Lightweight structural components with tunable frequency-selective metamaterial shielding

Abstract

The present disclosure provides a protective enclosure for electronic systems integrating two key components: a preconfigurable polymer matrix and a tunable metamaterial. The polymer matrix forms a lightweight, structurally robust foundation with excellent mechanical properties and design flexibility, configurable for specific application requirements. Integrated within this matrix is a highly adaptable metamaterial system, precisely tunable to interact with electromagnetic energy in customized ways. By adjusting its permittivity and permeability, the metamaterial can selectively repel or absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, allowing targeted shielding against harmful interference while permitting desired communication signals to pass through. This integration overcomes limitations of traditional electromagnetic shielding approaches, offering enhanced design flexibility and customization for various electronic applications. The use of carbon nanoparticles enables fine-grained control over the metamaterial's electromagnetic properties, creating protective enclosures that effectively manage electromagnetic energy while remaining lightweight and mechanically robust.

Description

LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS WITH TUNABLE FREQUENCY- SELECTIVE METAMATERIAL SHIELDINGRELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This Patent Application claims priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 19 / 083,318, entitled “FREQUENCY SELECTIVE METAMATERIAL FOR PROTECTIVE ENCLOSURES” and filed on 3 / 18 / 2025; U.S. Patent Application No. 19 / 270,261, entitled “COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR ANTI-BALLISTIC APPLICATIONS AND METHODS OF FABRICATION THEREOF” and filed on 7 / 15 / 2025; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 754,856, entitled “GAS PERMEABLE MEMBRANES INCLUDING 3D GRAPHENE CARBONS” and filed on 02 / 06 / 2025, all of which are assigned to the assignee hereof.

[0002] Additionally, U.S. Patent Application No. 19 / 083,318 is a continuation of and claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 18 / 889,176, entitled “FREQUENCY SELECTIVE METAMATERIAL FOR PROTECTIVE ENCLOSURES,” filed 9 / 18 / 2024, which is assigned to the assignee hereof.TECHNICAL FIELD

[0003] This disclosure generally relates to protective enclosures for electronic systems, and more particularly to protective enclosures having lightweight and tunable structural components.BACKGROUND

[0004] Electromagnetic interference (EMI) poses significant challenges for electronic systems, particularly in environments where sensitive equipment must operate reliably. This issue has become increasingly important as electronic devices proliferate and wireless communication technologies advance, leading to a more crowded electromagnetic spectrum. The need to protect electronic systems from unwanted electromagnetic energy while allowing desired signals to pass through has become a critical concern across various industries, including telecommunications, aerospace, and medical technology.

[0005] Existing approaches to EMI protection often struggle to balance effective shielding with the need for uninterrupted wireless communication. Traditional Faraday cages, while effective at blocking electromagnetic waves, are typically heavy, expensive, and inflexible in their design. These limitations make them impractical for many modern applications, especially those requiring lightweight or customizable solutions. Additionally, conventional shielding methods frequently lack the ability to selectively filter electromagnetic waves, often blocking both harmful interference and beneficial signals indiscriminately.

[0006] For example, in scenarios where electronic equipment must maintain wireless connectivity while operating in EMI-rich environments, current solutions may fail to provide adequate protection without compromising communication capabilities. Another challenge arises in applications requiring adaptable EMI shielding, where existing methods arc unable to adjust their protective properties in response to changing electromagnetic conditions. These shortcomings highlight the need for innovative approaches that can offer more nuanced and effective EMI protection while maintaining the functionality and versatility demanded by modem electronic systems.

[0007] As such, there is thus a need for addressing these and / or other issues associated with the prior art.SUMMARY

[0008] This Summary is provided to introduce in a simplified form a selection of concepts that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. Moreover, the systems, methods, and devices of this disclosure each have several innovative aspects, no single one of which is solely responsible for the desirable attributes disclosed herein.

[0009] Various implementations of the subject matter disclosed herein relate generally to apparatuses, methods, and various compositions of carbon-metal composite materials. The apparatuses are shown and discussed as may be relevant to controlled usage of a plasma spray torch apparatus to produce various carbon-metal bonded compositions of matter, referred to generally and in the present disclosure as “covetic materials”. In some cases, the materials are metal-decorated carbons. In some cases, the materials are carbon-decorated metals. In otheraspects, carbon may be combined with materials other than metals, such as ceramics, plastics, composites, silicon, etc. as described in greater detail hereinbelow.

[0010] One configuration of a plasma spray torch is embodied as apparatus having a reaction chamber configured to receive a hydrocarbon process gas that is mixed with a plurality of molten metal nanoscale-sized particles, a microwave energy source operatively coupled to the reaction chamber to provide power thereto, and a controller to adjust the microwave energy source to create conditions in the reaction chamber such that the hydrocarbon process gas dissociates into its constituent carbon atoms, and single layer graphene (SLG) or few layer graphene (FLG) is grown from the carbon atoms onto the molten metal nanoscale-sized particles to form a plurality of carbon-metal nanoscale-sized particles. In some configurations, the conditions in the reaction chamber cause: (i) a first temperature at which the carbon atoms dissolve into the molten metal nanoscale-sized particles, and (ii) a second temperature at which at least some of the dissolved carbon atoms combine with the molten metal in a crystallographic configuration. Some configurations of the apparatus avail of a cooling zone to cool the plurality of carbon-metal nanoscale-sized particles to a powdered form that can be collected and stored in a containment vessel that is juxtaposed in proximity with the reaction chamber.

[0011] According to various implementations, the presently disclosed inventive concepts may be embodied as compositions of matter having any of the following physical and / or structural characteristics, and associated properties. Moreover, these characteristics and / or properties may, according to different embodiments, be included in different combinations or permutations, without limitation.

[0012] In one aspect, a composition of matter includes one or more particles, and each particle independently comprises a metal lattice having one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene disposed therein. Preferably, at least some carbon atoms of the one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are disposed in interstitial sites within the metal lattice. More preferably, the one or more coherent, planar’ layers of graphene are interlaced inters filially between basal planes of the metal lattice. The graphene may be present as a single layer (e.g., “single layer graphene” or “SLG”), or as multiple layers (e.g., two layers, three layers, five layers, ten layers, or any number of layers up to fifteen, also re I erred to herein as “few layer graphene” or “FLG”). At least some carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene are covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms are,or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or more particles may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice of each particle may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds. The one or more layers of graphene arc each preferably substantially devoid of defects, such that the graphene is “pristine”. Preferably, each particle is also characterized by a substantial, or more preferably complete, lack of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s) at grain boundaries and / or at surface(s) of the metal lattice. Owing to the inventive processing techniques described herein, total carbon loading of the particlc(s) may range from about 15 wt% to about 90 wt%, with various intermediate loadings also being demonstrated (e.g., about 20 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 33 wt%, about 40 wt%, about 50 wt%, about 60 wt%, about 75 wt%, or up to 90 wt%, in various implementations). Moreover, the particles may be characterized by a diameter in a range from about 20 nm to about 3.5 pm, and / or by having a largest discernable feature size is in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. In some implementations, the particles may be pressed into a pellet.

[0013] According to another aspect, a composition of matter includes an Inconel alloy having carbon disposed in a metal lattice thereof. Preferably, at least some of the carbon is disposed at interstitial sites of the metal lattice, and more preferably, the carbon is substantially homogenously distributed throughout the metal lattice. Moreover, grain boundaries of the composition of matter, and / or surfaces of the metal lattice, are substantially devoid of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s), in some implementations. Accordingly, a largest discernable feature size of the composition of matter may be in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. At least some carbon atoms are covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms are, or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or morecomposition of matter may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds.

[0014] Pursuant to yet another aspect, a composition of matter includes a metal lattice having at least about 15 wt% carbon disposed therein. Preferably, at least some of the carbon is disposed at interstitial sites of the metal lattice, and more preferably, the carbon is substantially homogenously distributed throughout the metal lattice. Moreover, grain boundaries of the composition of matter, and / or surfaces of the metal lattice, are substantially devoid of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s), in some implementations. Accordingly, a largest discernable feature size of the composition of matter may be in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. At least some carbon atoms are covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms arc, or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or more composition of matter may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds.

[0015] In various implementations of the foregoing aspects, the metal lattice may include one or more metals selected from the group consisting of: aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, titanium, tantalum, tungsten, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, niobium, and combinations thereof. Accordingly, the metal lattice may be characterized by a crystalline structure such as face centered cubic (FCC), body-centered cubic (BCC), or hexagonal close packed (HCC). Furthermore, the metal lattice may comprise anywhere from about 15 wt% to about 90 wt% carbon (e.g., about 20 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 33 wt%, about 40 wt%, about 50 wt%, about 60 wt%, about 75 wt%, or up to 90 wt%, in various implementations). The carbon is preferably present at interstitial sites of the metal lattice. The metal(s) may be present in the form of alloy(s), in some approaches. For instance, in particularly preferred approaches, the metals are present in the form of one or more Inconel alloys, such as Inconel 600, Inconel 617, Inconel 625, Inconel 690, Inconel 718 and / or Inconel X-750. Even more preferably, the Inconel alloy(s) are superalloy(s).

[0016] According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a protective enclosure for electronic systems is provided. The protective enclosure includes a polymer-containing matrix and a metamaterial incorporated into or embedded within the polymer-containing matrix. The metamaterial has a particular specific permittivity or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic energy.

[0017] According to other aspects of the present disclosure, the protective enclosure may include one or more of the following features. The metamaterial may comprise carbon nanoparticles and aggregates. The carbon nanoparticles may be tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic energy. Alternatively, the carbon nanoparticles may be tuned to reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic energy. The polymer-containing matrix may comprise a thermoplastic material.

[0018] The metamaterial may be embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in at least one selected from the group of a uniform distribution, a layered structure, a grid- like structure, and a random structure. The metamaterial may be tuned to allow wireless communication signals in a frequency band associated with Wi-Fi or cellular communication. The metamaterial may be tuned to absorb electromagnetic energy in a specific frequency band while allowing wireless communication signals in a different frequency band to pass through. The metamaterial may be tuned to absorb electromagnetic energy in a frequency band associated with radio frequency interference.

[0019] The mctamatcrial may be embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in a manner that allows for application of an external stimulus to the metamaterial after the formation of the protective enclosure. The external stimulus may comprise at least one selected from the group of heat, light, and an electric field. The external stimulus may be configured to cause a change in the metamaterial to absorb or reflect a different particular frequency.

[0020] The polymer-containing matrix may be a coated surface layer of the protective enclosure. Alternatively, the polymer-containing matrix may be embedded into a structure of the protective enclosure. The metamaterial may be configured to enhance a performance of at least one selected from the group of: an antenna housed within the protective enclosure, a telemetry module housed within the protective enclosure, a communication device housed within the protective enclosure, a computing device housed within the protective enclosure, a sensing equipment housed withinthe protective enclosure, a battery pack that includes telemetry devices for sending alert signals to safety systems housed within the protective enclosure, and a device that requires uninterrupted wireless telemetry housed within the protective enclosure.[00211 The metamaterial may be configured with a non-metallic material. The metamaterial may be configured to protect against electromagnetic disturbances, wherein the electromagnetic disturbances includes at least one selected from the group of electromagnetic radiation, electromagnetic energy, electromagnetic wave energy, electromagnetic interference, radio frequency interference, electromagnetic pulse, data interception, static electricity, and preconfigured electromagnetic frequencies.

[0022] The metamaterial may be configured to repeal, at a first level of the metamaterial, a preconfigured electromagnetic first frequency or a first set of frequencies, and to absorb, at a second level of the metamaterial, a preconfigured electromagnetic second frequency or a second set of frequencies. The protective enclosure may further comprise an impedance sheet, located on a first side of the metamaterial, and a conducting backplane, located on a second side of the metamaterial. The impedance sheet may be configured to reflect or shield a first set of preconfigured frequencies, the metamaterial may be configured to absorb a second set of preconfigured frequencies, and the conducting backplane may be configured to reflect a third set of preconfigured frequencies. The impedance sheet may be configured such that only a fraction of incoming electromagnetic waves pass through the impedance sheet and reach the metamaterial.

[0023] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure for electronic systems, including: a polymer-containing matrix; and a metamaterial incorporated into or embedded within the polymer-containing matrix, the metamaterial having a specific permittivity or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic energy.

[0024] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the polymer-containing matrix includes a thermoplastic material.

[0025] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the thermoplastic material is selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate.

[0026] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the metamaterial includes carbon nanoparticles.

[0027] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the carbon nanoparticles are tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic energy.

[0028] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the specific frequency of electromagnetic energy is in the range of 1 GHz to 10 GHz.

[0029] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the metamaterial is embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in a uniform distribution.

[0030] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the metamaterial is embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in a layered structure.

[0031] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein: the polymer-containing matrix is a coated surface layer of the protective enclosure; and the metamaterial is incorporated into the coated surface layer.

[0032] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the metamaterial is tuned to allow wireless communication signals in a frequency band associated with Wi-Fi or cellular communication to pass through the protective enclosure.

[0033] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein: the metamaterial is tuned to absorb electromagnetic energy in a first frequency band; and the mctamatcrial is configured to allow wireless communication signals in a second frequency band to pass through the protective enclosure.

[0034] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the first frequency band is associated with radio frequency interference.

[0035] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the polymer-containing matrix further includes reinforcing fibers for improved mechanical strength.

[0036] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the reinforcing fibers are selected from the group consisting of glass fibers, carbon fibers, and aramid fibers.

[0037] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the metamaterial includes a quenched molten metal layer containing interstitially situated carbon atoms.

[0038] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the quenched molten metal layer includes a metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium.

[0039] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, further including: an impedance sheet positioned on a first side of the metamaterial; and a conducting backplane positioned on a second side of the metamaterial.

[0040] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein: the impedance sheet is configured to reflect or shield a first set of preconfigured frequencies; the metamaterial is configured to absorb a second set of preconfigured frequencies; and the conducting backplane is configured to reflect a third set of preconfigured frequencies.

[0041] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the polymer-containing matrix is configured to respond to external stimuli, allowing for dynamic adjustment of the protective enclosure's properties.

[0042] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure, wherein the external stimuli include at least one selected from the group consisting of heat, light, and an electric field.

[0043] Details of one or more implementations of the subject matter described in this disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. Note that the relative dimensions of the following figures may not be drawn to scale.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0044] Implementations of the subject matter disclosed herein are illustrated by way of example and are not intended to be limited by the figures of the accompanying drawings. Like numbers reference like elements throughout the drawings and specification. Note that the relative dimensions of the following figures may not be drawn to scale.

[0045] FIG. 1A illustrates a section view of a metamaterial structure, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0046] FIG. IB is a comparison chart showing two different covetic material formation techniques and example materials that result from application of each, respectively, according to some implementations.

[0047] FIG. 1C presents a high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image and a high- resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy x-ray image of materials (e.g., covetic materials) produced according to the inventive techniques described herein, according to some implementations .

[0048] FIG. 2 depicts a manufacturing process for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0049] FIG. 3 depicts a plasma energy state chart showing how a pulsed microwave energy source is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0050] FIG. 4 depicts an electron temperature control technique that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations .

[0051] FIG. 5 illustrates a dual plasma torch apparatus that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0052] FIG. 6 illustrates a pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus that is tuned for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0053] FIG. 7 is a diagram depicting the intersection of common subject matter areas associated with covetics (or related materials), plasma torch spraying, and / or robust synthesized complex carbon coatings, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0054] FIGS. 8A-B are schematics depicting plasma spray processes that are used for spraying carbon particles onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations .

[0055] FIG. 9 is a scanning electron microscope image showing the effect of spraying carbon particles onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations .

[0056] FIG. 10 shows a chart depicting a graphene growth temperature profile and a binary phase diagram, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0057] FIG. 11 is a cross-section view of a conventional plasma flame apparatus.

[0058] FIG. 12 depicts a pulsed microwave process flow that is used when growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0059] FIG. 13 is a perspective view of conventional a pulsed microwave plasma spray waveguide apparatus that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles.

[0060] FIG. 14 is a schematic depiction of a micro-welding technique that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0061] FIG. 15 is a schematic depiction of a plasma spray apparatus in a coaxial configuration, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0062] FIG. 16 is a schematic depiction of a plasma spray apparatus showing the evolution of materials by processing through a series of non-equilibrium energy conditions, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0063] FIG. 17 depicts a surface wave plasma system for growing graphene onto molten particles, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0064] FIG. 18A1-2, FIG. 18B, FIG. 18C, and FIG. 18D depict various configurations of a plasma spray reactor, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0065] FIG. 19 is a chart that depicts energy versus time during pulse on and pulse off, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0066] FIG. 20A1 are images depicting organo-metallic bonding that occurs when combining carbon and copper using a plasma spray torch, in accordance with some of the disclosed implementations .

[0067] FIG. 20 A2 are images depicting a graded composition of matter applied into a substrate material and showing multiple (such as three) material property zones, in accordance with some of the disclosed implementations.

[0068] FIG. 20B is a materials evolution chart depicting several layered configurations that occur when adding carbon to bulk aluminum, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0069] FIG. 21A depicts an apparatus for spraying a molten mixture of materials into a substrate, according to an implementation.

[0070] FIG. 21B depicts a method for spraying materials (e.g., covetic materials) into a substrate, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0071] FIG. 21C is a schematic depicting a plasma spray process that is used for spraying a film, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0072] FIG. 22A depicts an apparatus for wrapping carbon particles with a molten material, e.g., a metal, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0073] FIG. 22B depicts a method for wrapping carbon particles with a molten material, e.g., a metal, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0074] FIG. 23 A, FIG. 23B, FIG. 23C, and FIG. 23D, depict example deposition techniques, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0075] FIG. 24A and FIG. 24B depict simplified schematics of materials formed via conventional deposition techniques for placing said materials onto a substrate, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0076] FIG. 25A and FIG. 25B depict simplified schematics of materials formed using inventive deposition techniques that result in non-polar covalent bonding at the surface of a substrate, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0077] FIG. 26A, FIG. 26B, FIG. 26C, FIG. 26D, and FIG. 26E depict schematic diagrams that illustrate how non-polar covalent bonds are formed between sites in the square shapes of a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure of aluminum and sites in the hexagonal shapes that occur in certain crystallographic structures of carbons.

[0078] FIG. 27 A depicts an example apparatus for producing a material, e.g., a covetic material, in a powdered form, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0079] FIG. 27B1 and FIG. 27B2 depict an example fluidized bed appar atus for cooling and handling powdered materials, e.g., powdered covetics, in a fluid, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0080] FIG. 27C is a schematic depicting a plasma spray process that is used for production of a powdered material, e.g., powdered covetic material, in accordance with one or more of the disclosed implementations.

[0081] FIG. 28 depicts method for making components from powdered materials, e.g., powdered covetic materials, using injection molding techniques, according to some implementations.

[0082] FIG. 29 depicts various properties of materials described herein, including covetic materials, according to various embodiments.

[0083] FIG. 30A1 and FIG. 30A2 depict problems and solutions associated with melting powder (e.g., metal-decorated carbons) as compared to melting in the same or similar materials in pellet form, according to some embodiments.

[0084] FIG. 31 depicts a method of using a pellet so as to minimize or eliminate ejection of material during introduction of the pellet into a VIM furnace, according to some embodiments.

[0085] FIG. 32 depicts a melt being placed into a mold, according to some embodiments.

[0086] FIG. 33 depicts a simplified schematic of a puck processing technique and apparatus, according to one aspect.

[0087] FIG. 34 shows a simplified schematic of a puck dispersion testing process, according to one approach.

[0088] FIG. 35-1 A shows a protective enclosure for an electronic system, according to an embodiment.

[0089] FIG. 35- IB shows a protective canister for an electronic system, according to an embodiment.

[0090] FIG. 35-2A shows a first example absorption performance chart corresponding to a single notch frequency selective surface, according to an embodiment.

[0091] FIG. 35-2B shows a second example absorption performance chart corresponding to a double notch frequency selective surface, according to an embodiment.

[0092] FIG. 35-3 depicts a chart of examples of frequency selective surface phenomena, according to an embodiment.

[0093] FIG. 35-4 shows a phenomena chart that correlates exploitation of physical phenomena to particular functions using metamaterials as used in protective enclosures for electronic systems, according to an embodiment.

[0094] FIG. 35-5 shows various complex frequency response charts corresponding to different materials, according to an embodiment.

[0095] FIG. 35-6 depicts a configuration for electroactive materials testing, according to an embodiment.

[0096] FIGs. 35-7A and 35-7B depict a set of images for demonstrating physical properties of metamaterials, according to an embodiment.

[0097] FIG. 35-8 depicts a three-dimensional (3D) topographical image, according to an embodiment.

[0098] FIG. 35-9A depicts tunable metamaterials, according to an embodiment.

[0099] FIG. 35-9B depicts a system wide impedance analysis, according to an embodiment.

[0100] FIG. 35-9C depicts various desired response configurations, according to an embodiment.

[0101] FIG. 35-10A through FIG. 35-1OY depict structured carbons, various carbon nanoparticles, various carbon-based aggregates, and various three-dimensional carbon- containing assemblies that are grown over other materials, according to an embodiment.

[0102] FIG. 36 depicts a flowchart of a method for configuring a metamaterial, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0103] FIG. 37 illustrates a method for configuring a metamaterial to achieve target electromagnetic properties, according to an embodiment.

[0104] FIG. 38 shows a method for preparing a polymer-container matrix with metamaterial, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0105] FIG. 39 depicts a manufacturing process for producing metamaterials with specific electromagnetic properties, according to an embodiment.

[0106] FIG. 40 illustrates a method for selective electromagnetic absorption / reflection tuning, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0107] FIG. 41 shows a flowchart depicting a metamaterial component production process, according to an embodiment.

[0108] FIG. 42 depicts a perspective view of a protective system for shielding against electromagnetic interference, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0109] FIG. 43 illustrates a section view of a metamaterial structure showing electromagnetic wave interaction, according to an embodiment.

[0110] FIG. 44 shows a section view of another metamaterial structure, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0111] FIG. 45 illustrates a system diagram showing electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and wireless communication in a practical example, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0112] FIG. 46 depicts a perspective view of a practical example demonstrating EMI shielding and wireless communication functionality, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0113] FIG. 47 depicts a flowchart for a method implementing a hybrid tuned system with selective caging, combining a high impedance layer for lightning protection and a carbon frequency selective layer, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0114] FIG. 48 illustrates a flowchart for a method of a selective geography system with EMI protection, showing the creation of a global frequency impedance layer with selective pockets for frequency control, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0115] FIG. 49 depicts a flowchart for a method applying and configuring multiple tuned layers combined with a frequency selective surface layer, including moisture selectivity, polarization, oxygen content control, and chemical composition layers, according to aspects of the present disclosure.

[0116] FIG. 50 illustrates a perspective view of an aircraft showing electromagnetic interference (EMI) protection features, demonstrating multiple configured layers and selectivecommunication pockets integrated into the aircraft's structure, according to aspects of the present disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0117] Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to approaches for creating covetic materials using spraying techniques, rather than by mixing carbon-based materials into the bulk of a molten metal slurry. Some implementations relate to techniques for reduction of the size of interstitial carbon structures down to the nanometer (nm) scale. The accompanying figures and discussions herein present example environments, example systems, and example methods for creating “covetic” materials, understood generally and defined herein to imply comprised of high concentrations (>6 % wt, and up to 90 % wt) of carbon, integrated into other materials (such as metals, metal-containing materials, plastics, composites, ceramics, etc. as described herein according to various embodiments) in such a way that the carbon does not separate out during melting or magnetron sputtering. The resulting material has many unique and improved properties over the base material from which it is produced. The carbon is dispersed through the (e.g., metal) matrix in several ways that contribute to improvements in material properties. For instance, the carbon is bound into the resulting material (e.g., a covetic material) very strongly, often resisting many standard methods at detecting and characterizing its form. Inclusion of nanoscalc carbon raises the melting points and surface tension of the resulting material. Materials produced according to the techniques described herein have higher warm- worked and cold- worked strengths.

[0118] Additionally, aspects of the present disclosure solve problems associated with creating a safe inner environment for electronic components while facilitating uninterrupted wireless communications to / from the outer environment. Some implementations are directed to approaches for absorbing certain frequency bands of electromagnetic interference while permitting wireless communications in different electromagnetic communication bands. The accompanying figures and discussions herein describe how to make and use frequency selective protective enclosures for electronic systems.

[0119] Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is everywhere. In some situations, electromagnetic interference interferes with wireless telemetry. Legacy approaches to handling EMI are deficient,at least in that EMI protections fail to account for all conditions under which the wireless telemetry is intended to continue uninterrupted.

[0120] What is needed are improved approaches. More particularly, there is a large commercial market for hardened cases made of polymers, such as polypropylene. Such hardened cases provide mechanical protection (such as vibration) and impact protection (such as droppage) of fragile equipment and cargo contained therein, in particular electronic devices. Strictly as examples, such electronic systems may include remote power generators, field medical systems, portable and / or vehicle-mounted sensing equipment, global positioning equipment, as well as communication devices of all types, computing devices of all types, etc.

[0121] Any / all of the foregoing devices, plus others that may not have been listed are subject to compromise or even catastrophic failure if / when subjected to unwanted EMI, RF, or other energy sources.

[0122] Legacy methods for protecting electrical devices and electrically powered systems from compromise and / or failure due to EMI noise, RF noise and other electromagnetic energy sources include use of a "Faraday Cage". A Faraday cage is a metal structure that completely encloses internal electronics and shields the internal electronics from harmful energy waves by reflecting the energies. Unfortunately, Faraday cages are expensive, often heavy and can only support a limited set of physical design characteristics. Any leak of EMI through the cage (such as through cracks, seams, or unshielded areas of the container) may result in compromise or, in some cases irreversible incapacitation of the electrical devices (such as memory devices) inside the cage. Moreover, Faraday cages cannot be tuned to let some frequencies pass, while other frequencies are reflected.

[0123] Disclosed herein are techniques to make and use frequency selective electroactive metamaterials. More specifically, disclosed herein are techniques to incorporate frequency selective electroactive metamaterials into polymers that are in turn molded into protective enclosures. The frequency selective electroactive metamaterials can be tuned such that when they are incorporated into a protective enclosure (such as on the surfaces of the enclosure or embedded within a material of the enclosure) they are configured to (1) absorb the otherwise harmful energy (such as RF interference), and at the same time (2) allow other frequencies to penetrate in and out of the protective enclosures. As such, RF-bascd telemetry between the innerenvironment (such as within the protective enclosure) and the outer environment (such as outside of the protective enclosure) can be carried out uninterrupted - even when the local outer environment is extremely and / or dangerously noisy.[01241 One application family where RF-based telemetry between the inner environment (such as within the protective enclosure) and the outer environment (such as outside of the protective enclosure) needs to be carried out are communication equipment applications that need to allow a communication device (such as a transceiver) to continue to send and receive signals to / from electronic components that are situated outside the protective enclosure - even while at the same time the outer environment is rife with debilitating frequencies that would otherwise (such as in absence of use of the herein-disclosed protective enclosure technologies) debilitate the electronics systems within the protective enclosure.

[0125] Another application family where RF-based telemetry between the inner environment (such as within the protective enclosure) and the outer environment (such as outside of the protective enclosure) needs to be carried out are battery packs that include telemetry devices for sending alert signals to safety systems that are situated outside the protective enclosure - even while at the same time the outer environment is rife with debilitating frequencies that would otherwise (such as in absence of use of the herein-disclosed protective enclosure technologies) the telemetry.

[0126] In these and other applications, the foregoing approaches for producing metamaterial- based frequency selective surface cure the deficiencies of Faraday cages. Further, protective enclosures that result from practice of the herein-disclosed protective enclosure technologies are lighter and more manufacturable than metal Faraday cages. Moreover, when the herein-disclosed tuned metamaterials are incorporated into a polymer, the resulting matrix composite may lend itself to multiple types of manufacturing processes (such as injection molding and roto-molding, etc.), thus facilitating a broad array container design flexibility.

[0127] In various other embodiments, the present disclosure provides techniques for the creation and utilization of frequency selective metamaterials in protective enclosures for electronic systems. These techniques address the challenge of mitigating electromagnetic interference (EMI) that can compromise the functionality of electronic systems. The disclosed technologyfocuses on the tuning of metamaterials to specific permittivity and / or permeability, and their subsequent incorporation into a polymer-containing matrix to form a protective enclosure.

[0128] This approach offers a novel solution to protect electronic systems from harmful energy waves, while simultaneously allowing for uninterrupted wireless communications. The disclosed technology offers a distinct advantage over traditional Faraday cages, which are typically heavy, expensive, and limited in their physical design characteristics. The disclosed metamaterials, when incorporated into protective enclosures, can absorb or reflect specific frequency bands of electromagnetic interference, while permitting other frequencies to penetrate, thus facilitating uninterrupted wireless communication. This technology has potential applications in a variety of fields, including but not limited to, communication equipment that requires uninterrupted wireless telemetry, and battery packs that include telemetry devices for sending alert signals to safety systems.

[0129] In addition, the present disclosure describes innovative techniques at the intersection of two key areas: (1) methods for fabricating lightweight components that incorporate metamaterials into host materials such as metal alloys and polymers, with a focus on achieving specific structural characteristics like interstitially situated carbon; and (2) approaches for precisely tuning the electromagnetic properties of these metamaterials, particularly their permeability and permittivity. This combination enables the creation of advanced materials with highly selective electromagnetic responses.

[0130] By leveraging these complementary technologies, it becomes possible to engineer protective enclosures and components that exhibit tailored interactions with electromagnetic radiation across different wavelengths. Specifically, these materials can be designed to selectively absorb or reflect certain frequencies of electromagnetic energy while remaining transparent to others. This capability opens up new possibilities for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and management in electronic systems, allowing for the development of protective enclosures that block harmful interference while still permitting desired wireless communications to pass through.

[0131] The structural integration of metamaterials, particularly the interstitial placement of carbon within the host material's lattice, contributes to the overall lightweight nature of the resulting components. This characteristic is crucial for applications where weight reduction is apriority, such as in aerospace or portable electronics. Simultaneously, the ability to fine-tune the electromagnetic properties of these integrated metamaterials provides unprecedented control over their interaction with electromagnetic waves, enabling highly specific and adaptable shielding solutions.

[0132] This synergistic approach represents a significant advancement over traditional EMI shielding methods, offering a pathway to create multifunctional materials that combine structural integrity, weight efficiency, and sophisticated electromagnetic performance in a single solution.

[0133] Additionally, the present disclosure relates to the field of electromagnetic interference (EMI) protection for electronic systems, specifically focusing on advanced shielding technologies using metamaterials (that are lightweight and tunable) incorporated into protective enclosures.

[0134] Current EMI shielding solutions face challenges such as limited frequency selectivity, inability to allow desired wireless communications while blocking harmful interference, and the use of heavy, inflexible materials that restrict design options for protective enclosures. Traditional Faraday cages, while effective at blocking electromagnetic waves, are typically heavy, expensive, and inflexible in their design.

[0135] As such, the present disclosure introduces a novel protective enclosure architecture that utilizes a polymer-containing matrix embedded with tunable metamaterials, significantly increasing EMI protection capabilities while allowing specific communication frequencies to pass through. This approach enables the creation of lightweight, customizable enclosures that can selectively absorb or reflect particular frequencies of electromagnetic energy.

[0136] Furthermore, the present disclosure incorporates innovative fabrication techniques that allow for precise control over the distribution and arrangement of metamaterials within the polymer matrix. This includes uniform, layered, grid-like, or random structures, as well as configurations that enable post-formation tuning through external stimuli. These features provide unprecedented flexibility in designing EMI protection solutions tailored to specific applications and environments.Identification and Significance of Problem and Opportunity for the Matrix

[0137] Metal matrix composites may be composed of (at least) a metal or metal alloy (referring to a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strengthor resistance to corrosion) matrix, in combination with a higher strength modulus ceramic, carbon-based reinforcement, or micro filler in the form of continuous or discontinuous fibers, whiskers, or particles. The size of the reinforcement is important as micrometer- sized reinforcement metals may exhibit improved strength and stiffness up to acceptable levels over base alloys. Nevertheless, such improvements may also be accompanied with undesirably poor ductility and undesirably low yield strength, machinability, and fracture toughness at threshold loadings due to undesirable non-homogeneous disposition of carbon between particles (e.g., at grain boundaries) during processing. To avoid premature cracking and other shortcomings of metal matrix composites with incompatible micrometer-sized reinforcements, it is essential to reduce the size of a reinforcing phase to nanometer scale. Further, methods are needed such that the reinforcing phase is incorporated into the (e.g., metal alloy) matrix, and most preferably such that the reinforcing phase is homogeneously incorporated into the matrix.

[0138] Significant increases in mechanical, thermal, electrical, and tribological (referring to the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion) properties have been observed commensurate with the addition of the aforementioned carbon-based reinforcement. Notably, such properties may change and / or improve as the size of the reinforcement is reduced from a microscale (such as 1-1000 pm) to a nanoscale (such as <100 nm) due to increased cohesion forces between the matrix and the particles. The improvement in properties can be attributed to formation of strong interfaces that promote efficient strengthening mechanisms. Enhancements in tensile and yield strength were reported for nanosized particles (~20 nm) versus micro-sized particles (-3.5 pm), although with as much as an order of magnitude less volume loading of the nano-size particles versus the micron-sized particles. Legacy techniques such as induction melting, plasma spark sintering, etc. as known in the art thus often fail to provide reinforcement at nanometer scales. Accordingly, there is a current need for the reduction of carbon structures having interstitial vacancies contained therein down to the nanometer scale.Microwave (MW) Plasma Torch Reactor

[0139] Using a micro wave (MW) plasma torch reactor, pristine 3D few layer graphene (FLG) particles can be continuously nucleated, such as in-flight in an atmospheric-pressure vapor flow stream of a carbon-containing species, such as methane gas, where such nucleation occurs from an initially synthesized carbon-based or carbon-including “seed” particle. Ornate, highlystructured, and tunable 3D mesoporous carbon-based particles composed of multiple layers of FLG (such as 5 - 15 layers) are grown from the carbon-containing species along with concomitant incorporation of metal elements or metal-based alloys to form at least partially covalently bonded (as well as at least partially metallically or ionically bonded) carbon-metal composite, also referred to herein as “covetic”, particle structures. In some implementations, “pristine” graphene (referring to graphene with no defects, or very few defects)is provided or generated in the described MW torch reactor is not oxidized, or contains very little (such as < 1%) oxygen content. By itself, in some implementations, metal (in the resultant covetic materials) is held together by metallic bonding and, by itself, carbon (prevalent in graphene or some other organized carbon based 2D or 3D structure, such as a matrix or lattice), is held together by (primarily) non-polar covalent bonds. The composite carbon-metal structure may include non-polar covalent bonds between the carbon and metal atoms that occur at the metal- carbon interface. In preferred implementations, the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and / or between carbon and metal atoms present in the composition of matter consist essentially, or entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds

[0140] Moreover, the carbon may be present in amounts not capable of being achieved using conventional techniques, e.g., the resulting materials may include more than about 6 wt% carbon, more than about 15 wt% carbon, more than about 40 wt% carbon, more than about 60 wt% carbon, or up to about 90 wt% carbon, according to various embodiments. In various embodiments, the carbon may be included in the metal lattice in the foregoing amounts, such that all or substantially all of the carbon is incorporated into the metal (or other material) lattice, and grain boundaries / lattice surfaces are substantially or entirely devoid of carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates. Further still, the carbon is preferably located at interstitial sites of the lattice.

[0141] In particularly preferred embodiments, a material may be provided in the form of a powder having the physical characteristics of “covetic” materials as described herein. The powder may comprise a plurality of particles, e.g., particles having a diameter from about 20 nm to about 3.5 pm, where each particle includes metal-decorated carbon (either in the form of carbon on metal, or metal on carbon) having carbon disposed in the metal lattice as described herein. Most preferably, the particles each independently comprise a metal lattice having one or more (e.g., one, two, five, ten, or up to fifteen) coherent, planar layers of graphene disposed in the metal lattice. FIGS. 21C and 27C show an exemplary cross-sectional structure of such acoherent, planar layer of graphene disposed along a basal plane of an aluminum matrix, according to one aspect of the presently described inventive concepts. Skilled artisans will appreciate that various implementations of the presently described powder may include particles exhibiting such a cross sectional structure. In practice, as the carbon is incorporated into the lattice, it advantageously wicks to the basal plane surfaces rather than precipitating at grain boundaries (or other lattice surfaces). This process is only possible due to the wettable nature of graphene on the nanoscale, and is not observed when producing carbon-implanted materials using conventional techniques.

[0142] In various aspects, at least some carbon atoms of the one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are disposed in interstitial sites within the metal lattice, and preferably one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene arc juxtaposed parallel to a basal plane of the metal lattice. In some embodiments, one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are juxtaposed interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice. In some embodiments, one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are interlaced interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice. Skilled artisans reading the present disclosure will appreciate that this unique distribution of carbon at interstitial sites, and disposal with respect to the basal planes of the lattice, are possible due to the inventive processing described herein, which takes advantage of high “wettability” of graphene (particularly pristine graphene) at the nanoscale, and enables both the high carbon loading, substantially homogeneous carbon dispersion, and substantial absence of carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates as described herein, all of which are not achievable using conventional techniques. See, e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B for a graphical comparison of conventionally produced “covetic materials” compared to materials produced using the inventive techniques described herein, as well as corresponding descriptions below.

[0143] With continuing reference to powdered materials according to the present disclosure, at least some of the carbon atoms may be covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, while also allowing for non-polar covalent bonding between carbon atoms, and / or metallic bonding between metal atoms of the material. More specifically, the non-polar covalent bonding between the carbon atoms, and / or between the carbon atoms and metal atoms, is characterized by equal sharing of electrons between the bonded atoms, as opposed to polar covalent bonding (where electrons are shared between bonded atoms) or ionic bonding (where bonded atoms are held together due to charge difference following transfer of electron(s) from one atom to theother). In some aspects, particles of the powdered materials may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds and / or ionic bonds. In the present context, “substantial” exclusion of polar covalent bonds and / or ionic bonds refers to compositions whose properties (e.g., crystalline structure, mechanical strength, thermal / electrical conductivity, reflectivity, etc. as described hereinbelow, inter alia, with reference to FIG. 29) are not caused by presence of polar covalent bonds and / or ionic bonds. Compositions that substantially exclude polar covalent bonds and / or ionic bonds may be considered as consisting essentially or entirely of non-polar covalent bonds, at least with respect to the carbon and metal atoms bonded together within the structure.

[0144] Moreover, the graphene is preferably “pristine”, in that the 2D or 3D structure is substantially devoid of defects such as vacancies, inclusions, contaminants, etc. as would be understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present disclosure.

[0145] The metal lattice may include one or more metals, such as aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, titanium, tantalum, tungsten, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, niobium, and combinations thereof. Where combinations are included, the metals are preferably in the form of an alloy, such as an Inconel alloy, preferably an Inconel formed from nickel, chromium, aluminum, copper, iron, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, and / or niobium, and most preferably the Inconel superalloy is Inconel 600, Inconel 617, Inconel 625, Inconel 690, Inconel 718, Inconel X-750, or a combination thereof. In some cases, combinations include tin and / or tungsten, and / or silver, and / or antimony, either singularly or in combination. In some embodiments one or more of the foregoing metals may be used singly or in combination as surfactants to improve wettability of the metal-carbon combination.

[0146] Powdered materials as described herein are preferably formed using a non-equilibrium plasma, such as may be generated using a microwave plasma-based reactor as described herein. Presently disclosed microwave plasma-based reactor processes provide a reaction and processing environment in which gas-solid reactions can be controlled under non-equilibrium conditions (referring to physical systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium but can be described in terms of variables that represent an extrapolation of the variables used to specify the system in thermodynamic equilibrium; non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and with the rates of chemical reactions, and the incipient melting of metal powders that can be independently controlled by ionization potentials and momentum along with thermal energy).

[0147] After nucleation in-situ (referring to in-place within the reactor or reaction chamber), exiting solid, substantially solid, or semi-solid carbon-based particles from the plasma torch can be deposited in an additive, layer-by-layer fashion onto a temperature-controlled substrate (such as a drum). The exiting particles can be sprayed onto and bonded onto or into a specific substrate. In some instances, a substrate is not used, rather, groupings of exiting semi-solid particles form one or more directionally organized, free-standing, self- supported structures. Unlike a standard plasma torch where operational flows, power and configuration are limited, presently disclosed microwave plasma torch includes control mechanisms (such as flow control, power control, temperature control, etc.) to independently control one or more constituent material temperatures and gas-solid reaction chemistries to create unique, ornate, highly- organized, covalently-bound carbon-metal structures having a favorably surprising and extremely high degree of homogeneity.

[0148] To elucidate, the largest discernable feature size, e.g., a defined by a length measured along a longitudinal axis of the “feature” in question, of a homogeneously-dispersed metal- carbon combination, according to various implementations, is in a range from about 0.01 nanometers (nm) to one micrometer (pm), preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about one pm, more preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about 750 nm, even more preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about 500 nm, still more preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about 100 nm, in a range, still yet more preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about 50 nm, and most preferably in a range from about 0.01 nm to about 10 nm feature size. This is in contrast with non-homogenous dispersions, which are characterized by relatively large feature sizes on the order of several (e.g., 3-5) micrometers or more.

[0149] The composition of matter may also include a plurality of "aggregates” and / or a plurality of “agglomerates”, where each aggregate includes a multitude of particles joined together, and each agglomerate includes a multitude of aggregates joined together. In some implementations, each of the particles may have a principal dimension in between 20 nm and 150 nm. Each of the aggregates may have a principal dimension in between 40 nm and 10 pm. Each of the agglomerates may have a principal dimension in between 0.1 pm and 1,000 pm.

[0150] Covetic materials produced by the presently disclosed MW reactor-based techniques yield various competitive advantages otherwise not available in current materials or products.One such advantage relates to an inherent scalability and versatility to formulate unique, physically and chemically stable, versatile metal-carbon composites exhibiting predictable deformation (referring to stress, strain, elasticity, or some other ascertainable physical characteristic) in a variety of configurations and / or architectures such as (but not limited to): (1) dense thin film implantations, (2) coatings, (3) thick strips, and (4) powdered particles that can be subjected to subsequent re-melting and casting and / or for use in forming engineered metal alloy components. Any of the foregoing dense thin film MW-reactor produced carbon-based metal composite implantations and / or coatings, and / or strips, and / or powdered particles all exhibit enhanced physical, chemical, and electrical properties as compared with existing parent metal alloy formulations.

[0151] Materials produced using powders as described hereinabove (and / or pellets formed from such powders) share many of the same advantageous physical characteristics and properties of the powder itself, with the exception that the macroscale material may not exhibit the presence of carbon in coherent planar layer(s) disposed along the basal plane of the metal lattice. Instead, macroscale materials (e.g., produced by a microwave plasma spray torch, or other suitable technique described herein (and equivalents thereof that would be appreciated by a skilled artisan upon reading such descriptions)) are characterized by heretofore unachievable carbon loading (e.g., from 1.5 wt% to 90 wt%, and any amount therebetween), uniform / heterogeneous dispersion of carbon throughout the metal matrix, and absence of carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates at lattice surface(s) (e.g., grain boundaries). Other than this distinction, the final products produced using powdered materials, preferably powdered covetic materials, may exhibit any one or more physical characteristics and / or properties of the powdered precursor, in any combination, without departing from the scope of the presently described inventive concepts.GENERAL EMBODIMENTS

[0152] According to one general aspect, a composition of matter includes one or more particles, wherein each particle independently comprises a metal lattice having one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene disposed in the metal lattice.

[0153] According to another general aspect, a composition of matter includes an Inconel alloy having carbon disposed in a metal lattice of the Inconel alloy.

[0154] According to yet another general aspect, a composition of matter includes a metal lattice having at least about 15 wt% carbon disposed in the metal lattice.

[0155] Moreover, in various implementations, the foregoing aspects may include any of the following physical and / or structural characteristics, and associated properties. Moreover, these characteristics and / or properties may, according to different embodiments, be included in different combinations or permutations, without limitation.

[0156] In one aspect, a composition of matter includes one or more particles, and each particle independently comprises a metal lattice having one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene disposed therein. Preferably, at least some carbon atoms of the one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are disposed in interstitial sites within the metal lattice. More preferably, the one or more coherent, planar layers of graphene are interlaced inters titially between basal planes of the metal lattice. The graphene may be present as a single layer (e.g., “single layer graphene” or “SLG”), or as multiple layers (e.g., two layers, three layers, five layers, ten layers, or any number of layers up to fifteen, also referred to herein as “few layer graphene” or “FLG”). At least some carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene are covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms are, or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms of the one or more layers of graphene, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or more particles may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice of each particle may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds. The one or more layers of graphene are each preferably substantially devoid of defects, such that the graphene is “pristine”. Preferably, each particle is also characterized by a substantial, or more preferably complete, lack of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s) at grain boundaries and / or at surface(s) of the metal lattice. Owing to the inventive processing techniques described herein, total carbon loading of the particle(s) may range from about 15 wt% to about 90 wt%, with various intermediate loadings also being demonstrated (e.g., about 20 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 33 wt%, about 40 wt%, about 50 wt%, about 60 wt%, about 75 wt%, or up to 90 wt%, in various implementations). Moreover, the particles may be characterized by a diameter in a range fromabout 20 nm to about 3.5 pm, and / or by having a largest discernable feature size is in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. In some implementations, the particles may be pressed into a pellet.

[0157] According to another aspect, a composition of matter includes an Inconel alloy having carbon disposed in a metal lattice thereof. Preferably, at least some of the carbon is disposed at interstitial sites of the metal lattice, and more preferably, the carbon is substantially homogenously distributed throughout the metal lattice. Moreover, grain boundaries of the composition of matter, and / or surfaces of the metal lattice, are substantially devoid of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s), in some implementations. Accordingly, a largest discernable feature size of the composition of matter may be in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. At least some carbon atoms arc covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms are, or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or more composition of matter may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds.

[0158] Pursuant to yet another aspect, a composition of matter includes a metal lattice having at least about 15 wt% carbon disposed therein. Preferably, at least some of the carbon is disposed at interstitial sites of the metal lattice, and more preferably, the carbon is substantially homogenously distributed throughout the metal lattice. Moreover, grain boundaries of the composition of matter, and / or surfaces of the metal lattice, are substantially devoid of carbon aggregate(s) and / or agglomerate(s), in some implementations. Accordingly, a largest discernable feature size of the composition of matter may be in a range from about 0.1 nm to about 1 pm. At least some carbon atoms are covalently bonded to metal atoms of the metal lattice, and the covalent bonds between carbon atoms and the metal atoms are, or include non-polar covalent bonds. In some embodiments, the covalent bonds may consist essentially, or entirely, of nonpolar covalent bonds. Similarly, carbon atoms may be covalently bonded to other carbon atoms, and these covalent bonds may comprise, consist essentially, or consist entirely, of non-polar covalent bonds, according to different implementations. Accordingly, the one or morecomposition of matter may substantially, or entirely, exclude polar covalent bonds. In like manner, the metal lattice may substantially, or entirely, exclude ionic bonds.

[0159] In various implementations of the foregoing aspects, the metal lattice may include one or more metals selected from the group consisting of: aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, titanium, tantalum, tungsten, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, niobium, and combinations thereof. Accordingly, the metal lattice may be characterized by a crystalline structure such as face centered cubic (FCC), body-centered cubic (BCC), or hexagonal close packed (HCC). Furthermore, the metal lattice may comprise anywhere from about 15 wt% to about 90 wt% carbon (e.g., about 20 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 33 wt%, about 40 wt%, about 50 wt%, about 60 wt%, about 75 wt%, or up to 90 wt%, in various implementations). The carbon is preferably present at interstitial sites of the metal lattice. The mctal(s) may be present in the form of alloy(s), in some approaches. For instance, in particularly preferred approaches, the metals are present in the form of one or more Inconel alloys, such as Inconel 600, Inconel 617, Inconel 625, Inconel 690, Inconel 718 and / or Inconel X-750. Even more preferably, the Inconel alloy(s) are superalloy(s).OVERVIEW

[0160] The disclosure herein describes integration of a low dose nanofiller carbon-based material such as graphene, known for its inherent structural characteristics such as a high aspect ratio and “2D” planar geometry, with metals. Graphene possesses astonishing favorable mechanical, physical, thermal, and electrical properties due to its in-plane sp2C=C bonding (resulting in 2D planar geometry). Therefore, graphene would serve as an ideal reinforcement for metal matrix composites as compared with alternatives such as micro-filler polyacrylonitrile (PAN) -based carbon fiber. It should be noted that even at low graphene nanoplatelet content (loadings), a 3D network is formed with an anisotropic (referring to an object or substance having a physical property that has a different value when measured in different directions), that result in marked improvements to thermal and electrical conductivities as well as mechanical features.

[0161] A challenge encountered in using carbon nanofillcrs in metal matrix composites includes difficulty with dispersion due to poor wetting (referring to the ability of a liquid to maintaincontact with a solid surface, resulting from intermolecular interactions when the two are brought together; the degree of wetting, referred to as wettability, is determined by a force balance between adhesive and cohesive forces). The increased surface area presented by nanofillers causes particles to form into clusters and twists due to Van der Waals forces between carbon atoms. Clustering of nanofillers in metal matrix composites can lead to formation of undesirable cracks and pores that may ultimately compromise structural integrity of the resultant material yielding premature failure under high load or performance conditions.

[0162] Although a number of processing approaches, such as conventional powder metallurgy, hot rolling, casting, and additive manufacturing have been (and may currently also be) used to produce metal matrix composites, there are still challenges with uniformly dispersing nanofillers. Damage to nanofillcr from applied stress during consolidation, and undesirable or uncontrollable chemical reactions with the matrix at elevated temperatures during sintering and casting, are some examples of challenges faced during attempts to achieve nanofiller dispersion.

[0163] Defect free, the basal plane of graphene exhibits exceptional favorable chemical stability compared to sides and ends of a graphene sheet, which may be more prone to interact with metals to form carbides (thermodynamically favored as per the Gibbs free energy). During processing, however, defects can readily form in the basal plane, leading to carbide formation and adverse effects to composite properties. Hence, relatively severe processing conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, can adversely affect the quality of the interface between carbon nanofillers and their surrounding metal-based matrix. Specifically, high temperatures and pressures can adversely affect wetting ability, structural integrity, may unwantedly influence carbide formation, and may otherwise cause other deleterious interface reactions.

[0164] An alternative process, referred to as covetics (as introduced earlier), has been successfully used to incorporate carbon nanofillers into metal matrices. In covetic related processes, a network of graphene ‘ribbons’ and nanoparticles have been shown to form within a liquid metal by using an applied electric field that exhibits exceptional stability within the metal matrix, even after re-melting. Correspondingly, the composite structure conducts heat and electricity more efficiently than the parent metal.Uniform Dispersion

[0165] Since one of the challenges to incorporating graphene into a metal matrix is achieving uniform dispersion, covetics processing overcomes this problem through the concomitant exfoliation and wetting of the graphene ribbons and / or particles within an applied electric field (either from the carbon electrodes or from the breakdown of carbon additives). Impurities, such as oxygen and hydrogen, can be managed via redox reactions at the particle surface, assuming a properly induced voltage at the surface, to promote wetting / dispersion. A challenge is one of controlling the structural integrity and uniformity of the graphene ribbons and / or particles (such as uniformity with respect to size, defects, etc.), as well as controlling chemical reactivity with the metal at elevated temperatures, and as well as controlling distribution of particles in the bulk as well as at the surface of the melt.Additional Complexities

[0166] Although fundamental modes of energy conduction in metals (both thermal and electrical) can be (at least in part) carried out by electrons and is controlled by the degree of crystallinity and impurities for a filler such as graphene to enhance thermal conductivity in the metal matrix composite (where conduction is via phonons in graphene), there either needs to be some degree of registry and / or coherency (such as an integrally bound nanoscale carbon) with the metal lattice (additionally or alternatively referred to as a scaffold, matrix, or structure) or a minimum platelet spacing (such as proximity or network) threshold for conduction between platelets (such as the graphene would need to be a single layer or just a few layers and 10’ s of nanometers in length). With respect to strengthening the metal matrix, however, graphene may need to be chemically (or in some instances, also physically) bonded to the matrix for proper load transfer (noting that the length of graphene can be greater than ~0.5 um for maximum load transfer). Aside from solid solution strengthening, which relies on coherent and / or semi-coherent elastic strains between carbon (graphene) nanofiller and metal lattice, a discrete graphene nanoparticle can serve as a barrier to dislocation pile-up or pinning (such as Hall Petch grain refinement, referring to a method of strengthening materials by changing their average crystallite (grain) size; it is based on the observation that grain boundaries are insurmountable borders for dislocations and that the number of dislocations within a grain have an effect on how stress builds up in the adjacent grain, which will eventually activate dislocation sources and thus enabling deformation in the neighboring grain, too; so, by changing grain size one can influencethe number of dislocations piled up at the grain boundary and yield strength) at grain boundaries, both of which improve mechanical properties.

[0167] Again, because of its 2D nature and high surface area, graphene can orient along regions at grain boundaries in addition to aligning along slip planes within the metal structure. Irrespective of whether the property of interest is chemical, mechanical, thermal, or electrical, the greater the alignment and registry of the nanofiller to the crystal structure of the surrounding metal matrix (at the atomic level), the greater the enhancement as well as stability of the property in a metal matrix composite structure.

[0168] Fundamentally, growth of carbon at a metal surface (heterogeneous) or precipitation out of solution in the melt (homogeneous) is dependent on the solubility of carbon in the metal (as per the binary phase diagram shown on the right side of FIG. 10). The solubility of carbon in pure transition metals (and many pure metals, generally) is very low, such as near the melting point of the metal, although increases as the temperature increases to well above the melting point of the metal (such as up to 2,000°C and above). The solubility of carbon in nickel, for example, near the hypereutectic point of around 2.5% is one of the higher solubilities of carbon in a pure metal. Note that the addition of interstitial impurities such as oxygen, boron, or nitrogen, or substitutional atoms to a metal, can affect (such as potentially increase) the solubility of carbon. It has been shown that the higher the solubility of carbon in a metal, or the higher the temperature of the molten metal, the thicker the carbon that precipitates at the surface of the metal as the metal is cooled down and solidified. Important to note is that solubility of carbon is higher near a free surface, which, in combination with the interfacial energy of the liquid-air interface, favors precipitation of solid carbon at the metal melt-air interface. Equipment and techniques for operating the equipment to overcome the problems attendant to this phenomenon are addressed as pertains to the figures and corresponding discussions.Definitions and Use of Figures

[0169] Some of the terms used in this description are defined below for easy reference. The presented terms and their respective definitions are not rigidly restricted to these definitions — a term may be further defined by the term’s use within this disclosure. The term “exemplary” is used herein to mean serving as an example, instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be constmed as preferred or advantageousover other aspects or designs. Rather, use of the word exemplary is intended to present concepts in a concrete fashion. As used in this application and the appended claims, the term “or” is intended to mean an inclusive “or” rather than an exclusive “or”. That is, unless specified otherwise, or is clear from the context, “X employs A or B” is intended to mean any of the natural inclusive permutations. That is, if X employs A, X employs B, or X employs both A and B, then “X employs A or B” is satisfied under any of the foregoing instances. As used herein, at least one of A or B means at least one of A, or at least one of B, or at least one of both A and B. In other words, this phrase is disjunctive. The articles “a” and “an” as used in this application and the appended claims should generally be construed to mean “one or more” unless specified otherwise or is clear from the context to be directed to a singular form.

[0170] Various implementations arc described herein with reference to the figures. It should be noted that the figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, and that elements of similar structures or functions are sometimes represented by like reference characters throughout the figures. It should also be noted that the figures are only intended to facilitate the description of the disclosed implementations — they are not representative of an exhaustive treatment of all possible implementations, and they are not intended to impute any limitation as to the scope of the claims. In addition, an illustrated implementation need not portray all aspects or advantages of usage in any particular environment.

[0171] An aspect or an advantage described in conjunction with a particular implementation is not necessarily limited to that implementation and can be practiced in any other implementations even if not so illustrated. References throughout this specification to “some implementations” or “other implementations” refer to a particular feature, structure, material, or characteristic described in connection with the implementations as being included in at least one implementation. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in some implementations” or “in other implementations” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily referring to the same implementation or implementations. The disclosed implementations are not intended to be limiting of the claims.DESCRIPTIONS OF EXAMPLE IMPLEMENTATIONS

[0172] The present disclosure describes innovative techniques at the intersection of two key areas: (1) methods for fabricating lightweight components that incorporate metamaterials into host materials such as metal alloys and polymers, with a focus on achieving specific structural characteristics like interstitially situated carbon; and (2) approaches for precisely tuning the electromagnetic properties of these metamaterials, particularly their permeability and permittivity. This combination enables the creation of advanced materials with highly selective electromagnetic responses.

[0173] By leveraging these complementary technologies, it becomes possible to engineer protective enclosures and components that exhibit tailored interactions with electromagnetic radiation across different wavelengths. Specifically, these materials can be designed to selectively absorb or reflect certain frequencies of electromagnetic energy while remaining transparent to others. This capability opens up new possibilities for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and management in electronic systems, allowing for the development of protective enclosures that block harmful interference while still permitting desired wireless communications to pass through.

[0174] The structural integration of metamaterials, particularly the interstitial placement of carbon within the host material’s lattice, contributes to the overall lightweight nature of the resulting components. This characteristic is crucial for applications where weight reduction is a priority, such as in aerospace or portable electronics. Simultaneously, the ability to fine-tune the electromagnetic properties of these integrated metamaterials provides unprecedented control over their interaction with electromagnetic waves, enabling highly specific and adaptable shielding solutions. This synergistic approach represents a significant advancement over traditional EMI shielding methods, offering a pathway to create multifunctional materials that combine structural integrity, weight efficiency, and sophisticated electromagnetic performance in a single solution.

[0175] FIG. 1A illustrates a section view of a metamaterial structure 1A00, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the metamaterial structure 1A00 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent Figures and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the metamaterial structure 1A00 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0176] The metamaterial structure 1A00 comprises multiple layers in a stacked configuration, with a meta-material 130 positioned between a carbon layer substrate 132 and an impedance sheet 140, and a conducting backplane 134 at the bottom. This arrangement creates a sophisticated system for controlling electromagnetic wave propagation. The meta-material 130 may comprise carbon nanoparticles tuned to absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic energy, typically in the range of 1 GHz to 10 GHz, with a specific permittivity or permeability to absorb or reflect particular frequencies.

[0177] The carbon layer substrate 132 may comprise graphene layers coating multi- walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs. The meta-material 130 may have a ratio of graphene to MWSFs or connected MWSFs from 10% to 90%. Various aspects of manipulating and configuring the carbon layer substrate 132 arc disclosed herein, including methods for controlling the growth, orientation, and distribution of carbon nanostructures within the substrate. These techniques allow for precise tuning of the substrate's electromagnetic properties and its interaction with the meta-material layer.

[0178] The structure's electromagnetic wave interaction is demonstrated by an incident wave 136 approaching the impedance sheet 140, with a reflected wave 138 redirected away. The impedance sheet 140 may be configured to reflect or shield a first set of preconfigured frequencies, while the meta- material 130 absorbs a second set, and the conducting backplane 134 reflects a third set. This layered approach allows for sophisticated control over electromagnetic wave management, including the ability to selectively absorb, reflect, or transmit specific frequency bands. For instance, the meta-material 130 may be tuned to absorb electromagnetic energy associated with radio frequency interference while allowing wireless communication signals in Wi-Fi or cellular frequency bands to pass through.

[0179] The properties of the metamaterial may be enhanced and controlled by the addition of the carbon layer and / or substrate, which can be specifically configured to achieve desired electromagnetic characteristics. The carbon layer substrate may be engineered with varying thicknesses, densities, or structural arrangements to modify the overall permittivity and permeability of the metamaterial structure. By adjusting the carbon content, orientation, and distribution within the substrate, it is possible to fine-tune the metamaterial's response to different frequency ranges. For example, a higher concentration of carbon nanostructures in specific regions of the substrate may enhance absorption of certain frequencies, while a gradientdistribution could create a broadband response. Additionally, the interface between the carbon layer and the metamaterial can be tailored to create unique electromagnetic effects, such as surface plasmon resonances or localized field enhancements, further expanding the range of achievable properties and functionalities.

[0180] Functionalization of the meta-material 130 may be employed to promote adhesion or add elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or silicon, enhancing its interaction with other components of the metamaterial structure 1A00. This approach, combined with the precise control over the carbon layer substrate 132 and the tunable properties of the meta-material 130, exemplifies a resolution to challenges in creating materials with precise and controllable electromagnetic properties. The resulting structure can effectively manipulate electromagnetic waves in ways not possible with conventional materials, demonstrating a commitment to achieving sophisticated control over electromagnetic wave propagation across a wide range of frequencies and applications.

[0181] In order to tune the laminate that is disclosed in the foregoing FIG. 1A to have a particular combination of a first set of desired mechanical properties with a second set of desired electromagnetic properties, what is needed are ways to precisely control the synthesis, structure, and integration of the carbon-based components and the metamaterial within the polymer or metal matrix. Some of these methods are disclosed as pertains to the following figures, including techniques for manipulating carbon nanostructure growth, optimizing the distribution of carbon within the matrix, and fine-tuning the electromagnetic properties of the metamaterial through various processing parameters. These approaches enable the creation of highly customized laminates that can simultaneously meet specific mechanical requirements while providing tailored electromagnetic shielding and transmission characteristics.

[0182] FIG. IB is a comparison chart 1B00 showing two different covetic material formation techniques 102 and example materials that result from the application of each, respectively.

[0183] In the case of conventional metal melt methods 103 to produce covetic materials, solid carbon is added to a metal melt. This conventional metal melt technique is governed by the kinetics of carbide formation and interdiffusion across a solid-liquid (such as carbon-metal) interface under an applied current, which provides additional energy to overcome stacking fault energy between carbon atoms and metal atoms. As such, conventional metal melt techniques forforming covetic processing do not significantly differ from other composite processing methods, such as powder metallurgy and / or hot rolling, which composite processes involve consolidation of a second phase particle into a metal matrix. These conventional composite processing methods face many challenges with dispersion and / or distribution, reactivity, and variability in material properties. Furthermore, conventional covetic processing relies on batch processing, and often yields inconsistent conversion yields as well as wide variations in resultant properties.

[0184] As depicted by image 105, when using conventional metal melt methods 103, the resultant material includes substantial carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates, particularly at grain boundaries and / or surfaces of the metal lattice. This, in turn: (1) limits the role of carbon to reinforce the lattice; and (2) limits the tunability of the surface morphology for surface functionalization. For comparison, when using presently disclosed techniques, the resultant material exhibits nearly uniform homogeneity (such as having no, or substantially no aggregates and / or agglomerates, particularly at grain boundaries and / or lattice surfaces), which homogeneity results from uniform dispersion of carbon into the lattice. This is shown in homogeneity image 106.

[0185] Covetic materials such as are depicted in homogeneity image 106 can be characterized by many desirable material properties 108 such as uniformity, high carbon loading, low carbon content at surfaces, etc. These are highly desirable material properties that are not exhibited by materials formed using conventional metal melt methods 103. Therefore, what is sought after arc improved approaches that overcome shortcomings of the conventional metal melt methods 103.

[0186] One such improved approach involves plasma spray torch methods 104. Application of plasma spray torch methods result in a consistent yield of covetic materials, thus overcoming the yield shortcomings of conventional metal melt methods. Furthermore, application of plasma spray torch methods results in covetic materials that possess the aforementioned improved mechanical, improved thermal, and improved electrical properties, thus overcoming resultant material shortcomings of conventional metal melt methods.Improved Approaches

[0187] As shown, the plasma spray torch methods 104 can be configured to use input materials as introduced (referring to provision of a carbon-containing feedstock species in gaseous form, such as methane, and energizing it via application of MW energy directed through the methanegas, etc.). However, by dissociating carbon-containing gas (such as methane or other hydrocarbon sources) at elevated temperatures, a self-limited monolayer of carbon — and in particular, pristine graphene — can be grown onto and / or into a metal (such as copper, gold, zinc, tin, and lead) lattice. The number of monolayers is dependent at least in part on the solubility of carbon in the metal. Growth kinetics, binding, and the final structure of graphene films onto a metal substrate is dependent on the valence electrons and the symmetry (close packed planes) of the metal. Similarly, metals can be grown on carbon, preferentially nucleating and growing at defect sites of the carbon or at selective oxygen- or hydrogen-terminated sites as well. Alternating stacks of single layer carbon and metal can then be fabricated to realize the enhanced properties of a graphene-reinforced metal composite structure.

[0188] Using a microwave plasma reactor, pristine 3D few-layer graphene particles can be continuously nucleated and grown from a hydrocarbon gas source. In addition, selective elements can be incorporated into the 3D graphene particle scaffold by adding them to the plasma gas stream. The microwave plasma reactor process provides a unique reaction environment in which gas-solid reactions can be controlled under non-equilibrium conditions (such as chemical reactions can be independently controlled by ionization potentials and momentum along with thermal energy). Reactants can be inserted as solids, liquids, or gases into a plasma reactor zone to independently control nucleation and growth kinetics of unique nonequilibrium structures (such as graphene on metal and metal on graphene).

[0189] For example, to create integrated graphene-metal composites at the nanometer scale, fine nanometer-scale metal particles can be introduced into a microwave plasma torch along with a hydrocarbon gas such as methane. Methane dissociates into hydrogen and carbon (such as using the ideal energy of the microwave plasma to form C and C2) which can then nucleate and grow ordered graphene onto the semi-molten surface of the metal particle. Non-equilibrium energy conditions can be created by tuning process conditions to independently control the temperature of the metal with respect to carbon reactivity and delivery to the metal surface. Ionized hydrogen (or other ions) at controlled low energies can be used to impinge / sputter the surface of the growing graphene-metal surface without damaging the structure of the graphene-metal composition. This then promotes further growth of alternating graphene-metal layers. In addition, depending on residence time and the energetics within the plasma reaction zone, metalgraphene structures can be created with specific properties that are retained when the metal-graphene structures are rapidly cooled upon being sprayed onto a substrate at a controlled temperature. The formation of the metal-graphene structures at controlled energies within the plasma as well as control of the temperature of the substrate provides independent control of energetic conditions throughout the entire evolution of these covetic materials.

[0190] Graphene can be applied (and / or deposited) onto metal or metal-containing layers of material via “sputtering” (referring to a phenomenon in which microscopic particles of a solid material are ejected from its surface, after the material is itself bombarded by energetic particles of a plasma or gas; the fact that sputtering can be made to act on extremely fine layers of material is often exploited in science and industry — there, it is used to perform precise etching, carry out analytical techniques, and deposit thin film layers in the manufacture of optical coatings, semiconductor devices and nanotechnology products, etc.). Such sputtering, as so described, can be controlled by controlling residence times and energetics within the plasma reaction zone to promote growth of alternating graphene-metal layers when employed with the presently discussed MW plasma reactors. These alternating graphene-metal layers are organized in coherent planes of atoms that are in a regular (such as crystallographic) configuration. This crystallographic configuration is retained when the graphene-metal layers are quick-quenched (in the materials science field, quenching, or quick / rapid quenching, refers to the controlled rapid cooling of a workpiece in water, oil or air to obtain certain material properties; a type of heat treating, quenching prevents or controls undesired low-temperature processes, such as phase transformations, from occurring by reducing the window of time during which these undesired reactions are both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible; for instance, quenching can reduce the crystal grain size of both metallic and plastic materials, increasing their hardness) onto a cooler substrate. Quick quenching, as so described, serves to essentially ‘freeze’ (referring to retention in a substantially solid state rather than solely on the traditional definition of change in phase from a liquid to a solid) graphene to metal in a desired crystallographic configuration formed within the plasma reactor. The homogeneity within and at the surface of the resultant material is extremely uniform. This extremely uniform homogeneity can be used to distinguish from materials that had been formed using metal melt methods 104. This is because the metal melt methods 104 cannot control ion energies independently from thermal energies. More specifically, because the metal melt methods 104 cannot achieve the desired higher ion energies independently from thermal energies, temperatures in the metal melt reaction chambercan be too high for graphene-metal layers to become organized in coherent planes of atoms that are in the desired crystallographic configuration.

[0191] Therefore, when using metal melt methods 104, the desired crystallographic configuration of the graphene-metal never occurs, and thus desired crystallographic configuration cannot be retained when the graphene-metal layers are quenched onto a cooler substrate. Instead, when using metal melt methods 104, undesired carbon precipitation occurs (such as carbon precipitates out of the melt), which in turn leads to unwanted formation of aggregates and / or agglomerates, which in turn leads to non-uniformity in the resultant composition. This non-uniformity in the resultant composition can lead to less-than-ideal chemical and / or physical (mechanical) characteristics in the resultant composition, including but not limited to premature mechanical failure.

[0192] FIG. 1C presents a high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image 114 and a high-resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy x-ray image 116. Also shown here for convenience is the homogeneity image 106 of FIG. IB.

[0193] As depicted by this example set of images, the carbon is distributed uniformly throughout the metal lattice. This is emphasized in the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image 114. Moreover, the extremely high carbon loading in the metal lattice is clearly shown by the high-resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy x-ray image 116. In this example, the carbon loading forms approximately 60% of the overall copper-carbon lattice. This is shown in the high- resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy x-ray image 116. In this particular image, the darker areas are carbon, and the lighter areas (appearing as dots) are copper.

[0194] As can be seen the images, and in particular, as can be seen from the pattern of the high- resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy x-ray image 116, the carbon and the parent metal (such as in this case copper), are uniformly dispersed. This uniform lattice-level dispersion is present at the surface, as shown, moreover, this uniform lattice-level dispersion is also present deep into the parent metal. Additional images of covetic materials are given in FIG. 20A1, FIG. 20 A2 and FIG. 20B, which figures follow after discussion of (1) materials evolution processes, (2) a plasma spray torch apparatus and (3) various configurations of plasma spray torches.

[0195] In one use scenario, the covetic materials of FIG. 1C can be manufactured using a tunable microwave plasma torch that produces integrated graphene-metal composite films at high ratesand volumes. One particular manufacturing process during which graphene is grown onto small molten metal particles is now briefly discussed.

[0196] FIG. 2 depicts a manufacturing process 200 for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of manufacturing process 200 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The manufacturing process 200 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0197] One possible method is to use a “non-equilibrium energy” microwave plasma torch to provide non-equilibrium control over the temperature of the metal independently from carbon creation. This plasma torch energy is then directed to the molten and / or semi-molten metal particles surfaces. This technique allows time for growth to occur on the melt. Growth on the melt (or semi-melt or core shell materials) created within the torch will flow out through the main plasma plume to the surface of the metal to be grown upon, and then is quickly quenched. This technique provides a means to grow thick films which, upon layering, could be grown into a homogeneous thick ingot and / or grown into or onto component parts to be post machined or remelted into applications.

[0198] Additionally, FIG. 2 is being presented to illustrate the effects that independent control of constituent material temperatures and gas-solid reaction chemistries when growing graphene onto small molten particles. FIG. 2 shows the evolution through several processes of covetic materials manufacturing; and presents processes used in the formation of plasma torch-based covetic materials.

[0199] As shown, semi-solid particles exiting from the plasma torch can be deposited in an additive, layer-by-layer fashion onto a temperature-controlled substrate. Unlike a standard plasma torch where operational flows, as well as control of power and other configurations are limited, the discussed microwave plasma torch can be operated to independently control constituent material temperatures as well as gas-solid reaction chemistries.

[0200] As can be seen from the disclosure above, microwave plasma sources can result in (for example): (1) higher plasma densities; (2) ion energies with a narrower ion energy distribution; and (3) improved coating properties. This is due, at least in part, to the improved power coupling and (electromagnetic energy) absorption at 2.45 GHz. Pressure dependent, typical electrontemperatures are of the order of 1 eV to 15 eV yielding plasma densities of >10ncm ’. Such low electron temperatures are also advantageous not only in terms of controlling the plasma chemistry, but also in terms of limiting the ion energy with ion energies for Argon-based coaxial microwave plasmas that typically are in the range of 5 eV to 80 eV. As a consequence of the narrow plasma sheath formed using these high-density plasmas, collisional broadening of the ion energy distribution is prevented, thus resulting in a sharp ion energy distribution that supports fine control of certain film deposition processes. Additionally, through the usage of pulsed power into a microwave plasma, non-equilibrium energies can be formed and controlled. During application of microwave energy, power is delivered throughout a volume where plasma is to be formed, thus energy is accumulated in a stepwise collisional energy regime.

[0201] The foregoing discussion of FIG. 2 includes techniques for application of microwave energy power, which technique is disclosed in further detail as follows.

[0202] FIG. 3 depicts a plasma energy state chart 300 showing how a pulsed microwave energy source is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles.

[0203] Microwave plasma sources have the potential to achieve higher plasma densities, ion energies with a narrower ion energy distribution, and improved coating properties as a consequence of improved power coupling and absorption at 2.45 GHz. Pressure-dependent typical electron temperatures are of the order of 1 eV to 15 eV yielding plasma densities of >10ucm3. Such low electron temperatures are also advantageous not only in terms of controlling the plasma chemistry, but also in terms of limiting the ion energy with ion energies for Argon-based coaxial micro wave plasmas that typically are in the range of 5 eV to 80 eV. As a consequence of the narrow plasma sheath formed using these high-density plasmas, collisional broadening of the ion energy distribution is prevented resulting in a sharp ion energy distribution, which is necessary for fine control of some film deposition processes. Additionally, through the use of pulsed power being delivered into a microwave reactor, plasma non-equilibrium energies can be formed and controlled. During application of micro wave energy, power is delivered thru a volume where plasma is to be formed, thus energy is accumulated in a stepwise collisional energy regime.

[0204] Once the initial plasma forms in the vast majority of the volume, the delivery antennae where energy is at a maximum continues to increase in a highly localized fashion. Plasmadensity nearby decreases slightly until the plasma constricts. Further details regarding general approaches to making and using pulsed microwave energy sources are described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 10,332,726, issued June 25, 2019, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0205] FIG. 3 shows that the initial energy of the plasma is much higher in the non-equilibrium state until it constricts to a much lower stable temperature. More specifically, the plasma energy state chart depicts a transition from an initial high energy non-equilibrium state to a lower energy stable equilibrium state. Once the initial plasma forms, the delivery antennae, where energy is at a maximum, will continue to increase in a highly localized fashion until the plasma constricts and is lost in the remaining parts of the chamber due to energy shielding.

[0206] The pulsed microwave energy source can be controlled so as to optimize electron temperatures for growing graphene onto small molten particles. This is especially effective in the case where pressures are »20 Torr. To ensure that plasma chemistry dissociation is homogeneous, and that coating of materials is homogeneous as well, the environments of the chamber must be controlled.

[0207] As is shown in FIG. 3, the energy profile indicates that the initial energy is high and, after a time, constricts to a lower level where it stays until the power is removed. The plasma extinguishes and, after restarting, follows the energy cycle again. By reducing the time between the initial plasma ignition and where it stabilizes, the plasma remains mainly in the bulk of the system where a more homogeneous dissociation of materials can occur. The reduction of the time between the initial plasma ignition and the time when it stabilizes can be accomplished by controlling the frequency and duty cycle of pulsing.

[0208] One technique for controlling electron temperatures in a pulsed microwave reactor is shown and described as pertains to FIG. 4.

[0209] FIG. 4 depicts an electron temperature control technique 400 that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of electron temperature control technique 400 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The electron temperature control technique 400 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0210] FIG. 4 illustrates aspects pertaining to growing a few layers of graphene onto molten nanoscale-sized particles rather than mixing carbons into the bulk of a molten slurry.Specifically, the FIG. is being presented with respect to its contribution to controlling plasma temperature through control of microwave pulsing frequency.Plasma Temperature Control via Control of Pulsing Frequency

[0211] As depicted in the foregoing FIG. 3, the energy profile indicates that the initial energy is high and, after a time, constricts to a lower level where it stays until the power is removed. The plasma extinguishes and, after restarting, follows the energy cycle again. By reducing the time between the initial plasma ignition and stabilization, the plasma remains mainly in the bulk of the system where a more homogeneous dissociation of materials can occur.

[0212] As shown in FIG. 4, the effect depends substantially on the timing of the on / off cycle of the microwave energy source. By controlling the frequency of pulsing, optimal chemical dissociation and uniform coatings can be created. Furthermore, by setting the pulsing frequency, the average temperature of the plasma can be controlled as well.Plasma Temperature Control in a Microwave Plasma Torch

[0213] The herein-discussed integrated microwave plasma torch is used for addressing the formation of integrated, second phase, carbon-metal composite structures with enhanced mechanical, thermal and electrical properties over existing metal alloys and conventional composite processing methods. Furthermore, the microwave plasma torch can be used to form carbon-metal composite coatings and particles directly onto high value asset components. Still further, the aforementioned methods and equipment meet many clean energy goals pertaining to improved electrical distribution and efficient transformer and heat exchanger performance.Microwave Plasma Torch Practical Applications

[0214] Using the integrated microwave plasma torch technology, materials can be economically (such as cost effectively) deposited and / or formed at fast rates and can be applied and in a variety of different configurations. Benefactors of this technology include various energy production industries — especially as pertains to transmission and storage — transportation industries, military equipment industries, as well as many other manufacturing industries. As one specific practical application example, metallic surfaces of an aircraft can be treated by a plasma spray to createcovetic material at the metal-air interface. The metallic surfaces thus become impervious to corrosion. Additionally, the carbon atoms near the surface allows for other materials to be chemically bonded to the carbon atoms and / or adhered to the surfaces. The aforementioned other materials that can be chemically bonded to the carbon atoms might be selected on the basis of requirements that arise in various practical applications.

[0215] As another specific practical application example, metallic surfaces of an airborne vehicle (such as an airplane, helicopter, drone, projectile, missile, etc.) can be treated by a plasma spray to create a covetic material coating that acts as an infrared obscurant (such as a detection countermeasure).

[0216] FIG. 5 illustrates a dual plasma torch apparatus 500 that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of dual plasma torch apparatus 500 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The dual plasma torch apparatus 500 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0217] The shown equipment setup uses: (1) a metal plasma spray torch to supply molten metals to the surface of the heated substrate (Al, Cu, Ag, etc.), and (2) a microwave plasma torch to deliver ionized carbon and plasma radicals to the molten surface so as to cause the covetics growth onto molten metals.

[0218] The system is inserted into an inert gas environment or into an atmospherically controlled chamber to provide better control of materials oxidation. In one implementation, the setup and operation of the torch of FIG. 5 is shown in Table 1, the details of which are discussed infra.Table 1Step DI: Reactant material identification and selection

[0219] Any number of metals can be plasma-sprayed concurrently along with metastable carbon species to form a nano-carbon-metal composite structure. Different metals with high electrical and thermal conductivity can be used when forming 2D graphene at concentrations above the thermodynamic solubility limit. In some cases, two different metals are selected, each having different carbon solubility limits and / or different melting points and / or different densities and / or different crystal structures.Step D2: Selection, modification and validation of microwave and ‘standard’ plasma spray torch(es)

[0220] The apparatus of FIG. 5 can be (in certain implementations) substantially composed of a ‘standard’, off-the-shelf, plasma spray and a microwave plasma torch. Having two torches allows for two different processing steps, namely: (1) incipient melting of the metal, and (2) nucleation / growth of graphene platelets from a hydrocarbon source. Each one of the two torches can be controlled independently from each other.

[0221] As shown in FIG. 5, the two torches are collocated for concurrent or sequential operation. Specifically, the microwave plasma with its low electron temperature and high electron density can be used to optimize graphene formation (including nucleation rate at the carbon supersaturation threshold) whereas the standard plasma spray torch can be used to heat metal powder / particles to a molten or semi-molten state and then accelerate the particles (along with nucleated ionized carbon / graphene) towards the substrate. The two independent flow streams can be coordinated so as to accomplish fine-scale graphene growth on a semi-molten particle surface. In some cases, the dual torch configuration comprises a means to maintain an inert atmosphere (such as cover gas) at or near the exit stream of the torches and in and around the impingement region at the surface of the substrate. This arrangement is advantageous to minimize, or preferably prevent, inclusion of atmospheric gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, etc. as would be understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art) in the composition of matter, which can negatively affect bonding between the carbon and metal atoms. Therefore, in certain implementations, the dual torch system is configured to be inserted into a fully controlled inert gas environment (such as a chamber) so as to provide effective control of material oxidation.Step D3: Rationale and definition of plasma processing parameters

[0222] Reactants (such as hydrocarbons) and inert gases and flows are selected to ensure the stability of plasma and to ensure control of nucleation and growth processes within the plasma (such as supersaturation thresholds for a given gas mixture and flow rate). Acceleration rates and temperatures of the metastable carbon are controlled during excursion from the plasma to the substrate. Correspondingly, process conditions for the standard plasma spray torch are set so as to create a consolidated thin film onto which carbon can impinge and react. Surface temperature and local gas phase environments are controlled so as to promote interaction and growth of the metastable carbon phase.Step D4: Operate the dual (metal and microwave) plasma torch

[0223] Various parameters of processing windows of both the metal and microwave plasma torch are configured to be controlled independently or, in some implementations, in conjunction with each other. Before, during and after operation of one or more of the metal and microwave plasma torches (referred to herein as “the dual plasma torch”), processing windows for integrated carbon-metal formation are characterized. Furthermore, one or more parameters or combinations of parameters are selected, deposition of carbon-metal is observed, and using any known-in-the- art techniques, the as-deposited samples can be characterized with respect to various differentiators, including (but not limited to): morphology (such as using a scanning electron microscope (SEM)), structure (such as via x-ray diffraction (XRD) and via Raman spectroscopy), and / or physical and chemical composition.

[0224] FIG. 6 illustrates a pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600 that can be tuned for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an example, one or more variations of pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600 (or any aspect thereof) may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600 (or any aspect thereof) may be implemented in any environment.

[0225] In this configuration, transverse electric (TE) microwave energy power means can be coupled onto (or, in some implementations, also penetrate substantially within) a central dielectric tube to propagate microwave energy into and throughout the central dielectric tube. Gas supplied into the center region (in this example) can be a hydrocarbon gas such as methane that absorbs the microwave radiation. Metal powder is supplied (as carried by a substantiallyinert carrier gas) to be heated within the body (or primary chamber) of the pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600 from the combination of the plasma-derived and applied thermal energy. Upon exposure to such energy, metal powder melts upon reaching a melting temperature to produce a viscous flowable liquid material, or droplets (potentially containing semi-solid materials), or any other conceivable dispersion (largely dependent on attendant melt conditions).

[0226] As hydrocarbon gas decomposes into its constituent element species, carbon radicals nucleate on exposed surfaces of the melted metal droplets. The combination of energy tuning settings of the microwave, and thermal plume temperature settings can allow for different temperatures between the melt temperature and the plasma decomposition / ionization temperature in a central region of the pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600. Non-cquilibrium conditions within the central chamber or region of the plasma spray torch apparatus (referring to temperature, pressure, etc.) can allow (or otherwise facilitate) internal lattice placement of the graphene / carbon, whereas the quick quenching creates conditions conducive to covetic materials growth.

[0227] As understood herein, internal lattice placement refers to the positioning of a synthesized lattice structure, e.g., of a carbon material such as graphene, within the lattice structure of input metal(s) such that individual carbon and metal atoms are at least partially aligned. For example, internal lattice placement includes situations in which one or more layers (preferably coherent, planar layers) of graphene, such as single layer graphene (SLG) or few layer graphene (FLG) are juxtaposed interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice, and / or interlaced interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice. Internal lattice placement also includes embodiments in which other carbon-based compounds, such as three-dimensional graphenes, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), graphene nanoribbons, carbon nanotubes, graphene superlattices, and equivalents thereof that would be understood by those having ordinary skill in the art, are juxtaposed interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice, and / or interlaced interstitially between basal planes of the metal lattice. Again, the primary characteristic of internal lattice placement, regardless of the particular synthesized lattice structure of the carbon-based compound, is that individual carbon and metal atoms are at least partially aligned. Diagrams showing internal lattices where the lattice of the carbon and the lattice of a metal are oriented such that carbon andmetal atoms are at least partially aligned are presented in FIG. 8A-B, FIG. 12, FIG. 26C, and FIG. 26D and in corresponding written description, infra.

[0228] Internal lattice placement thus refers to spatial arrangement of carbon and metal atoms in a lattice, and is to be distinguished from chemical and / or ionic bonding, although according to various implementations the presently described inventive compositions of matter may additionally include characteristics such as non-polar covalent bonding between individual carbon atoms within the composition of matter, and / or non-polar covalent bonding between individual carbon and metal atoms within the composition of matter.

[0229] Preferably, compositions exhibiting internal lattice placement are characterized by substantial absence of polar covalent bonding between individual carbon atoms, as well as substantial absence of polar covalent bonding between carbon and metal atoms. Still more preferably, the inventive compositions described herein are characterized by substantial absence of ionic bonding within the metal lattice.

[0230] As will be appreciated by those having ordinary skill in the art, polar covalent bonds, non-polar covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and metallic bonds each have unique distinguishing characteristics, and corresponding electronic and chemical properties.

[0231] An ionic bond results after a complete transfer of the bonding electrons from one atom to the other. The resulting positively and negatively charged ions are then electrostatically attracted. Importantly, ionic bonds rarely have any particular directionality because they result from electrostatic attraction of each ion to all surrounding ions with opposite charge. Ionic compounds generally have high melting temperature, high boiling temperature, are brittle (low mechanical strength), and can conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution.

[0232] In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. In metals, each atom provides one or more electrons that reside between many atomic centers. The free movement of the delocalized (or “free”) electrons results then in important properties of metals such as high electrical and thermal conductivity. Notably, inventive compositions of matter described herein having carbon dispersed throughout a metal lattice, and substantial covalent bonding between the carbon atoms and the metal atoms of the lattice, may be characterized by all or substantially all (e.g., at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, etc.) of theelectrons being involved in such covalent bonding, altering the electrical and / or thermal conductivity of the composition.

[0233] While polar and non-polar covalent bonding both involve the sharing of electron(s), compounds including polar covalent bond(s) are characterized by unequal sharing of the electron(s) between bonding partners. For example, in hydrogen chloride, the chlorine atom has higher electronegativity than the hydrogen, and exhibits a stronger attraction to the electron. Accordingly, the “shared” electron is more strongly associated with the chlorine atom, resulting in a partial negative charge on the chlorine and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen (thus creating a dipole in the HC1 molecule). In water the bonds between each hydrogen and the oxygen atom are similarly characterized due to the greater electronegativity of oxygen. This results in dipole moments between each hydrogen and the oxygen atom, and owing to its bent shape, an overall dipole on the water molecule as a whole. However, not all compounds exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding exhibit an overall dipole. Tetrachloromethane has four chlorine atoms bonded to a central carbon, and equally spaced from one another. Although each carbon-chlorine covalent bond is non-polar, the spatial arrangement of the molecule cancels the overall bond moments, yielding a molecule with zero net polarity. Similarly, the linear shape of carbon dioxide cancels out the dipole moments exhibited between each oxygen atom and the central carbon, yielding a molecular structure with no net dipole moment.

[0234] Regardless, in the presence of an electric field, atoms and / or electron clouds involved in polar covalent bonding may be shifted, inducing polarization in alignment with the electric field. This phenomenon can give corresponding compounds energy storage capabilities, and contributes to capacitance of the composition of matter. Compounds exhibiting polar covalent bonding, particularly small molecules or molecules having a large proportion of polar covalent bonds (e.g., at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 50%, etc. in various embodiments) are characterized by melting and boiling temperatures less than compounds exhibiting ionic bonding (again, particularly small compounds and compounds exhibiting a large proportion of ionic bonds), but higher than compounds exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding (yet again, particularly small compounds and compounds exhibiting a large proportion of non-polar covalent bonds). Compounds exhibiting polar covalent bonding may, or may not, exhibit electrical conductivity, although typically less than ionic compounds. In addition, compounds exhibiting polar covalent bonding (still yet again, particularly small compounds and compoundsexhibiting a large proportion of polar covalent bonds) are moderately soluble in water (the degree of solubility depending on the overall polarity of the compound) but generally not soluble, or only nominally soluble, in non-polar solvents.[02351 By contrast, non-polar covalent bonding is characterized by equal sharing of the electron between bonding partners, and consequent absence of any dipole moment therebetween. Compounds exhibiting exclusively (or substantially exclusively) non-polar covalent bonding among constituent atoms therefore lack an overall dipole moment, and the corresponding characteristics associated therewith, as described hereinabove and other characteristics that would be understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present disclosure. Exemplary, non-limiting, compounds exclusively (or substantially exclusively) exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding include graphite, single-layer graphenes (SLGs), few- layer graphenes (FLGs), three dimensional graphenes, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), graphene nanoribbons, carbon nanotubes (CNT), both single-walled (SWCNT) and multi-walled (MWCNT), graphene superlattices, etc. as described herein, as well as equivalents thereof that would be understood by those having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present descriptions.

[0236] For instance, compounds exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding, particularly small molecules such as carbon dioxide, molecular hydrogen, methane, etc., and compounds substantially excluding polar covalent bonds and ionic bonds, are generally characterized by low boiling, and melting temperatures, and low electrical conductivity. In most compounds exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding, London dispersion forces control the electronic characteristics of the compound. However, despite consisting essentially of non-polar covalent bonds, graphene (and similar compounds exhibiting sp2and / or sp3bonding, and / or substantial coordination between electrons due to physical arrangement of the molecular structure and bonding pattern, as would be known by a skilled artisan upon reading the present disclosure) however, exhibits substantial electrical conductivity. Similarly, compounds exhibiting non-polar covalent bonding are typically insoluble, or only nominally soluble in water (though they are soluble in non-polar solvents).

[0237] Referring now to FIG. 6, the single integrated microwave plasma torch of FIG. 6 can be set up and operated as depicted in the following Table 2, the details of which are described infra.Table 2Step SI: Deploy a single integrated microwave plasma torch

[0238] FIG. 6 depicts a single integrated microwave plasma torch. The torch has the capability to process solid, liquid and vapor reactant feedstock species using (for example) a small inert gas or differentially pumped vacuum for controlling gas flow. The torch can be deployed in any environment (referring to laboratories, research set-ups, or large-scale industrial concerns, etc.).Step S2: Operate the single integrated microwave plasma torch for formation of graphene loaded metal composite (“covetic”) alloys

[0239] Microwave energy is delivered in a collinear waveguide configuration along with a centralized gas feed system for efficient microwave energy absorption. The microwave energy source is used to heat the metal to a semi-molten state. As the CH4 (or other hydrocarbon source) decomposes (into its constituent species) within an exhaust plume that is directed into a surface wave plasma gas dissociation tube, carbon radicals can nucleate (such as in an organized layer- by-layer manner) on the surface of the metal droplets via being energized by plasma radicals (directed onto the metal droplets). The energy tuning of the microwave thermal plume temperature and plasma allows for independent control of temperatures between the melt and the plasma decomposition / ionization that occurs within the central region of the pulsed microwave plasma spray torch apparatus 600.

[0240] Process conditions are measured and optimized. Desired process conditions are controlled by or for the integrated microwave plasma torch to directly form graphene-loaded metal composite material within a single or multi-stage plasma reaction torch. The plasma torch can be modulated within different regions of the surface wave plasma to enhance resonance (modulation) times and to optimize formation of targeted metal-carbon structures.

[0241] In addition to the shown process gas port (such as for introduction of a hydrocarbon process gas 605) at the depicted location, additional ports 604 can be provided at different locations. Such additional ports can be used to control how the process gas is introduced into the microwave field, and to introduce other process gasses. As examples, a process gas might be Sith or NH3. In some implementations, more than one input port for gas or more than one input port for particles (such as one for carbon and one for metal) may be included, where the location of the input ports can be positioned in different zones of the plasma torch.

[0242] The foregoing setup and conditions, as well as other conditions are optimized to result in conditions at the substrate surface that enable impinging particles to be consolidated into a film. The as-deposited films are analyzed and characterized according to methods outlined in Step S3 below.Step S3: Validate / characterize the graphene (secondary phase) metal properties

[0243] Characterization of the as-deposited integrated carbon-metal composite structures are accomplished using several techniques. For example, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and / or SEM-EDS can be used to determine chemical composition, binding energies (nanoscale carbon detection) and distribution. Also, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and / or SEM, and / or Raman spectroscopy, and / or XRD can be used for determining morphology and / or for measuring grain size and structural aspects. Electrical and thermal properties as well as the tensile strength and modulus of the composite material can be evaluated using any known techniques.Results

[0244] The foregoing techniques use a microwave plasma torch to continuously fabricate metal matrix composites. The processing entails material nucleation and formation of a growth zone within the plasma followed by an acceleration and impaction zone for consolidation of the materials onto a substrate. Each zone provides for unique control of dissimilar materials synthesis / formulation and integration; namely, selective, and unique formulation of alloy particles within the plasma, which then, through control of momentum (primarily kinetic) and thermal energetics during impact onto a substrate, enable a unique additive process forcontrolling consolidation parameters such as porosity, defect density, residual stress, chemical and thermal gradients, phase transformations, and anisotropy.

[0245] Various materials are selected for use across a wide range of growth dynamics within the plasma operation environment. In particular, different hydrocarbon gas sources with specific ratios of carbon to oxygen and hydrogen, and solid metal (or metal alloy) particle sources with different carbon solubilities, melting points, and crystal structures can be processed through the pulsed energy plasma torch processing system. As such, specific plasma processing parameters can be identified for concomitant incipient surface melting of the particle along with nucleation / growth and incorporation of 2D graphene and re-sputtered metal at the metal surface.

[0246] Upon incorporation of graphene into the metal from the microwave plasma torch, as- deposited materials / films are characterized with respect to “covetic-like” properties. As examples, these covetic-like properties can be characterized as (for example): (1) chemical composition (such as to detect impurities and to detect forms of carbon); (2) distributions of carbon (such as interstitial - referring to positions of carbon atoms or species within a metal matrix or lattice, intragranular and intergranular); (3) electrical conductivity; and (4) mechanical strength of the materials. The characterizations may include comparisons between graphene loaded versus un-alloyed parent metals. Further, and strictly as examples, using the microwave plasma torch, the as-deposited materials may exhibit a ratio of carbon to metal throughout the range (inclusive) of about 3% to 90%. In some situations, the ratio of carbon to metal is throughout the range (inclusive) of about 10% to about 40%. In some situations, the ratio of carbon to metal is throughout the range (inclusive) of about 40% to about 80%. In some situations, the ratio of carbon to metal is throughout the range (inclusive) of about 80% to about 90%. In some situations, the ratio of carbon to metal (inclusive) is greater than 90%. The carbon to metal ratio can be affected (or further affected) by parameters or specifications (such as temperatures, thicknesses, homogeneity, etc.) that define the coating process.

[0247] Accordingly, carbon may be present in amounts not capable of being achieved using conventional techniques, e.g., the resulting materials may include more than about 6 wt% carbon, more than about 15 wt% carbon, more than about 40 wt% carbon, more than about 60 wt% carbon, or up to about 90 wt% carbon, according to various embodiments. In various embodiments, the carbon may be included in the metal lattice in the foregoing amounts, such that all or substantially all of the carbon is incorporated into the metal (or other material) lattice, andgrain boundaries / lattice surfaces are substantially or entirely devoid of carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates. Further still, the carbon is preferably present / located at interstitial sites of the lattice.[02481 FIG. 7 is a diagram 700 depicting a coating process. The FIG. refers to a metallic substrate, which substrate is subjected to plasma torch spraying of covetic materials, which in turn results in synthesized complex carbon coatings. The metallic substrate might comprise any one or more of aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, titanium, tantalum, tungsten, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, niobium, and alloys thereof (e.g., various alloys of Inconel as described hereinabove), or other bulk metallic materials. The covetic materials might comprise one or more of carbons, graphene, Nano-onions, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbide implanted materials, etc.

[0249] The plasma torch spraying serves to coat the input materials with deposited materials, and can be operated using pulsed energy. As shown, the deposited (such as by layer-on-layer sputtering) materials may be any one or more of carbon, metals (such as listed above), and / or oxides or nitrides.

[0250] Several advantages emerge from use of the foregoing torches. Chiefly among them are the advantages of scalability and versatility of processes to formulate unique stable metal-carbon composites in a variety of configurations / architectures. These configurations / architectures range from fully dense thin film coatings to thick strips or particles for subsequent re-melting and casting / forming into engineered metal alloy components. Each of these species throughout the aforementioned range exhibit unexpectedly favorable (and desirable) enhanced mechanical, thermal and electrical properties when compared to existing parent metal alloy formulations. Additionally, the tunability of the concentration and distribution of covalently-bound 2D graphene in a metal alloy matrix above the thermodynamic solubility threshold, and the layer-by layer formation in a non-equilibrium plasma environment, enables a new class of composite materials that can be engineered to correspond to a specific application and / or to correspond to specific property requirements. Moreover, this can be done at a significantly reduced cost as compared with other techniques.

[0251] The enhanced mechanical, thermal and electrical properties can apply to a large number of applications that use copper and aluminum alloys. As examples, such applications include (butare not limited to): wire conductors and high voltage power transmission cables, microelectronic thermal management and heat exchangers, and numerous applications that use thin film electrical conductors such as batteries, fuel cells, and photovoltaics. In particular, the combination of the microwave plasma torch process and enabling carbon-metal alloy production provides significant energy savings in manufacturing as well as increased thermal efficiency and reduced electrical losses in end-application performance.

[0252] The foregoing plasma spray techniques depict merely one genre of methods for making covetic materials. Another genre involves spraying carbon particles onto small molten metal particles. Such a genre and various species of that genre are shown and discussed as pertains to FIGS. 8A-B, FIG. 9, FIG. 10, FIG. 1 1 , FIG. 12, FIG. 13, and FIG. 14., as well as in the discussions of the figures herein.

[0253] FIGS. 8A-B are schematics depicting a plasma spray process 800 that is used for spraying carbon particles onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of the plasma spray process 800 (or any aspect thereof) may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The plasma spray process 800 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0254] The shown plasma spraying techniques are used in various coating processes wherein heated materials are sprayed onto a surface. The feedstock (such as the coating precursor) is heated by electrical means (such as plasma or arc) and / or chemical means (such as via a combustion flame). Use of such plasma spraying techniques can provide coatings having a thickness in the range of about 20 pm to about 3 mm, depending on the process and feedstock. The coating can be applied over a large area and at a high deposition rate. Using the foregoing techniques, the deposition rate is much higher than can be achieved by conventional coating processes such as electroplating or physical and chemical vapor deposition.

[0255] In addition (or in alternative) to the example materials above, the types of coating materials available for plasma spraying include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics, and composites. They are fed into the spray torch in powder form or in wire form, then heated to a molten or semi-molten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge can be used as the source of energy for plasma spraying. Resultant coatings arc made by the accumulation of numerous layers of sprayedparticles. In many applications, the surface of the substrate does not heat up significantly, thus facilitating coating of many substances, including most flammable substances.

[0256] FIG. 9 is a scanning electron microscope image 900 showing the effect of spraying carbon particles (such as with particles sizes from 20 nm to 40 m) onto small molten metal particles. The carbon particles sprayed onto small molten metal particles can be used in various specialized applications. For example, a plasma aluminum- graphite composite can be specially designed to provide coatings for turbine engines. Alternatives include use of aluminum and titanium alloys. The rate of growth of this plasma spray coating material is parabolic. The plasma spray coating material precipitates over short periods of time, which precipitation is largely independent of temperature. For preparation of the material surface, certain processes include preheating of the materials. In some implementations, blasting by grit is performed as well for preparation of the material surface. In some implementations, some portion of the particles that are sprayed onto the surface are still hot enough to form covetic bonds at the surface of the substrate. In other cases, small molten particles are at a temperature to form metal-to-metal bonds.

[0257] Use of the herein-disclosed microwave plasma torch techniques enables the creation of improved materials as compared to use of conventional torches. Specifically, power control limitations and other configuration constraints inherent to conventional plasma torches limit the ability of a conventional plasma torch to independently control input materials and other conditions needed to produce carbons that are effective in the creation of covetic materials that exhibit sufficiently high quality and homogeneity.

[0258] FIG. 10 shows a chart depicting a graphene growth temperature profile 1000 and a binary phase diagram. As an option, one or more variations of graphene growth temperature profile 1000 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The graphene growth temperature profile 1000 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment. The FIG. also shows a binary phase diagram, where the x-axis is the carbon concentration in a selected metal (such as copper, as shown) as expressed in atomic percent. The temperatures in the temperature profile in the FIG. as also shown in the phase diagram. Various metals can be used (such as silver, tin, etc.). In some cases, alloys are formed.

[0259] A general idea behind the growth of single layer graphene (SLG) or few layer graphene (FLG) on molten metal is to dissolve carbon atoms inside a transition metal melt at a certain temperature, and then allow the dissolved carbon to precipitate (referring to the creation of a solid from a solution) out at lower temperatures.

[0260] The schematic depicts graphene growth from molten nickel by (for example): (1) melting nickel while in contact with graphite (as carbon source), (2) dissolving the carbon inside the melt at high temperatures, and (3) reducing the temperature for growth of graphene.

[0261] As depicted, keeping the melt in contact with a carbon source at a given temperature will give rise to dissolution and saturation of carbon atoms in the melt based on the binary phase transition of metal-carbon. Upon lowering the temperature, solubility of the carbon in the molten metal will decrease and the excess amount of carbon will precipitate on top of the melt.

[0262] FIG. 11 is a cross-section view of a (conventional) plasma flame apparatus 1100. The FIG. is being presented to distinguish uses of a legacy plasma flame apparatus as compared to uses of the herein-disclosed microwave plasma torch. Specifically, although use of a legacy plasma flame apparatus can produce diamond, or diamond-like materials on the surface of metals, the process requires significant time for material dissolution of carbon and diffusion so that the final materials precipitate out onto the surface of the metal. During the creation of metal- carbon composite materials as disclosed herein with the presently disclosed implementations, graphene is desired to be interstitially grown and locked between layers (or within lattice or matrix sites) of metals or metal-containing composite materials. However, to do so, the temperatures must be modulated at a high rate. Unfortunately, legacy plasma torches do not offer sufficient control over the temperature and other conditions that are needed to reduce the size of interstitial carbon structures to the nanometer scale (as may be desirable in connection to achieving the covetic materials as desired herein).

[0263] In contrast, a pulsed microwave reactor (as relevant to the presently disclosed implementations as introduced earlier) and corresponding processes are shown and described in FIG. 12 to offer sufficient detailed control over the temperature and other conditions that are needed to reduce the size of interstitial carbon structures to the nanometer scale.

[0264] FIG. 12 depicts a pulsed microwave process flow 1200 that is used when “growing” graphene, referring to the layer-by-layer systematic deposition or application of graphene onsubstantially flat exposed surfaces of molten metal particles. As an option, one or more variations of pulsed microwave process flow 1200 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The pulsed microwave process flow 1200 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0265] When using the shown pulsed microwave process flow 1200, graphene is grown onto small molten particles. This is accomplished by interactions within the pulsed microwave reactor that occur around inlet 1204 (such as where the metal powder and carrier gas are inlet into the reactor chamber). In addition to inlet 1204, a process gas port 1202 and additional ports (such as additional port 12031 and additional port 12032) are provided at different heights on the side of the reactor apparatus. A waveguide traverses at least the distance from the position of the process gas port 1202 on the side of the reactor to the position of the inlet 1204 on the side of the reactor. Details of how to make and use ports for introduction and continued supply of material into such a reactor for growing graphene onto small molten particles are further disclosed below. More specifically, certain components of the reactor of FIG. 12 are shown and described as pertains to FIG. 13.

[0266] FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a conventional pulsed microwave plasma spray waveguide apparatus 1300 that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of pulsed micro wave plasma spray waveguide apparatus 1300 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The pulsed microwave plasma spray waveguide apparatus 1300 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0267] In this implementation, microwave delivery components and a pulsing power supply are integrated to form a “surfaguide” (or the like) gas reactor. As shown, a combination of these components is configured to facilitate growing graphene onto small molten particles using a microwave plasma torch.

[0268] An alternative approach is to perform micro- welding using a tungsten inert gas (TIG) plasma source to partially or entirely melt the metal. Such a micro- welding technique is shown and described as pertains to FIG. 14.

[0269] FIG. 14 is a schematic depiction of a micro-welding technique 1400 that is used for growing graphene onto small molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of microwelding technique 1400 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The micro-welding technique 1400 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0270] A low power, low flow TIG welder power supply and control unit with a custom plasma containment section can be effectively used to heat metal particles of all types. As shown, the exhaust plume, when inserted into the surface wave plasma gas dissociation tube, allows temperatures to remain high enough for the growth of graphene. This mode of growth involving control of plasma radicals composed of hydrocarbons and other added gases formed under non- cquilibrium conditions provides many tuning opportunities that can be exploited by many different configurations of a microwave plasma spray apparatus. FIG. 15, FIG. 18A1, FIG.18A2, FIG. 18B, FIG. 18C, and FIG. 18D, as well as other figures and corresponding written description disclose example configurations of plasma spray apparatus.

[0271] FIG. 15 is a schematic depiction of a plasma spray apparatus in a coaxial configuration 1500. As an option, one or more variations of coaxial configuration 1500 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The coaxial configuration 1500 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0272] In a coaxial style implementation, microwave energy delivery is achieved via TEM waves fed into an antenna with the outer portion of the coaxial member being a quartz tube outside of which are flowed powdered metallic particles. The gas that is fed into the center region in this example is a hydrocarbon gas such as methane, where it absorbs the microwave radiation. The powder is heated by microwave energy that escapes the central region and by external inductive heating, which causes metal powder (in particulate form) to melt near the inclined portion, or tip, of the displayed reaction chamber. As the CH4 decomposes (into its constituent species, carbon, hydrogen, and / or derivatives thereof), carbon radicals nucleate on the surface of the melted metal droplets via the energy of the plasma radicals. Tuning of the microwave duty cycle, as well as tuning of the inductive heating, as well as tuning of the plasma characteristics, facilitates maintenance of different temperatures between the melt and the plasma decomposition / ionization region. Moreover, the non-equilibrium temperature allows for(facilitates) internal lattice placement of the graphene / carbon, and quick quenching creates conditions conducive to further covetic materials growth.

[0273] FIG. 16 is a schematic depiction of a plasma spray apparatus 1600 showing the evolution of materials by processing through a series of non-equilibrium energy conditions. As an option, one or more variations of the plasma spray apparatus 1600 (or any aspect thereof) may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The plasma spray apparatus 1600 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0274] The FIG. depicts evolution of materials as they pass through the apparatus. Specifically, the FIG. depicts the regions where different evolutionary changes occur such that in the region near the tip, graphene is grown onto the small metal melt particles. This material is deposited onto a substrate.

[0275] FIG. 17 depicts a surface wave plasma system 1700 for growing graphene onto molten particles. As an option, one or more variations of the surface wave plasma system 1700 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The surface wave plasma system 1700 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0276] In the shown configuration, the supply gas is fed into the center region of the apparatus. In this example a hydrocarbon gas such as methane is used. The hydrocarbon gas absorbs the microwave radiation, which provides a heat source to heat metal powder. Thus, the metal powder is heated from both: (1) the microwave energy that escapes the central region; and (2) the external inductive heating, to melt and become molten near the tip. As the hydrocarbon gas decomposes, carbon radicals nucleate on the surface of the melted metal droplets via the energy of the plasma radicals.

[0277] FIG. 18A1 depicts an axial field configuration 1810 of a plasma spray torch. The formation of covetic materials has been discussed using several different apparatuses and corresponding processes. Any of the foregoing apparatuses and corresponding processes can be tuned to achieve particular conditions for formation of covetic materials. In the specific axial field configuration shown, the processes include generating an electric field 1804 between the electrodes to create current flow through a melt of metallic and carbon materials. Specifically,and as shown, a specially configured plasma torch has an externally controlled field where the melted particles form a plasma, which in turn becomes a meta electrode. The electrode on the other side of the field is formed by the shown growth plate 1803. The covetic materials are accelerated through an acceleration zone 1821 and then deposited onto a surface. The created alloy and covetic materials continue to be deposited onto the growth plate and / or onto previously deposited materials in the impaction zone 1823. This technique for deposition results in a material where the carbon loading is homogeneous and in high concentration.

[0278] Input materials can be selected and varied so as to achieve particular properties exhibited materials. For example, and as shown, inputs to the plasma spray torch may include various input gasses 1812 as well as input metallics and / or carbon particles 1818. The foregoing inputs can be introduced into one or more input ports 1862. In some cases, the input metallics and or carbon particles are entrained within a flow of input gasses 1812. Furthermore, the growth plate can change its dimension and composition during ongoing deposition. For example, and as shown, the growth plate 1803 can initially be a substrate 1816, on top of which is deposited hot covetic materials in a torch stream that at least partially melts the substrate as the covetic materials are deposited. The deposited hot covetic materials cool from a molten or partially molten state to form quenched layers.

[0279] In this manner, any number of layers can be formed. The temperatures at the substrate and / or at or near the topmost layer can be controlled such that when a next layer of materials lands on the molten metal of the just formerly-deposited layer, the newly-deposited layer grows in a lateral way to produce single-layer graphene on the surface of this molten metal. This mechanism is distinguished from other techniques at least in that, in contrast to conventional metal melt methods 103, where carbon precipitates out of a molten metal slurry, application of the herein-disclosed plasma spray torch methods 104 results in quenching in a short time period such that there is insufficient time for the carbon to precipitate out of the matrix. Thus, covetic bonds remain intact throughout the layer. A few moments later, after the quenching has formed a solid of metal and well dispersed carbon, another layer is sprayed on top of that, and so on, thereby forming layers of single-layer graphene that was grown, captivated and quick-quenched to produce a true covetic material with extremely high carbon loading within the matrix. As one example, when using conventional metal melt methods 103 (see FIG. IB), carbon loading might achieve 6% carbon metal. In contrast, when using plasma spray torch methods 104 (see FIG.IB), 60% carbon loading is readily achieved. In some cases, tight control of inputs and process parameters of the plasma spray torch and its environment allow carbon loading to approach as much as 90% carbon in the resulting material.[02801 Experimental results using plasma spray torches have shown that highly loaded, highly uniform covetic layers can be formed by at least two quick-quench (such as ‘splat’) methods. A first method brings in carbon particles to cover metal particles (such as in the plasma) and the resulting hot mixture is sprayed onto a much cooler substrate. A second method creates graphene in the plasma and then brings in molten metal that covers the graphene. In both cases, true covetic (referring to a combination of covalent and metallic chemical) bonding occurs while in the plasma plume, and the quick quenching of the spray serves to captivate the mixture into an organo-mctallic lattice.

[0281] As shown in FIG. 18A2, the depth or thickness of the quenched layers 1824 can be caused to be thicker or thinner by controlling distances between the plasma flame 1814 and the substrate and / or by controlling the temperatures at the substrate 1816 (such as either higher or lower than ambient) and / or by controlling the pressures in and around the reactor.

[0282] FIG. 18B depicts a radial field configuration 1820 of a plasma spray torch. In this configuration, the melted particles form a plasma within the torch, which plasma becomes a meta electrode. The other electrode is formed by the side of the internal wall.

[0283] The foregoing configurations of FIG. 18A1, FIG. 18A2, and FIG. 18B are merely examples. Other configurations involving different input materials and different input port configurations are possible without departing from the generality of the plasma spray torch disclosed herein. Moreover, different configurations involving different input materials and different input port configurations can achieve the same intended results. For example, two different configurations that are tuned to achieve the same resultant material are shown and described as pertains to FIG. 18C and FIG. 18D. Specifically, the example configurations of FIG. 18C and FIG. 18D can be used for plasma spray torch deposition of ceramic film materials onto carbon-containing particles (such as graphene-containing particles).

[0284] Indeed, thin film deposition of carbon -containing materials (such as via atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition (APECVD) and / or other variations of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)) have made their way into many areas of materials processing. Variouscomposites and coatings involving such carbon-containing materials may exhibit improved physical properties (such as strength, imperviousness to corrosion, etc.). The morphological characteristics of various 2D and 3D carbons inure these improved physical properties to the composites and coatings by virtue of molecular-level configurations within the carbon- containing materials. In some cases, use of 2D and 3D carbons in composites and coatings greatly increases the resultant carbon-containing material’s imperviousness to high temperatures; however, in some cases, these high temperatures rise above ~2100°C, which is high enough to bum the 2D and 3D carbons themselves. Unfortunately, destroying the 2D carbons and 3D carbons in turn destroys the benefit originally garnered by the carbons in the composite or coating. Therefore, deposition techniques (such as plasma spray torch configurations) are needed to create composites or coatings that are impervious to temperatures even higher than the combustion temperature of carbon.

[0285] FIG. 18C depicts such a configuration, strictly as a non-limiting example. By tuning the inputs and various in-reactor conditions, graphene-containing materials can be coated with a heat-absorbing layer of organically modified silicon (ORMOSIL). The deposition of ORMOSIL ceramic materials onto graphene-containing materials can be achieved via several methods including through the process of atmospheric, reactive plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition using a silicon-containing precursor 1841 (such as hexamethyl di-siloxane) and a reactive gas such as oxygen. This particular mixture of the silicon-containing precursor and oxygen is made reactive within the plasma. The molecular dissociation that occurs within the plasma flame leads to deposition of silicon oxide onto surfaces such as the foregoing growth plate 1803. To accomplish this, in-reactor conditions are controlled such that an organically modified silicon ceramic is deposited onto surfaces of carbon-containing particles as they form in the reactor. Control of in-reactor growth and in-reactor deposition (such as by controlling APECVD processes) leads to a thin quartz coating around the carbon-containing particles, which are in turn deposited onto a substrate. The thin quartz coating acts as a flame-retardant layer to protect the carbon-containing particles from burning at elevated temperatures.

[0286] FIG. 18D depicts an alternative configuration, strictly as a non-limiting example. As shown, metallic and / or carbon-containing materials are input into the reactor. Microwave energy 1822 is controlled to achieve at least the temperature to dissociate the carbon-containing materials (such as T(c-dis) of FIG. 10). A silicon-containing precursor 1841 (such as HMDSO,HMDSN, etc.) is introduced into the plasma flame and the temperature is lowered in the plasma afterglow. As the temperature is lowered, carbon particles begin to form, becoming coated with the silicon oxide. The carbon particles coated with the silicon oxide are then deposited onto a substrate.

[0287] In one implementation, a thin layer of perhaps 10 nm thick of these 3D materials can be deposited onto a substrate, which won’t burn or catch fire even at 1200°C. This is because pristine carbon (such as graphene) is crystallized, such as it’s not an amorphous material. Rather, it has been reduced to a state where it simply won’t bum anymore.

[0288] On one use case, the foregoing plasma spray torch techniques can be used to produce new types of solder that is non-eutectic. Or, as another use case, the plasma spray torch can spray a coating of material directly onto a substrate to prevent the underlying material from oxidizing.

[0289] In addition to forming materials that do not combust even at 1200°C in atmospheric pressures, putting quartz around materials often yields huge advantages in applications.

[0290] Besides organically modified silicon, other organic substances can be used to coat the carbon particles or the carbon layers. Characteristics of the coating can be controlled. As one example, the pores of the surface of the sprayed-on materials can be tuned to be hydraulically smooth.

[0291] A plasma spray torch can be used to form a heat-absorbing, glass-coated, non-flammable graphene composed of graphene and silicon, where the silicon coats the graphene such that the graphene is able to withstand temperatures higher than 1600°C. Such a heat-absorbing, glass- coated, non-flammable graphene absorbs infrared energy.

[0292] One specific method for producing organically-modified silicon coatings comprises steps of (for example): (1) introducing a silicon-containing precursor into a plasma spray torch apparatus, (2) combining the silicon-containing precursor with a carrier gas having carbon particles that are entrained in the precursor gas, and (3) coating the carbon particles with silicon.

[0293] The characteristics of the flame-retardant and infrared obscurant materials that result from the plasma spray torch configuration of FIG. 18C and / or FIG. 18D can be tuned, at least in part, by controlling the time-temperature paths though the reactor. More generally, the characteristics of materials that result from the plasma spray torch configuration of FIG. 18A1,FIG. 18A2, FIG. 18B, FIG. 18C or FIG. 18D can be tuned, at least in part, by controlling (such as pulsing) the microwave energy within the reactor.

[0294] FIG. 19 is a chart 1900 that depicts energy versus time during pulse on and pulse off. More specifically, the chart shows one complete time cycle, from time T=0 through 50 microseconds with the microwave being continuously turned on, and then the remaining portion of the shown cycle depicts a time with the microwave being turned off. The plotted curves depict (1) changing density, and (2) changing temperature over the cycle. At time T=0, the temperature is at a minimum point (such as depicted at the origin of the chart). The temperature rises rapidly, then decreases, during which time the plasma density reaches a relatively stable value. When the microwave is turned off at time T=50 microseconds, both the plasma density and the temporal electron temperature decrease rapidly. The pulse time and duty cycle can be controlled so as to achieve a particular density and temperature at any point in time.

[0295] FIG. 20A1 depicts images that show organo-metallic bonding that occurs when combining carbon and copper using a plasma spray torch. As shown, carbon 2052 is deeply embedded within copper 2054. As commonly understood and as referred to herein, organometallic chemistry implies the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin, as well. Aside from bonds to organyl fragments or molecules, bonds to ‘inorganic’ carbon, like carbon monoxide (metal carbonyls), cyanide, or carbide, are generally considered to be organometallic as well. Related compounds such as transition metal hydrides and metal phosphine complexes may be included in discussions of organometallic compounds, though strictly speaking, they are not necessarily organometallic.

[0296] Within organometallic chemistry, organocopper compounds contain carbon to copper chemical bonds, and may possess unique physical properties, synthesis, and reactions. Organocopper compounds may be diverse in structure and reactivity but remain somewhat limited in oxidation states to copper(I), such as denoted Cu+. As a d10metal center, it is related to Ni(0), but owing to its higher oxidation state, it engages in less pi-backbonding. Organic derivatives of Cu(II) and Cu(III) may be invoked as intermediates but arc rarely isolated or even observed. In terms of geometry, copper(I) adopts symmetrical structures, in keeping with its spherical electronic shell. Typically, one of three coordination geometries may be adopted: linear2-coordinate, trigonal 3-coordinate, and tetrahedral 4-coordinate. Organocopper compounds form complexes with a variety of soft ligands such as alkyl phosphines (R3P), thioethers (R2S), and cyanide (CN-).[02971 By any one or more of the aforementioned techniques, the carbon depicted in FIG. 20A1 and FIG. 20A2 is chemically bonded to copper — as opposed to merely being juxtaposed to copper to adhere thereto via van der Waals forces (such as referring to a distance-dependent interaction between atoms or molecules). Unlike ionic or covalent bonds, van der Waals attractions do not result from a chemical electronic bond; they are comparatively weak and therefore more susceptible to disturbance. Moreover, the van der Waals forces quickly vanish at longer distances between interacting molecules. Instead, what is desired is organo-metallic bonding between a metal and carbon.

[0298] FIG. 20A2 depicts images that are a graded composition of matter applied into a substrate material and showing three material property zones. The bulk metal zone 2066 is a first material property zone of these three material property zones. As shown, the first material property zone comprises a metal in a first crystallographic formation, the first crystallographic formation having substantially metallic bonds between metal atoms present in the first material property zone. This first material property zone is substantially adjacent to a second material property zone that at least partially overlaps the first material property zone. The covetic material zone 2064 comprises at least some carbon atoms in a second crystallographic formation, wherein the second crystallographic formation has at least some non-polar covalent bonds between some of the carbon atoms that are present in the second material property zone and the metal atoms that are present in the first material property zone. The top surface zone 2062 is a third material property zone that at least partially overlaps the second material property zone. This top surface zone comprises further carbon atoms that are oriented in a third crystallographic formation. The third crystallographic formation is characterized as having at least some non-polar covalent bonds between individual ones of the further carbon atoms that are present in the third material property zone. In various implementations, there may be some metal atoms in any of the zones, and there may be some carbon atoms in any of the zones. However, this implementation is characterized by a higher metal content zone 2074 that is adjoining to the bulk metal zone 2066. In various implementations, here may be some carbon atoms in any of the zones, and there maybe some metal atoms in any of the zones. However, this implementation is characterized by a higher carbon content zone 2072 that is adjoining to the top surface zone 2062.

[0299] FIG. 20B is a materials evolution chart 20B00 depicting several layered configurations that occur when adding carbon to bulk aluminum. In these implementations, materials are sprayed onto an existing, carbon rich covetic substrate or carbide layer to create a carbon to carbon bond through carbon sintering and / or metal melt encapsulation, which in turn creates attachments to form a composite film. The materials evolution chart 20B00 is merely one example of a combinational material (silicon carbide) that is sprayed onto an aluminum bulk material. The process can be tuned to create a covetic or covetic-like film that is deposited onto bulk materials. The resulting materials then can be coated to create a functionalized top layer. One possible configuration of an apparatus for spraying combinational material onto substrate is given in FIG. 21 A.

[0300] FIG. 21 A depicts an apparatus for spraying a molten mixture of materials onto a substrate. The FIG. depicts a microwave reactor that comprises multiple regions inside a containment vessel. Pulsed microwave energy is delivered into the containment vessel. A hydrocarbon process gas 605 is provided through an inlet port. The microwave energy heats the process gas to a high enough temperature to form plasma. The expansion of materials within the containment vessel creates a plasma plume. The continuous addition of materials into the containment vessel in combination with the aforementioned expansion results in a torch effect in and around the plume. Resulting from the high temperatures within and around the plasma plume, the carbon dissociates from the hydrogen, thus forming several different hydrocarbon species (such as CH3, CH2). As the temperature continues to increase (such as in the first region 2104, as shown), all or nearly all of the carbon atoms become dissociated from the hydrogen. Using any known technique (such as using a gas-solid separator), the hydrogen-only species are separated from the solid carbon species.

[0301] At the interface between the first region 2104 of the containment vessel and the second region 2106 of the containment vessel, molten metal or molten metal composite, or molten ceramic-metal, or metal matrix, or metal mixture of any sort is introduced through a second inlet into the containment vessel (as shown). The location of the second inlet is selected based on the dimensions of the plasma plume, and / or the temperature of the molten metal at the point of inlet into the containment vessel. More specifically, the metal melt 2108 is introduced into the reactorat a location where the molten metal mixes with the carbon species. As the mixture flows (such as at a high rate of velocity) through the containment vessel, the mixture cools to a lower temperature. The flowing mixture exits the containment at a high rate of velocity such that the mixture of carbon and molten metal is sprayed out of the exit port 2110. The mixture is deposited (such as via spraying sprayed material 2112) onto a target substrate 2116. Various mechanisms for controlling the uniformity of the sprayed material 2112 and / or the resulting deposited material 2114 are shown and discussed as pertains to FIG. 23A through FIG. 23D.

[0302] The temperatures in the second region are low enough that at least some of the carbon precipitates out of the mixture. However, most of the dissociated carbon remains in mixture with the molten metal. When the molten metal mixed with the carbon reaches the target substrate 2116, it cools into a solid. During the transition from a molten mixture to a solid deposit, carbon is trapped between layers of metal and carbon. At certain temperatures the carbon forms nonpolar covalent bonds with the metal, thus resulting in covetic material. This covetic material exhibits a range of mechanical, thermal, electrical and tribological properties due to increased cohesion forces (such as non-polar covalent bonds) between the metal matrix and carbon.

[0303] Such covetic materials are a result of use of the pulsed microwave energy to control the energy distribution of the constituents of the materials in the first region and second region of the reactor. More specifically, the energy distribution of the constituents of the materials in the first region and second region of the reactor can be controlled in part by pulsing the microwave and in part by pre-melting the metal particles in an environment external to the chamber of the reactor (such as so as to introduce fully-melted or partially melted metal into the reactor chamber). Any known techniques can be used, singly or in combination to melt the metal particles. As such the degree and / or mixture of fully melted or partially melted particles can be controlled.

[0304] FIG. 21B depicts a method for spraying covetic materials onto a substrate. The method can be used in conjunction with the apparatus of FIG. 21 A. As shown, the method is performed using a microwave reactor having an inlet for a process gas, an inlet for a metal melt, and an exit port. Prior to operation, the microwave reactor is configured with an inlet for hydrocarbon process gas, an inlet for a metal melt, and an exit port (operation 21B02). At operation 2 IB 10, the inlet serves to introduce a hydrocarbon process gas into a first region of the reactor. Using the microwave energy, the temperature in the first region of the reactor is elevated such that the hydrocarbon process gas dissociates into carbon and hydrogen species before reaching the metalmelt. A different inlet serves to introduce a metal melt into a second region of the reactor (operation 21B20). The elevated temperature in the second region is maintained until the dissociated carbon mixes with the metal melt (operation 21B30). The effect of the aforementioned plume operates to move the mixture into a third region of the reactor (operation 21B40). Movement away from the micro wave energy source has the effect of reducing the temperature of the mixture until at least some of the carbon condenses out of the mixture (operation 21B50). However, even though the temperatures are reduced, the plasma torch effect serves to move the mixture through the exit port at a high rate of velocity (operation 21B60). As such, the molten mixture is sprayed onto a substrate (operation 21B70).

[0305] FIG. 21 C is a schematic depicting a plasma spray process that is used for spraying a film. As shown, carbon radicals, polycyclic aromatics, graphene sheets, and metal particles arc mixed at high temperatures in a plasma reactor (such as referring to the shown first region 2104). Nucleation occurs at these high temperatures, and as temperatures inside the reactor decrease (such as referring to the shown second region 2106), growth and assembly begins. One possible growth mechanism is depicted by the sub-micrometer sized aluminum particles being coated by few layer graphene. These sub-micrometer sized aluminum particles are held together with a combination of metallic bonds, non-polar covalent bonds, and covetic bonds. More specifically, and as shown at the 2 nm scale, carbon atoms are bonded to aluminum atoms. The carbon atoms are organized into a coherent graphene plane that is situated in the aluminum matrix, preferably interlaced between basal planes of the aluminum matrix. The foregoing discussion involving aluminum is merely an example. Other metals can be used. In fact, a coherent graphene plane can be situated (again, preferably between basal planes) not only in a face-centered cubic (FCC) metal lattice, but also in a body-centered cubic (BCC) metal lattice, or in a hexagonal close packed (HCC) metal lattice.

[0306] The foregoing coated particles are then sintered to form particles that have diameters on the order of 100 pm. These semi-molten particles are then accelerated through the reactor and impacted onto a substrate (such as in a first pass), or onto a previously deposited layer of impacted particles (such as in a second or Nth pass).

[0307] FIG. 22A depicts an apparatus for wrapping carbon particles with a molten metal. The configuration of the apparatus of FIG. 22A differs from the configuration of the apparatus of FIG. 21A at least in that the introduction of the molten metal is controlled using the meltingapparatus 2209. The metal melt is controlled so as produce molten metal that wraps around carbon particles when the molten metal is introduced into the reactor.

[0308] FIG. 22B depicts a method for wrapping carbon particles with a molten metal. Prior to operation, the microwave reactor is configured with an inlet for hydrocarbon process gas, an inlet for a metal melt, and an exit port (operation 22B02). At operation 22B10, the inlet serves to introduce a hydrocarbon process gas into a first region of the reactor. The method differs from the method of FIG. 21B at least in that, in operation 22B30, the temperatures in the different regions of the reactors are maintained such that some carbon particle species form from the dissociated carbons. The effect of the aforementioned plume operates to move the mixture into a third region of the reactor (operation 22B40). In operation 22B50, at least some of those carbon particles become wrapped by the molten metal. Some bonds arc formed between constituent atoms of the carbon particles and atoms of the metal melt. In operation 21B60, the metalwrapped carbon particles moved through the exit port, further reducing the temperature. When the metal-wrapped particles are deposited onto the substrate (operation 21B70) further bonds are formed between the metal-wrapped carbon and the metal of the substrate.

[0309] FIG. 23 A, FIG. 23B, FIG. 23C, and FIG. 23D depict example deposition techniques, according to some implementations.

[0310] As shown in FIG. 23A, the deposited material has a curved shape that is characterized by a middle region of a higher height and end regions of a lower height. In some cases, this is a desired shape for a spot of deposited material. In other cases, it is desirable to spray deposited materials over larger areas. This can be accomplished by moving the substrate with respect to the spray, or by moving the spray with respect to the substrate. FIG. 23B depicts a flexible substrate 2310 that is dispositioned onto a supply reel. The flexible substrate can be drawn onto and around a take-up reel. As such, and in the configuration of FIG. 23B, the spray deposits covetic materials uniformly onto the moving substrate. When the relative movement between the sprayed material 2112 and the substrate is controlled, the resulting deposited materials are of uniform thickness.

[0311] In some situations, it is desired to have a non-flat, but uniform patterning at the surface of the deposited materials. In such a situation, the movement of the substrate can be stepped through a scries of discrete positions, thus resulting in the patterning of FIG. 23C. Additionally,or alternatively, a slotted antenna can be disposed between the sprayed material 2112 and the substrate. The slotted antenna functions by distributing the spray evenly across the lateral distance of the slotted antenna. Using such a slotted antenna, a single spot of sprayed material 2112 can have thickness and surface uniformity substantially as shown in FIG. 23D.

[0312] FIG. 24A and FIG. 24B depict conventional techniques for deposition of materials onto a substrate. As shown in FIG. 24A, a carbon agglomerate is held together through use of a binder (such as polymeries). This results in weak binding at the interface between the carbon agglomerate and the substrate . FIG. 24B depicts a coating of carbon materials onto a substrate using a binder. Conventional deposition using binders suffers from peeling. Moreover, even when the surface of the substrate is mechanically pretreated and / or pretreated with deposition of binder material, the interactions between the substrate and the carbon agglomerate arc weak.

[0313] As heretofore described, coatings based on deposition of materials onto a substrate using binders and / or using coating techniques (such as such as are shown and described as pertains to FIG. 24A and FIG. 24B) suffer from peeling, low strength properties and other undesirable mechanical properties. Improvements based on plasma spray techniques are shown and discussed in FIG. 25 A and FIG. 25B.

[0314] FIG. 25A and FIG. 25B depict example deposition techniques that result in non-polar covalent bonding at the surface of a substrate, according to some implementations. Specifically, and as shown, when the herein-disclosed techniques are used, covetic materials are formed by non-polar covalent bonds between the carbon and the substrate. As such, no binder is needed or used. Furthermore, many of the non-polar bonds formed at the interface between the substrate and the covetic material are strong covalent bonds. In one specific case, where the substrate is aluminum, non-polar covalent bonds are formed between atoms that are in the face-centered cubic structure of aluminum and atoms of carbon that are in a hexagonal structure. A schematic of interfacial bonding is depicted in FIG. 25B.

[0315] FIG. 26A, FIG. 26B, FIG. 26C, and FIG. 26D present schematic diagrams that depict how non-polar covalent bonds are formed between sites in the square shapes of a face-centered cubic structure of aluminum and sites in the hexagonal shapes that occur in certain crystallographic structures of carbons.

[0316] FIG. 26A is an orthogonal view showing the square shapes of face-centered cubic structure of aluminum. FIG. 26B is an orthogonal view showing the hexagonal shapes that occur in certain crystallographic structures of aluminum.

[0317] FIG. 26C depicts one possible superposition of the hexagonal shapes that occur in certain crystallographic structures of carbons on top of the square shapes of face-centered cubic structure of aluminum. FIG. 26D depicts non-polar covalent bonds that are formed at certain sites. The example of the face-centered cubic structure of aluminum is merely one example. Other metals having other crystallographic structures are possible. Unexpected properties exhibited by some embodiments are postulated to be caused by non-polar covalent bonding between carbon and metal atoms being sufficient / effective to “trap” all or substantially all (e.g., at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, etc.) of the “free” electrons typically present in compounds exhibiting metallic bonding, thus altering the properties typically associated with presence of “free” electrons in metals and metal-containing compounds. For instance, certain implementations may be characterized by surfaces of the inventive compositions of matter having effectively no “free” electrons, and thus exhibiting reduced thermal and / or electrical conductivity. Moreover, for implementations having effectively no “free” electrons, the surfaces of the inventive compositions do not oxidize when exposed to ambient air.

[0318] FIG. 26E is an example of a layered covetic material 26E00, where a graphene-like structure is sandwiched between layers of metal material. The lower layer of metal material is a layer of substrate. The top layer of metal material is formed of quenched material that was formerly molten while in the reactor. The graphene-like structure that is sandwiched between layers of metal material is captured between the two layers of metal due to the formation of metal-to-metal bonds between the two metal layers. In addition to the metal bonds, other bods are formed that serve to encase the graphene-like material between the metal layers. In some locations, there are defects in the carbon lattice. Various types of bonds are formed between or near such defects.

[0319] Any or all of the foregoing techniques for forming covetic materials can be used in many applications involving many different types of substrates. Moreover, the relative movement between the spray and the substrate can be controlled so as to result in deposits of any thickness. Any known techniques can be used to control the relative movement. For example, the exit portcan be moved over a stationary substrate. This can be accomplished using a hand-held device or a robotically controlled device that is moved relative to the stationary substrate. In some cases, the substrate can be subjected to a bias voltage such that at least some of the material that is sprayed out of the exit port is electrostatically attracted to the surface of the substrate. This has applicability in applications where the substrate is not uniformly flat. As examples, applications where the substrate is not uniformly flat may include: (1) shaped components that are used in machinery that is subjected to corrosively harsh conditions, (2) turbine blades, (3) heat exchanger components, etc., many of which applications are further discussed infra.

[0320] In other situations, characteristics (such as thickness, lateral uniformity, etc.) of the deposition can be enhanced through use of and / or combinations of various chemical vapor deposition techniques. Strictly as one example, aspects or parameters pertaining to known-in-thc- art plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition techniques can be controlled so as to optimize characteristics of the deposited layers of covetic materials. As another example, rather than depositing covetic materials onto a surface to form a film or coating, covetic materials can be formed into particles (such as by spraying into a lower temperature environment) and collecting the particles as a powder. Various techniques involving production and use of powered covetic materials are briefly discussed hereunder.Powdered Covetic Materials

[0321] In some situations, rather than forming covetic materials as a film or coating on or in a substrate, covetic materials can be delivered as a covetic material powder. Such a powdered covetic material can be collected as it exits the reactor, cooled to a temperature below the melting point of the covetic material and collected as a powder. The powder in turn can be handled (such as stored and shipped, poured, mixed, etc.) at room temperatures. The powder can then be remelted and pressed into a form or remelted and re-sprayed. As examples, components for use in highly corrosive environments can be formed from such powdered covetic materials using injection molding or extrusion. Many apparatuses can be used, singly or in combination to form and transport covetic material powders. Example apparatus are shown and described as pertains to FIG. 27A, FIG. 27B 1 and 27B2.

[0322] FIG. 27A depicts an example apparatus 27A00 for producing powdered covetic material 2710 using a cooling region 2702 to cool the sprayed material 2112 when the spray is forcedthrough an exit port 2110 of a microwave reactor. Any one or more cooling techniques in any combination can be used to lower the temperature of the covetic material in cooling region 2702 to a temperature that is lower than the melting point of the covetic material. The cooling region 2702 might host one or more apparatuses to cause the cooling. For example, and as shown, a collection vessel 2704 might be fitted with one or more apparatuses to cause a cyclone effect in the collection vessel, thereby increasing the time for lowering the temperature of the covetic material. In some cases, the time for cooling the covetic material is controlled (such as by increasing or decreasing the time) so as to allow the covetic material to anneal with highly regular bonding. In some cases, controlling the time during which the covetic material is cooled allows for the covetic material to crystalize into highly regular crystalline structures, while still remaining in powered form. In some implementations, a mechanical tumbler-agitator can be fitted between the exit port 2110 of the microwave reactor and collection vessel 2704. The tumbler- agitator can be cleaned or replaced periodically.

[0323] Alternatively, or additionally, and in situations where it is convenient and / or necessary to contain and / or transport powdered covetic material in a fluid, a fluidized bed apparatus can be used. For example, to avoid formation of aggregates and / or agglomerates of particles of the powder, the powdered covetic material can be held (e.g., suspended) in a liquid. In some implementations, a fluidized bed apparatus can be fitted between the exit port 2110 of the microwave reactor and collection vessel 2704. One implementation of such a fluidized bed apparatus is shown and described as pertains to FIG. 27B 1 and FIG. 27B2.

[0324] FIG. 27B1 and FIG. 27B2 depict an example fluidized bed apparatus 27B00 for cooling and handling powdered covetic materials in a fluid.

[0325] As shown, the molten metal and carbon mixture is forced through the exit port of the reactor and into the top of a fluidized bed 2750. As the molten metal and carbon mixture is forced out of the exit port, it is cooled in a manner that form particles. The particles are acted on by a downward force of gravity (such as in a downward direction, as shown) while at the same time a process fluid 2754 is forced from the bottom of the fluidized bed to create an upward force. As such, the particles accelerate toward the bottom of the fluidized bed at an acceleration rate slower than that of the local gravity. The flow dynamics can be partially modulated by the geometry of the fluidized bed. For example, and as shown, a length of the fluidized bed can form a tapered body 2762 where a first end of the tapered body has a first dimension DI and where asecond end of the tapered body has a second dimension D2, and wherein DI > D2. The temperature within various portions of the fluidized bed can be controlled in part by power source 2752 that powers a coil (as shown) and / or by a heat source 2760 that heats process fluid 2754 before the process fluid enters the bottom of the fluidized bed.

[0326] The pressures and flow rates and other conditions in the fluidized bed and at the environmental interfaces of the fluidized bed serve to cause the powder and fluid mixture to behave together as a fluid. The mixture exhibits many properties and characteristics of fluids, such as the ability to free flow under gravity, and / or to be pumped using fluid handling technologies.

[0327] In the implementation of FIG. 27B1 and FIG. 27B2, the fluidized bed has multiple ports that are positioned at different heights of the tapered body. This is so that a first powder in fluid 27561 flows out at a particular temperature / pressure, whereas a second powder in fluid 27562 flows out at a second, different particular temperature / pressure. The flows through the multiple ports can be controlled such that the collection vessel can receive any ratio or amounts of first powder in fluid 27561 and second powder in fluid 27562.Method of Forming Covetic Materials

[0328] Table 3 shows some non-limiting examples of methods for forming powdered covetic materials.Table 3Example Method 1

[0329] In some implementations of method 1, structured carbons (such as carbon allotropes) are formed in a first region of a microwave reactor (such as through the dissociation of a hydrocarbon process gas). In a second region that is at a lower temperature than the first region, the structured carbons are decorated with a metal so as to form a metalized carbon material (such as an organo-metallic material). The metalized carbon material is further cooled to a temperature below the melting point of the metal. In some implementations, the metalized carbon material is initially in the form of carbon particles that are decorated with a metal. The particles arc further cooled so as to form a powder. The powder can be collected and transported to an application facility. The powder comprising metalized carbon material having covctic bonds can be rcmcltcd and used in conjunction with any known techniques for forming a component from a powder. Strictly as examples, components can be formed from a powder by using die pressing followed by re-melting, isostatic pressing followed by re-melting, hot forging, metal injection molding, laser sintering, etc.Example Method 2

[0330] In this method 2, one or more hydrocarbon gases (or in some cases gases and liquids) are input into the system. Strictly as examples, the gases and / or liquids that can be input into the system include methane, ethane, methylacetylene-propadiene propane (MAPP), and hexane. In a first region 2104 at a first temperature, the carbon atoms are dissociated from other atoms (such as dissociated from hydrogen). A molten metal 2108 is introduced into the reactor as metal particles. Then, in a second region 2106, the carbons produced in the first region combine with the metal particles. The carbon can grow on the surface of the metal particles and / or grow within the interior of the metal particles. In some situations, and under some conditions, the carbon growth comprises growth of 2D carbons on or in the metal particles. In other situations, and / or under other conditions, the carbon growth comprises growth of 3D carbons on or in the metal particles. In any of the foregoing growth situations, the growth can take place to the maximum extent allowed by the lattice. For example, the molten metal can be aluminum with a face- centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure, and the carbon can form a solid solution with thealuminum up to a particular concentration. In some implementations, the carbon forms a solution with the metal up to a concentration determined by the metal properties (such as the crystal structure) and then precipitate out of the metal-carbon solution to form 2D or 3D carbon on and / or within the metal particles.

[0331] The growth in this method 2 is carried out under non-equilibrium thermal conditions. Specifically, various differing thermal conditions to control (for example); (1) first temperatures (such as higher temperatures) in the first region that are needed to control the foregoing dissociation, and (2) second temperatures (such as lower temperatures) in the second region to control insipient melting of metal powders and / or the formation and properties of the metal- carbon particles in the second region. Temperatures in these two zones can be independently controlled. Using this method, the sprayed materials arc true covctic materials that exhibit true covetic behaviors.Example Method 3

[0332] In still further non-limiting examples, materials and / or coatings on input particles can be created or deposited from mixed materials such as trimethylamine (TMA), trimethylglycine (TMG), and methylacetylene-propadiene propane. The particles can be cooled and collected as a powder. Some examples of particles that can be created from target materials in the first zone are phased carbons, silicon carbide, metal oxides, metal nitrides or metals. In some cases, the input particles are metals, and compound films (such as metal oxides or metal nitrides) are coated on the metallic input particles, while in other cases, the input particles contain compound materials and metallic coatings are deposited on the input particles. Some examples of particles that can be created from input gases in the first zone are carbon allotropes (such as innate carbons), silicons, ZnO, AlOx, and NiO.

[0333] In some implementations, gases, including various non-hydrocarbon gasses or alcohols are input into the first zone and the first zone comprises a sputtering apparatus and a power supply, wherein the sputtering apparatus is configured to generate a plurality of ionic species from a selected target material. The target material and the ionic species combine to form a plurality of particles. The power supply can be an AC, DC, RF, or high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HIPIMS) power supply and can be configured to generate a plurality ofionic species from the target material by tuning the power, voltage, frequency, repetition rate, and / or other characteristics of the power supply.

[0334] FIG. 27C is a schematic depicting a plasma spray process that is used for production of a powdered covetic material.Powdered Material Processing Sequence

[0335] A visual representation of an example powdered material processing sequence from hydrocarbon cracking and particle nucleation (such as the shown first region 2104), to graphene growth (such as the shown second region 2106), cooling of the semi-molten particles (such as in the shown cooling region) and collection of powdered covetic material (such as in the collection region, and into the collection vessel 2704) is shown in FIG. 27C. Mechanisms that underlie the efficacy of the example powdered material processing sequence are now briefly discussed.

[0336] In absence of a metal precursor (whether metalorganic or particle form), the microwave plasma dissociates methane to form carbon radicals (as well as polycyclic aromatics / acetylene) that will then form few layer (FL) graphene (or stacked lamellae) structures respectively.However, in the presence of a metal precursor in the plasma zone (such as refer to the reactors of FIG. 21 A and FIG. 22A), the metal (either from metalorganic nuclei or particle) can serve as a seed site for heterogeneous carbon growth (such as carbon in the form of ionized radical, graphene nuclei, or polycyclic aromatic (acetylene)).

[0337] When using metals with a low solubility, such as Al or Cu, graphene sheets can grow (such as either through adatom / monomers or as a cluster) onto the surface of the metal. Characteristics of the growth depends at least in part on symmetry and minimization of interfacial free energy at the metal surface. As such, carbon growth occurs at the metal particle alongside metal atom re- sputtering events at the surface to create intermixed and / or layered metal / carbon structures. As is known in the art, the radius of the metal particle (such as surface curvature), can affect carbon solubility in the metal particle. As an example, a smaller radius (such as corresponding to higher curvature) increases the solubility over equilibrium (at a planar surface), which increase in the solubility can in turn impact the thickness of the graphene layers.

[0338] Once the powdered covetic materials 2710 have been collected in a collection vessel, the powdered covetic materials can be further processed using conventional techniques (such as injection molding techniques, other techniques using powdered metal).Manufacturing Techniques Using Powdered Covetic Materials

[0339] FIG. 28 depicts method for making components from powdered covetic materials using injection molding techniques. As shown, the method is initiated upon gathering a set of properties for a component to be used in a particular application and / or environment (operation 2810), then selecting a particular powdered covetic material based on at least one of the properties for the application or environment (operation 2820). The selection may be based on desired mechanical properties for the component, and / or based on desired anti-corrosive properties of the component in the environments corresponding to its intended use, and / or other desired properties. The selection might be based on multiple desired properties, and in some cases a selection tool solved an optimization problem based on a set of properties and an objective function.

[0340] Once the covetic material has been selected (operation 2820), the selected powdered covetic material 2825 is melted (operation 2830) and introduced into a mold (operation 2840). A prescribed temperature and a prescribed pressure are maintained inside the mold for a prescribed duration (operation 2850) after which duration the temperature and pressure inside the mold is brought to about 30°C and about atmospheric pressure (operation 2860). The component is released from the mold (operation 2870) and deployed in the intended application (operation 2880).

[0341] As heretofore mentioned, the selection of a particular covetic material might be based on multiple desired properties, some of which properties might be used as a variable of an objective function. In some cases, the selection of a particular covetic material might be based on a particular dominant property (such as mechanical strength, weight, anti-corrosiveness, etc.). In some cases, the properties of interest are ratios of other properties, such as strength to weight, specific heat to weight, etc.) In some cases, the dominant property is to be maximized (or minimized) subject to one or more constraints on other properties.

[0342] As such, powdered covetic materials can be deployed in a wide range of applications. In many cases, the resulting components made from powdered covetic materials outperform components made from other materials. Some example applications that correlate to certain dominant properties are shown and discussed as pertains to the following FIG. 29.

[0343] FIG. 29 is a diagram 2900 depicting various properties of covetic materials. The shown properties include mechanical attributes, thermal conductivity, resistance to oxidation, durability, resistance to softening at high temperatures, resistance to fatigue, and electrical conductivity. Individual ones and / or combinations of these parameters become dominant when selecting a particular covetic material for a particular application.

[0344] Strictly as an example, resistance to oxidation might be a dominant parameter when selecting a covetic material for use in making corrosion-resistant valves. As another example, when selecting particular covetic materials to be used in the manufacture of blades for aircraft engine turbines, mechanical attributes such as a strength-to-weight ratio, subject to a strength minimum constraint might be a dominating mechanical attribute. The blade might also need to exhibit a very high resistance fatigue.

[0345] Typically, covetic materials exhibit not only the aforementioned properties but also are less dense than the metal or alloy that is used in making the covetic powder. A lower density often corresponds to a lower weight for a formed component as compared with the same component made from the metal or alloy in absence of carbon loading. As such, truck parts (such as cab components, as shown), automobile parts (such as doors fenders, roof panels, etc.), motorcycle parts, bicycle parts as well as various components (such as structural members) of airborne vehicles, and / or watercraft, and / or space-based vehicles or platforms can avail of the lower weight-to- strength ratio of covetic materials as compared with the base metals or alloys that are used in making the covetic materials.

[0346] As another example, covetic materials often exhibit exceptional thermal conductivity such that structural members formed of covetic materials can be used in high-temperature applications (such as heat sinks for electronics, industrial heat exchangers, etc.).

[0347] As yet another example, covetic materials often exhibit exceptional resistance to corrosion. More specifically, covetic laminates made using the foregoing techniques exhibit extremely high corrosion resistance, even at the top layer (such as at the component-to-environment interface). This property is of particular interest when components made with covetic materials are subjected to harsh environments.

[0348] As a still further example, covetic materials can be tuned for surface smoothness. More specifically, covetic laminates made using the foregoing techniques exhibit extremely high surface smoothness. This surface smoothness property is of particular interest when the covetic materials serve as a heat shield, such as may be demanded in applications where friction at the surface (such as friction generated as a fluid passes over the surface at high speed) generates unwanted heat at the surface. By using the herein-disclosed techniques, the specific composition of the covetic material and / or by using the herein-disclosed specific techniques for deposition of the covetic material can result in a hydraulically smooth surface, which can in turn be used in airborne and / or space-based vehicles.

[0349] In certain implementations, one set of properties may dominate other properties. For example, the surface of a space-based vehicle (such as a satellite) might be required to be substantially non-reflective to a range of electromagnet radiation (such as substantially non- reflective to visible light), while at the same time, the surface of the space-based vehicle might be required to be thermally isolating (such as thermally non-conducting). The foregoing tuning techniques accommodate such situations where a particular desired property (such as nonreflectivity) dominates the tuning of the plasma spray torch so as to produce a substantially non- reflective surface, even at the expense of other properties.

[0350] The properties as shown and described as pertains to FIG. 29 arc merely examples. Additional properties and / or combinations of properties might be demanded or desirable in various applications, and these additional properties are exhibited in resultant materials based on tuning of inputs and controls of the plasma spray torch. Strictly as examples of the foregoing additional properties, such properties and / or combinations of properties might include or be related to a strength-to-weight metric, and / or a specific density, and / or mechanical toughness, and / or sheer strength, and / or flex strength, etc.

[0351] Some applications (e.g., for high-stress / high-temperature operation, or for operation in chemically-harsh environments) have particular specifications as to anti-corrosiveness, and / or strength, and / or hardness, and / or other characteristics of the final material or component. In some situations, the particular specifications can be satisfied by use of an alloy that is, in turn, used toform components in correspondence with the particular application. VIM furnaces are often used for forming alloys. Sometimes, carbon-containing materials in powder form are added to the alloy admixture so as to decrease weight while maintaining strength and / or other characteristics of the alloy.

[0352] Unfortunately, a VIM furnace generates a strong magnetic field. The effect of this strong magnetic field on constituents of the powder is often stronger than the effect of gravity on the constituents of the powder. As such, the magnetic field has the unwanted effect of ejecting the powder from the VIM furnace even before the powder has a chance to enter into the crucible of the VIM furnace, to melt, and to then disperse within the admixture melt. One technique to address this unwanted ejection of the powder from the VIM furnace is to pelletize the powder into a dense form such that, when the form is introduced into the VIM furnace, it is not ejected by the magnetic force of the VIM furnace. Rather, the pelletized form enters into the crucible of the VIM furnace such that it melts inside the VIM furnace, and such that it becomes mixed into the molten admixture.

[0353] A carbon-containing alloy is thusly formed, preferably a carbon-containing alloy having at least some, more preferably all, of the physical characteristics as described hereinabove with respect to covetic materials. Such physical characteristics shall be understood as including, without limitation, high carbon loading (e.g., above 1.5%, above 5%, above 15%, above 40%, above 60%, and up to 90% of the material is carbon, according to various embodiments); substantially homogeneous dispersal of carbon throughout a surface layer and / or a bulk of the material; presence of carbon at interstitial sites of a crystal lattice of the metal with which the carbon is alloyed; absence of carbon aggregates and / or agglomerates at grain boundaries of the material;

[0354] FIG. 30A1 and FIG. 30A2 depicts problems and solutions associated with melting metaldecorated carbons in powder as compared with melting metal-decorated carbons in pellet form. The figures are being presented side-by-side to particularly illustrate the problem (30A100) and solution (30A200) associated with use of powders in a VIM processor.

[0355] As is known in the art, vacuum induction melting relies on a high-powered current generation source 3006 to melt metal within a vacuum environment 3002. The induction heating process produces eddy currents within conductors (e.g., metals). The eddy currents in turnproduce heat. The magnetic field generated by the heating coils produce an upward force. Each individual particle of the powder 3004 does not weigh enough to overcome the upward forced produced by the electromagnetic force, which results in unwanted ejection 3003 of the metaldecorated carbon powder. FIG. 30A2 depicts the herein-disclosed solution to this unwanted ejection, namely by compressing many individual particles of the powder into a pellet 3008. As a result, the force of gravity acting on the pellet overcomes the force of the magnetic field on constituents of the powder. This solves the previously-discussed problem that the effect of the magnetic field of the VIM processor on a powder is stronger than the effect of gravity on the powder. As such, the pellet enters the crucible and is heated together with the constituents of the admixture.

[0356] Once the admixture reaches its melting point, the magnetic fields begin to stir the metal alloy. The alloy melt — including the carbon-containing constituents that are dispersed throughout the alloy melt matrix — can now be poured into a mold that is specific to a component for a given application.

[0357] FIG. 31 depicts a method of using a pellet 3108 so as to minimize or eliminate ejection of material during introduction of the pellet 3108 into the VIM processor 3110. The FIG. is being presented to illustrate an exemplary materials handling process whereby powdered material 3004 is pelletized before being used in a VIM processor. In additional approaches, the VIM processor 3110 may be substituted, or used in combination with, a vacuum arc melt processing apparatus, an electron beam melt furnace, an ion plating furnace, a plasma flame source, a smelter, a traditional metal-metal melt furnace, or any equivalent(s) and / or combinations thereof that would be understood by a person having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present disclosure.

[0358] To obtain the powdered material, a supply gas (e.g., a hydrocarbon such as methane) is flowed into a plasma reactor to yield a plasma containing dissociated carbon atoms and dissociated hydrogen atoms. At some particular location in the plasma plume, such as where the hydrogen is fully dissociated from the carbon atoms, a metal melt (e.g., a nickel melt) is injected into the plasma. The injected metal melt combines with the dissociated carbon atoms to form a metal-decorated carbon molecules, some of which metal-decorated carbon molecules amalgamate with other metal-decorated carbon molecules. When cooled to a temperature below the melting point of the injected metal, the precipitate exits from the plasma reactor as a powdered material 3104.

[0359] After collection of the metal-decorated carbon powder from the plasma reactor (step 3114) the metal-decorated carbon molecules are separated from the dissociated hydrogen molecules (e.g., H2), possibly in a gas-solid separator or other collection vessel that is situated at the exit port of the plasma reactor. For example, and as shown, a gas-solid separator vessel 3102 may be implemented using equipment such as gravity separators, cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic separators, filters, etc. as would be appreciated by those having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present disclosure.

[0360] In the shown example, the metal-decorated carbon (a solid) and the hydrogen molecules (a gas) may be placed in a cyclone gas-solid separator vessel 3102. This particular configuration uses the concept of inertia to separate the solid (e.g., metal -decorated carbon) from the gas (e.g., the hydrogen). Due to the differences of molecular weight between the mctal-dccoratcd carbon and the hydrogen, the lighter material, in this case the hydrogen, will be more affected by the vortex created within the cyclonic gas-solid separator vessel. As such, the hydrogen gas will be forced (by the cyclonic effect) to travel upwards, thus separating the gas from the heavier powdered material 3104 (e.g., the metal-decorated carbon molecules). The shape of the gas-solid separator vessel facilitates flow of the metal-decorated carbon particles downwards towards the bottom of the vessel. This downward flow is in an opposite direction from the upward flow of the hydrogen. As such, the metal-decorated carbon particles can be collected for further processing.

[0361] Once the metal-decorated carbon powders have been isolated from the hydrogen and captured, the metal-decorated carbons are compressed to form a rigid body pellet 3108 (step 3116). This pelletizing may be accomplished, for example, through use of pelletizer 3106, such as a 12-ton press that is either automatically actuated or manually operated. Although this example shows use of a 12-ton press as the pelletizer 3106, any pelletizing technique and / or apparatus that would be understood by a skilled artisan apprised of this disclosure as suitable to generate pellets that have sufficient mass to avoid ejection from a VIM processor may be used without departing from the scope of the invention.

[0362] The pelletization of the metal-decorated carbon exploits the mechanics of how the metaldecorated carbon interacts with the magnetic flux of the VIM with respect to gravity. More specifically, gravity acts more forcefully on the pellet than does the magnetic flux. As such,when introducing a pellet (rather than a powder) into the VIM processor 3110, the foregoing problem pertaining to ejection of material due to the magnetic forces is eliminated.

[0363] Once the pellet is introduced into the crucible of the VIM processor, the pellet will begin to melt and mix with other contents of the crucible (step 3118). During this step, when the pellet melts, it is uniformly dispersed within the metal admixture. To facilitate uniform dispersal, the VIM crucible may be loaded with the pellet alone, with the pellet placed on a metal powder, or with metal powder placed both under and on top of the pellet, according to various embodiments.

[0364] The resulting melt 3112 can then be poured into a mold (step 3120) and / or used in conjunction with injection molding equipment to form a component (e.g., turbine blade, automotive components, medical equipment, etc.). In some cases, the resulting output of the VIM processor (e.g., melt 3112) is cooled and then powderized, using any suitable technique, so as to be used with other mechanical part formation methods, for example 3D printing, and in turn, used in any application (step 3122).

[0365] FIG. 32 depicts a melt 3112 being placed into a mold 3202. The melt 3112 can be placed into a mold 3202 of any shape or form. Once the melt has been cooled, the component can be removed from the mold and used in its intended application.

[0366] Strictly as an example, a mold for a turbine blade could be used. The melt, consisting of the metal admixture and the carbon-containing constituents, may then be placed in the turbine blade mold and cooled. Once cooled off and removed from the mold, the turbine blade could be used in its intended application. As another example, the melt may be cooled, then powderized, then packaged for use with a 3D printer or other additive manufacturing technique / apparatus.

[0367] FIG. 33 depicts a simplified schematic of pellet processing, according to various approaches. As described in detail hereinabove with reference to FIG. 31, a powdered material 3104 is obtained, e.g., as output from a microwave plasma reactor, separated from unwanted gases, and pressed into a pellet using a pelletizer 3106. Preferably, the pelletizer 3106 includes a mold having a physical configuration / arrangement suitable to produce a pellet having desired geometry. As shown in FIG. 33, mold 3106a is configured to produce substantially cylindrical pellets (or “pucks”) with a diameter of about one centimeter. Of course, skilled artisans will appreciate that the geometric characteristics of the pellets may be chosen and / or tuned based on properties (e.g., magnetic field strength, volume, etc.) of the VIM processor (or equivalentapparatus) to be used to produce desired materials. Notably, the pellets generated according to experiments represented in FIG. 33 were produced without the need for chemical binders.

[0368] As also shown in FIG. 33, and demonstrated experimentally, the inventors have successfully produced pellets consisting essentially of innate graphene alone (3108a), as well as pellets formed from metal-decorated carbon, e.g., decorated graphene (3108b). Either type of pellet may be produced using substantially the same technique, with the only difference being the composition of the powder used to generate the pellet.

[0369] In a further experiment, represented schematically by FIG. 34, a pellet, such as pellet 3108, was dispersed in a solution of isopropanol via manual agitation. After agitation, which may be performed manually, using an ultrasonic wand (or other mechanism for ultrasonic agitation), etc. as would be appreciated by a person having ordinary skill in the art upon reading the present disclosure, the resulting suspension exhibited permeability. Magnetic testing verified dispersion of nickel decorated carbon.

[0370] FIG. 35-1 A shows a protective enclosure 35-1 A00 for an electronic system. As an option, one or more variations of protective enclosure 35-1A00 for an electronic system or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The protective enclosure 35-1AOO for an electronic system or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0371] As shown, the protective enclosure system 35-1A00 is designed to shield various electronic systems from environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or environmental EMI 35-102(2) In some cases, the electronic systems protected by the protective enclosure 35-1A00 may include communication devices, computing devices, power devices, or sensing equipment. The protective enclosure 35-1A00 with frequency- selective surfaces 35-104(1) is designed to absorb EMI absorption 35-110(1), thereby preventing the environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or 35- 102(2) from reaching the electronic systems housed within the enclosure. In another embodiment, the protective enclosure 35-1 A00 is designed to reflect EMI reflectance 35-110(3), thereby preventing the environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or 35-102(2) from reaching the electronic systems housed within the enclosure

[0372] The protective enclosure system 35-1AOO also includes an antenna 35-106(1), which is positioned within the enclosure to facilitate electromagnetic radiation in the communication band35-108(1). The antenna 35-106(1) may be connected to electronics 35-116(1) and / or memory 35- 118(1), both of which may be susceptible to environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or 35-102(1) (and are in need of the enclosure with frequency-selective surfaces 35-104(1)). Additionally, shielding 35-120(1) may be used to shield power to and from the electronics 35-116(1) and / or otherwise protect the internal electronics from outside influences (such as the environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or 35-102(2)).

[0373] The antenna 35-106(1) may serve as a conduit for wireless communications, allowing signals to be transmitted and received without being affected by the environmental EMI 35- 102(1) and / or 35-102(2). This may be of particular benefit for electronic systems (including the electronics 35- 116(1 ) and / or memory 35-118(1)) that may rely on wireless communications, as it ensures that their communication capabilities arc not compromised by the presence of environmental EMI 35-102(1) and / or 35-102(2). The wireless communication may include electromagnetic radiation in communication band 35-108(1), which may include a telemetry module 35-112(1).

[0374] The telemetry module 35-112(1) may include a sensor array consisting of multiple sensors configured to measure diverse parameters pertinent to the specific application. The sensor array may be connected to a communication interface, which may include wireless transceivers, satellite uplinks, or wired connections to ensure reliable data transmission. Further, the processing unit may be integrated into the wireless module to perform data preprocessing, including noise reduction, data compression, and preliminary analysis. The processed data may be then transmitted via a communication interface to a remote processing center for comprehensive analysis and long-term storage.

[0375] In this manner, the application modules 35-114(1), 35-114(2), and / or 35-114N may be configured to work with the wireless module (such as the electromagnetic radiation in communication band 35-108(1)) for data transmission, processing, remote actions, data management, etc. The application modules may include a sensor array to collect various types of data, and a wireless communication interface that supports protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks. A processing unit within the application modules 35-114(1), 35- 114(2), and / or 35-114N handles data collection, preliminary processing, and communication tasks. In some embodiments, the application modules 35-114(1), 35-114(2), and / or 35-114N may be configured for remote work and / or application.

[0376] In some aspects, the protective enclosure system 100 may be configured to allow specific frequencies to pass through while blocking others. This can be achieved by tuning the metamaterial incorporated into the polymer-containing matrix to a specific permittivity and / or permeability. By doing so, the protective enclosure 35-1A00 can effectively filter out harmful frequencies while allowing desired frequencies to pass through, shown as enclosure with frequency- selective surfaces 35-104(1). Further, the matrix may include a variety of types of metamaterial, each configured to reflect or allow predetermined frequencies.

[0377] This selective frequency absorption or reflection capability of the protective enclosure 35-1A00 provides a distinct advantage over traditional shielding methods, which typically block all frequencies indiscriminate

[0378] In the context of the present description, a metamaterial is configured with properties that are not found in naturally occurring materials. For example, a metamaterial may include a synthetic composite material engineered to exhibit electromagnetic, acoustic, or mechanical properties not achievable with naturally occurring substances.

[0379] As a particular example, the metamaterial may comprise an array of structural elements, which are arranged in a periodic or non-periodic configuration, with dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the external stimulus (e.g., electromagnetic radiation, sound waves). These structural elements may be designed to manipulate the propagation characteristics of the external stimulus in a predetermined manner, resulting in altered reflection, refraction, absorption, or transmission properties that arc not inherent to the individual constituent materials. The metamaterial may be configured to achieve functionalities such as negative refractive index, superlensing, cloaking, or enhanced wave control, and is applicable across a range of frequencies, including but not limited to, radio, microwave, terahertz, infrared, visible, and ultraviolet spectrums, as well as acoustic and elastic waves. As such, a metamaterial may include any material configured with properties not found in naturally occurring materials.

[0380] In various embodiments, the protective enclosure 35-1A00 may include a polymer- containing matrix. In some aspects, the polymer-containing matrix may be composed of a thermoplastic material. The protective enclosure may also include a metamaterial that is incorporated into the polymer-containing matrix. The metamaterial may be tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagneticinterference. In some cases, the metamaterial may be tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. In other cases, the metamaterial may be tuned to reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference.[03811 In various embodiments, the metamaterial may be incorporated into the polymer- containing matrix by embedding the metamaterial within the matrix. This incorporation process may involve dispersing the metamaterial throughout the polymer-containing matrix in a manner that ensures a uniform distribution of the metamaterial within the matrix. The incorporation of the metamaterial into the polymer-containing matrix may be achieved through various methods, such as mixing, blending, or compounding the metamaterial with the polymer material prior to or during the formation of the matrix. It is to be appreciated that the metamaterial may be applied, in an alternative manner, to an exterior surface of the polymer (and / or a material of the structure).

[0382] In various embodiments, once the metamaterial is incorporated into the polymer- containing matrix, a protective enclosure may be formed from the metamaterial-containing matrix. The formation of the protective enclosure may involve various manufacturing processes, such as molding, extrusion, or casting, depending on the specific requirements of the electronic systems to be protected. The protective enclosure formed from the metamaterial-containing matrix provides a barrier that can absorb or reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference, thereby protecting the electronic systems housed within the enclosure from harmful electromagnetic interference.

[0383] FIG. 35- IB shows a protective canister 35-1B00 for an electronic system. As an option, one or more variations of protective canister 35-1 BOO for an electronic system or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The protective canister 35-1BOO for an electronic system or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0384] As shown, the canister system 35-1BOO is depicted as another example of a protective enclosure for electronic systems. Similar to the protective enclosure 35-1A00 described above in the context of FIG. 35-1 A, the canister system may include a polymer-containing matrix and a metamaterial embedded within the polymer-containing matrix. The metamaterial in the canistersystem may also be tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference.

[0385] It is to be appreciated that the canister system 35-1B00 may be representative of any closed-system assembly. For example, the canister system 35-1B00 may include a cylindrical battery, a chemical drum, a gas cylinder, a jerry can, a key, a vial, etc. In one embodiment, the canister system 35-1B00 may be configured to contain an electro-chemical reaction 35-124(2), which may include any transfer of electrons between chemical species. In one embodiment, the electro-chemical reaction 35-124(2) may include a redox configuration, with an anode undergoing oxidation, while the cathode undergoes reduction. It is to be appreciated that the electro-chemical reactions 35-124(2) is just one type of contents within the canister system 35- 1B00.

[0386] In a similar manner to the protective enclosure 35-1A00, the canister system 35-1B00 shows environmental EMI 35-120(3) which may be absorbed in a surface or layer of the canister, in one embodiment, via the EMI absorption 35-110(2). Such absorption may be predicated on configuring the canister system 35-1B00 with frequency- selective surfaces 35-122.

[0387] Further, the canister system 35-1B00 may include an antenna 35-106(2) that facilitates electromagnetic radiation in communication band 35-108(2). The antenna 35-106(2) may be configured to transmit and receive signals within a specific frequency band, allowing for uninterrupted wireless communication with the electronics 35-116(2) housed within the canister system 35-1BOO.

[0388] The canister system 35-1B00 may also include a telemetry module 35-112(2) that interfaces with the antenna 35-106(2). The telemetry module 35-112(2) may manage the transmission and reception of signals within the communication band 35-108(2), ensuring that the electronics 35-116(2) within the canister system 35-1B00 can communicate effectively with external devices or systems. In some cases, the telemetry module 35-112(2) may include various components or modules for processing, modulating, and demodulating the signals transmitted and received by the antenna 35-106(2).

[0389] In addition to the antenna 35-106(2) and the telemetry module 35-1 12(2), the canister system 35-1BOO includes one or more application modules 35-114(3), 35-114(4), 35-114N. These application modules 35-114(3), 35-114(4), 35-114N may operate in a manner consistentwith the description relating hereinabove to the application modules 35-114(1), 35-114(2), 35- 114N.

[0390] To protect the internal electronics 35-116(2) from environmental electromagnetic interference EMI 35-102(3), the canister system 35-1B00 features EMI absorption 35-110(2). The EMI absorption 35-110(2) represents the ability of the canister system 35-1B00 to absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference, thereby preventing these frequencies from reaching the internal electronics 35-116(2). In one embodiment, the EMI absorption 35-110(2) may be achieved through the incorporation of a metamaterial into the polymer-containing matrix of the canister system 35-1B00. This metamaterial is tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference, such as via the frequency- selective surfaces 35-122.

[0391] In addition to the EMI absorption 35-110(2), the canister system 35-1B00 includes shielding 35-120(2) to provide additional protection for the internal electronics 35-116(2). The shielding 35-120(2) may be formed from a conductive material and may be configured to reflect or absorb electromagnetic interference that is not absorbed by the EMI absorption 35-110(2). The combination of the EMI absorption 35-110(2) and the shielding 35-120(2) may provide a comprehensive protection solution for the internal electronics 35-116(2), ensuring that they can operate effectively and reliably even in environments with high levels of electromagnetic interference and / or outside damaging signals.

[0392] In other embodiments, the protective enclosure system 35-1A00 and the canister system 35-1B00 may be designed to allow specific communication frequencies to pass through while attenuating other frequencies. This may be achieved by tuning the metamaterial incorporated into the polymer-containing matrix to a specific permittivity and / or permeability. In some aspects, the metamaterial may be tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. This means that the metamaterial is configured in such a way that it absorbs electromagnetic interference at a specific frequency, thereby preventing this frequency from interfering with the electronic systems protected by the enclosure. This tuning process involves adjusting the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference that is to be absorbed.

[0393] In other cases, the metamaterial may be tuned to reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. In this scenario, the metamaterial may be configured to reflect electromagnetic interference at a specific frequency, thereby preventing this frequency from reaching the electronic systems protected by the enclosure. This tuning process involves adjusting the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference.

[0394] In various embodiments, the techniques described herein relate to a protective enclosure for electronic systems, including: a polymer-containing matrix; and a metamaterial incorporated into or embedded within the polymer-containing matrix, the metamaterial being tuned to a specific permittivity or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference.

[0395] In various embodiments, the metamaterial may include carbon nanoparticles and aggregates. Additionally, the carbon nanoparticles may be tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference, and / or may be tuned to reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference.

[0396] In various embodiments, the polymer-containing matrix may include a thermoplastic material. Additionally, the metamaterial may be embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in at least one selected from the group of a uniform distribution, a layered structure, a grid-like structure, and a random structure.

[0397] In various embodiments, the metamaterial may be tuned to allow wireless communication signals in a frequency band associated with Wi-Fi or cellular communication. Additionally, the metamaterial may be tuned to absorb electromagnetic interference in a specific frequency band while allowing wireless communication signals in a different frequency band to pass through. Further, the metamaterial may be tuned to absorb electromagnetic interference in a frequency band associated with radio frequency interference.

[0398] In various embodiments, the metamaterial may be embedded within the polymer- containing matrix in a manner that allows for application of an external stimulus to the metamaterial after the formation of the protective enclosure. For example, the external stimulus may include at least one selected from the group of heat, light, and an electric field. Additionally,the external stimulus may be configured to cause a change in the metamaterial to absorb or reflect a different particular frequency.

[0399] In various embodiments, the polymer-containing matrix may be a coated surface layer of the protective enclosure, and / or may be embedded into a structure of the protective enclosure. Additionally, the metamaterial may be configured to enhance a performance of at least one selected from the group of: an antenna housed within the protective enclosure, a telemetry module housed within the protective enclosure, a communication device housed within the protective enclosure, a computing device housed within the protective enclosure, a sensing equipment housed within the protective enclosure, a battery pack that includes telemetry devices for sending alert signals to safety systems housed within the protective enclosure, and a device that requires uninterrupted wireless telemetry housed within the protective enclosure.

[0400] In various embodiments, the metamaterial may be configured with a non-metallic material. Additionally, the metamaterial may be configured to protect against electromagnetic disturbances, wherein the electromagnetic disturbances includes at least one selected from the group of electromagnetic radiation, electromagnetic interference, radio frequency interference, electromagnetic pulse, data interception, static electricity, and preconfigured electromagnetic frequencies.

[0401] In various embodiments, the metamaterial may be configured to repeal, at a first level of the metamaterial, a preconfigured electromagnetic first frequency or a first set of frequencies, and to absorb, at a second level of the mctamatcrial, a preconfigured electromagnetic second frequency or a second set of frequencies. Additionally, the protective enclosure may further include an impedance sheet, located on a first side of the metamaterial, and a conducting backplane, located on a second side of the metamaterial, where the impedance sheet may be configured to reflect or shield a first set of preconfigured frequencies, the metamaterial may be configured to absorb a second set of preconfigured frequencies, and the conducting backplane may be configured to reflect a third set of preconfigured frequencies. Further, the impedance sheet may be configured such that only a fraction of incoming electromagnetic waves pass through the impedance sheet and reach the metamaterial.

[0402] FIG. 35-2A shows a first example 35-2A00 absorption performance chart corresponding to a single notch frequency selective surface. As an option, one or more variations of absorptionperformance chart or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The absorption performance chart or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.[04031 As shown, the absorption performance chart 35-2A00 shows the attenuation of a frequency selective surface across the frequency of an EMI threat signal. The chart highlights a communication spectrum in the first example 35-202 where the attenuation is minimized, allowing communication signals to pass through. This is achieved by tuning the metamaterial to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. In other words, the metamaterial is configured in such a way that it absorbs electromagnetic interference at a specific frequency, thereby preventing this frequency from interfering with the electronic systems protected by the enclosure. This tuning process involves adjusting the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference that is to be absorbed.

[0404] FIG. 35-2B shows a second example 35-2B00 absorption performance chart corresponding to a double notch frequency selective surface. As an option, one or more variations of absorption performance chart or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The absorption performance chart or any aspect thereof may be implemented in any environment.

[0405] As shown, the absorption performance chart 35-2B00 illustrates a similar concept to the absorption performance chart 35-2A00 but with two distinct communication spectrums. The lower frequency communication spectrum in the second example 35-204 and the higher frequency communication spectrum in the second example 35-206 are both shown with minimized attenuation, indicating that these frequencies are allowed to pass through while other frequencies are attenuated. This is achieved by tuning the metamaterial to reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. In this case, the metamaterial is configured to reflect electromagnetic interference at a specific frequency, thereby preventing this frequency from reaching the electronic systems protected by the enclosure. This tuning process involves adjusting the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference that is to be reflected.

[0406] In particular emphasis, the absorption performance chart 35-2B00 shows that a metamaterial may be configured to with multiple communication spectrums (i.e. preconfigured frequencies that are permitted). In this manner, the metamaterial may be configured to allow more than one frequency pass through the material.

[0407] In some cases, the metamaterial may be tuned to both absorb and reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. This can be achieved by incorporating different types of metamaterials into the polymer-containing matrix, each tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference. This may allow for a more comprehensive protection solution, as it may enable the protective enclosure to effectively filter out a wider range of harmful frequencies while allowing desired frequencies to pass through

[0408] FIG. 35-3 depicts a chart 35-300 of examples of frequency selective surface phenomena, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the chart 35-300 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the chart 35-300 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0409] As shown, the chart 35-300 is depicted illustrating the relationship between a metamaterial 35-302 and various phenomena and characteristics 35-303A, and associated properties 35-303B. Each row in the chart 35-300 represents a different phenomenon or characteristic 35-303A and its corresponding properties 35-3O3B as they relate to the metamaterial 35-302.

[0410] In the absorption 35-304, the properties 35-303B of the metamaterial 35-302 in terms of absorption are described. In particular, a metamaterial configured to absorb may include the following properties: ohmic heating (i.e. Joule heating, resistive heating, etc.), graphene nano particles, and / or carbon nano spheres. Such absorption 35-304 may include paramagnetic materials, integrated 3D nano-structures, and / or loss tangent heating of lumped impedance elements.

[0411] In various embodiments, absorption 35-304 may include of absorption of wireless frequencies. For example, absorption may include interaction of electromagnetic waves withmaterials, causing them to attenuate or lose energy as they pass through. In this manner, the metamaterial may be configured to impact signal propagation, communication quality, shielding, etc. Further, the metamaterial 35-302 may be tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. This may be achieved by adjusting the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial 35-302 to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference that is to be absorbed. The absorption 35-304 of the specific frequency of electromagnetic interference by the metamaterial 35-302 prevents this frequency from interfering with the electronic systems protected by the enclosure.

[0412] In the reflected energy directivity reduction 35-306, the properties of the metamaterial 35-302 in terms of reflected energy directivity reduction are described. In some cases, the mctamatcrial 35-302 is configured to increase the diffusion of reflected energy and improve off- angle RCS reduction (such as a RCS reduction of greater than -20dB). This may be achieved by structuring the metamaterial 35-302 in such a way that it scatters the reflected energy in multiple directions, thereby reducing the directivity of the reflected energy.

[0413] In the field coupling 35-308, the properties of the metamaterial 35-302 in terms of field coupling are described. In some aspects, the metamaterial 35-302 enables plasmonic-like responses through tunable 3D material properties. This means that the metamaterial 35-302 can interact with electromagnetic fields in a way that is similar to plasmonic materials, which exhibit strong interactions with electromagnetic fields at specific frequencies. Further, the field coupling 35-308 may include inductive coupling of materials at low frequencies.

[0414] In the resonant coupling 35-310, the properties of the metamaterial 35-302 in terms of resonant coupling are described. In some cases, the metamaterial 35-302 includes matrixed plasmonic meta-materials for negative refractive index and broadband resonance performance. This means that the metamaterial 35-302 can exhibit a negative refractive index at specific frequencies, which can enhance the absorption or reflection of these frequencies. Furthermore, the metamaterial 35-302 can exhibit broadband resonance performance, which means that it can absorb or reflect a wide range of frequencies.

[0415] Further, resonant coupling 35-310 may include configuring the metamaterial to include an electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of negative values, thereby allowing for unique optical phenomena (such as reverse refraction and negative phase velocity). Thisparticular aspect may enable superlenses capable of resolving details smaller than the wavelength of light, and / or manipulating electromagnetic waves such that light may be redirected around objects.[04161 In the weight / thickness / durability 35-312, the properties of the metamaterial 35-302 in terms of weight, thickness, and durability are described. In some aspects, the metamaterial 35- 302 may be configured for aggregate thickness (of any preconfigured amount, such as 0.1mm), scratch hardness (of any preconfigured amount such as 3H), hydrophobicity, and skid resistance. These properties of the metamaterial 35-302 contribute to the overall durability and performance of the protective enclosure. For example, the aggregate thickness of the metamaterial 35-302 can influence the amount of electromagnetic interference that can be absorbed or reflected by the enclosure. The scratch hardness, hydrophobicity, and skid resistance of the mctamatcrial 35-302 can contribute to the physical durability of the enclosure, making it more resistant to wear and tear.

[0417] In other embodiments, the weight, thickness, and durability 35-312 may be configured based on a use-case scenario. For example, a metamaterial may be configured for a wet environment (such as a ship), a combustive environment (such as an engine), or a harsh environment (such as a rocket ship in space).

[0418] In various embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles of absorption 35-304 used in the metamaterial 35-302 may be of various types, including but not limited to, multi-walled carbon nanotubes, singlc-wallcd carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerenes, or carbon black. These carbon nanoparticles may be produced through various methods, such as chemical vapor deposition, arc discharge, laser ablation, or flame synthesis. The specific type and production method of the carbon nanoparticles may be selected based on the desired properties of the metamaterial 35-302, such as its permittivity, permeability, and absorption characteristics.

[0419] In some cases, the carbon nanoparticles may be functionalized or modified to enhance their absorption properties. For example, the carbon nanoparticles may be doped with other elements, coated with other materials, or subjected to various treatments to alter their electronic structure, surface properties, or other characteristics. These modifications can further tune the permittivity and / or permeability of the carbon nanoparticles, thereby enhancing the absorption performance of the mctamatcrial 35-302.

[0420] In some aspects, the carbon nanoparticles may be dispersed uniformly within the polymer-containing matrix to form the metamaterial 35-302. This dispersion process may involve mixing the carbon nanoparticles with the polymer material under specific conditions to ensure a uniform distribution of the carbon nanoparticles within the matrix. The resulting metamaterial 35-302 may exhibit a homogeneous structure with evenly distributed carbon nanoparticles, which can enhance its absorption performance and ensure consistent protection against electromagnetic interference across the enclosure.

[0421] FIG. 35-4 shows a phenomena chart 35-400 that correlates exploitation of physical phenomena to particular functions using metamaterials as used in protective enclosures for electronic systems, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the phenomena chart 35- 400 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the phenomena chart 35-400 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment.Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0422] As shown, the phenomena chart 35-400 illustrates the relationship between a metamaterial 35-402 and various elements of a system. The metamaterial 35-402 interfaces with both a function block 35-404 and a physics block 35-412, each comprising several components that interact with the metamaterial 35-402. From an alternative perspective, the metamaterial 35- 402 is shown in the context of configuration options, including physics 35-412 and function block 35-404. Thus, the metamaterial may be configured to exhibit any of the properties shown with respect to the physics block 35-412 and / or the function block 35-404.

[0423] In the context of the function block 35-404, the metamaterial 35-402 is used in conjunction with a nano antenna 35-406, lumped circuit aggregators 35-408, and randomizing wave guiding conductive layers 35-410. In particular, the metamaterial 35-402 may be configured for manipulating electromagnetic waves.

[0424] For example, the nano antenna 35-406 facilitates the transmission and reception of electromagnetic signals within a specific frequency band. The lumped circuit aggregators 35-408 manage the processing, modulation, and demodulation of these electromagnetic signals. The randomizing wave guiding conductive layers 35-410, on the other hand, may be designed to scatter electromagnetic interference in multiple directions, thereby reducing the directivity of theinterference. In some aspects, the metamaterial 35-402 may be configured to enhance the performance of these components by absorbing or reflecting specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference.[04251 In various embodiments, the nano antenna 35-406 may be configured to interact with electromagnetic waves at the nanoscale. Such nano antenna 35-406 may be used for transmitting, receiving, or manipulating electromagnetic radiation, often in the visible or infrared spectrum. Such use may be important for applications requiring precise control over light or electromagnetic waves, such as in sensors, imaging devices, and communication technologies.

[0426] In various embodiments, the lumped circuit aggregators may include discrete electronic components (such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors) that are grouped together to achieve specific electrical or electromagnetic functionalities. In the context of electromagnetic wave manipulation, lumped circuit aggregators may be used to tailor and enhance the performance of antennas, filters, and other electronic systems.

[0427] In various embodiments, the randomizing wave guiding conductive layers 35-410 may include metamaterial configured to scatter or randomize the propagation of electromagnetic waves. By introducing randomness in the paths of waves, these layers can mitigate interference, enhance signal propagation in certain directions, or even achieve specific transmission characteristics that are beneficial in antenna design, radar systems, or wireless communication.

[0428] In the context of the physics block 35-412, the metamaterial 35-402 may be associated with a meta-material negative refractive index 35-414, nano meta- material absorbing resonators 35-416, and material resonant coupling and transmission 35-418. In particular, the metamaterial 35-402 may be configured to exhibit a specific physics component, including electromagnetic and / or quantum mechanics, etc.

[0429] The meta-material negative refractive index 35-414 may refer to the property of the metamaterial 35-402 to exhibit a negative refractive index at specific frequencies, which can enhance the absorption or reflection of these frequencies. As such, these metamaterials may be engineered to manipulate electric and magnetic fields in ways not possible with naturally occurring materials (including structuring materials at scales smaller than the wavelength of light). Therefore, the negative refractive index 35-414 may relate to electromagnetic theory of physics block 35-412.

[0430] The nano meta-material absorbing resonators 35-416 may represent the ability of the metamaterial 35-402 to absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. For example, nano meta-material absorbing resonators 35-416 may be configured to rely on quantum principles to efficiently absorb specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.

[0431] The material resonant coupling and transmission 35-418, on the other hand, refers to the ability of the metamaterial 35-402 to couple with other materials at specific resonant frequencies, thereby enabling the transmission of these frequencies. The material resonant coupling and transmission 35-418 may relate to both classical (energy transfer, damping factor, etc.) and quantum (electron transition, energy quantization, etc.) mechanical principles (as it relates to resonance), where materials may interact with specific (and preconfigured) frequencies of electromagnetic waves.

[0432] In some cases, the metamaterial 35-402 may be tuned to both absorb and reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. This can be achieved by preconfiguring the metamaterial 35-402 to have specific physics block 35-412 characteristics and function 35-404 aspects.

[0433] FIG. 35-5 shows various complex frequency response charts 35-500A-D corresponding to different materials, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the charts 35-5OOA-D may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the charts 35-500A-D may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0434] As shown in the charts 35-500A-D, a variety of materials (shown as materials 1-4) are shown depicting frequency response graphs. The real part frequency response graph 35-500A and the imaginary part frequency response graph 35-5OOB are shown in the top row, illustrating the real and imaginary parts of the frequency response for materials 1-44 over a range of frequencies from 0 to 3.0 Hz. These graphs provide a visual representation of how the real and imaginary components of the frequency response vary with frequency for each material.

[0435] The real part frequency response graph 35-5OOC and the imaginary part frequency response graph 35-500D are shown in the bottom row, providing additional real and imaginary frequency response data for the same materials over the same frequency range. These graphsprovide further insight into the frequency-dependent behavior of the materials, highlighting the variations in the real and imaginary components of the frequency response across different frequencies. In some cases, these graphs can be used to identify specific frequencies at which the materials exhibit maximum or minimum absorption or reflection, which can be useful in the design of protective enclosures for electronic systems.

[0436] In particular, the frequency response graphs of charts 35-500A-D show that materials can be selectively and specifically pre-configured for specific responses at set frequencies. This is especially important, as being able to conFIG. a meta-material to respond (or specifically not respond), thereby allowing the meta-material to absorb (or potentially repeal) electromagnetic waves.

[0437] FIG. 35-6 depicts a configuration 35-600 for electroactive materials testing, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the configuration 35-600 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the configuration 35-600 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0438] As shown, the configuration 35-600 includes a meta-material testing platform 35-601A which shows an applied microwave source 35-602 that creates an A / C electric field 35-604. It is to be appreciated that any electrochemical wave may be applied within the context of the meta- matcrial testing platform 35-601A.

[0439] The A / C electric field 35-604 may be directed towards a metamaterial surface 35-606. The interaction of the metamaterial surface 35-606 with the A / C electric field 35-604 results in sample responses 35-60IB, which are measured to determine the interaction of the metamaterial with the applied microwave source 35-602.

[0440] As such, the applied microwave source 35-602 may generate a strong AC electric field 35-604 at the tip apex, and the AC electrical field 35-604 interacts with the sample, including the meta-material surface 35-606.

[0441] In some aspects, the configuration 35-600 may be used to evaluate the permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial. The permittivity and / or permeability of the metamaterial canbe determined based on the sample responses 35-601B, which may include measurements of the reflected and transmitted electromagnetic waves.

[0442] The sample responses 35-601B may include a dielectric interaction (for capacitive response), an electrical interaction (for resistive response), and / or a magnetic interaction.

[0443] In some cases, the meta-material testing platform 35-601A may also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the metamaterial in absorbing or reflecting a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference. This can be achieved by exposing the metamaterial to an electromagnetic wave of the particular frequency and measuring the amount of the wave that is absorbed or reflected by the metamaterial. In other embodiments, the platform 35-601 A may be used to evaluate the durability and physical properties of the metamaterial. For example, the metamaterial may be subjected to various environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity variations, and its performance in absorbing or reflecting electromagnetic interference under these conditions may be evaluated.

[0444] In various embodiments, the platform 35-601A may be used obtain direct measurement of electrical properties, including image local variation of 6 (permittivity) and o (conductivity), and / or < 100 nm lateral resolution (50 nm typical, 20 nm for some modes / materials). Further, the platform 35-601A may be compatible with all materials, including images dielectrics, insulators, semiconductors, and / or metals. Further, the platform 35-601A may be used to measure with contact, tapping mode (resonant and non-resonant), and / or non-contact imaging. Still yet, the platform 35-601A may be configured for sub-surface sensitivity, including the ability to image through -100 nm over-layers.

[0445] Referring back to FIG. 35-1A and FIG. 35-1B, the protective enclosure 35-1A00 for electronic systems and the canister system 35-1B00 may be manufactured by forming a metamaterial tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability. The tuning process may involve adjusting the properties of the metamaterial, such as its composition, structure, and morphology, to match the specific frequency of the electromagnetic interference that is to be absorbed or reflected. Such a tuning process may include use of the meta-material testing platform 35-601A and / or the sample response 35-601B.

[0446] FIGs. 35-7A and 35-7B depict a set of images 35-700A, 35-700B for demonstrating physical properties of metamaterials, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the setof images 35-700A, 35-700B may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the set of images 35-700A, 35-700B may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0447] Referring to FIG. 35-7A, a detailed view of a height area images 35-702 and corresponding scanning microwave impedance microscopy (sMIM-C) images 35-704 are depicted. The height area images 35-702 include a 20 pm scan area 35-702A, a 5 pm scan area 35-702B, and a 2 pm scan area 35-702C of a particular preconfigured meta-material. Each scan area is associated with a specific sMIM-C image: the 20 pm scan area 35-702A corresponds to the sMIM-C image for the 20 pm scan area 35-704A, the 5 pm scan area 35-702B corresponds to the sMIM-C image for the 5 pm scan area 35-704B, and the 2 pm scan area 35-702C corresponds to the sMIM-C image for the 2 pm scan area 35-704C.

[0448] The sMIM-C images 35-704 provide a visual representation of the effectiveness in absorbing particular frequencies. In particular, the white spots on the sMIM-C images 35-704 indicate an area of absorption of the preconfigured frequency.

[0449] As such, the sMIM-C images 35-704 show that the meta-material is successful at absorbing at the preconfigured frequency.

[0450] It is to be appreciated that the sMIM-C images 35-704 may be utilized also to provide information about the pore size and structure of the metamaterial. As discussed earlier, the pore size of the metamaterial can be tuned to absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. The sMIM-C images 35-704 can provide a visual representation of the pore size and structure of the metamaterial, as well as the hot spots of absorption.

[0451] In other aspects, the sMIM-C images 35-704 can be used to evaluate the uniformity of the metamaterial. For example, a metamaterial with a uniform distribution may exhibit more consistent absorption or reflection performance across its surface.

[0452] Referring to FIG. 35-7B, a detailed view of a height area scan and corresponding scanning microwave impedance microscopy (sMIM-R) images 35-706 are depicted. The height area scan images 35-702 include a 20 pm scan area 35-702A, a 5 pm scan area 35-702B, and a 2 pm scan area 35-702C of a particular preconfigured meta-material. Each of these scan areas isassociated with a corresponding sMIM-R image 35-706, specifically the sMIM-R image for the 20 pm scan area 35-706A, the sMIM-R image for the 5 pm scan area 35-706B, and the sMIM-R image for the 2 pm scan area 35-706C.[04531 The sMIM-R images 35-706 provide a visual representation of the resistive properties of the metamaterial at a nanoscale level. In some aspects, these images can be used to analyze the electrical resistance of the metamaterial.

[0454] In particular, and similar to FIG. 35-7A, the sMIM-R images 35-706 provide a visual representation of the effectiveness in absorbing particular frequencies. In particular, the white spots on the sMIM-R images 35-706 indicate an area of absorption of the preconfigured frequency. Further, such sMIM-R images 35-706 may be used to provide information about pore size, structure, uniformity, etc.

[0455] FIG. 35-8 depicts a three-dimensional (3D) topographical image 35-800, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the 3D topographical image 35-800 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the 3D topographical image 35-800 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0456] As shown, the 3D topographical image 35-800 is shown of a scanning microwave impedance microscopy (sMIM-C) overlay. The 3D topographical image 35-800 provides a visual representation of the surface topography of the metamaterial. The sMIM-C overlay, on the other hand, highlights variations in the material's properties across the scanned area. This overlay provides a visual representation of the material's electrical characteristics superimposed on the topographical data, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the surface features and their corresponding electrical responses.

[0457] In particular, where the color is lighter in color (closer to white), such indicates a site of absorption at the preconfigured frequency. In this manner, the 3D topographical image 35-800 can be used to visualize a 3D mapping of the absorption of the frequency. Such may be particularly helpful in determining the effect of a depth of a meta-material in proportion to its effectiveness at absorbing the preconfigured frequency.

[0458] As such, the metamaterial may be configured to absorb or reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference.

[0459] In other cases, the 3D topographical image 35-800 with the sMIM-C overlay can be used to evaluate the pore size, structure, uniformity, etc. of the metamaterial.

[0460] FIG. 35-9A depicts tunable metamaterials 35-901, 35-903, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the tunable metamaterials 35-901, 35-903 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the tunable metamaterials 35-901, 35- 903 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0461] As shown, the structure in the tunable metamaterial 35-901 includes a metamaterial 35- 902 that includes an impedance sheet 35-906 (on a first side of the meta-material 35-902) and a conducting backplane 35-904 (on a second side of the meta-material 35-902). The metamaterial 35-902 may tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic interference.

[0462] In one embodiment, the impedance sheet 35-906 may serve as a barrier that can absorb or reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. Additionally, the conducting backplane 35-904 may be formed from a conductive material, such as a metal or a conductive polymer, and may be configured to reflect or absorb electromagnetic interference that is not absorbed by the impedance sheet 35-906, and / or the meta-material 35-902.

[0463] The tunable metamaterial 35-901 also includes a conveyance 35-910, which may refer to the transmission or passage of the electromagnetic wave through the meta-material 35-902. The conveyance 35-910 may include therefore a wave propagating from one side of the metamaterial 35-902 to the other, potentially undergoing various interactions with the material along the way.

[0464] In particular, the tunable metamaterial 35-901 may interact with an incident wave 35- 908A and a reflected wave 35-9O8B. The incident wave 35-908A may represent the electromagnetic interference that is incident on the surface of the impedance sheet 35-906. The reflected wave 35-908B, on the other hand, represents the electromagnetic interference that is reflected by the impedance sheet 35-906. The interaction of the impedance sheet 35-906 with theincident wave 35-9O8A and the reflected wave 35-908B is determined by the properties (individual or in aggregate) of the meta-material 35-902, the impedance sheet 35-906, and / or the conducting backplane 35-904, and the conveyance 35-910.

[0465] Lastly, the depth d 35-907A of the meta-material 35-902 is shown.

[0466] As such, in some aspects, the meta-material may be configured to reflect or absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference, thereby preventing these frequencies from passing through the layers of the tunable metamaterial 35-901.

[0467] The interaction of the incident wave 35-908A and the reflected wave 35-908B is shown in the tunable metamaterial 35-903. In particular, the depth d 35-907A is shown in the tunable metamaterial 35-903 as depth d 35-907B (but the depth d 35-907A is intended to then be analyzed in the circuit flow of the tunable metamaterial 35-903). For example, as a function of the depth d 35-907B, the impedance Z 35-912 of the material may be calculated. In particular, the impedance Z 35-912 may measure the opposition that a circuit presents to the flow of alternating current (AC). Additionally, the admittance Y 35-914 of the material may be calculated. In particular, the admittance 35-914 may include how easily a circuit allows the flow of alternating current (AC). Lastly, the change in impedance Az 35-916 may be used to calculate the change of impedance over the circuit.

[0468] In this manner, the circuitry design shown in the tunable metamaterial 35-903 may include the ability to calculate admittance, absorber performance, VHF resonance performance, energy conveyance, and / or vector network analysis.

[0469] FIG. 35-9B depicts a system wide impedance analysis 35-900B, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the analysis 35-900B may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the analysis 35-900B may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0470] As shown, the analysis 35-900B illustrates the interaction of a signal path 35-918 with various layers, including the air layer (Zl) 35-920, fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922, absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924, a metamaterial layer (Z5) 35-928, and a correspondence conveyance (Z4) 35-926.

[0471] The signal path 35-918 represents the path of an electromagnetic wave as it interacts with the various layers of the system. The air layer (Zl) 35-920 is the initial layer that the signal path 35-918 encounters. In some aspects, the air layer (Zl) 35-920 may represent the environmental medium through which the electromagnetic wave travels before reaching the protective enclosure (such as the impedance sheet 35-906).

[0472] The fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922 is the next layer that the signal path 35-918 encounters. In some cases, the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922 may be composed of a metamaterial that is tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability. In one embodiment, the fractional reception may refer to the partial or incomplete reception of a transmitted signal. For example, the fractional reception (Z2) 35-922 layer may be configured to reflect (and / or scatter) an electromagnetic wave (at a preconfigured frequency).

[0473] The fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922 may therefore serve to absorb or reflect a fraction of the electromagnetic wave, thereby reducing the intensity of the wave that reaches the subsequent layers.

[0474] The absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924 is the next layer that the signal path 35-918 encounters. In some aspects, the absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924 may be composed of a metamaterial that is tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. In particular, in contrast to the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922 layer which may be configured to reflect the signal path 35-918, the absorbing material layer (Z3) may be configured specifically to absorb a predetermined frequency.

[0475] The metamaterial layer (Z5) 35-928 is the next layer that the signal path 35-918 encounters. In some aspects, the metamaterial layer (Z5) 35-928 may be composed of a metamaterial that is tuned to a specific permittivity and / or permeability. It is to be appreciated that any of the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922, and / or the absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924 may also be composed of a meta-material. Thus, the metamaterial layer (Z5) may represent an additional (and alternatively configured) metamaterial. For example, a first layer of metamaterial may be configured to widely reflect most frequencies, and the absorbing material may (with greater granularity) absorb a preconfigured type of frequency. Additionally, a wider absorbing layer of a metamaterial may further be provided to additional protect the contents.

[0476] In this manner, the conveyance (Z4) 35-926 may be minimized (having passed through the air layer (Zl) 35-920, the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922, the absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924, and the metamaterial layer (Z5) 35-928.

[0477] It is to be appreciated that any of the air layer (Zl) 35-920, the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922, the absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924, and / or the metamaterial layer (Z5) 35- 928 may each be described as a layer (in the sense of a manufactured layer), a signal, an attenuation thereof, and / or any medium or interface where a signal or attenuation is at least partially received. For example, any of the air layer (Zl) 35-920, the fractional reception layer (Z2) 35-922, the absorbing material layer (Z3) 35-924, and / or the metamaterial layer (Z5) 35- 928 may refer to and / or include a medium or interface where a signal is at least partially received or transmitted. As such, each layer may refer to an area of interest associated with a signal (and its response and / or mechanism associated with the area of interest within a material).

[0478] FIG. 35-9C depicts various desired response configurations 35-900C1, 35-900C2, 35- 900C3, 35-900C4, in accordance with one embodiment. As an option, the configurations 35- 900C1, 35-900C2, 35-900C3, 35-900C4 may be implemented in the context of any one or more of the embodiments set forth in any previous and / or subsequent figure(s) and / or description thereof. Of course, however, the configurations 35-900C1, 35-900C2, 35-900C3, 35-900C4 may be implemented in the context of any desired environment. Further, the aforementioned definitions may equally apply to the description below.

[0479] As shown, the configurations 35-900C1, 35-900C2, 35-900C3, 35-900C4 show frequency response charts. In particular, the frequency response charts illustrate that the metamaterial can be configured to respond at preconfigured frequencies. In this manner, the tuning of the meta-material (which may include carbon nanoparticles) can create different patterns of absorption and transparency across the frequency spectrum.

[0480] The single transparent frequency band chart of configuration 35-900C1 illustrates a desired response with absorption at low and high frequencies, and a transparent frequency band in the middle. This indicates that the meta-material may be tuned to absorb specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference, while allowing a specific, pre-configured frequency (or multiple frequencies) to pass through. In particular, the transparent frequency band may refer to a range of frequencies in which electromagnetic waves can propagate through the mctamatcrial withminimal attenuation or loss (i.e. the metamaterial is configured to not significantly absorb or reflect the electromagnetic waves, allowing them to pass through with little to no distortion or energy loss).[04811 It is noted that the configuration 35-900C1 represents a binary on / off absorption, namely that except for the preconfigured transparent frequency band, all frequencies can otherwise be absorbed.

[0482] In some cases, as shown in the multiple transparent frequency bands chart of configuration 35-900C2, the meta-material may be tuned to absorb multiple preconfigured frequencies. Similar to the configuration 35-900C1 , the configuration 35-900C2 may also have a preconfigured transparent frequency band. Additionally, the metamaterial may be configured to absorb specifically at a multiple of frequencies. However, it is noted that in the configuration 35- 900C2 that specific gaps in frequency absorption (outside of the transparent frequency band) exist.

[0483] It is to be appreciated that the configuration 35-900C2 may include a metamaterial configured to have a first tuned carbon to absorb at the predetermined frequencies.

[0484] The complex pattern of absorption chart of the configuration 35-900C3 presents a more intricate pattern of absorption and transparency across the frequency spectrum. This demonstrates the flexibility and versatility of the tuning process, where the metamaterial can be tuned to absorb or reflect a complex pattern of specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. In one embodiment, the metamaterial of the configuration 35-900C3 may show multiple types of metamaterials. For example, a first pattern (corresponding with the configuration 35-900C2) is shown in the configuration 35-900C3. Additionally, a second pattern in the configuration 35-900C3 may represent a second type of metamaterial that is configured to fill in the gaps per the configuration 35-900C2. Thus, the configuration 35-900C3 creates a more cohesive absorption layer based on a multiple of metamaterial layers, each tuned to a variety of preconfigured frequency settings.

[0485] It is to be appreciated that the configuration 35-900C2 may include a metamaterial configured to have a first tuned carbon and a second tuned carbon to absorb at the predetermined frequencies.

[0486] The three tuned carbons frequency response chart configuration 35-900C4 demonstrates the combined effect of three different metamaterial (including three separately, independently, and individually tuned carbons), each contributing to the overall frequency response with distinct absorption and transparent bands. This indicates that multiple types of metamaterial (including carbon nanoparticles) may each be tuned to a specific frequency and which can be combined within the metamaterial to create a comprehensive frequency response that absorbs or reflects a wide range of electromagnetic interference frequencies.

[0487] As such, the configuration 35-900C4 using multiple metamaterials (and corresponding tuned carbons) may be used to create a situation where the configuration 35-900C4 begins to mirror the blanket absorption shown for the configuration 35-900C1 .

[0488] It is to be appreciated that, as described herein, the use of multiple layers of metamaterials (each configured for a particular frequency response / absorption) may be equally satisfied by the inclusion of multiple tuned carbons within a single layer of the metamaterial.

[0489] In some implementations, the carbon nanoparticles may be tuned to absorb or reflect a specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. This tuning process involves adjusting the physical and chemical properties of the carbon nanoparticles, such as their size, shape, and composition, to resonate with the specific frequency of electromagnetic interference. When the tuned carbon nanoparticles encounter electromagnetic interference at this specific frequency, they absorb the energy, thereby preventing the interference from penetrating further into the protective enclosure.

[0490] In some cases, the tuning process can be adjusted to create carbon nanoparticles that both absorb and reflect specific frequencies of electromagnetic interference. This dual-function tuning can provide enhanced protection against a wider range of electromagnetic interference frequencies. For example, a first type of carbon may be tuned to absorb at a particular frequency, but reflect at others. In another example, a first type of carbon may be tuned to absorb at a particular frequency, and a second type of carbon may be tuned to reflect at another frequency.

[0491] Principles of Operation of Material Layer Stacks and Metamaterials

[0492] In various embodiments, the disclosure herein relates to a technological framework underpinning the development of EMI-absorbing materials. For example, a simple analogy may assist in conveying the concept of impedance with respect to EMI-absorbing materials, which inIllturn will highlight the importance of impedance matching. The analogy may include jumping into a swimming pool, where the goal is to cause as little splash (reflection) as possible. As such, an individual may try to slide into the water smoothly without disturbing it much. The jumping technique may represent impedance, and a smooth, controlled slide (causing a small splash) may represent minimal impedance (such as 1, like air), and a cannonball entrance (causing a big splash) may represent a greater impedance (such as 10, like metal). The water's response may represent an impedance of the medium, and water may have its own response to the jump. For purposes of the analogy, the water's natural response may match the jumping technique. Thus, the water's natural response may represent an impedance of 1 (like air) when the jumping technique is a smooth, controlled slide. If the jumping technique (impedance) matches the water's natural response (impedance of the medium), a smooth entry may be achieved with minimal splash, or as represented mathematically, jumping technique impedance (1) - water's impedance (1) = 0 (i.e. minimal splash). In contrast, if a cannonball entry occurred, a big splash may result, or as represented mathematically, jumping technique impedance (10) - water's impedance (1) = 9 (i.e. big splash). As such, one focus of the present disclosure is to adjust the jumping technique" (impedance) of objects so that it matches the water's natural response (impedance of the electromagnetic wave's propagation medium, usually air). When impedance is matched (under such an adjustment), and when the electromagnetic wave encounters the object, it slides in smoothly, causing minimal reflection. As such, the material may be modified and / or tuned via the EMI-absorbing material disclosed herein to absorb some of the waves to minimize overall impedance.

[0493] In the foregoing analogy, to accomplish a minimal splash (reflection), the jumper needs to adjust its technique (impedance) to match the water's natural response (impedance of the medium). In the context of the present disclosure involving protective enclosure applications, EMI-absorbing materials may assist with changing this technique such that electromagnetic waves are absorbed smoothly with minimal reflection.

[0494] A simple analogy may assist with conveying the perspective of permittivity. For example, imagine designing a soundproof room using multiple layers of different soundproofing materials. Some materials may be great at absorbing high-pitched sounds, some at absorbing midfrequency tones, and some excel at absorbing low-pitched sounds. As such, if the goal were to absorb as much sound (reflection) as possible, then many different types of materials may beused to absorb a variety of sounds. The sound pitch may represent frequency and the material response may represent permittivity. Every material may respond differently to various sound pitches. Similarly, with respect to phenomena of a material's absorption of EMI, every different material may have a permittivity that determines how it responds to different frequencies of the EMI. Permittivity is a complex number, with real and imaginary parts, which dictates how much a material can store energy (real part) and how much a material can dissipate energy (imaginary part). Additionally, the layered design (with multiple types of materials) may represent absorption across multiple frequencies. With respect to EMI, the multiple layers of materials may be represented by multiple different permittivity values. As such, each layer may be configured to absorb EMI at a specific frequency range (by changing the permittivity value).

[0495] With continued reference to the prior analogy, the math may be simplified to define target frequencies (such as a high fH, medium fM, or low IL EMI frequency), and select materials (or design composite materials) that have effective permittivity tailored to each frequency (high frequency layer may have a permittivity of eH, medium frequency layer may have a permittivity of eM, and low frequency layer may have a permittivity of sL). For each layer, the permittivity of the layer may be configured to match the free space as closely as possible for its targeted frequency, which in turn may minimize reflection. Going back to the soundproofing analogy, this is like ensuring each material absorbs all of the energy at its target pitch (without letting any bounce back). As such, reflection may be minimized for each layer. Further, the thickness of each layer also matters. The wave should be absorbed within the layer and shouldn't reach the other side. For each frequency, an optimal thickness d may be determined and configured to ensure 100% absorption. As such, the design thickness may be configured for depth of absorption.

[0496] Thus, to create an effective multi-layered EMI-absorbing composite, materials may be selected with permittivity tailored to specific frequencies and each layer's thickness may be configured for optimal absorption. Going back to the analogy, this would be similar to designing a room with layers of soundproofing materials so that all types of sounds (from high-pitched to low-pitched) are absorbed, thus making the room quiet. EMI-absorbing materials are specifically designed materials that can absorb and dissipate the energy from electromagnetic waves to minimize reflection. Impedance matching may therefore be used in designing and optimizing EMI-absorbing materials.

[0497] With respect to impedance matching and how it plays a role in the functionality of EMI- absorbing materials, when an electromagnetic wave encounters a layer, some energy may be reflected back, and some energy may be transmitted into the object. The amount of reflected energy largely depends on the impedance difference (mismatch) between the air (or the medium through which the wave is propagating) and the layer's surface. Impedance generally may represent a complex quantity that relates the electric field to the magnetic field in a material. If the impedance of the air and the object are the same, then there would be no reflection (i.e. all of the energy would be transmitted into the object). As such, a phenomenon of impedance mismatch may occur where a significant impedance mismatch may lead to strong reflections. To reduce these reflections, EMI-absorbing materials may be designed and configured to match the impedance of free space (or air). This is achieved by ensuring that the effective impedance of the EMI-absorbing materials approaches that of free space.

[0498] In various embodiments, impedance matching may be achieved by using a graded or layered structure. The outermost layer of the EMI-absorbing materials may be designed or configured to have an impedance close to that of free space, while the innermost layer may include different impedance optimized for absorption. Additionally, with respect to the layers found in between the inner most and outermost layers, the layers may have a gradient of impedance values to ensure a smooth transition, minimizing reflections at each interface. As such, this approach of gradient index and layered EMI-absorbing materials may ensure impedance matching at the air-EMI-absorbing materials interface, as well as ensuring efficient absorption within the EMI-absorbing materials.

[0499] In various embodiments, the EMI-absorbing materials may be composed of and / or configured for intrinsically lossy materials. For example, once the electromagnetic wave penetrates the EMI-absorbing materials due to impedance matching, the lossy nature of the material ensures that the wave may be absorbed and converted to heat, minimizing any transmission or reflections arising from further layers.

[0500] In various embodiments, EMI-absorbing materials may be designed and / or configured to exploit both magnetic and dielectric losses. Ferrite-based EMI-absorbing materials, for instance, focus on magnetic losses, while certain carbon-based or conductive polymer EMI-absorbing materials exploit dielectric losses.

[0501] In various embodiments, while the theory behind impedance matching in EMI-absorbing materials is straightforward, achieving it in practice can be challenging due to factors like frequency dispersion, angle of incidence variations, and the physical constraints of fabricating gradient- index materials. As such, and notwithstanding such difficulties, impedance matching may be used in the design and configuration of effective EMI-absorbing materials. Properly designed EMI-absorbing materials may ensure that electromagnetic waves are neither reflected at the surface nor transmitted through but are absorbed within the material, thereby minimizing the detectability of the coated object.

[0502] Refractive Index and Impedance

[0503] Refractive index matching in EMI-absorbing materials (EMI-absorbing materials) may relate to impedance matching. For example, the refractive index may define how much a wave is bent or refracted when entering a material. Refractive index may include a measure of how much slower light (or in this context, electromagnetic waves) travels in a particular medium compared to a vacuum. The refractive index is typically represented by the symbol n and is related to the material's permittivity s and permeability p as: n = s p.

[0504] In various embodiments, impedance may relate to how much a wave is reflected at the boundary between two materials. In electromagnetic terms, impedance may relate to the permittivity and permeability of the material. When the impedance of two materials is the same (or closely matched), there's minimal reflection at the boundary.

[0505] In various embodiments, when electromagnetic waves hit an object (e.g., an enclosure), it may be desired for EMI waves to enter the EMI-absorbing materials rather than being reflected back. Using the material disclosed herein (such as a lossy material), once the waves enter inside the EMI-absorbing materials, the waves may be absorbed and dissipated as heat.

[0506] In various embodiments, by matching the refractive index of the EMI-absorbing materials to that of air (or free space), it can be ensured that electromagnetic waves that enter the EMI- absorbing materials stay within the material with minimal reflection. If n_AIR is the refractive index of air and n_EMI is the refractive index of the EMI-absorbing materials, for optimal performance, it may be desired for n_EMI to be approximately equal to n_AIR. This may ensure that the electromagnetic waves confront no significant boundary when the waves encounter the EMI-absorbing materials, thus leading to minimal reflections.

[0507] In various embodiments, while refractive index matching may ensure the electromagnetic waves enter the EMI-absorbing materials, the internal structure and composition of the EMI- absorbing materials may ensure that these waves are absorbed, thereby demonstrating the importance of the lossy nature of the EMI-absorbing materials. For example, the EMI-absorbing materials may have components that can effectively dissipate the electromagnetic wave's energy as heat.

[0508] In various embodiments, the EMI-absorbing materials may be tuned for specific EMI frequencies. This can involve adjusting the EMI-absorbing material's micro structure or using multiple layers with varying refractive indices. Each layer can be designed to be effective against a particular range of frequencies.

[0509] In various embodiments, achieving perfect refractive index matching can be challenging due to factors like frequency dispersion, angle of incidence variations, and the inherent properties of available materials. However, with nanotechnology and composite materials advancements, more avenues exist to engineer EMI-absorbing materials with closely matched refractive indices.

[0510] In the context of EMI-absorbing materials, and as discussed hereinabove, refractive index matching may include a technique used to minimize the reflection of electromagnetic waves at the material's surface. By ensuring the EMI-absorbing materials has a refractive index close to that of air, and by designing and / or configuring the internal structure of the EMI-absorbing materials to absorb and dissipate this energy, the amount of EMI can be reduced that penetrates the protective enclosure.

[0511] When discussing multi-layer refractive index matching in EMI-absorbing materials (EMI-absorbing materials), an objective may be to reduce the EMI's reflection at different frequency bands and from various angles of incidence, or the principle of multi-layer design.

[0512] In various embodiments, with respect to broadband absorption, a single-layer of EMI- absorbing materials might be optimized for a specific frequency, but with respect to real- world enclosure systems, they often are configured to operate across a range of frequencies. Multiple layers with varying refractive indices and loss factors can be combined to achieve broadband absorption.

[0513] In various embodiments, with respect to gradient refractive index, the transition in refractive index from one layer to the next should be gradual. This may ensure that there isn't a sudden impedance mismatch at any interface (which could cause a reflection). The refractive index may therefore transition from that of air to deeper layers that might be more lossy and have a higher refractive index.

[0514] In various embodiments, with respect to multi-layer refractive index matching, the outermost layer may be configured to have a refractive index close to that of air to minimize the initial reflection. This layer might not be very lossy but should help guide the electromagnetic wave into the deeper layers. The intermediate layers may have a progressively increasing refractive index, gradually transitioning from the outermost layer's value to the innermost layer's value. A function of the intermediate layers may include be to continue guiding the electromagnetic waves deeper while beginning the absorption process. The innermost layer may be highly lossy, ensuring that any electromagnetic wave that reaches this depth is efficiently absorbed. The refractive index of the innermost layer may be the highest (compared to the other layers), but since the innermost layer is deep within the EMI-absorbing materials, there's minimal risk of reflecting waves back (upwards) through the stack. In various embodiments, each layer's thickness may be tuned based on the target frequency bands. In simple terms, layers targeting lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) might be thicker, while those for higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) might be thinner. The exact thickness would depend on the specific materials used and the desired absorption characteristics.

[0515] In various embodiments, and with respect to angular-dependency, propagated waves might not always hit the EMI-absorbing materials head-on. They can come in at various angles of incidence, which affects the effective angle of reflection (if any). Multi-layer designs may help in improving the angular response of a stack of EMI-absorbing materials.

[0516] In various embodiments, and with respect to material limitations, although it may be desired to select materials with the desired refractive index (such as that close to air), it may be challenging to find a material that meets all desired criteria. Often, composite materials, mixing dielectric and magnetic materials, may therefore be used.

[0517] In various embodiments, and with respect to fabrication, a consistent gradient in refractive index across layers may be configured to ensure a smooth transition from one layer tothe next. Additionally, with respect to the weight and / or flexibility of the EMI-absorbing material stack, a multi-layer design may increase the weight (and thereby decrease the flexibility).[05181 In various embodiments, multi-layer refractive index matching in EMI-absorbing materials may allow for broadband absorption and may reduce reflection from multiple angles of incidence. By designing and / or configuring layers with a gradient in refractive index and tuning each layer's material properties and thickness, a high degree of EMI absorption can be achieved over a wide range of frequencies and angles. Additionally, although EMI occurs across a wide spectrum, effective broadband absorption of EMI using thin layers may be achieved.

[0519] In various embodiments, and with respect to metamaterial absorbers, multi-resonant structures can be designed and / or configured to achieve absorption at multiple frequencies. In some embodiments, patterned metallic may be are formed on a dielectric substrate, possibly (e.g., in some applications, or for some components of a protective enclosure) with a ground plane beneath. The pattern can be adjusted to tune the resonant absorption frequencies.

[0520] In various embodiments, and with respect to carbon-based materials, composites of CNTs or graphene with polymers can be used as thin-layer absorbers. In one embodiment, carbonbased materials may benefit from being lightweight (which may be particularly useful for aerospace applications).

[0521] In various embodiments, and with respect to magnetic materials, ferrites may be used to absorb electromagnetic waves. However, absorption by ferrites is often narrowband. To widen the absorption bandwidth, ferrite-polymer composites or layering different ferrites with different resonant frequencies can be used. In various embodiments, and with respect to layered structures, by combining different materials (including ferrites) in a multi-layered structure, broadband absorption can be achieved. For example, a combination of a magnetic layer (like a ferrite) and a dielectric layer (like a polymer composite with CNTs) can provide dual-band or broadband absorption.

[0522] In various embodiments, and with respect to nano structured designs, techniques like nano-imprinting or other nanofabrication methods can be used to create nanostructures that can resonate with selected frequencies. These structures can provide tuned absorption of a selected frequency or over...

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A protective enclosure for electronic systems, comprising: a polymer-containing matrix; and a metamaterial incorporated into or embedded within the polymer-containing matrix, the metamaterial having a specific permittivity or permeability to absorb or reflect a particular frequency of electromagnetic energy.

2. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the polymer-containing matrix comprises a thermoplastic material.

3. The protective enclosure of claim 2, wherein the thermoplastic material is selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate.

4. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the metamaterial comprises carbon nanoparticles.

5. The protective enclosure of claim 4, wherein the carbon nanoparticles are tuned to absorb a specific frequency of electromagnetic energy.

6. The protective enclosure of claim 5, wherein the specific frequency of electromagnetic energy is in the range of 1 GHz to 10 GHz.

7. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the metamaterial is embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in a uniform distribution.

8. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the metamaterial is embedded within the polymer-containing matrix in a layered structure.

9. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein: the polymer-containing matrix is a coated surface layer of the protective enclosure; and the metamaterial is incorporated into the coated surface layer.

10. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the metamaterial is tuned to allow wireless communication signals in a frequency band associated with Wi-Fi or cellular communication to pass through the protective enclosure.

11. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein: the metamaterial is tuned to absorb electromagnetic energy in a first frequency band; and the metamaterial is configured to allow wireless communication signals in a second frequency band to pass through the protective enclosure.

12. The protective enclosure of claim 11, wherein the first frequency band is associated with radio frequency interference.

13. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the polymer-containing matrix further comprises reinforcing fibers for improved mechanical strength.

14. The protective enclosure of claim 13, wherein the reinforcing fibers are selected from the group consisting of glass fibers, carbon fibers, and aramid fibers.

15. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the metamaterial comprises a quenched molten metal layer containing interstitially situated carbon atoms.

16. The protective enclosure of claim 15, wherein the quenched molten metal layer comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium.

17. The protective enclosure of claim 1, further comprising: an impedance sheet positioned on a first side of the metamaterial; and a conducting backplane positioned on a second side of the metamaterial.

18. The protective enclosure of claim 17, wherein: the impedance sheet is configured to reflect or shield a first set of preconfigured frequencies; the metamaterial is configured to absorb a second set of preconfigured frequencies; and the conducting backplane is configured to reflect a third set of preconfigured frequencies.

19. The protective enclosure of claim 1, wherein the polymer-containing matrix is configured to respond to external stimuli, allowing for dynamic adjustment of the protective enclosure's properties.

20. The protective enclosure of claim 19, wherein the external stimuli comprise at least one selected from the group consisting of heat, light, and an electric field.

Images