weight. Suitable doses of active compounds for topical administration range from 0.001 milligrams to 1 milligram, depending on the area to which the compound is administered. Effective doses can be extrapolated from dose-response curves derived from in vitro or animal model test systems. Such animal models and systems are well known in the art.

[0055] The invention also provides a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with an active compound of the invention. Such container(s) may optionally be accompanied by a notice in a form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use, or sale of pharmaceuticals or biological products, the notice indicating approval by the governmental agency of the manufacture, use, or sale for administration to human beings. EXAMPLES

[0056] [Example 1 - Expression of mRNA encoding LAT1] Local demyelination was induced by injecting 1% lysolecithin (Sigma-Aldrich) into the anterior cord of 8-12 week-old C57Bl / 6 mice of either sex. At 5 and 10 days post-lesion (dpl), mice were perfused intracardially with 4% (w / v) paraformaldehyde (PFA; Sigma).

[0057] To quantify the expression of Slc7a5 mRNA in injured and non-injured spinal cord sections, we used fluorescent in situ hybridization (RNAscope) (Advanced Cell Diagnostics, ACD, Hayward, CA) to detect slc7a5 mRNA labeled by a specific probe designed to target the sequence of GenBank accession number NM_011404.3. RNAscope multiplex fluorescent assays of fixed frozen tissue sections were performed according to the manufacturer's instructions (Advanced Cell Diagnostics, ACD, Hayward, CA). Briefly, slides containing 12.5 μm thick coronal sections of injured spinal cord (collected at 5 and 10 dpl) were immersed in boiling 1× target retrieval buffer (ACD) for 5–10 min, followed by protease III treatment (ACD) at 40°C for 30 min. Following the ACD protocol for hybridization and signal amplification steps, slides were subjected to subsequent immunohistochemistry (IHC) with T cell (CD-3) and microglia / macrophage (CX3CR1-GFP)-specific markers. Images were acquired using a Zeiss LSM880 confocal microscope. mRNA fluorescent puncta were quantified using Imaris software (Bitplane, Oxford Instruments).

[0058] To perform IHC, mice were perfusion-fixed with 4% PFA (Sigma). Spinal cords were dissected, postfixed in 4% PFA for 30 min at 4°C, cryoprotected overnight in 20% (w / v) sucrose (Sigma) in PBS, and then frozen in OCT on a dry ice surface. Twelve micrometer-thick spinal cord sections were cut using a cryostat (Leica CM1900), collected on SuperFrostPlus slides (VWR International), dried for 30 min, and then stored at -80°C. For IHC, sections were incubated in blocking solution (0.1% Triton™ X-100 and 10% FBS in PBS) for 1 h at room temperature (RT). Primary antibodies were diluted in blocking solution and applied overnight at 4°C. Fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies were obtained from Life Technologies and used according to the manufacturer's instructions.

[0059] Figure 1 shows the results of the analysis. Figure 1A shows quantification of Slc7a5 mRNA, demonstrating increased density in the lesion at 5 dpl and 10 dpl compared to contralateral non-lesioned white matter (n=2). Figures 1B and 1C show co-immunostaining with Slc7a5 transcripts at 5 dpl, demonstrating detection of Slc7a5 in (1B) CD-3+ T cells and (1C) Cx3cr1-GFP+ microglia / macrophages within the CNS lesion. Figure 1D shows that very few Slc7a5 fluorescent puncta were detected in quiescent microglia in adjacent non-lesioned tissue. Scale bar is 10 μm.

[0060] Example 2 - Analysis of JPH203 administration in an experimental animal model C57BL / 6 female mice (Charles River), aged 10-12 weeks, were acclimated for 7 days before inducing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). EAE was induced using an EAE kit (Hooke Laboratories, Catalog Number: EK-2110) according to the Hooke Laboratories protocol (on the world wide web at hookelabs.com / protocols / eaeAI_C57BL6.html). Briefly, mice were immunized with an emulsion of MOG35-55 in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) subcutaneously at two sites (day 0), followed by intraperitoneal administration of pertussis toxin (PTX), first on the day of immunization (day 0) and then again the following day (day 1). Approximately 115 ng of PTX was used for each of the two PTX administrations.

[0061] Mice were blindly scored daily from EAE day 7 to at least EAE day 30 according to a protocol from Hook Laboratories. The scoring system used was as follows: 0.0=no obvious change in motor function; 0.5=floppy tip of tail; 1.0=floppy tail; 1.5=floppy tail and hind limb restraint; 2.0=floppy tail and hind limb weakness or signs of head tilt; 2.5=floppy tail and dragging hind limbs or strong head tilt; 3.0=floppy tail and complete paralysis of hind limbs or floppy tail with paralysis of one front leg and one hind limb. 3.5=floppy tail and complete paralysis of hind legs, plus mouse is unable to get up when laid down;4.0=floppy tail, complete paralysis of hind legs and partial paralysis of front legs, mouse moves minimally but appears alert and eats food;4.5=complete paralysis of hind legs and partial paralysis of front legs, no movement around cage, mouse is not alert;5.0=mouse found dead due to paralysis or euthanized due to severe paralysis.

[0062] Clinical scores and body weights of mice were recorded daily until the end of the experiment. Mice that spontaneously recovered from EAE or did not reach a score of 3.0 were not considered in the analysis of the treatment studies. For each experiment, 8-10 mice from each group were analyzed.

[0063] EAE mice were treated with the L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) inhibitor JPH203 dihydrochloride starting at scores of 1.0 and 3.0. See Figure 2. JPH203 dihydrochloride dissolved in PBS was administered daily for 5 days by intraperitoneal injection at a dose of 25 mg / kg, with an injection volume of 200 ul / animal. The control group was treated with the same volume of 1x PBS. The clinical scores of animals from each group were recorded 1-7 days after the first injection.

[0064] The treatment efficacy of JPH203 was tested in mice starting with a clinical score of 3.0 (FIG. 2A). The preventive efficacy of JPH203 was tested in mice starting with a clinical score of 1.0 (FIG. 2B). At both scores, administration of JPH203 resulted in motor recovery compared to PBS controls (n=6 per group). Furthermore, JPH203 preventive treatment prevented EAE from progressing to higher scores compared to PBS controls that started with a score of 1.0 and progressed to a score of 3.0 or higher (FIG. 2B).

[0065] Example 3 - Pharmacological Effects of JPH203 in CNS Lesions Local demyelination was induced by injecting 1% lysolecithin and JPH203 or PBS control via intraperitoneal cavity at 5-9 dpl. Mice were sacrificed at 10 dpl by intracardiac perfusion with 4% PFA (Sigma). IHC was performed as previously described. Fixed spinal cord sections 12 micrometers thick were cut using a cryostat (Leica CM1900), collected on SuperFrostPlus slides (VWR International), dried for 30 min, and then stored at -80°C. For IHC, sections were incubated in blocking solution (0.1% Triton™ X-100 and 10% FBS in PBS) for 1 h at room temperature (RT). Primary antibodies were diluted in blocking solution and applied overnight at 4°C. Primary antibody suppliers and dilutions were as follows: rabbit anti-Olig2 (1:300; Millipore), mouse anti-CC1 (1:200; Sigma). Fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies were obtained from Life Technologies and used according to the manufacturer's instructions.

[0066] Antigen retrieval was used for Olig2 and mouse-on-mouse antigen retrieval was used for CC1 using the MOM™ kit (Vector Laboratories). Sections were mounted with Fluoromount-G (Southern-Biotech) after using DAPI nuclear counterstain. Olig2+CC1+ cells were quantified using ImageJ (NIH).

[0067] Figure 3 shows that JPH203 injection resulted in an increase in the number of mature oligodendrocytes in the lesion (3B) compared to PBS controls (3A). Figure 3C also shows quantification of the two-fold increase in oligodendrocytes, and Figure 3D shows PBS-treated lesions containing numerous activated Iba1+iNOS+ microglia / macrophages. Figure 3E shows JPH203-treated lesions showing a dramatic reduction in proinflammatory iNOS expression. At higher magnification (3F) in control lesions, iNOS+ macrophages had a rounded, amoeboid / foamy appearance, whereas in JPH203-treated lesions (3G), macrophages showed little iNOS labeling and a more branched appearance, indicating reduced inflammatory activity (n=3 per treatment group). *P<0.05

[0068] [Example 4] To characterize the effects of Slc7a5 inhibition on inflammation and remyelination, systemic administration of JPH203 before (preventive approach) versus after (therapeutic approach) demyelination will be performed. Furthermore, because Slc7a5 is not expressed in oligodendrocyte lineage cells, this approach will allow us to determine whether JPH203 promotes remyelination by selectively targeting microglia / macrophages in CNS lesions without affecting oligodendrocyte lineage cells. For preventive treatment, JPH203 (group 1) or vehicle (group 2) will be delivered to wild-type mice by intraperitoneal injection for 2 consecutive days before lysolecithin-induced demyelination and for 3 consecutive days after demyelination, followed by sacrifice at 10 dpl. For therapeutic treatment, JPH203 (group 3) or vehicle (group 4) is delivered by intraperitoneal injection 5-9 dpl after demyelination and sacrificed at 10 dpl. The 10 dpl time point is chosen to determine whether JPH203 promotes oligodendrocyte differentiation. Mice also receive a neutral red (NR) injection for lesion identification and analysis, and the mice are sacrificed 2 h later. The present invention provides the following: 1. A method for treating a condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) of a subject, comprising administering to a subject in need of such treatment an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS is selected from the group consisting of multiple sclerosis (MS), inflammatory demyelinating diseases, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), viral infection, spinal cord injury, optic nerve injury, and cerebral palsy. 3. The method according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the condition characterized by enhanced inflammation in the CNS is an inflammatory demyelinating disease. 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the inflammatory demyelinating disease is autoimmune encephalitis. 5. The method according to any one of 1 to 4 above, wherein the inflammatory cells present in the CNS are selected from the group consisting of microglia, macrophages, T cells, B cells, and endothelial cells. 6. The method according to any one of 1 to 5 above, wherein the inflammatory cells present in the CNS are microglia. 7. The method according to any one of 1 to 6 above, wherein the amino acid transporter to be inhibited is the small subunit 1 of the large amino acid transporter (LAT1). 8. The method according to any one of 1 to 7 above, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof. 9. The method according to any one of 1 to 8 above, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is administered systemically. 10. The method according to claim 9, wherein the route of systemic administration is selected from the group consisting of intravenous, oral, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, intrathecal, subcutaneous and intranasal. 11. The method according to any one of 1 to 8 above, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is administered locally to the CNS. 12. The method according to any one of 1 to 11 above, wherein the subject is a mammal. 13. A method according to any one of 1 to 12 above, wherein the administration of the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter results in increased differentiation of oligodendrocytes into remyelinating oligodendrocytes within the CNS of the subject. 14. A method according to any one of 1 to 12 above, wherein the administration of the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter results in increased remyelination of neurons in the CNS of the subject. 15. A method according to any one of 1 to 12 above, wherein said administration of said inhibitor of an amino acid transporter results in a reduction in neuronal dystrophy or a reduction in neurodegeneration. 16. A method according to any one of 1 to 12 above, wherein the administration of the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter results in a reduction of inflammation in the CNS of the subject. 17. The method according to any one of 1 to 12 above, wherein said administration of said inhibitor of an amino acid transporter selectively inhibits mTOR signaling in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. 18. The method according to any one of 1 to 17 above, wherein the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter is administered two or more times. 19. A composition comprising an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in proinflammatory cells, or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof, the composition being formulated for administration to the central nervous system (CNS) of a mammal. 20. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 19, wherein the amino acid transporter to be inhibited is the small subunit 1 of the large amino acid transporter (LAT1). 21. The pharmaceutical composition according to 19 or 20 above, wherein the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in proinflammatory cells is JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof. 22. A method for pretreating the effects of enhanced inflammation in a subject's central nervous system (CNS), comprising administering to a subject in need of such treatment an inhibitor of an amino acid transporter in inflammatory cells present in the CNS. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the subject suffers from an injury known to induce inflammation in the CNS prior to administration of the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the subject does not exhibit any symptoms of inflammation in the CNS prior to administration of the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter. 25. The method according to claim 24, wherein the injury is selected from the group consisting of radiation-induced injury following cancer treatment, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), viral infection, spinal cord injury, and optic nerve injury. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter is administered to the subject within about 48 hours of the injury. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter is administered to the subject less than 1 hour after the injury. 28. A method according to any one of claims 22 to 27, wherein the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter is administered to the subject two or more times. 29. A method according to any one of claims 22 to 28, wherein the subject does not exhibit symptoms of demyelination of neurons in the CNS when the inhibitor of an amino acid transporter is first administered to the subject. 30. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 29, wherein the amino acid transporter to be inhibited is the small subunit 1 of the large amino acid transporter (LAT1). 31. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 30, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof. 32. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 31, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is administered systemically. 33. The method according to claim 32, wherein the route of systemic administration is selected from the group consisting of intravenous, oral, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, intrathecal, subcutaneous and intranasal. 34. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 31, wherein the inhibitor of the amino acid transporter is administered locally to the CNS. 35. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 34, wherein the subject is a mammal.

Claims

1. 1. A pharmaceutical composition for use in promoting remyelination of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) of a subject in a condition characterized by enhanced inflammation and demyelination of neurons in the CNS, the pharmaceutical composition comprising an inhibitor of large amino acid transporter small subunit 1 (LAT1) and a pharma- ceutical acceptable vehicle, wherein the inhibitor inhibits LAT1 in microglia, macrophages, or a combination thereof.

2. 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the condition is selected from the group consisting of multiple sclerosis (MS), inflammatory demyelinating diseases, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), viral infection, spinal cord injury, optic nerve injury, and cerebral palsy.

3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 or 2, wherein the condition is MS.

4. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 , wherein the condition is autoimmune encephalitis.

5. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the inhibitor of LAT1 is JPH203 or a pharma- ceutically acceptable salt thereof.

6. The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 1 to 5, which is formulated for systemic administration.

7. 7. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6, wherein the systemic administration is selected from the group consisting of intravenous, oral, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, intrathecal, subcutaneous and intranasal administration.

8. The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 1 to 5, formulated for local administration to the CNS.

9. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the subject is a mammal.

10. The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 1 to 9, which is formulated for two or more administrations.

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