Anti-PILRA Antibodies, Uses Thereof, and Related Methods and Reagents

Abstract

Provided herein are highly desirable anti-PILRA antibodies that have comparable binding to cynomolgus monkey PILRA protein and human PILRA protein, but weaker binding to human PILRB protein, and also binding to both PILRA G78 variant and R78 variant. The binding and selectivity profiles of the antibodies described herein allow them to be used in animal studies (e.g., monkeys) without the need to rely on surrogate molecules, and also for the treatment of subjects with any PILRA variant. Furthermore, the biological findings regarding PILRA and the effect of reducing PILRA signaling in cells are described herein for the first time.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 290,930, filed December 17, 2021, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein for all purposes. [Background technology]

[0002] background Paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (PILRA) is a transmembrane receptor expressed in various immune cells, including microglia, and thought to function in inhibitory cell signaling pathways. A missense variant (G78R) in PILRA is associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease. The G78R variant alters the interactions of residues essential for sialic acid binding, resulting in reduced binding to some PILRA ligands.

[0003] There remains a need for therapeutic agents that modulate PILRA activity. Summary of the Invention

[0004] Quick Overview Described herein are antibodies that selectively bind to both cynomolgus monkey PILRA (cynoPILRA) and hPILRA, but may have relatively lower binding to human PILRB (hPILRB). The inventors have identified epitopes that allow for the desired selectivity. This selectivity profile is highly advantageous, but also very challenging, given the high homology between cynoPILRA and hPILRB. Having comparable binding between cynomolgus monkey and human proteins allows monkey testing to be performed without having to rely on surrogate molecules. In contrast, binding to PILRB is undesirable, since PILRB has a very similar extracellular domain to PILRA, but a different intracellular domain, which is expected to have different or even opposite activities.

[0005] Furthermore, certain antibodies with this selectivity profile described herein also bind and have activity against both variant forms of PILRA (G78 and R78), thus allowing them to be used in different populations, given that the frequency of each variant varies greatly in different parts of the world.

[0006] In addition to developing a highly useful antibody, the inventors have also made important discoveries related to PILRA biology, including the discovery of specific downstream effectors of PILRA signaling and, for the first time, characterizing the effects of reducing signaling by the PILRA receptor in microglia. These insights make it possible, for the first time, to relate blockade of PILRA ligands to biological effects in cells, providing new approaches for both drug discovery and for measuring the biological impact of known PILRA binders on cells and animals.

[0007] In one aspect, the disclosure features an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to cynomolgus monkey paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (cynoPILRA), where the binding affinity to cynoPILRA is at least 2-fold (e.g., at least 2-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 60-fold, 70-fold, 80-fold, 90-fold, or 100-fold) stronger than the binding affinity to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta (hPILRB). In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof also binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA).

[0008] In another aspect, the disclosure features an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA) and cynomolgus monkey PILRA (cynoPILRA), where the binding affinity to cynoPILRA is within 100-fold (e.g., within 90-fold, 80-fold, 70-fold, 60-fold, 50-fold, 40-fold, 30-fold, 20-fold, 10-fold, 5-fold, or 2-fold) of the binding affinity to hPILRA.

[0009] In some embodiments of this aspect, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is within 50-fold (e.g., within 45-fold, 40-fold, 35-fold, 30-fold, 25-fold, 20-fold, 15-fold, 10-fold, 5-fold, or 2-fold) of the binding affinity for hPILRA. In some embodiments of this aspect, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is within 25-fold (e.g., within 20-fold, 15-fold, 10-fold, 9-fold, 8-fold, 7-fold, 6-fold, 5-fold, 4-fold, 3-fold, or 2-fold) of the binding affinity for hPILRA. In some embodiments, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is within 10-fold (e.g., within 9-fold, 8-fold, 7-fold, 6-fold, 5-fold, 4-fold, 3-fold, or 2-fold) of the binding affinity for hPILRA. In certain embodiments, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is within 5-fold (e.g., within 4-fold, 3-fold, or 2-fold) of the binding affinity for hPILRA. In certain embodiments, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is within 2-fold compared to the binding affinity for hPILRA.

[0010] In some embodiments of this aspect, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta (hPILRB) with weaker affinity compared to hPILRA and cynoPILRA, in some embodiments, the binding affinity for hPILRA is at least 10-fold (e.g., at least 20-fold, 40-fold, 60-fold, 80-fold, 100-fold, 120-fold, 140-fold, 160-fold, 180-fold, 200-fold, 220-fold, 240-fold, 260-fold, 280-fold, or 300-fold) stronger than the binding affinity for hPILRB. In some embodiments, the binding affinity for hPILRA is at least 25 times (e.g., at least 30 times, 35 times, 40 times, 45 times, 50 times, 55 times, 60 times, 80 times, 100 times, 120 times, 140 times, 160 times, 180 times, 200 times, 220 times, 240 times, 260 times, 280 times, or 300 times) stronger than the binding affinity for hPILRB. In certain embodiments, the binding affinity for hPILRA is at least 100 times (e.g., at least 110 times, 120 times, 130 times, 140 times, 150 times, 160 times, 170 times, 180 times, 190 times, 200 times, 220 times, 240 times, 260 times, 280 times, or 300 times) stronger than the binding affinity for hPILRB.

[0011] In some embodiments of the aspects of the disclosure described herein, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is at least 10-fold (e.g., at least 20-fold, 40-fold, 60-fold, 80-fold, or 100-fold) stronger than the binding affinity for hPILRB. In some embodiments, the binding affinity for cynoPILRA is at least 25-fold (e.g., at least 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold, 50-fold, 60-fold, 70-fold, 80-fold, 90-fold, or 100-fold) stronger than the binding affinity for hPILRB.

[0012] In another aspect, the disclosure features an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA), where the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63, 64, 78, 106, 143, 116-118, and 182-186, where the positions are determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:1.

[0013] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 78, 106, and 143. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to G78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to R78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO: 136.

[0014] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63 and 64. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to T63 and A64 of SEQ ID NO:1.

[0015] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 106, 116-118, and 182-186. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to K106 of SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to Q116, K117, and / or Q118 of SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to Q182, G183, K184, R185, and / or R186 of SEQ ID NO:1.

[0016] In some embodiments of the aspects of the disclosure described herein, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises: (a) a heavy chain CDR1 (CDR-H1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11; (b) a heavy chain CDR2 (CDR-H2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12 to 19, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12 to 19; (c) a heavy chain CDR3 (CDR-H3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20 to 29, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20 to 29; (d) a light chain CDR1 (CDR-L1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30 to 38, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30 to 38; (e) a light chain CDR2 (CDR-L2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 to 46 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 to 46; and (f) a light chain CDR3 (CDR-L3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47 to 53, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47 to 53.

[0017] In some embodiments, the amino acid substitutions are conservative substitutions.

[0018] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment comprises: (i) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47; or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47; or (iii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:6 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:6, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:14 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:14, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:23 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:23, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:32 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:32, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:40 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:40, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:48 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:48; (iv) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49; or (v) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49; or (vi) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:8 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:8; CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:16 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:16; CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:26 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:26; CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:35 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:35; CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:43 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:43; and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:50 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:50.

[0019] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence of GX1TFX2X3X4X5X6H (SEQ ID NO: 74), wherein X1 is F or Y, X2 is D or I, X3 is D or G, X4 is Y or F, X5 is A or Y, and X6 is M or I; (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence of X1X2X3X4X5SGX6X7X8 (SEQ ID NO: 75), wherein X1 is G or W, X2 is F, M, or I, X3 is S or N, X4 is W or P, X5 is N or E, X6 is S or D, X7 is I or T, and X8 is G or T; (c)X1X2X3X4X5X6X7X8X9FDX 10 (SEQ ID NO: 76), wherein X1 is D or absent, X2 is K or G, X3 is S or N, X4 is I or W, X5 is S, G, or N, X6 is A or F, X7 is A or P, X8 is G or D, X9 is R or T, and X 10 is Y, S, or F; (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence of X1X2SX3X4IX5X6YLN (SEQ ID NO: 77), wherein X1 is Q or R, X2 is A or S, X3 is R or Q, X4 is R, G, or S, X5 is N or S, and X6 is N or I; (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of X1ASX2LX3X4 (SEQ ID NO: 78), wherein X1 is D or V, X2 is N or S, X3 is E or Q, and X4 is T or S; and (f) A CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQX1X2X3X4PX5T (sequence number 79), wherein X1 is Y or S, X2 is D or Y, X3 is N or S, X4 is L or A, and X5 is L or F.

[0020] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment comprises: (i) a CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, a CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12, a CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20, a CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30, a CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39, and a CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47; or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47; or (iii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 6, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 23, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 32, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 40, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 48.

[0021] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises: (i) a CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 7, a CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15, a CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 24, a CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 33, a CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 41, and a CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 49; or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49; or (iii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 8, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 16, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 26, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 35, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 43, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 50.

[0022] In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, a CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, a CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and a CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0023] In certain embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, a CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, a CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and a CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0024] In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a heavy chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs:54-63. H In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V(SEQ ID NO: 1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63. H In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V that has at least 95% sequence identity (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63. H In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V sequence comprising any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63. H Contains arrays.

[0025] In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a heavy chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144. HIn some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V(SEQ ID NO: 137-144) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144. H In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V that has at least 95% sequence identity (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144. H In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V sequence comprising any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144. H Contains arrays.

[0026] In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a light chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs:64-73. L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V(SEQ ID NO: 64) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73. L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V that has at least 95% sequence identity (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73. L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V sequence comprising any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73. L Contains arrays.

[0027] In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a light chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149. L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V(SEQ ID NO: 145) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149. L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIA-VIIIB ... L In some embodiments, the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment described herein comprises a V sequence comprising any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149. L Contains arrays.

[0028] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment comprises: (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 54 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:65 L Array; or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 56 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:66 L Array; or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 57 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:67 L Array; or (iv) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 58 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:68 L Array; or (v) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 59 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:69 L Array; or (vi) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 60 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 70 L array.

[0029] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment comprises: (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 54 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:65 L Array; or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 56 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:66 L Array; or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 57 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:67 L array.

[0030] In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment comprises: (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 137 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 145 L Array; or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 140 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 145 L Array; or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 143 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 146 L Array; or (iv) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 143 H V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 149 L array.

[0031] In some embodiments, the antibody comprises two Fc polypeptides forming an Fc domain, in some embodiments, one or both of the Fc polypeptides comprises a sequence having at least 90% (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99%) identity to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:94.

[0032] In some embodiments, the antibody is an IgG1.

[0033] In some embodiments, the antibody is a full-length antibody.

[0034] In another aspect, the disclosure features an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA), where the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof recognizes an epitope that is the same or substantially the same as an epitope recognized by an antibody clone selected from the group consisting of antibody clones 1-39 of Table 1.

[0035] In some embodiments of this aspect, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof recognizes an epitope that is the same or substantially the same as an epitope recognized by an antibody clone selected from the group consisting of antibody clones 2, 4, and 5.

[0036] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof antagonize hPILRA activity. In some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof block the binding of sialylated proteins to hPILRA. In some embodiments, the sialylated proteins are sialylated NPDC1, PANP, HSV-1 gB, COLEC12, C4a, C4b, DAG1, or Clec4g.

[0037] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof enhance or increase phosphorylation of EGFR or STAT3, or inhibit or decrease phosphorylation of STAT1.

[0038] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof enhance cell migration (eg, microglial migration).

[0039] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof enhance expression of an anti-inflammatory gene or protein, hi some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof enhance expression of the IL1RN gene.

[0040] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof reduce expression or secretion of proinflammatory cytokine proteins, hi some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof reduce expression of TNF, IL-6, and / or IP-10.

[0041] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof increase cellular respiration. In some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof increase mitochondrial respiration. In some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof increase non-mitochondrial respiration.

[0042] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof increase fatty acid metabolism (eg, increase fatty acid oxidation).

[0043] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof increase ATP production.

[0044] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof do not activate peripheral immune cells, hi some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof do not activate neutrophils and monocytes.

[0045] In some embodiments of the isolated antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof described herein, the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In some embodiments, the antibody is a chimeric antibody. In some embodiments, the antibody is a humanized antibody. In some embodiments, the antibody is a fully human antibody. In some embodiments, the antigen-binding fragment is a Fab, F(ab')2, scFv, or a bivalent scFv.

[0046] In another aspect, the disclosure features an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that competes with an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein for binding to hPILRA.

[0047] In another aspect, the disclosure features a pharmaceutical composition that includes an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein and a pharma- ceutically acceptable carrier.

[0048] In another aspect, the disclosure features a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein. In another aspect, the disclosure features a vector comprising a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein. In another aspect, the disclosure features a host cell comprising a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein.

[0049] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method for producing an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, the method comprising culturing a host cell under conditions in which the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof encoded by a polynucleotide is expressed.

[0050] In another aspect, the disclosure features a kit including an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein, or a pharmaceutical composition described herein, and instructions for their use.

[0051] In another aspect, the disclosure features a method of treating a neurodegenerative disease in a subject, the method including administering to the subject an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof described herein, or a pharmaceutical composition described herein. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's disease, primary age-related tauopathies, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), frontotemporal dementia, frontotemporal dementia linked to chromosome 17 with parkinsonism, argyrophilic grain dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis / Parkinsonism dementia complex of Guam (ALS-PDC), corticobasal degeneration, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, dementia pugilistica, diffuse neurofibrillary tangle disease with calcifications, Down's syndrome, familial British dementia, familial Danish dementia, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease, globuloglial tauopathy, Guadeloupean parkinsonism with dementia, PSP in Guadeloupean PSP), Hallervorden-Spatz disease, hereditary diffuse leukoencephalopathy with neuroaxonal spheroid formation (HDLS), Huntington's disease, inclusion body myositis, multiple system atrophy, myotonic dystrophy, Nasu-Hakola disease, neurofibrillary tangle-predominant dementia, Niemann-Pick disease type C, pallidal-pontine-nigral degeneration, Parkinson's disease, Pick's disease, postencephalitic parkinsonism, prion protein cerebral amyloid angiopathy, progressive subcortical gliosis, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, and neurofibrillary tangle dementia. In certain embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease.

[0052] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method for determining whether a molecule has activity against a PILRA protein, the method comprising the steps of: (a) contacting a cell expressing the PILRA protein with the molecule; (b) contacting a cell of the same type as step (a), having lower PILRA expression, with the molecule either before, simultaneously with, or after step (a); and (c) measuring one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and microglial migration in both cells, where a change in the level of one of these measurements between cells indicates that the molecule has activity against the PILRA protein of step (a).

[0053] In some embodiments, the cells of step (a) naturally express PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the cells with lower PILRA expression are knocked out for PILRA protein. In certain embodiments, the cells are microglia, such as iMicroglia. In some embodiments, the cells are PILRA LoF iMicroglia.

[0054] In some embodiments, the cells of step (a) have been engineered or modified to express or overexpress a PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the cells having lower PILRA expression naturally express a PILRA protein or have not been engineered or modified to express a PILRA protein.

[0055] In some embodiments, the molecule is from a molecular library. In certain embodiments, the molecule is known to bind to the PILRA protein. In other embodiments, it is not known whether the molecule binds to the PILRA protein. In certain embodiments, the molecule is an antibody, a peptide, a small organic molecule, or a nucleic acid.

[0056] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method for determining whether a molecule that binds to a PILRA protein modulates the signaling response or activity in a cell expressing PILRA, the method comprising: (a) contacting the cell with the molecule; and (b) measuring one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and microglial migration, wherein a change in the level of one of the measurements indicates that the molecule modulates the signaling response or activity in the cell expressing PILRA.

[0057] In some embodiments, the change is an increase or decrease in the level of one of the measurements when the cell is contacted with the molecule compared to the level in the cell without the molecule. For example, in some embodiments, the change is an increase in pSTAT3 levels, e.g., an increase in pSTAT3 Y705 levels and / or pSTAT3 S727 levels. In another example, the change is an increase in pEGFR levels. In another example, the change is an increase in the expression level and / or cellular secretion of motility proteins (e.g., cadherins, integrins, e.g., any of those described herein). In yet another example, the change is an increase in cell (e.g., microglia) migration, which can be measured and quantified, for example, using the cell migration assay described in Example 4.

[0058] In some embodiments, the cell is in an in vitro assay. In other embodiments, the cell is in a mammal. In some embodiments, step (a) comprises administering the molecule to a mammal.

[0059] In some embodiments, the cell is a microglia, a myeloid cell, a monocyte, or a neutrophil.

[0060] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides engineered human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) or cell lines, wherein the IPSCs are modified (i.e., genetically engineered) to express two copies of the gene encoding the R78 variant or G78 variant of the PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the IPSCs are modified at the endogenous genomic locus.

[0061] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides an engineered microglial cell model derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs), wherein the IPSCs are modified (i.e., genetically engineered) to express two copies of a gene encoding an R78 variant or a G78 variant of a PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the IPSCs are modified at an endogenous genomic locus. In some embodiments, the engineered microglial cell model is obtained by differentiation induction.

[0062] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a pair of matched cell lines, where (a) a first cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding a R78 variant of a PILRA protein, and (b) a second cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, both the first and second cell lines of the pair being derived from the same parent cell line, and one or both cell lines being engineered in the endogenous PILRA gene. In some embodiments, the parent cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding a R78 variant of a PILRA protein. In other embodiments, the parent cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the parent cell line is heterozygous for a gene encoding a R78 variant and a G78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0063] In some embodiments of the matched pair of cell lines, a third cell line is included that is heterozygous for the genes encoding the G78 and R78 variants of the PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the third cell line is derived from a parent cell line that is homozygous for the genes encoding the R78 or G78 variants of the PILRA protein.

[0064] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a myeloid cell line or a stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line having a modified PILRA gene, the method comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or heterozygous for genes encoding an R78 variant and a G78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) engineering the cell line by modifying the gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of a PILRA protein or the G78 variant of a PILRA protein, wherein the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant prior to engineering.

[0065] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a matched pair of cell lines, the method comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or heterozygous for genes encoding an R78 variant and a G78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) (i) engineering a first cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, and / or (ii) engineering a second cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0066] In some embodiments, the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant prior to being engineered.

[0067] In certain embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, and the manipulation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to create an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0068] In other embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, and the manipulation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to create an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0069] In some embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

[0070] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line that is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of a PILRA protein, the method comprising: (a) engineering the existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0071] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line that is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of a PILRA protein, the method comprising: (a) engineering the existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0072] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) that is homozygous for a gene encoding the R78 variant of a PILRA protein, the method comprising engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding the G78 variant of a PILRA protein.

[0073] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., an IPSC line) that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, the method comprising engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0074] [Figure 1A] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA expressed on HEK293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. [Figure 1B] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA expressed on HEK293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. [Figure 1C] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA expressed on HEK293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. [Figure 1D] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA G78 expressed on HEK293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Data are expressed as median fluorescence intensity obtained by FACS assay technique. [Figure 1E] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to parental HEK293 cells. Data are expressed as median fluorescence intensity obtained by FACS assay technique. [Figure 1F]1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA R78 expressed on HEK293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Data are expressed as median fluorescence intensity obtained by FACS assay technique. [Figure 1G] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to hPILRA expressed on CHO-K1 cells and not to parental CHO-K1 cells. [Figure 1H] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA G78 in a dose-dependent manner. Data are expressed as median fluorescence intensity obtained by FACS assay technique. [Figure 1I] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies showed no binding to parental CHO-K1 cells. Data are expressed as median fluorescence intensity obtained by FACS assay technique. [Figure 1J] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibody bound to human IPSC-derived microglia. [Figure 1K] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to microglia derived from PILRA LoF human IPSCs. [Figure 1L] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to iMicroglia derived from human IPSCs homozygous for PILRA G78. [Figure 1M] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to iMicroglia derived from human IPSCs homozygous for PILRA R78. [Figure 2A] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO-K1 cells expressing cynoPILRA, but not to CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRB or to parental CHO-K1 cells. [Figure 2B] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA in a dose-dependent manner. [Figure 2C] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to CHO cells expressing hPILRB. [Figure 2D]1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to HEK293 cells overexpressing hPILRB-DAP12. [Figure 2E] 1 shows that the reference antibody bound to CHO cells expressing hPILRA. [Figure 2F] 1 shows that the reference antibody did not bind to CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA or hPILRB. [Figure 3A] Representative SPR sensorgrams are shown when ligand binding was allowed. [Figure 3B] Representative SPR sensorgrams are shown when ligand binding was blocked by antibody. [Figure 3C] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 HEK cells enhanced binding of anti-PILRA antibodies. [Figure 3D] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 HEK cells enhanced binding of anti-PILRA antibodies. [Figure 3E] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 HEK cells enhanced binding of anti-PILRA antibodies. [Figure 3F] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 HEK cells enhanced binding of anti-PILRA antibodies. [Figure 3G] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA R78 HEK cells had little effect on anti-PILRA antibody binding. [Figure 3H] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA R78 HEK cells had little effect on anti-PILRA antibody binding. [Figure 3I] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA R78 HEK cells had little effect on anti-PILRA antibody binding. [Figure 3J] 1 shows that sialidase treatment of PILRA R78 HEK cells had little effect on anti-PILRA antibody binding. [Figure 4A]Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia have increased levels of phosphorylated EGFR Y1086 compared to wild type human iMicroglia in serum free medium. Graph shows expression at spot intensity above background as mean + / - SEM. N=2 technical replicates. P>0.01, 2-way ANOVA. [Figure 4B] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia have increased levels of phosphorylated STAT3 Y705 compared to wild type human iMicroglia in serum free medium. Graph shows expression as mean + / - SEM at spot intensity above background. N=2 technical replicates. P>0.01, 2-way ANOVA. [Figure 4C] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies specifically induced pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78, but not in parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibodies. Data are presented as mean fold values ​​relative to background (PBS) or mean fold values ​​relative to isotype control + / - SEM (n=4 technical replicates). [Figure 4D] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies specifically induced pSTAT3 S727 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78, but not in parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibodies. Data are presented as mean fold values ​​relative to background (PBS) or mean fold values ​​relative to isotype control + / - SEM (n=4 technical replicates). [Figure 4E] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies specifically induced pEGFR Y1086 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78, but not in parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibodies. Data are presented as mean fold values ​​relative to background (PBS) or mean fold values ​​relative to isotype control + / - SEM (n=4 technical replicates). [Figure 4F]1 shows dose-dependent induction of pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78. Anti-PILRA antibodies were administered in increasing doses to HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 and induction of pSTAT3 Y705 was measured 30 minutes later. Data are presented as fold expression relative to isotype control as mean + / - SEM (n=2 technical replicates). [Figure 4G] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies administered in escalating doses to HEK cells expressing human PILRA 78G induced pSTAT3 Y705 after 30 minutes. [Figure 4H] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies administered in escalating doses to HEK cells expressing human PILRA 78G induced pSTAT3 S727 after 30 min. [Figure 4I] Figure 1 shows that pSTAT3 Y705 induced by anti-PILRA antibodies in HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G7G was partially inhibited by 2 h preincubation with the mTORC1 / 2 inhibitor AZD8055 (3.125-50 nM) or the mTOR inhibitor Torin1 (31.25-500 nM). Data are shown as fold expression relative to HEK293 control cells (DMSO vehicle isotype control) as mean + / - SEM (n=1-4 technical replicates). [Figure 4J] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies blocked induction of pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing PILRA R78. Data are presented as fold expression relative to HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78 as mean + / - SEM (n=2-3 technical replicates). [Figure 4K] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies were administered in escalating doses to HEK293 cells expressing human PILRA 78R and induced pSTAT3 Y705 after 30 minutes. [Figure 4L] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies were administered in escalating doses to HEK293 cells expressing human PILRA 78R and induced pSTAT3 S727 after 30 minutes. [Figure 4M]Figure 4M shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia showed lower phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 levels by Phospho-Kinase Profiler and Total STAT1 AlphaLisa compared to wild type human iMicroglia in serum-free medium. Graphs in Figure 4M show expression at spot intensity above background as mean + / - SEM. N=2 technical replicates. [Figure 4N] Figure 4N shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia showed lower total STAT1 levels by Phospho-Kinase Profiler and Total STAT1 AlphaLisa compared to wild type human iMicroglia in serum free medium. Graph in Figure 4N shows fold expression relative to wild type as mean + / - SEM. N=4 technical replicates. [Figure 4O] Figure 1 shows that HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78 exhibited higher phosphorylated STAT1 levels compared to parental HEK293 cells. Expression is shown as mean + / - SEM. n=3-4 technical replicates. [Figure 4P] Treatment with 100 nM anti-PILRA mAb reduced phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 levels in wild type human iMicroglia, phenocopying PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Expression relative to PBS is shown as mean + / - SEM. N=3 technical replicates. [Figure 4Q] Figure 2 shows that treatment with anti-PILRA mAb reduced phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 levels in HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78, but not parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibody. Graph shows fold expression relative to PBS as mean + / - SEM. n=2-3 technical replicates. [Figure 4R] Figure 1 shows that treatment with anti-PILRA mAb reduced total STAT1 levels in HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78, but not parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibody. Graph shows fold expression relative to PBS as mean + / - SEM. n=2-3 technical replicates. [Figure 5A]Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF promotes migration of iMicroglia to the cell-free detection zone 120 hours after stopper removal. Re-expression of PILRA in PILRA LoF iMicroglia (PILRA LoF+OE) restores migration levels to those observed in wild-type iMicroglia. [Figure 5B] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced migration of wild-type iMicroglia into the cell-free detection zone 120 hours after stopper removal, as did PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells. Both PILRA LoF iMicroglia and wild-type iMicroglia received vehicle (PBS) only. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=1-6 technical replicates). [Figure 5C] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced migration of wild-type iMicroglia into the cell-free detection zone 120 hours after stopper removal, as did PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells. Both PILRA LoF iMicroglia and wild-type iMicroglia received vehicle (PBS) only. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=1-6 technical replicates). [Figure 5D] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF enhanced iMicroglia migration towards the chemoattractant complement 5a (C5a). [Figure 5E] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced chemotaxis of iMicroglia to C5a, similar to PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells. [Figure 5F] 13 shows that anti-PILRA antibody enhanced secretion of integrins into the supernatant by iMicroglia after 4 days of treatment. [Figure 5G] 13 shows that anti-PILRA antibody enhanced secretion of cadherin into the supernatant by iMicroglia 4 days after treatment. [Figure 6A]Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia promoted IL1RN gene expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia in serum-free medium. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6B] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia stimulated IL1RA cytokine secretion compared to wild type iMicroglia in serum-free medium. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6C] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies stimulated IL1RA cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia in serum-free medium, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6D] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in TNF gene expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6E] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in IL-6 gene expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6F] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in CXCL10 gene expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6G] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in TNFα cytokine expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6H] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in IL-6 cytokine expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6I] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced changes in IP-10 cytokine expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6J] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced IP-10 cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6K] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced TNFα cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6L] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced IL-6 cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6M] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced IP-10 cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6N]Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced TNFα cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6O] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced IL-6 cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). [Figure 6P] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibody (100 nM) attenuated LPS-induced IP-10 cytokine secretion in homozygous G78 PILRA-expressing IPSC-derived iMicroglia in serum-free medium. [Figure 6Q] 1 shows that anti-PILRA antibody (100 nM) attenuated LPS-induced IP-10 cytokine secretion in homozygous R78 PILRA-expressing IPSC-derived iMicroglia in serum-free medium. [Figure 7A] Figure 1 shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia exhibited increased maximal respiration. Re-expression of PILRA in PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (PILRA LoF+OE) restored mitochondrial respiration to wild-type levels. n=5 technical replicates. [Figure 7B] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia displayed increased mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity. Re-expression of PILRA in PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (PILRA LoF+OE) restored mitochondrial respiration to wild-type levels. n=5 technical replicates. [Figure 7C] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies increased maximal respiration in wild type iMicroglia compared to isotype control. The antibodies had no further effect on PILRA LoF iMicroglia, demonstrating antibody specificity. n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7D] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies increased mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity in wild type iMicroglia compared to isotype control. The antibodies had no further effect on PILRA LoF iMicroglia, demonstrating antibody specificity. n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7E] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies increased maximal respiration in wild type iMicroglia compared to isotype control. The antibodies had no further effect on PILRA LoF iMicroglia, demonstrating antibody specificity. n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7F] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies increased mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity in wild type iMicroglia compared to isotype control. The antibodies had no further effect on PILRA LoF iMicroglia, demonstrating antibody specificity. n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7G] The decrease in non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate induced by Aβ1-42 fibrils in wild-type iMicroglia (gray bars in Fig. 7G) was rescued by anti-PILRA antibodies (striped gray bars in Fig. 7H). n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7H] The decrease in non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate induced by Aβ1-42 fibrils in wild-type iMicroglia (gray bars in Fig. 7G) was rescued by anti-PILRA antibodies (striped gray bars in Fig. 7H). n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7I] Figure 2 shows that PILRA LoF iMicroglia exhibited increased ATP production with higher mitochondrial OXPHOS activity. n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 7J] Figure 2 shows that anti-PILRA antibodies recapitulated PILRA LoF in wild-type iMicroglia and enhanced the rate of ATP production, n=6 technical replicates. [Figure 8-1] FIG. 8A: Anti-PILRA antibodies bound to monocytes ex vivo. [Figure 8-2]FIG. 8B: Anti-PILRA antibodies bound to neutrophils ex vivo. [Figure 8-3] FIG. 8C: Anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to B cells. [Figure 8-4] FIG. 8D: Anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to T cells. [Figure 8-5] 8E-8G: Shows that cells treated with anti-PILRA antibodies did not show an increase in CD25 (FIG. 8E) or HLA-DR (FIGS. 8F and 8G). [Figure 8-6] FIG. 8H: Ex vivo human leukocytes did not increase inflammatory cytokine production after 24 h treatment with 100 nM aqueous phase anti-PILRA antibody. [Figure 8-7] FIG. 8I: Ex vivo human leukocytes did not increase inflammatory cytokine production after 24 h treatment with solid-phase 100 nM anti-PILRA antibody. [Figure 9A] 1 is a molecular structure showing the hPILRA epitope of anti-PILRA antibodies. [Figure 9B] These are epitope bins to which anti-PILRA antibodies bind to human PILRA. [Figure 10] An alignment of the ECD and stalk region sequences of cynoPILRA, hPILRA, and hPILRB (positions are determined with reference to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1) is shown. [Figure 11] FIG. 1 shows that reference antibodies #1 to #4 bound to CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA G78 but did not bind to CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRB or cynoPILRA G78 (positions are determined with reference to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1). [Figure 12-1] FIG. 12A: Anti-PILRA antibodies demonstrated target binding in the brain 1 and 4 days after administration of 50 mg / kg in BACtg mice expressing human PILRA. [Figure 12-2] FIG. 12B: Anti-PILRA antibodies demonstrated target binding in plasma 1 and 4 days after administration of 50 mg / kg in BACtg mice expressing human PILRA. [Figure 12-3] Figures 12C-12H: Anti-PILRA antibodies exhibited IgG-like pharmacokinetics in brain, plasma, liver, lung, spleen, and bone marrow 1 and 4 days after IV dosing at 50 mg / kg in BACtg mice expressing human PILRA. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0075] Detailed Description I. Introduction PILRA is an inhibitory transmembrane receptor expressed on the cell surface of various immune cells, such as microglia, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. Without being bound by any particular theory, PILRA is believed to act as an inhibitory receptor upon ligand binding by recruiting cytoplasmic phosphatases, such as PTPN6 / SHP-1 and PTPN11 / SHP-2, whose SH2 domains block signaling by dephosphorylating signaling molecules. A missense variant of PILRA (G78R) alters the sialic acid binding pocket of PILRA, resulting in reduced binding of PILRA to some of its ligands, one of which is the sialylated glycoprotein B of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1 gB). It has been suggested that HSV-1 infection is present in some Alzheimer's disease patients. The G78R variant of PILRA is proposed to antagonize or reduce PILRA signaling, thereby protecting individuals from Alzheimer's disease by modifying microglial responses.

[0076] As detailed in the Examples section below, antibodies have been generated that specifically bind to human PILRA (hPILRA) and modulate one or more microglial functions regulated by PILRA. In particular, the inventors have identified for the first time antibodies with highly desirable characteristics. These include antibodies that selectively bind to both cynomolgus ("cyno") PILRA (cynoPILRA) and hPILRA, but may have relatively lower binding affinity to human PILRB (hPILRB). This is highly advantageous, but also very challenging, given the high homology between cynoPILRA and hPILRB. Having comparable binding affinity between cynomolgus PILRA and human PILRA allows monkey testing to be performed without the need for surrogate molecules. Binding to PILRB is undesirable, as PILRB is believed to have different or opposite activity compared to PILRA, given the differences in their respective intracellular domains. Certain antibodies described herein can bind to cynoPILRA with a binding affinity that is within 100-fold (e.g., within 90-fold, 80-fold, 70-fold, 60-fold, 50-fold, 40-fold, 30-fold, 20-fold, 10-fold, 5-fold, or 2-fold) stronger than the binding affinity to hPILRA. The antibody may also have a binding affinity to hPILRA that is at least 10-fold (e.g., at least 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold, 50-fold, 60-fold, 70-fold, 80-fold, 90-fold, or 100-fold) stronger than the binding affinity to hPILRB. In certain embodiments, the antibody further comprises an Fc polypeptide that may have (i) a mutation that reduces or eliminates effector function, and / or (ii) a mutation that increases in vivo half-life, for example, by increasing binding of the antibody's Fc to the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn).

[0077] The inventors have also discovered that antibodies that bind to certain amino acid residues in the PILRA sequence may exhibit desirable properties. These residues include 63, 64, 78, 106, 143, 116-118, and 182-186. In a particular example, the inventors show that antibodies that bind to epitopes including (i) G78, K106, and E143, or (ii) T63 and A64 of hPILRA, are also able to bind cynoPILRA, but have reduced binding to hPILRB.

[0078] II. Definition As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an "antibody" optionally includes combinations of two or more such molecules, and the like.

[0079] As used herein, the terms "about" and "approximately," when used to modify a quantity specified in a numerical value or range, indicate that the numerical value and reasonable deviations from that value known to one of ordinary skill in the art, e.g., ±20%, ±10%, or ±5%, are within the intended meaning of the stated value.

[0080] As used herein, the term "PILRA" refers to the paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha protein encoded by the PILRA gene. As used herein, "PILRA" or "PILRA protein" refers to native (i.e., wild-type) PILRA protein of any vertebrate, including, but not limited to, human, non-human primate (e.g., cynomolgus monkey), rodent (e.g., mouse, rat), and other mammals. In some embodiments, the PILRA protein is a human PILRA (hPILRA) protein having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 below. MGRPLLLPLLPLLLPPAFLQPSGSTGSGPSYLYGVTQPKHLSASMGGSVEIPFSFYYPWELATAPDVRISWRRGHFHGQSFYSTRPPSIHKDYVNRLFLNWTEGQKSGFLRISNLQKQDQSVYFCRVELDTRSSGRQQWQSIEGTKLSITQ AVTTTTQRPSSMTTTWRLSSTTTTTGLRVTQGKRRSDSWHISLETAVGVAVAVTVLGIMILGLICLLRWRRRKGQQRTKATTPAREPFQNTEEPYENIRNEGQNTDPKLNPKDDGIVYASLALSSSTSPRAPPSHRPLKSPQNETLYSVLKA

[0081] In some embodiments, the PILRA protein is a cynomolgus PILRA (cynoPILRA) protein having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 below. MGRPLLLPLLLPLLPLLLPPAFLQPGGSAGSGPSGPYGVTQRKHLSAPMGGSVEIPFSFYHPWELAAAPNMKISWRRGNFHGEFFYRTRPAFIHEDYSNRLLLNWTEGQDRGLLRIWNLRKEDQSVYFCRVELDTRRSGRQRWQSIEGTKLTI TQAVTTTTQRPSSMTTTRRPSSATTTAGLRVTQGKRHSDSWHLSLKTAVGVTVAVAVLGIMILGLICLLRWRRRKGQQRTKATTPAKEPFQNTEEPYENIRNEGQNTDPKPNPKDDGIVYASLALSSSTSPRVPPSHHPLKSPQNETLYSVLKV

[0082] As used herein, the term "PILRB" refers to the paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta protein encoded by the PILRB gene. As used herein, "PILRB" or "PILRB protein" refers to native (i.e., wild-type) PILRB protein of any vertebrate, including, but not limited to, human, non-human primate (e.g., cynomolgus monkey), rodent (e.g., mouse, rat), and other mammals. In some embodiments, the PILRB protein is a human PILRB (hPILRB) protein having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 below. MGRPLLLPLLLLLQPPAFLQPGGSTGSGPSYLYGVTQPKHLSASMGGSVEIPFSFYYPWELAIVPNVRISWRRGHFHGQSFYSTRPPSIHKDYVNRLFLNWTEGQESGFLRIS NLRKEDQSVYFCRVELDTRRSGRQQLQSIKGTKLTITQAVTTTTTWRPSSTTTIAGLRVTESKGHSESWHLSLDTAIRVALAVAVLKTVILGLLCLLLLWWRRRKGSRAPSSDF

[0083] As used herein, the term "anti-PILRA antibody" refers to an antibody that specifically binds to a PILRA protein (eg, human PILRA).

[0084] As used herein, the term "antibody" refers to a protein having an immunoglobulin fold that specifically binds to an antigen through its variable region. The term encompasses intact polyclonal, intact monoclonal antibodies, including full length and single chain antibodies, multispecific antibodies such as bispecific antibodies, monospecific antibodies, monovalent antibodies, chimeric antibodies, humanized antibodies, and human antibodies. The term "antibody" as used herein may also encompass antibody fragments that retain binding specificity through their variable regions, including, but not limited to, Fab, F(ab')2, Fv, scFv, and bivalent scFv. Antibodies may have light chains classified as kappa or lambda. Antibodies may have heavy chains classified as gamma, mu, alpha, delta, or epsilon, which in turn define the immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, respectively.

[0085] As used herein, the term "full antibody" refers to an immunoglobulin molecule having four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains inter-connected by disulfide bonds. Each heavy chain contains, from N-terminal to C-terminal, a heavy chain variable region (V H ), a CH1 constant domain, a hinge region, a CH2 constant domain, and a CH3 constant domain. Each light chain is composed of, from N- to C-terminal, a light chain variable region (V L ) and CL constant domains. The Fab domain or fragment is H , CH1, V L A full length antibody is formed from two Fab domains and an Fc domain, where the Fc domain comprises two Fc polypeptides, each of which may comprise a CH2 domain, a CH3 domain, and may comprise at least a portion of the hinge region of an antibody.

[0086] As used herein, the term "anti-PILRA antigen-binding portion" refers to an antigen-binding segment or antigen-binding agent that specifically binds to a PILRA protein (e.g., hPILRA and / or cynoPILRA). The terms "antigen-binding portion" and "antigen-binding fragment" are used interchangeably herein and refer to one or more fragments of an antibody that retain the ability to specifically bind to an antigen (e.g., a PILRA protein) through its variable regions. Examples of antigen-binding fragments include, but are not limited to, Fab fragments (VF fragments), Fab fragments (VF fragments), and cynoPILRA fragments. L , V H F(ab´)2 fragment (a bivalent fragment containing two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the hinge region), single-chain Fv (scFv), disulfide-linked Fv (dsFv), complementarity determining regions (CDRs), V L (light chain variable region), and V H (heavy chain variable region).

[0087] The term "variable region" or "variable domain" refers to the domain of an antibody heavy or light chain that is derived from a germline variable region (V), diversity region (D), or joining region (J) gene (and not from constant region (Cμ and Cδ) gene segments) and confers to the antibody its specificity of binding to an antigen. Antibody variable regions typically contain four conserved "framework" regions interspersed with three hypervariable "complementarity determining regions".

[0088] The term "complementarity determining region" or "CDR" refers to the three hypervariable regions that interrupt the four framework regions in each chain defined for the light and heavy chain variable regions. The CDRs are primarily responsible for antibody binding to an epitope of an antigen. The CDRs of each chain are usually designated CDR1, CDR2, and CDR3, numbered sequentially starting from the N-terminus, and are usually identified for the chain in which a particular CDR is present. Thus, V H CDR3 or CDR-H3 is present in the variable region of the antibody heavy chain in which it is found, whereas V L CDR1 or CDR-L1 is the CDR1 of the variable region of the antibody light chain in which it is found.

[0089] The "framework regions" or "FRs" of various light or heavy chains are relatively conserved within a species. The framework region of an antibody, which is a combination of the framework regions of the constituent light and heavy chains, functions to position and align the CDRs in three-dimensional space. Framework sequences can be obtained from public DNA databases or published references that contain germline antibody gene sequences. For example, germline DNA sequences of human heavy and light chain variable region genes can be found in the germline variable region gene sequence database "VBASE2" of human and mouse sequences.

[0090] The amino acid sequences of the CDRs and framework regions can be determined using various definitions well known in the art, such as Kabat, Chothia, the International ImMunoGeneTics database (IMGT), AbM, and observed antigen contact ("Contact"). In some embodiments, the CDRs are determined according to the Contact definition. See MacCallum et al., J. Mol. Biol., 262:732-745 (1996). In some embodiments, the CDRs are determined by a combination of the Kabat, Chothia, and / or Contact CDR definitions.

[0091] The term "epitope" refers to the portion or region of an antigen to which the CDR of an antibody specifically binds, and may include a few amino acids, or a portion of a few amino acids, such as 5 or 6 or more, such as 20 or more, or a portion of those amino acids. For example, if the target is a protein, the epitope may be composed of consecutive amino acids (e.g., linear epitope), or amino acids in different parts of the protein that are in close proximity due to folding of the protein (e.g., discontinuous or conformational epitope). In some embodiments, the epitope is phosphorylated at one amino acid (e.g., serine or threonine residue).

[0092] As used herein, the phrase "recognizes an epitope," when used in reference to an anti-PILRA antibody, means that the CDRs of the antibody interact with or specifically bind to an antigen (i.e., a PILRA protein) at that epitope or a portion of the antigen that contains that epitope.

[0093] "Monoclonal antibody" refers to an antibody produced by a single cell clone or a single cell line and consisting of, or consisting essentially of, antibody molecules which are identical in their primary amino acid sequence.

[0094] A "polyclonal antibody" refers to an antibody obtained from a heterogeneous antibody population, where different antibodies in the population bind to different epitopes of an antigen.

[0095] "Chimeric antibody" refers to an antibody molecule in which the constant region or a portion thereof has been modified, replaced, or exchanged, such that the antigen binding site (i.e., variable region, CDR, or portion thereof) is linked to a constant region of a different or modified class, effector function, and / or species, or the variable region or a portion thereof has been modified, replaced, or exchanged with a variable region (e.g., CDR and framework regions from a different species) having a different or modified antigen specificity. In some embodiments, a chimeric antibody is a monoclonal antibody that contains a variable region from one source or species (e.g., mouse) and a constant region from another source or species (e.g., human). Methods for making chimeric antibodies have been described in the art.

[0096] A "humanized antibody" is a chimeric immunoglobulin derived from a non-human source (e.g., mouse) with minimal sequence derived from the non-human immunoglobulin outside the CDRs. Generally, a humanized antibody contains at least one (e.g., two) antigen-binding variable domain(s), in which the CDR regions substantially correspond to those of a non-human immunoglobulin and the framework regions substantially correspond to those of a human immunoglobulin sequence. A humanized antibody may also contain at least a portion of an immunoglobulin constant region (Fc), usually of a human immunoglobulin sequence. Methods of antibody humanization are known in the art.

[0097] A "human antibody" or "fully human antibody" is an antibody that has human heavy and light chain sequences that are typically derived from human germline genes. In some embodiments, the antibodies are produced by human cells, by non-human animals that utilize the human antibody repertoire (e.g., transgenic mice that have been genetically engineered to express human antibody sequences), or by phage display platforms.

[0098] The term "specifically binds" refers to a molecule (e.g., an antibody or antigen-binding portion thereof) that binds to an epitope or target in a sample with greater affinity, greater avidity, and / or greater duration than it binds to another epitope or non-target compound (e.g., a structurally distinct antigen). In some embodiments, an antibody (or antigen-binding portion thereof) that specifically binds to an epitope or target is an antibody (or antigen-binding portion thereof) that binds to an epitope or target with at least 1.5-fold greater affinity, e.g., at least 1.5-fold, 2.5-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 100-fold, 1,000-fold, 10,000-fold, or greater affinity, than other epitopes or non-target compounds. As used herein, the terms "specific binding to," "specifically binds to," or "is specific for" a particular epitope or target refer to, for example, the equilibrium dissociation constant K for the epitope or target to which it binds. D But, for example, 10 -4M or less, e.g., 10 -5 M, 10 -6 M, 10 -7 M, 10 -8 M, 10 -9 M, 10 -10 M, 10 -11 M, or 10 -12 M. It will be understood by one of skill in the art that an antibody that specifically binds to a target from a species (e.g., a PILRA protein (e.g., hPILRA and / or cynoPILRA)) can also specifically bind to an orthologue of that target.

[0099] The term "binding affinity" is used herein to refer to the strength of a non-covalent interaction between two molecules, for example, an antibody (or antigen-binding portion thereof) and an antigen. Thus, for example, the term may refer to a 1:1 interaction between an antibody (or antigen-binding portion thereof) and an antigen, unless otherwise specified or clear from the context. Binding affinity is measured by the equilibrium dissociation constant (K D ) and can be quantified by measuring K D is the association rate constant (k a ,time -1 M -1 ) divided by the dissociation rate constant (k d ,time -1 ) refers to K D can be determined by measuring the kinetics of complex formation and dissociation using, for example, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) methods, such as the Biacore™ system; equilibrium exclusion methods, such as KinExA®; and biolayer interferometry (e.g., using the ForteBio® Octet platform). As used herein, "binding affinity" encompasses not only formal binding affinity, such as that reflecting a 1:1 interaction between an antibody (or antigen-binding portion thereof) and an antigen, but also apparent affinity, and therefore may reflect strong binding, K D is calculated.

[0100] As used herein, the term "cross-react" refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to an antigen other than the antigen against which the antibody was raised. In some embodiments, cross-reactivity refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to an antigen from a species other than the antigen against which the antibody was raised. As a non-limiting example, the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein raised against human PILRA peptides may exhibit cross-reactivity with PILRA peptides or proteins from different species (e.g., cynomolgus monkeys or mice).

[0101] The term "modulate" refers to changing or modifying one or more properties of a protein or cell. A property of a cell may be changed as a result of changing one or more properties of a protein (e.g., a PILRA protein) of the cell, i.e., by binding to the protein of the cell. The properties of a cell that may be modulated include, but are not limited to, cell proliferation, migration, survival, signal transduction, phagocytosis, and biomarker secretion. For example, a molecule that binds to a PILRA protein of a cell may cause one or more downstream signaling responses or activities of the cell as a result of binding to PILRA, and thus the molecule is said to modulate the signaling response or activity of the cell. In some embodiments, the term "modulate" may refer to an increase or decrease in the signaling response or activity of a cell as a result of binding to PILRA, compared to the signaling response or activity of the cell without binding to PILRA. Examples of changes in cell signaling responses or activities as a result of binding to PILRA include, but are not limited to, changes in phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and cell (e.g., microglia) migration.

[0102] As used herein, the terms "CH3 domain" and "CH2 domain" refer to immunoglobulin constant region domain polypeptides. In the context of an IgG antibody, the CH3 domain polypeptide refers to the amino acid segment from about position 341 to about position 447 when numbered according to the EU numbering scheme, and the CH2 domain polypeptide refers to the amino acid segment from about position 231 to about position 340 when numbered according to the EU numbering scheme. The CH2 and CH3 domain polypeptides may be numbered according to the IMGT (ImMunoGeneTics) numbering scheme, where the numbering of the CH2 domain is 1 to 110 and the numbering of the CH3 domain is 1 to 107 according to the numbering according to the IMGT Scientific chart (IMGT website). The CH2 and CH3 domains are part of the Fc region of an immunoglobulin. In the context of an IgG antibody, the Fc region refers to the amino acid segment from about position 231 to about position 447 when numbered according to the EU numbering scheme. As used herein, the term "Fc region" may also include at least a portion of an antibody hinge region. An exemplary partial hinge region sequence is DKTHTCPPCP (SEQ ID NO:98).

[0103] The terms "corresponding to," "determined with reference to," or "numbered with reference to," when used in the context of identifying a given amino acid residue in a polypeptide sequence, refer to the position of the residue in a particular reference sequence when the given amino acid sequence is maximally aligned and compared to the reference sequence. Thus, for example, an amino acid residue in a polypeptide "corresponds to" an amino acid in SEQ ID NO:1 if the residue lines up with the amino acid in SEQ ID NO:1 when optimally aligned with SEQ ID NO:1. A polypeptide that is aligned with a reference sequence need not be the same length as the reference sequence.

[0104] As used herein, the term "Fc polypeptide" refers to the C-terminal region of a naturally occurring immunoglobulin heavy chain polypeptide characterized by an Ig fold as a structural domain. An Fc polypeptide comprises a constant region sequence comprising at least a CH2 domain and / or a CH3 domain, and may include at least a portion of the hinge region, but does not include the variable region.

[0105] "Modified Fc polypeptide" refers to an Fc polypeptide that has at least one mutation, e.g., a substitution, deletion, or insertion, compared to a wild-type immunoglobulin heavy chain Fc polypeptide sequence, but retains the overall Ig fold or structure of a native Fc polypeptide.

[0106] The term "isolated," when used with respect to a nucleic acid or protein (e.g., an antibody), refers to the nucleic acid or protein being essentially free of other cellular components with which it is naturally associated. Purity and homogeneity are typically determined using analytical chemistry techniques such as electrophoresis (e.g., polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) or chromatography (e.g., high performance liquid chromatography). In some embodiments, an isolated nucleic acid or protein (e.g., an antibody) is at least 85% pure, at least 90% pure, at least 95% pure, or at least 99% pure.

[0107] The term "amino acid" refers to naturally occurring and synthetic amino acids, as well as amino acid analogs and amino acid mimetics that function in a manner similar to naturally occurring amino acids. Naturally occurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well as those that are later modified, such as hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamic acid, and O-phosphoserine. Naturally occurring α-amino acids include, but are not limited to, alanine (Ala), cysteine ​​(Cys), aspartic acid (Asp), glutamic acid (Glu), phenylalanine (Phe), glycine (Gly), histidine (His), isoleucine (Ile), arginine (Arg), lysine (Lys), leucine (Leu), methionine (Met), asparagine (Asn), proline (Pro), glutamine (Gln), serine (Ser), threonine (Thr), valine (Val), tryptophan (Trp), tyrosine (Tyr), and combinations thereof. Naturally occurring stereoisomers of alpha amino acids include, but are not limited to, D-alanine (D-Ala), D-cysteine ​​(D-Cys), D-aspartic acid (D-Asp), D-glutamic acid (D-Glu), D-phenylalanine (D-Phe), D-histidine (D-His), D-isoleucine (D-Ile), D-arginine (D-Arg), D-lysine (D-Lys), D-leucine (D-Leu), D-methionine (D-Met), D-asparagine (D-Asn), D-proline (D-Pro), D-glutamine (D-Gln), D-serine (D-Ser), D-threonine (D-Thr), D-valine (D-Val), D-tryptophan (D-Trp), D-tyrosine (D-Tyr), and combinations thereof. Amino acid analogs refer to compounds that have the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid (i.e., an alpha carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an R group), e.g., homoserine, norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methylsulfonium. Such analogs have modified R groups (e.g., norleucine) or modified peptide backbones, but retain the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid."Amino acid mimetics" refers to chemical compounds that have a structure different from the general chemical structure of an amino acid, but that function in a manner similar to a naturally occurring amino acid. As used herein, amino acids can be represented by the three-letter symbols or one-letter symbols of the commonly known amino acids recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission.

[0108] The terms "polypeptide" and "peptide" are used interchangeably herein to refer to a single-chain polymer of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residues are artificial chemical mimetics of the corresponding naturally occurring amino acids, as well as to naturally occurring and non-natural amino acid polymers. An amino acid polymer can contain entirely L-amino acids, entirely D-amino acids, or a combination of L and D-amino acids.

[0109] As used herein, the term "protein" refers to either a dimer (i.e., two) or multimer (i.e., three or more) of a polypeptide or a single-chain polypeptide. The single-chain polypeptides of a protein may be linked by covalent bonds, e.g., disulfide bonds, or non-covalent interactions.

[0110] The terms "polynucleotide" and "nucleic acid" refer interchangeably to a chain of nucleotides of any length, including DNA and RNA. Nucleotides can be deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotides, modified nucleotides or bases, and / or their analogs, or any substrate that can be incorporated into a chain by DNA or RNA polymerase. Polynucleotides can include modified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and their analogs. Examples of polynucleotides contemplated herein include single- and double-stranded DNA, single- and double-stranded RNA, and hybrid molecules having combinations of single- and double-stranded DNA and RNA.

[0111] The terms "conservative substitution" and "conservative variation" refer to a change that results in the replacement of one amino acid with another amino acid that can be classified as having similar characteristics. Examples of categories of conservative amino acid groups defined in this way may include the "charged / polar group" which includes Glu (glutamic acid or E), Asp (aspartic acid or D), Asn (asparagine or N), Gln (glutamine or Q), Lys (lysine or K), Arg (arginine or R), and His (histidine or H); the "aromatic group" which includes Phe (phenylalanine or F), Tyr (tyrosine or Y), Trp (tryptophan or W), and (histidine or H); and the "aliphatic group" which includes Gly (glycine or G), Ala (alanine or A), Val (valine or V), Leu (leucine or L), Ile (isoleucine or I), Met (methionine or M), Ser (serine or S), Thr (threonine or T), and Cys (cysteine ​​or C). Subgroups may also be identified within each group. For example, the group of charged or polar amino acids may be further divided into subgroups including the "positively charged subgroup" which includes Lys, Arg, and His; the "negatively charged subgroup" which includes Glu and Asp; and the "polar subgroup" which includes Asn and Gln. In another example, the aromatic or cyclic group may be further divided into subgroups including the "nitrogen ring subgroup" which includes Pro, His, and Trp; and the "phenyl subgroup" which includes Phe and Tyr. In yet another example, the aliphatic group may be further divided into subgroups such as the "aliphatic non-polar subgroup" which includes Val, Leu, Gly, and Ala, and the "aliphatic weakly polar subgroup" which includes Met, Ser, Thr, and Cys.Examples of conservative mutation categories include amino acid substitutions of amino acids within the above subgroups, such as, but not limited to, Lys to Arg or vice versa, so that positive charge can be maintained; Glu to Asp or vice versa, so that negative charge can be maintained; Ser to Thr or vice versa, so that free -OH can be maintained; and Gln to Asn or vice versa, so that free -NH2 can be maintained. In some embodiments, to maintain hydrophobicity, for example, in the active site, hydrophobic amino acids are substituted with naturally occurring hydrophobic amino acids.

[0112] The term "identical" or percent "identity," in the context of two or more polypeptide sequences, refers to two or more sequences or subsequences having a specified percentage of amino acid residues that are the same or matching over a particular region, e.g., at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95% or more identity, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window or designated region, as measured using a sequence comparison algorithm or by manual alignment and visual inspection.

[0113] In the sequence comparison of polypeptides, one amino acid sequence usually serves as a reference sequence, and candidate sequences are compared to it. To obtain maximum alignment, alignment can be performed by various methods available to those skilled in the art, such as visual alignment, or by using public software using known algorithms. Such programs include BLAST program, ALIGN, ALIGN-2 (Genentech, South San Francisco, Calif.), or Megalign (DNASTAR). The parameters used for alignment can be determined by those skilled in the art to obtain maximum alignment. In the sequence comparison of polypeptide sequences in this application, the BLASTP algorithm, which is a standard protein BLAST for aligning two protein sequences, is used with default parameters.

[0114] The terms "subject," "individual," and "patient," used interchangeably herein, refer to mammals, including, but not limited to, humans, non-human primates, rodents (e.g., rats, mice, and guinea pigs), rabbits, cows, pigs, horses, and other mammalian species. In one embodiment, the subject, individual, or patient is a human.

[0115] The terms "treat", "treatment" and similar terms are used herein to generally mean to achieve a desired pharmacological and / or physiological effect. "Treat" or "treatment" may refer to any indication of successful treatment or amelioration of a neurodegenerative disease (e.g., Alzheimer's disease or another neurodegenerative disease described herein), including any objective or subjective parameter, such as remission, remission, improvement of patient survival, increase in survival time or survival rate, attenuation of symptoms, or making the disease more tolerable to the patient, slowing the rate of degeneration or decline, or improving the patient's physical or mental health. The treatment or amelioration of symptoms may be based on objective or subjective parameters. The effect of treatment may be compared to an individual or population of individuals not receiving treatment, or to the same patient at different time points before or during treatment.

[0116] The term "pharmaceutical acceptable excipient" refers to non-active pharmaceutical ingredients that are biologically or pharmacologically compatible for use in humans or animals, such as, but not limited to, buffers, carriers, or preservatives.

[0117] As used herein, a "therapeutic amount" or "therapeutically effective amount" of an agent (e.g., an antibody described herein) is an amount of an agent that treats, relieves, alleviates, or reduces the severity of a disease symptom in a subject. A "therapeutic amount" of an agent (e.g., an antibody described herein) may improve the survival rate of a patient, increase the duration or survival rate, attenuate symptoms, make an injury, disease, or condition (e.g., a neurodegenerative disease) more tolerable, slow the rate of degeneration or debilitation, or improve the physical or mental health of a patient.

[0118] The term "administering" refers to a method of delivering an agent, compound, or composition to the site where a biological effect is desired. These methods include, but are not limited to, topical, parenteral, intravenous, intradermal, intramuscular, intrathecal, colonic, rectal, or intraperitoneal delivery. In one embodiment, the antibodies described herein are administered intravenously.

[0119] The term "control" or "control value" refers to a reference value or baseline value. A suitable control can be determined by one skilled in the art. In some examples, a control value can be determined based on a baseline within the same subject or experiment. In other examples, a control value can be determined based on the average value of a control subject (e.g., a healthy or disease control) or a population of control subjects (e.g., a population of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 or more control subjects) (e.g., a healthy or disease control).

[0120] III. Anti-PILRA antibody In one aspect, an antibody is provided that specifically binds to paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (PILRA) protein (e.g., hPILRA and / or cynoPILRA protein). In some embodiments, the antibody specifically binds to hPILRA protein. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is selective for PILRA over other PILR receptors (e.g., paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta (PILRB)).

[0121] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is an antibody that comprises one or more complementarity determining regions (CDRs), heavy chain variable regions, and / or light chain variable region sequences as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises one or more CDRs, heavy chain variable regions, and / or light chain variable region sequences as disclosed herein, and further comprises one or more functional properties as disclosed herein (e.g., an antibody that antagonizes PILRA activity (e.g., an antibody that blocks ligand binding to hPILRA, alters phosphorylation of downstream proteins (e.g., increases phosphorylation of EGFR or STAT3 and decreases phosphorylation of STAT1), enhances cellular respiration, fatty acid metabolism (e.g., fatty acid oxidation), and ATP production, enhances cell migration (e.g., microglial migration), increases expression of anti-inflammatory genes or proteins, and / or decreases expression of cytokine proteins). In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises an Fc polypeptide that comprises one or more modifications as described herein.

[0122] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is a fully human antibody. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is a chimeric antibody. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is a humanized and / or affinity matured antibody.

[0123] Anti-PILRA antibody sequence In some embodiments, the heavy chain sequence or a portion thereof, and / or the light chain sequence or a portion thereof, are derived from an anti-PILRA antibody described herein (e.g., clone 2, clone 4, or clone 5). The amino acid sequences of the CDRs, heavy chain variable region, and light chain variable region of these clones are shown in Table 1.

[0124] [Table 1] TIFF2024546924000002.tif239153TIFF2024546924000003.tif239158TIFF202 4546924000004.tif239153TIFF2024546924000005.tif239153TIFF20245469240 00006.tif239153TIFF2024546924000007.tif239153TIFF2024546924000008.t if239153TIFF2024546924000009.tif239153TIFF2024546924000010.tif239153

[0125] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises one or more CDRs selected from the group consisting of: (a) a heavy chain CDR1 (CDR-H1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11; (b) a heavy chain CDR2 (CDR-H2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12 to 19, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12 to 19; (c) a heavy chain CDR3 (CDR-H3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20 to 29, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20 to 29; (d) a light chain CDR1 (CDR-L1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30 to 38, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30 to 38; (e) a light chain CDR2 (CDR-L2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 to 46 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 to 46; and (f) a light chain CDR3 (CDR-L3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47 to 53, or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47 to 53.

[0126] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises one or more CDRs selected from the group consisting of: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11; (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 12 to 19; (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 20 to 29; (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 30 to 38; (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 39 to 46; and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising any one of the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 47 to 53.

[0127] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises two, three, four, five, or all six of (a)-(f). In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises CDR-H1 of (a), CDR-H2 of (b), and CDR-H3 of (c). In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises CDR-L1 of (d), CDR-L2 of (e), and CDR-L3 of (f). In some embodiments, the CDR with up to two amino acid substitutions has one amino acid substitution (e.g., one conservative substitution) compared to the reference sequence. In some embodiments, the CDR with up to two amino acid substitutions has two amino acid substitutions (e.g., two conservative substitutions) compared to the reference sequence. In some embodiments, the up to two amino acid substitutions are conservative substitutions.

[0128] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:12 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:12; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:20 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:20; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47.

[0129] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:21 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:21; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 31, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 31; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47.

[0130] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:22 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:22; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 31, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 31; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47.

[0131] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:23 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:23; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 32 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 32; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 40 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 40; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:48, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:48.

[0132] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:24 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:24; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 33, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 33; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 41 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 41; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0133] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:25 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:25; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 34, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 34; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 42 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 42; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0134] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:8 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:8; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 16 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 16; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:26 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:26; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 35, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 35; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 43 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 43; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:50, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:50.

[0135] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:9 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:9; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:27 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:27; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 44 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 44; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:51, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:51.

[0136] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:18 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:18; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:28 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:28; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:52, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:52.

[0137] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:11, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:11; (b) a CDR-H2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:19 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:19; (c) a CDR-H3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:29 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:29; (d) a CDR-L1 having at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 38, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 38; (e) a CDR-L2 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46 or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46; and (f) a CDR-L3 having at least 80% sequence identity (e.g., at least 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:53, or having up to two amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or two conservative substitutions) compared to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:53.

[0138] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, a CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12, a CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20, a CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30, a CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39, and a CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47; or (b) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:21, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:47; or (c) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:47; or (d) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:14, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:23, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:32, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:40, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:48; or (e) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49; or (f) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49; or (g) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:8, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:16, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:26, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:35, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:43, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:50; or (h) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:9, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:17, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:27, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:36, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:44, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:51; or (i) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 18, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 28, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 52; or (j) CDR-H1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 11, CDR-H2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 19, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 29, CDR-L1 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 38, CDR-L2 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46, and CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 53.

[0139] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63.

[0140] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144 and 158. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144 and 158.

[0141] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73.

[0142] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73.

[0143] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149.

[0144] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:54 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:64. L Array; or (b) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 54 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:65. L Array; or (c) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 55 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:66. L Array; or (d) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 56 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:66. L Array; or (e) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 57. H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:67. L Array; or (f) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 58 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:68. L Array; or (g) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 59 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:69. L Array; or (h) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 60 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:70. L Array; or (i) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 61; H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:71. L Array; or (j) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 62; H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:72. L Array; or (k) a V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 63 H V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:73. L array.

[0145] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 12, and 20, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 54. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 30, 39, and 47, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 64. L Array; or (b) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 12, and 20, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 54. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 30, 39, and 47, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 65. L Array; or (c) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 5, 13, and 21, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 55. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 31, 39, and 47, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 66. L Array; or (d) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 5, 13, and 22, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 56. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 31, 39, and 47, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 66. L Array; or (e) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 6, 14, and 23, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 57. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 32, 40, and 48, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 67. L Array; or (f) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 24, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 58. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 33, 41, and 49, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 68. L Array; or (g) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 25, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 59. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 34, 42, and 49, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 69. L Array; or (h) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 8, 16, and 26, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 60. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 35, 43, and 50, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 70. L Array; or (i) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 9, 17, and 27, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 61. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 36, 44, and 51, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 71. L Array; or (j) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 10, 18, and 28, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 62. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 37, 45, and 52, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 72. L Array; or (k) CDR-H1, CDR-H2, CDR-H3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 11, 19, and 29, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 63. H and CDR-L1, CDR-L2, CDR-L3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 38, 46, and 53, respectively, and V having at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 73. L array.

[0146] Clone 2 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:4, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:12, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:20, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:30, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:47.

[0147] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 54. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:54.

[0148] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 65. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:65.

[0149] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 54, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 65. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 54 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 65.

[0150] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 12, and 20, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 54 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 30, 39, and 47, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 65 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0151] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 12, and 20, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 122 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 30, 39, and 47, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 123 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0152] Clone 4 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:47.

[0153] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 56. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:56.

[0154] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 66. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:66.

[0155] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 56, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 66. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 56 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 66.

[0156] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 5, 13, and 22, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 56 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 31, 39, and 47, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 66 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0157] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 5, 13, and 22, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 124 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 31, 39, and 47, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 125 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0158] Clone 5 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:14, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:23, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:32, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:40, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:48.

[0159] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 57. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:57.

[0160] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 67. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 67.

[0161] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 57, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 67. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 57 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 67.

[0162] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 6, 14, and 23, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 57 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 32, 40, and 48, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 67 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0163] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 6, 14, and 23, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 126 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 32, 40, and 48, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 127 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0164] Clone 12 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0165] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 137. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 137.

[0166] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 145. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 145.

[0167] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 137, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 145. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 137 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 145.

[0168] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 24, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 137, and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 33, 41, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 145.

[0169] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 24, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 150 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 33, 41, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 151 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0170] Clone 15 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0171] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 140. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 140.

[0172] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 145. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 145.

[0173] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 140, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 145. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 140 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 145.

[0174] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 24, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 140 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 33, 41, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 145 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0175] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 24, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 152 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 33, 41, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 151 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0176] Clone 23 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0177] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 143. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 143.

[0178] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 146. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 146.

[0179] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 143, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 146. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 143 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 146.

[0180] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 25, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 143 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 34, 42, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 146 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0181] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 25, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 153 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 34, 42, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 154 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0182] Clone 35 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:49.

[0183] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 143. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 143.

[0184] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 149. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 149.

[0185] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 143, and a light chain variable region comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to SEQ ID NO: 149. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 143 and a light chain variable region comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 149.

[0186] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises a heavy chain variable region comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 25, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 143 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and a light chain variable region comprising light chain CDR1-3 comprising the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 34, 42, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 149 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0187] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two heavy chains, each comprising heavy chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 15, and 25, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 153 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity), and two light chains, each comprising light chain CDR1-3 having the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 34, 42, and 49, respectively, and having at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 155 (e.g., at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity).

[0188] Consensus sequence In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises one or more sequences encompassed by the consensus sequences disclosed herein. As a non-limiting example, a consensus sequence can be identified by aligning the heavy or light chain sequences (e.g., CDRs) of antibodies derived from the same (or similar) germline. In some embodiments, a consensus sequence can be generated from antibodies that have the same (or similar) length sequences and / or have at least one highly similar CDR (e.g., a highly similar CDR3). In some embodiments, such sequences of these antibodies can be aligned and compared to identify conserved amino acids or motifs (i.e., amino acids or motifs where changes in the sequence may alter protein function) and / or regions where diversity occurs within the sequence (i.e., regions where sequence diversity is unlikely to have a significant effect on protein function). Alternatively, a consensus sequence may be identified by aligning the heavy or light chain sequences (e.g., CDRs) of antibodies that bind the same or similar (e.g., overlapping) epitopes to determine conserved amino acids or motifs (i.e., amino acids or motifs whose changes in sequence may alter protein function) and regions where diversity occurs in the sequence alignment (i.e., regions where sequence diversity is unlikely to have a significant effect on protein function). In some embodiments, one or more consensus sequences may be identified for antibodies that recognize the same or similar epitopes as the anti-PILRA antibodies disclosed herein. It will be understood that when selecting an amino acid to insert at a position designated "X" in a consensus sequence, in some embodiments, the amino acid is selected from the amino acids found at the corresponding position in the aligned sequences.

[0189] Clones 2, 4, and 5 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence of GX1TFX2X3X4X5X6H (SEQ ID NO: 74), wherein X1 is F or Y, X2 is D or I, X3 is D or G, X4 is Y or F, X5 is A or Y, and X6 is M or I; (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence of X1X2X3X4X5SGX6X7X8 (SEQ ID NO: 75), wherein X1 is G or W, X2 is F, M, or I, X3 is S or N, X4 is W or P, X5 is N or E, X6 is S or D, X7 is I or T, and X8 is G or T; (c)X1X2X3X4X5X6X7X8X9FDX 10 (SEQ ID NO: 76), wherein X1 is D or absent, X2 is K or G, X3 is S or N, X4 is I or W, X5 is S, G, or N, X6 is A or F, X7 is A or P, X8 is G or D, X9 is R or T, and X 10 is Y, S, or F; (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence of X1X2SX3X4IX5X6YLN (SEQ ID NO: 77), wherein X1 is Q or R, X2 is A or S, X3 is R or Q, X4 is R, G, or S, X5 is N or S, and X6 is N or I; (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of X1ASX2LX3X4 (SEQ ID NO: 78), wherein X1 is D or V, X2 is N or S, X3 is E or Q, and X4 is T or S; and (f) A CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQX1X2X3X4PX5T (sequence number 79), wherein X1 is Y or S, X2 is D or Y, X3 is N or S, X4 is L or A, and X5 is L or F.

[0190] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence GFTFDDYAX1H (SEQ ID NO: 80), wherein X1 is M or I, or comprising the sequence GYTFIGFYIH (SEQ ID NO: 6); (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence GX1SWNSGSIG (SEQ ID NO: 81), wherein X1 is F or M, or comprising the sequence WINPESGDTT (SEQ ID NO: 14); (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of DKSIX1AAGRFDX2 (SEQ ID NO: 82), wherein X1 is S or G and X2 is Y or S, or comprising the sequence of GNWNFPDTFDF (SEQ ID NO: 23); (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence QASX1X2INNYLN (SEQ ID NO: 83), wherein X1 is R or Q and X2 is R or G, or comprising the sequence RSSQSISIYLN (SEQ ID NO: 32); (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of DASNLET (SEQ ID NO: 39) or VASSLQS (SEQ ID NO: 40); and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQYDNLPLT (sequence number 47) or QQSYSAPFT (sequence number 48).

[0191] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence of GFTFDDYAX1H (SEQ ID NO: 80), wherein X1 is M or I; (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence of GX1SWNSGSIG (SEQ ID NO: 81), wherein X1 is F or M; (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of DKSIX1AAGRFDX2 (SEQ ID NO: 82), wherein X1 is S or G and X2 is Y or S; (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence QASX1X2INNYLN (SEQ ID NO: 83), wherein X1 is R or Q and X2 is R or G; (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of DASNLET (SEQ ID NO: 39); and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQYDNLPLT (sequence number 47).

[0192] Clones 6, 7, and 8 In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence GYTFTX1X2YMY (SEQ ID NO: 84), wherein X1 is E or G and X2 is Y or H; (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence of X1IX2PX3X4GX5TD (SEQ ID NO: 85), wherein X1 is R or W, X2 is D or N, X3 is E or N, X4 is D or S, and X5 is G or D; (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of TIRGTVFX1X2 (SEQ ID NO: 86), wherein X1 is A or V and X2 is F or Y, or comprising the sequence of EGLDGDPFDY (SEQ ID NO: 26); (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence RX1SEDIX2NGLA (SEQ ID NO: 87), in which X1 is A or P and X2 is F or Y, or comprising the sequence RSSQSLVHSDGNTYLS (SEQ ID NO: 35); (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence NX1X2X3X4X5X6 (SEQ ID NO: 88), wherein X1 is A or I, X2 is K, N, or S, X3 is T, S, or N, X4 is L or R, X5 is H or F, and X6 is T or S; and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQYYDYPLT (sequence number 49) or IQTTQFST (sequence number 50).

[0193] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence GYTFTEYYMY (SEQ ID NO: 7) or GYTFTGHYMH (SEQ ID NO: 8); (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence RIDPEDGGTD (SEQ ID NO: 15) or WINPNSGDTD (SEQ ID NO: 16); (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of TIRGTVFX1X2 (SEQ ID NO: 86), wherein X1 is A or V and X2 is F or Y, or comprising the sequence of EGLDGDPFDY (SEQ ID NO: 26); (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence RX1SEDIX2NGLA (SEQ ID NO: 87), in which X1 is A or P and X2 is F or Y, or comprising the sequence RSSQSLVHSDGNTYLS (SEQ ID NO: 35); (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence NAX1X2LHT (SEQ ID NO: 89), wherein X1 is K or N and X2 is T or S, or comprising the sequence NISNRFS (SEQ ID NO: 43); and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQYYDYPLT (sequence number 49) or IQTTQFST (sequence number 50).

[0194] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody comprises: (a) a CDR-H1 sequence comprising the sequence of GYTFTEYYMY (SEQ ID NO: 7); (b) a CDR-H2 sequence comprising the sequence of RIDPEDGGTD (SEQ ID NO: 15); (c) a CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of TIRGTVFX1X2 (SEQ ID NO: 86), wherein X1 is A or V and X2 is F or Y; (d) a CDR-L1 sequence comprising the sequence of RX1SEDIX2NGLA (SEQ ID NO: 87), wherein X1 is A or P and X2 is F or Y; (e) a CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of NAX1X2LHT (SEQ ID NO: 89), wherein X1 is K or N and X2 is T or S; and (f) a CDR-L3 sequence comprising the sequence QQYYDYPLT (sequence number 49).

[0195] Binding characteristics of anti-PILRA antibodies In some embodiments, an antibody described herein that specifically binds to a PILRA protein (e.g., an hPILRA protein) binds to PILRA expressed on a cell (e.g., a cell line that endogenously expresses PILRA, e.g., an immune cell, or a cell line engineered to express PILRA, e.g., as described in the Examples section below). In some embodiments, an antibody that specifically binds to a PILRA protein as described herein binds to a purified or recombinant PILRA protein or portion thereof, or binds to a chimeric protein comprising PILRA, or a portion thereof.

[0196] In some embodiments, an antibody that specifically binds to a human PILRA protein exhibits cross-reactivity with one or more other PILRA proteins from other species, hi some embodiments, an antibody that specifically binds to a human PILRA protein exhibits cross-reactivity with cynomolgus monkey ("cyno") PILRA protein (cynoPILRA).

[0197] Methods for analyzing binding affinity, binding kinetics, and cross-reactivity are known in the art. These methods include, but are not limited to, solid-phase binding assays (e.g., ELISA assays), immunoprecipitation, surface plasmon resonance (e.g., Biacore™ (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, NJ)), equilibrium exclusion binding assays (e.g., KinExA®), flow cytometry, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), biolayer interferometry (e.g., Octet™ (ForteBio, Inc., Menlo Park, CA)), and Western blot analysis. In some embodiments, ELISA is used to measure binding affinity and / or cross-reactivity. Methods for performing ELISA assays are known in the art and are also described in the Examples section below. In some embodiments, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is used to measure binding affinity, binding kinetics, and / or cross-reactivity. In some embodiments, equilibrium exclusion binding assays are used to measure binding affinity, binding kinetics, and / or cross-reactivity. In some embodiments, biolayer interferometry assays are used to measure binding affinity, binding kinetics, and / or cross-reactivity.

[0198] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein specifically bind to cynomolgus monkey paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (cynoPILRA), where the binding affinity to cynoPILRA is at least two-fold (e.g., at least 2-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 60-fold, 70-fold, 80-fold, 90-fold, or 100-fold) stronger than the binding affinity to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta (hPILRB).

[0199] As described herein, in some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein exhibit cross-reactivity with both hPILRA and cynoPILRA. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein bind to both hPILRA and cynoPILRA.

[0200] In certain embodiments, the binding affinity of the anti-PILRA antibody to cynoPILRA is within 100-fold (e.g., within 100-fold, 90-fold, 80-fold, 70-fold, 60-fold, 50-fold, 40-fold, 30-fold, 20-fold, 10-fold, 9-fold, 8-fold, 7-fold, 6-fold, 5-fold, 4-fold, 3-fold, 2-fold, or 1.5-fold) of its binding affinity to hPILRA. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to hPILRA with a binding affinity of 0.1 nM to 500 nM (e.g., 0.1 nM to 400 nM, 0.1 nM to 300 nM, 0.1 nM to 200 nM, or 0.1 nM to 100 nM). In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is administered at a concentration of 0.1 nM to 100 nM (e.g., 0.1 nM to 90 nM, 0.1 nM to 80 nM, 0.1 nM to 70 nM, 0.1 nM to 60 nM, 0.1 nM to 50 nM, 0.1 nM to 40 nM, 0.1 nM to 30 nM, 0.1 nM to 20 nM, 0.1 nM to 10 nM, 0.1 nM to 5 nM, 0.1 50nM-100nM, 60nM-100nM, 70nM-100nM, 80nM-100nM, or 90nM-100nM).

[0201] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein selectively bind to hPILRA and / or cynoPILRA over hPILRB. In certain embodiments, the binding affinity of the antibody to hPILRA is at least 10-fold (e.g., at least 10-fold, 20-fold, 40-fold, 60-fold, 80-fold, 100-fold, 120-fold, 140-fold, 160-fold, 180-fold, 200-fold, 220-fold, 240-fold, 260-fold, 280-fold, or 300-fold) stronger than its binding affinity to hPILRB.

[0202] Epitopes recognized by anti-PILRA antibodies In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope of human PILRA that is the same or substantially the same as the epitope recognized by the antibody clone described herein. As used herein, the term "substantially the same" when used in reference to the epitope recognized by the antibody clone described herein means that the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that is the same as, is located within, or is nearly the same as (e.g., has at least 90% sequence identity (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity) to, or has one, two, or three amino acid substitutions (e.g., conservative substitutions) compared to) or largely overlaps (e.g., overlaps at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 95% with) the epitope recognized by the antibody clone described herein.

[0203] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope of human PILRA that is the same or substantially the same as an epitope recognized by an antibody clone selected from the group consisting of clone 2 and clones 4 to 8 (e.g., clones 2, 4, and 5) and variants thereof.

[0204] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope of human PILRA within the extracellular domain (ECD) of PILRA, e.g., the ECD comprising amino acids 20-143 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds human PILRA at an epitope within the stalk region of PILRA. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is an antagonist that inhibits PILRA signaling.

[0205] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63, 64, 78, 106, 143, 116-118, and 182-186, where the positions are determined with reference to SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody described herein binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63, 64, 78, 106, 143, 116-118, and 182-186 in SEQ ID NO: 1. Figure 10 shows an alignment of the ECD and stalk region sequences of cynoPILRA, hPILRA, and hPILRB. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 78, 106, and 143 of hPILRA. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to G78, K106, and / or E143 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to G78 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to R78 of SEQ ID NO: 136. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to K106 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to E143 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to G78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to R78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO: 136.

[0206] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63 and 64 of hPILRA. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to T63 and / or A64 of SEQ ID NO:1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to T63 of SEQ ID NO:1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to A64 of SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to T63 and A64 of SEQ ID NO:1.

[0207] In certain embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at hPILRA position 106 and one or more of positions 116-118. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody binds to Q116, K117, and / or Q118 of SEQ ID NO:1 (e.g., Q116, K117, and Q118).

[0208] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope within the stalk 2 region of hPILRA, e.g., QGKRR (SEQ ID NO: 90) at positions 182-186 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes 1, 2, 3, or 4 amino acids within residues 182-186 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes 2, 3, or 4 consecutive amino acids within residues 182-186 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes all 5 amino acids within residues 182-186 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to Q182, G183, K184, R185, and / or R186 of SEQ ID NO: 1 (e.g., Q182, G183, K184, R185, and R186).

[0209] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope within the stalk 1 region of hPILRA, e.g., TTQRPSSM (SEQ ID NO: 91) at positions 156-163 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 amino acids within residues 156-163 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 consecutive amino acids within residues 156-163 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes an epitope that includes all 8 amino acids within residues 156-163 of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to T156, T157, Q158, R159, P160, S161, S162, and / or M163 of SEQ ID NO:1 (e.g., T156, T157, Q158, R159, P160, S161, S162, and M163).

[0210] Cross-reactivity In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody recognizes one or more epitopes that are conserved between hPILRA and cynoPILRA. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 64, 78, 139, 143, 156-163, and 182-185 in hPILRA and / or cynoPILRA, where the positions are determined with reference to SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 64, 78, 139, 143, 156-163, and 182-185 in hPILRA and cynoPILRA, where the positions are determined with reference to SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to A64, G78, W139, E143, T156, T157, Q158, R159, P160, S161, S162, M163, Q182, G183, K184, and / or R185 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, and A68, G82, W143, E147, T160, T161, Q162, R163, P164, S165, S166, M167, Q186, G187, K188, and / or R189 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2.

[0211] In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to A64 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 and A68 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to G78 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 and G82 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to R78 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:136 and G82 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to W139 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 and W143 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to E143 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 and E147 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies bind to one or more identical amino acids within TTQRPSSM (SEQ ID NO:91) in both hPILRA (e.g., positions 156-163 of SEQ ID NO:1) and cynoPILRA (e.g., positions 160-167 of SEQ ID NO:2). In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies bind to one or more identical amino acids within QGKR (SEQ ID NO:92) in both hPILRA (e.g., positions 182-185 of SEQ ID NO:1) and cynoPILRA (e.g., positions 186-189 of SEQ ID NO:2).

[0212] In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies bind to G78, K106, E143 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, and G82, D110, E147 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies bind to R78, K106, E143 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 136, and G82, D110, E147 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies bind to T63 and A64 of hPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, and A67 and A68 of cynoPILRA having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. In certain embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody binds to one or more positions within QGKRR (SEQ ID NO: 90) of hPILRA (e.g., positions 182-186 of SEQ ID NO: 1) and the same corresponding positions within QGKRH (SEQ ID NO: 93) of cynoPILRA (e.g., positions 186-190 of SEQ ID NO: 2).

[0213] Functional characterization of anti-PILRA antibodies In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody (e.g., an antibody having one or more of the disclosed CDRs, heavy chain variable region, and / or light chain variable region sequences) affects one or more activities disclosed herein. For example, in some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody antagonizes or reduces PILRA activity, i.e., ligand-induced PILRA activity.

[0214] In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies block the binding of ligands to hPILRA. In certain embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies block the binding of sialylated proteins, such as the sialylated forms of any of the following proteins, to hPILRA: neural proliferation differentiation and control protein 1 (NPDC1), PILRA-associated neuronal protein (PANP; PIANP), herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein B (HSV-1 gB), collectin-12 (COLEC12), complement component 4A (C4a), complement component 4B (C4b), dystroglycan 1 (dystrophin-associated glycoprotein 1; DAG1), and C-type lectin domain family member G (Clec4g).

[0215] Furthermore, in some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody alters phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins, for example, increasing phosphorylation of EGFR or STAT3 or decreasing phosphorylation of STAT1. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody induces or increases phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins (e.g., EGFR or STAT3) if the level of downstream protein phosphorylation is increased by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90% or more in samples treated with the anti-PILRA antibody compared to control values. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody induces phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins (e.g., EGFR or STAT3) if the level of downstream protein phosphorylation is increased by at least 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold, 9-fold, 10-fold or more in samples treated with the anti-PILRA antibody compared to control values. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody reduces phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins (e.g., STAT1) if the level of downstream protein phosphorylation is reduced by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or more in samples treated with the anti-PILRA antibody compared to control values. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody reduces phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins (e.g., STAT1) if the level of downstream protein phosphorylation is reduced by at least 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold, 9-fold, 10-fold, or more in samples treated with the anti-PILRA antibody compared to control values.

[0216] In some embodiments, the control value is the level of downstream protein phosphorylation in an untreated sample (e.g., a sample containing cells expressing PILRA that have not been treated with an anti-PILRA antibody, or a sample from a subject that has not been treated with an anti-PILRA antibody), or a sample treated with a PILRA ligand but not with an anti-PILRA antibody, or a sample treated with a suitable antibody that does not bind to PILRA.

[0217] In some embodiments, an immunoassay is used to detect and / or quantify phosphorylation in a sample. In some embodiments, the immunoassay is an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (EMIA), an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), a microparticle enzyme immunoassay (MEIA), an immunohistochemistry (IHC), an immunohistochemistry, a capillary electrophoretic immunoassay (CEIA), a radioimmunoassay (RIA), an immunofluorescence assay, a chemiluminescence immunoassay (CL), or an electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECL). In some embodiments, phosphorylation is detected and / or quantified using an immunoassay that utilizes an amplified luminescence proximity homogeneous assay (AlphaLISA®, PerkinElmer Inc.).

[0218] In some embodiments, phosphorylation is measured using a sample comprising one or more cells, e.g., one or more cells expressing PILRA (e.g., a cell line that endogenously expresses PILRA, such as microglia derived from human IPSCs, or a cell line engineered to express PILRA, e.g., as described in the Examples section below). In some embodiments, the sample comprises a bodily fluid, e.g., blood, plasma, serum, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid. In some embodiments, the sample comprises a tissue (e.g., lung, brain, kidney, spleen, neural tissue, or skeletal muscle) or a cell from such a tissue. In some embodiments, the sample comprises an endogenous fluid, tissue, or cell (e.g., from a human or non-human subject).

[0219] Furthermore, in some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody increases the expression of an anti-inflammatory gene or protein. For example, the anti-PILRA antibody enhances the expression of the IL1RN gene. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody enhances the expression of an anti-inflammatory gene or protein if the expression level of the anti-inflammatory gene or protein in a sample treated with the anti-PILRA antibody is increased by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or more compared to a control value. In other embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody reduces the expression or secretion of a pro-inflammatory cytokine protein. For example, the anti-PILRA antibody reduces the expression of TNF, IL-6, and / or IP-10. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody reduces expression of a cytokine protein if the expression level of the cytokine protein in a sample treated with the anti-PILRA antibody is reduced by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or more compared to a control value.

[0220] Additionally, in some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies enhance cell migration and / or cell function (e.g., of microglia, including IPSC-derived microglia and disease-associated microglia). Disease-associated microglia and methods for detecting disease-associated microglia are described in Keren-Shaul et al., Cell, 2017, 169:1276-1290. In some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies enhance cell migration of one or more cell types (e.g., microglia, monocytes, or neutrophils). In some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies enhance cell function (e.g., ATP production, fatty acid metabolism, and / or cellular respiration) of one or more cell types (e.g., microglia, monocytes, or neutrophils). In some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies enhance cell migration and / or cell function of microglia. In some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibodies enhance cell migration and / or cell function of disease-associated microglia.

[0221] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody enhances cell migration and / or cell function if the level of activity in a sample treated with the anti-PILRA antibody is increased by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or more compared to a control value. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody enhances cell migration and / or cell function if the level of activity in a sample treated with the anti-PILRA antibody is increased by at least 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold, 9-fold, 10-fold, or more compared to a control value. In some embodiments, the control value is the level of activity (e.g., migration or function) in an untreated sample (e.g., a sample not treated with an anti-PILRA antibody), a sample treated with a PILRA ligand but not with an anti-PILRA antibody, or a sample treated with a suitable antibody that does not bind PILRA.

[0222] In some embodiments, cell migration is measured using a chemotaxis assay. Chemotaxis assays are known in the art. In some embodiments, cell migration assays (e.g., chemotaxis assays) are performed on samples that include cells that endogenously express PILRA, such as human IPSC-derived microglia. In some embodiments, cell migration assays (e.g., chemotaxis assays) are performed on samples that include cells that are engineered to express PILRA. In some embodiments, cell migration assays are performed on samples that include cells that lack PILRA or in which PILRA is functionally inactivated. In some embodiments, cell migration is measured using a chemotaxis assay as described in the Examples section below.

[0223] In some embodiments, cellular function is measured using a functional assay appropriate for the cell. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody enhances fatty acid metabolism (e.g., fatty acid oxidation). In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody enhances cellular ATP production. In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody enhances cellular respiration (e.g., mitochondrial or non-mitochondrial respiration). Changes in cellular ATP production and / or respiration can be assessed using one or more assays, for example, as described in the Examples section below.

[0224] IV. Fc Polypeptides and Modifications Thereof In some aspects, an anti-PILRA antibody comprises two Fc polypeptides, one or both of which may each comprise an independently selected modification (e.g., mutation) or may be a wild-type Fc polypeptide, e.g., a human IgG1 Fc polypeptide. In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides of an anti-PILRA antibody described herein may comprise a sequence having at least 90% (e.g., 90%, 92%, 94%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to the sequence of a wild-type Fc polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94). In some embodiments, one Fc polypeptide of an anti-PILRA antibody described herein may be a wild-type Fc polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94), while the other Fc polypeptide may have at least one amino acid modification compared to the wild-type Fc polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94). In some embodiments, both Fc polypeptides of an anti-PILRA antibody described herein may be a wild-type Fc polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94). In some embodiments, both Fc polypeptides of the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein may have at least one amino acid modification compared to a wild-type Fc polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94). Non-limiting examples of mutations that may be introduced into one or both Fc polypeptides include, for example, mutations to increase serum stability, modulate effector function, affect glycosylation, and / or reduce immunogenicity in humans.

[0225] Fc Polypeptide Modifications to Modulate Effector Function In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides present in the antibodies described herein may contain a modification that reduces effector function, i.e., reduces the ability to induce a certain biological function upon binding to an Fc receptor expressed on an effector cell that mediates the effector function. Examples of antibody effector functions include, but are not limited to, binding to C1q and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), binding to Fc receptors, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP), down-regulation of cell surface receptors (e.g., B cell receptors), and B cell activation. Effector functions may vary depending on the antibody class. For example, native human IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies can induce ADCC and CDC activity upon binding to the appropriate Fc receptor present on immune system cells, and native human IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 can induce ADCP function upon binding to the appropriate Fc receptor present on immune cells.

[0226] In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides in an Fc polypeptide dimer may include modifications that reduce or eliminate effector function. Exemplary Fc polypeptide mutations that reduce effector function include, but are not limited to, substitutions in the CH2 domain, such as at positions 234 and 235 and / or at position 329 according to the EU numbering scheme. For example, in some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides include Ala residues at positions 234 and 235 (also referred to herein as "LALA"). In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides include a Gly residue at position 329 (also referred to herein as "P329G" or "PG") or a Ser residue at position 329 (also referred to herein as "P329S" or "PS"). In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides include Ala residues at positions 234 and 235, and a Gly residue at position 329 (also referred to herein as "LALA PG"). In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides comprise Ala residues at positions 234 and 235 and a Ser residue at position 329 (also referred to herein as "LALA PS").

[0227] Additional Fc polypeptide mutations that modulate effector function include, but are not limited to, the following: Position 329 may have a mutation in which proline is substituted with glycine or arginine, or with an amino acid residue large enough to disrupt the Fc / Fcγ receptor interface formed between proline 329 of Fc and tryptophan residues Trp 87 and Trp 110 of FcγRIII. Additional exemplary substitutions include S228P, E233P, L235E, N297A, N297D, and P331S according to the EU numbering scheme. Multiple substitutions may be present, for example, according to the EU numbering scheme, L234A and L235A in the human IgG1 Fc region; L234A, L235A, and P329G in the human IgG1 Fc region; L234A, L235A, and P329S in the human IgG1 Fc region; S228P and L235E in the human IgG4 Fc region; L234A and G237A in the human IgG1 Fc region; L234A, L235A, and G237A in the human IgG1 Fc region; V234A and G237A in the human IgG2 Fc region; L235A, G237A, and E318A in the human IgG4 Fc region; and S228P and L236E in the human IgG4 Fc region. In some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides may have one or more amino acid substitutions that modulate ADCC, for example substitutions at positions 298, 333, and / or 334 according to the EU numbering scheme.

[0228] Fc Polypeptide Modifications to Extend Serum Half-Life In some embodiments, modifications that increase serum half-life may be introduced into any of the Fc polypeptides described herein. For example, in some embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides in an Fc polypeptide dimer may contain M428L and N434S substitutions (also referred to as LS substitutions), numbered according to the EU numbering scheme. Alternatively, one or both Fc polypeptides in an Fc polypeptide dimer may have N434S or N434A substitutions. Alternatively, one or both Fc polypeptides in an Fc polypeptide dimer may have M428L substitutions. In other embodiments, one or both Fc polypeptides in an Fc polypeptide dimer may contain M252Y, S254T, and T256E substitutions.

[0229] In some embodiments, one or both of the Fc polypeptides may have their C-terminal lysine removed (e.g., the Lys residue at position 447 of the Fc polypeptide according to EU numbering). The C-terminal lysine residue is highly conserved in immunoglobulins across many species and may be completely or partially removed by the cellular machinery during protein production. In some embodiments, removal of the C-terminal lysine in the Fc polypeptide may improve protein stability.

[0230] In some embodiments, a hinge region (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 97) or a portion thereof (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 98) may be linked to an Fc polypeptide or modified Fc polypeptide described herein. The hinge region may be derived from any immunoglobulin subclass or isotype. An exemplary immunoglobulin hinge is an IgG hinge region, e.g., an IgG1 hinge region, e.g., the human IgG1 hinge amino acid sequence EPKSCDKTHTCPPCP (SEQ ID NO: 97) or a portion thereof (e.g., DKTHTCPPCP; SEQ ID NO: 98). In some embodiments, the hinge region is present in the N-terminal region of the Fc polypeptide.

[0231] V. Cell Lines and Methods of Engineering Also provided herein are cells and cell lines that are homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, or heterozygous for the genes encoding the G78 variant and the R78 variant of the PILRA protein. The present disclosure provides engineered human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) or cell lines that are modified (i.e., genetically engineered) to express two copies of the gene encoding the R78 variant or the G78 variant of the PILRA protein (i.e., homozygous for the gene). In some embodiments, the IPSCs are modified at the endogenous genomic locus.

[0232] The present disclosure also provides engineered microglial cells or cell lines derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) that have been modified (i.e., genetically engineered) to express two copies of a gene encoding an R78 variant or a G78 variant of a PILRA protein (i.e., homozygous for the gene). The engineered microglial cells or cell lines may be derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) that have been modified (i.e., genetically engineered) to express one copy of a gene encoding an R78 variant and one copy of a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein (i.e., heterozygous for the genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant). In some embodiments, the IPSCs are modified at an endogenous genomic locus. In some embodiments, the engineered microglial cells or cell lines are obtained by differentiation induction.

[0233] Also provided herein are two cell lines (e.g., IPSC lines or microglia derived therefrom) that serve as a matched pair of cell lines, where one cell line expresses a G78 variant of the PILRA protein and the other cell line expresses a R78 variant of the PILRA protein. The present disclosure provides a matched pair of cell lines, where (a) a first cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding a R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and (b) a second cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and both the first and second cell lines of the pair are derived from the same parent cell line, and one or both cell lines are engineered in the endogenous PILRA gene. In certain embodiments of the matched pair of cell lines, the parent cell line used to generate the matched pair of cell lines can be homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, meaning that only the cell line in the pair that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein needs to be generated from the parent cell line. In other embodiments of the matched pair of cell lines, the parent cell line used to generate the matched pair of cell lines can be homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, meaning that only the cell line in the pair that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein needs to be generated from the parent cell line. In yet other embodiments, the parent cell line is heterozygous for the genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of the PILRA protein (i.e., one allele encodes the G78 variant and the other allele encodes the R78 variant). In this case, both cell lines in the matched pair need to be generated from the parent cell line.

[0234] In some embodiments of the matched pair of cell lines, a third cell line is included that is heterozygous for the genes encoding the G78 and R78 variants of the PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the third cell line is derived from a parent cell line that is homozygous for the genes encoding the R78 or G78 variants of the PILRA protein.

[0235] The present disclosure also provides a method for producing a myeloid cell line or a stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line (e.g., an IPSC line or microglia derived therefrom) with a modified PILRA gene, comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or heterozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant and a G78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) engineering the cell line by modifying the gene encoding a PILRA protein to produce an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein or a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, where the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant before engineering. In other words, depending on the existing cell line, the existing cell line may or may not need to be modified to generate the selected variant in the cell line of interest.

[0236] The present disclosure also provides a method of generating a matched pair of cell lines (e.g., IPSC lines or microglia derived therefrom), comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or heterozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant and a G78 variant of a PILRA protein; and (b) (i) engineering a first cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, and / or (ii) engineering a second cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant prior to being engineered.

[0237] In certain embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to create an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein. In certain embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to create an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein. In other embodiments, the existing cell line of step (a) is heterozygous for the genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises modifying the existing cell line to create an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

[0238] Engineered cells or cell lines with modifications at endogenous genomic loci (e.g., PILRA locus) can be produced using various methods and techniques, such as the CRISPR / Cas9 system, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), Tale effector domain nucleases (TALENs), and transposon-mediated systems. These methods typically involve administering to cells one or more polynucleotides encoding one or more nucleases, such that the nucleases mediate modification of endogenous genes by cleaving DNA and generating 5' and 3' cleavage ends on the DNA strand. In the presence of a donor sequence flanked by left and right homology arms that are substantially homologous to the sequence extending 5' from the 5' end and the sequence extending 3' from the 3' end, the donor is integrated into the endogenous gene targeted by the nuclease by homology directed repair (HDR). In some embodiments, the modification at the endogenous genomic locus is performed using the CRISPR / Cas9 system. For example, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a heterologous gene encoding a desired variant of PILRA is introduced into the endogenous PILRA genomic locus of the cell to be modified, thereby replacing the naturally occurring sequence encoding endogenous PILRA with the heterologous gene.

[0239] CRISPR In some embodiments, the introduction or knock-in of a heterologous gene encoding a desired variant of PILRA is carried out using the CRISPR / Cas9 system. The CRISPR / Cas9 system comprises a Cas9 protein and at least one or two ribonucleic acids that guide the Cas9 protein to a target motif in the endogenous PILRA gene to be replaced and can hybridize to the target motif. These ribonucleic acids are commonly referred to as "single guide RNAs" or "sgRNAs." The Cas9 protein then cleaves the target motif, thereby resulting in a double-stranded or single-stranded break. In the presence of a donor DNA that contains a heterologous PILRA gene sequence flanked by two homology arms, the donor DNA is inserted into the target DNA and replaces the endogenous gene.

[0240] The Cas9 protein used in this disclosure may be a naturally occurring Cas9 protein or a functional derivative thereof. A "functional derivative" of a native sequence polypeptide is a compound that has qualitative biological characteristics in common with the native sequence polypeptide. "Functional derivatives" include, but are not limited to, fragments of native sequences and derivatives of native sequence polypeptides and fragments thereof, provided that they have a biological activity in common with the corresponding native sequence polypeptide. The biological activity contemplated herein is the ability of a functional derivative of Cas9 to hydrolyze a DNA substrate into fragments. Suitable functional derivatives of Cas9 polypeptides or fragments thereof include, but are not limited to, mutants, fusions, covalently modified forms of Cas9 proteins, or fragments thereof.

[0241] In some embodiments, the Cas9 protein is derived from Streptococcus pyogenes. Cas9 contains two endonuclease domains, including a RuvC-like domain that cleaves target DNA that is non-complementary to the sgRNA, and an HNH nuclease domain that cleaves target DNA that is complementary to the sgRNA. The double-stranded endonuclease activity of Cas9 also requires that a conserved short sequence (2-5 nucleotides) known as a protospacer-associated motif (PAM) immediately follows the 3' end of the target motif in the target sequence. In some embodiments, the PAM motif is an NGG motif. Donor DNA is introduced into the reaction. In one example, the donor DNA contains a heterologous PILRA gene of the desired variant present between the left and right homology arms.

[0242] The sgRNA may be selected depending on the particular CRISPR / Cas9 system used and the sequence of the target polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the one or two ribonucleic acids are designed to hybridize to a target motif immediately adjacent to a deoxyribonucleic acid motif recognized by the Cas9 protein. In some embodiments, each of the one or two ribonucleic acids is designed to hybridize to a target motif immediately adjacent to a deoxyribonucleic acid motif recognized by the Cas9 protein, where the target motif is adjacent to the genomic sequence to be replaced. Guide RNAs may be designed using readily available software, for example, at http: / / crispr.mit.edu.

[0243] In some embodiments, the donor DNA disclosed herein comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of the hPILRA G78 variant. In some embodiments, the donor DNA disclosed herein comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of the hPILRA R78 variant. The donor DNA disclosed herein further comprises a left homology arm and a right homology arm flanking the nucleotide sequence and designed to overlap the exon sequence 5' and 3' to the cleavage site by the Cas9 protein. The homology arms can extend beyond the exon sequence 5' and 3', and each of the homology arms can be at least 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or 150 nucleotides in length. One skilled in the art can easily determine the optimal length of the homology arms required for an experiment.

[0244] In some embodiments, the sgRNA may be selected to minimize hybridization with nucleic acid sequences other than the target polynucleotide sequence. In some embodiments, one or two ribonucleic acids are designed to hybridize to a target motif that has at least two mismatches when compared to all other genomic nucleotide sequences in the cell to minimize off-target effects of the CRISPR / Cas9 system. Those skilled in the art will understand that various techniques can be used to select a suitable target motif to minimize off-target effects (e.g., bioinformatics analysis).

[0245] Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) In some embodiments, the introduction or knock-in of a heterologous gene encoding a desired variant of PILRA is carried out using ZFN. ZFN is a fusion protein that includes a non-specific cleavage domain (N) of FokI endonuclease and a zinc finger protein (ZFP). A pair of ZNFs is responsible for recognizing a specific location of a target gene, one recognizing the sequence upstream of the site to be modified and the other recognizing the sequence downstream. The nuclease part of ZFN cuts at a specific locus. Donor DNA can then be inserted into the specific locus. Methods for using ZFN are well known and are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 9,045,763 and further in Durai et al., "Zinc Finger Nucleases: Custom-Designed Molecular Scissors for Genome Engineering of Plant and Mammalian cells," Nucleic Acid Research, 33(18):5978-5990 (2005), the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0246] Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) In some embodiments, the introduction or knock-in of the heterologous gene encoding the desired variant of PILRA is carried out using TALEN.TALEN is similar to ZFN in that they bind to the genomic site as a pair and induce the same non-specific nuclease FokI to cut the genome at a specific site, but instead of recognizing a DNA triplet, each domain recognizes a single nucleotide.Methods of using ZFN are also well known, and are disclosed in, for example, U.S. Patent No. 9,005,973 and also in Christian et al., "Targeting DNA Double-Strand Breaks with TAL Effector Nucleases," Genetics, 186(2):757-761 (2010), the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0247] The present disclosure also provides a method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line (e.g., IPSC line or microglia derived therefrom) or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line, which is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and G78 variant of the PILRA protein, comprising: (a) engineering the existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein; and (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein. As described herein, the CRIPSR / Cas9 system can be used to generate a matched pair of cell lines using donor DNA comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of the hPILRA R78 variant or G78 variant.

[0248] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., IPSC line or microglia derived therefrom) that is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and G78 variant of PILRA protein, the method comprising: (a) engineering the existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of PILRA protein; and (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of PILRA protein. As described herein, the CRIPSR / Cas9 system can be used to generate a matched pair of cell lines using donor DNA that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of hPILRA R78 variant or G78 variant.

[0249] The present disclosure also provides a method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., IPSC line or microglia derived therefrom) that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, the method comprising engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.As described herein, the CRIPSR / Cas9 system can be used to generate a matched pair of cell lines using donor DNA that includes a nucleotide sequence that encodes the amino acid sequence of the hPILRA G78 variant.

[0250] The present disclosure also provides a method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line (e.g., IPSC line or microglia derived therefrom) that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, the method comprising engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein.As described herein, the CRIPSR / Cas9 system can be used to generate a matched pair of cell lines using donor DNA that includes a nucleotide sequence that encodes the amino acid sequence of the hPILRA R78 variant.

[0251] In some embodiments, the engineered cells, cell lines, or cell models described herein are obtained by induced differentiation.

[0252] VI. Screening Methods The present disclosure also provides methods for screening and identifying molecules that bind to PILRA protein and / or modulate its expression or activity, particularly molecules that antagonize or reduce PILRA activity (i.e., molecules that block the binding of ligands to hPILRA). In some embodiments, to identify PILRA-binding molecules, one or more downstream signaling responses associated with binding to PILRA and / or PILRA activation can be measured. For example, a molecule that binds to a cellular PILRA protein can cause one or more downstream signaling responses or activities of the cell as a result of binding to PILRA. In some embodiments, a molecule that binds to a PILRA protein can cause an increase or decrease in a cellular signaling response or activity as a result of binding to PILRA compared to a cellular signaling response or activity without binding to PILRA. Examples of changes in cell signaling responses or activities as a result of binding to PILRA include, but are not limited to, changes in phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and cell (e.g., microglia) migration. In certain embodiments, molecules that bind to PILRA and antagonize or reduce PILRA activity can cause downstream signaling responses, such as increased pSTAT3 (e.g., pSTAT3 Y705, or pSTAT3 S727) levels, increased pEGFR levels, increased protein (e.g., cadherin, integrin) expression levels and / or cellular secretion, and / or increased cell (e.g., microglia) migration. Examples of other downstream signaling responses that may be caused by molecules that bind to PILRA and antagonize or reduce PILRA activity may be, for example, increased cellular respiration, increased fatty acid metabolism (e.g., fatty acid oxidation), increased ATP production, increased expression of anti-inflammatory genes or proteins, and / or decreased cytokine protein expression.

[0253] Provided herein is a method for screening to determine whether a molecule has activity against PILRA protein, the method comprising: (a) contacting a cell expressing the PILRA protein with the molecule; (b) contacting a cell of the same type as in step (a) with the molecule either before, at the same time, or after step (a), but with lower PILRA expression; and (c) measuring one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) level, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) level, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) level, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and microglia migration in both cells. In some embodiments, a change in the level of one of these measurements between cells indicates that the molecule has activity against the PILRA protein of step (a).

[0254] In certain embodiments of the method for screening, the cell of step (a) naturally expresses PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the cell with lower PILRA expression is knocked out or silenced for PILRA protein. In certain embodiments, the cell can be microglia. In certain embodiments, the cell is iMicroglia (e.g., PILRA LoF iMicroglia).

[0255] In certain embodiments of the method for screening, the cells in step (a) are engineered or modified to express or overexpress PILRA protein. In some embodiments, the cells with lower PILRA expression naturally express PILRA protein or have not been engineered or modified to express PILRA protein.

[0256] In some embodiments, a library of molecules can be screened using the methods described herein.In certain instances, the molecule is known to bind to PILRA protein.In other instances, it is not known whether the molecule binds to PILRA protein.Examples of molecules that can be screened to determine whether they have any activity against PILRA protein include, but are not limited to, antibodies, peptides, small organic molecules, or nucleic acids.

[0257] Also provided herein is a method for determining whether a molecule that binds to a PILRA protein modulates a signaling response or activity in a cell expressing PILRA, comprising: (a) contacting the cell with the molecule; and (b) measuring one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) level, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) level, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) level, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and cell (e.g., microglia) migration. In some embodiments, a change in the level of one of the measurements indicates that the molecule modulates a signaling response or activity in a cell expressing PILRA. In certain embodiments, the change is an increase or decrease in the level of one of the measurements when the cell is contacted with the molecule compared to the level in the cell without the molecule, particularly the changes described elsewhere herein. In certain embodiments of these methods, the cell is in an in vitro assay. In other embodiments, the cell is in a mammal (i.e., an in vivo method).

[0258] In some embodiments, when the method is used in vivo, step (a) comprises administering the molecule to a mammal.

[0259] In some embodiments, the cells expressing PILRA can be microglia, myeloid cells, monocytes, or neutrophils.

[0260] Screening assays Screening assays for identifying molecules that bind to and / or modulate the expression or activity of PILRA protein can be performed by standard methods. Screening methods may require high-throughput techniques. In addition, these screening techniques can be performed in cultured cells or organisms, such as mice, worms, flies, or yeast.

[0261] Numerous methods are available for carrying out such screening assays. According to one approach, candidate molecules are added at different concentrations to the culture medium of cells expressing PILRA. When downstream signaling, such as phospho-STAT3 (pSTAT3) induction, is used as a measure of whether a molecule binds to and / or modulates the expression or activity of PILRA protein, pSTAT3 levels can be measured in cells expressing PILRA protein and compared with pSTAT3 levels in corresponding cells expressing lower levels of PILRA (e.g., PILRA knockout). In other cases, pSTAT3 levels can be measured before and after adding the molecule to the cells. These levels of pSTAT3 can be compared.

[0262] In another approach, cellular secretion of proteins such as integrins and cadherins can be measured to determine whether a molecule binds to and / or modulates the expression or activity of a PILRA protein, as demonstrated in the Examples where anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced iMicroglia secretion of these proteins. Standard laboratory techniques can be used to isolate these proteins from cells, and detection of these proteins can be performed, for example, using mass spectrometry, Western blot, and proteome profiler kits (Human Soluble Receptor Array Kit - Non-Hematopoietic Panel (R&D ARY012)).

[0263] In other embodiments, candidate molecules that bind to PILRA protein can be identified using chromatography-based techniques. For example, recombinant PILRA can be purified by standard techniques from cells engineered to express PILRA and immobilized on a column. A solution of candidate molecules is then passed through the column, and molecules specific for PILRA are identified based on their ability to bind to the polypeptide immobilized on the column. To isolate the molecule, the column is washed to remove non-specifically bound molecules, and the molecule of interest is then released from the column and collected. Molecules isolated by this method (or any other suitable method) can be further purified (e.g., by high performance liquid chromatography) if necessary.

[0264] Test molecule Typically, candidate molecules can be identified from large libraries of both natural products or synthetic (or semi-synthetic) extracts or chemical libraries by methods known in the art. For example, those skilled in the art of pharmaceutical discovery and development will understand that the exact source of the test extract or compound is not critical to the screening method(s) of the present disclosure. Thus, virtually any number of chemical extracts or molecules can be screened using the methods described herein. Examples of such extracts or molecules include, but are not limited to, plant, fungal, prokaryotic, or animal-based extracts, fermentation broths, and synthetic compounds, as well as modifications of existing compounds. Numerous methods are also available for generating random or directed synthesis (e.g., semi-synthesis or total synthesis) of any number of compounds, including, but not limited to, sugar, lipid, peptide, and polynucleotide-based compounds. Synthetic compound libraries are commercially available. Alternatively, libraries of natural compounds in the form of bacterial, fungal, plant, and animal extracts are commercially available. In addition, natural and artificially created libraries are generated, as needed, by methods known in the art, for example, by standard extraction and fractionation methods. Furthermore, if desired, any library or compound is readily modified using standard chemical, physical, or biochemical methods.

[0265] If a crude extract is found to have activity, further fractionation of the promising lead extract is required to isolate the chemical components responsible for the observed effect. Thus, the goal of the extraction, fractionation, and purification process is the characterization and identification of the chemical components in the crude extract that have the desired activity. Methods for fractionation and purification of such various extracts are known in the art. If necessary, molecules shown to be useful can be chemically modified by methods known in the art.

[0266] VII. Measuring the Activity of PILRA-Binding Molecules in Cells or Animals Also provided herein are methods for measuring the binding and / or activity of molecules that bind to PILRA proteins (e.g., hPILRA G78 or R78). In some embodiments, the molecules antagonize or reduce PILRA activity (i.e., molecules that block the binding of ligands to hPILRA). Various measurements can be made to determine the binding and / or activity of PILRA-binding molecules and their effects on cells or animals. For example, the inventors herein have demonstrated that induction of phosphorylated STAT3 is a downstream signaling response of cells that is dependent on PILRA and occurs when PILRA is antagonized.

[0267] In some embodiments, to measure the binding and / or activity of the PILRA binding molecule, phosphorylated STAT3 (e.g., pSTAT3 Y705 and / or pSTAT3 S727) levels can be measured, for example, using the Proteome Profiler Human Phospho-Kinase Array Kit (e.g., ARY003C, R&D Systems) after the cells are incubated with the PILRA binding molecule. In other embodiments, to measure phosphorylated protein levels, the cells can be fixed after the cells are incubated with the PILRA binding molecule and phosphorylated proteins can be detected using standard immunohistochemical staining protocols. The cells can then be imaged with a confocal microscope and the images can be analyzed using software to calculate the average fluorescent spot area and intensity per cell to determine phosphorylated protein levels.

[0268] Other cellular responses dependent on binding to PILRA (i.e., antagonizing PILRA) include, for example, increased levels of phosphorylated EGFR (e.g., pEGFR Y1086), which can also be measured using a phosphor-kinase array kit or immunohistochemical staining as described above.

[0269] In some embodiments, the measurement of STAT3 and / or EGFR phosphorylation levels upon PILRA binding for each molecule can be used to rank the antagonistic effects of the molecules. For example, the PILRA-binding molecule whose binding resulted in the highest level of pSTAT3 can be determined to have the strongest antagonistic activity against the PILRA protein.

[0270] Other measurements that can be performed to determine the binding and / or activity of PILRA-binding molecules and their effects on cells or animals include, for example, measuring cell migration, which is another downstream signaling response of cells that depends on PILRA and occurs when PILRA is antagonized. For example, as described in Example 4, measuring and quantification of cell migration can be performed using a cell migration assay in which a rubber stopper can be used to create a cell-free detection zone. Once the PILRA-binding molecule is added, the rubber stopper can then be removed and a cell stain such as NucBlue or DAPI can be added. The cells can be imaged using a microscope and the images can be analyzed using software to quantify the nuclear labeling of cells that have migrated into the detection zone. Furthermore, since PILRA-binding molecules that antagonize PILRA also enhance the cellular secretion of motility proteins, quantification of such motility proteins in the cell supernatant after addition of PILRA-binding molecules to cells can also be performed. For example, soluble analytes in the supernatant can be analyzed with a proteome profiler kit, such as the Human Soluble Receptor Array Kit - Non-Hematopoietic Panel (e.g., R&D ARY012). Examples of motility proteins that can be quantified in this manner include, but are not limited to, cadherins and integrins.

[0271] Measurement of binding and / or activity of PILRA binding molecules can be performed in cells or animals (e.g., mice, monkeys). For in vivo studies, animals, e.g., animals expressing PILRA proteins (e.g., PILRA G78 or R78), can be administered PILRA binding molecules by any available mode of administration (e.g., IV, IP, oral, nasal, or transdermal administration). Appropriate cell, tissue, and / or fluid samples can be isolated from the animals to measure and quantify one or more of the PILRA-dependent downstream signaling responses described herein, e.g., pSTAT3 levels, pEGFR levels, amounts of motility proteins (e.g., cadherins, integrins). In some embodiments, the cells or animals are homozygous for the gene encoding PILRA G78. In some embodiments, the cells or animals are homozygous for the gene encoding PILRA R78. In some embodiments, the cells or animals are heterozygous for the genes encoding PILRA G78 and R78 variants.

[0272] VIII. Preparation of Antibodies In some embodiments, the antibodies are prepared by immunizing an animal or animals (e.g., mice, rabbits, or rats) with an antigen or mixture of antigens to induce an antibody response. In some embodiments, the antigen or mixture of antigens is administered with an adjuvant (e.g., Freund's adjuvant). After the initial immunization, one or more subsequent booster injections of the antigen or antigens may be administered to improve antibody production. After immunization, antigen-specific B cells are harvested, for example, from the spleen and / or lymphoid tissue. To generate monoclonal antibodies, the B cells are fused with myeloma cells and then screened for antigen specificity. Methods for preparing antibodies are also described in the Examples section below.

[0273] Genes encoding the heavy and light chains of an antibody of interest can be cloned from cells, for example, genes encoding a monoclonal antibody can be cloned from a hybridoma and used to produce recombinant monoclonal antibodies. Gene libraries encoding the heavy and light chains of monoclonal antibodies can be generated from hybridomas or plasma cells. Alternatively, phage or yeast display technology can be used to identify antibodies and Fab fragments that specifically bind to a selected antigen. The antibody can be made bispecific, i.e., capable of recognizing two different antigens. The antibody can be a heteroconjugate, e.g., two covalently linked antibodies, or an immunotoxin.

[0274] Antibodies may be produced using any number of expression systems, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression systems. In some embodiments, the expression system is a mammalian cell expression system, such as a hybridoma or CHO cell expression system. Many such systems are widely available from commercial suppliers. H and V L In embodiments that include both regions, V H and V L The regions can be expressed using a single vector, for example, in a dicistronic expression unit, or under the control of different promoters. H and V L The V region may be expressed using separate vectors. H or V L The region may optionally include an N-terminal methionine.

[0275] In some embodiments, the antibody is a chimeric antibody. Methods for producing chimeric antibodies are known in the art. For example, chimeric antibodies can be produced in which the antigen-binding region (heavy and light chain variable regions) from one species, such as mouse, is fused to the effector region (constant domain) of another species, such as human. As another example, "class-switched" chimeric antibodies can be produced in which the effector region of an antibody is replaced with the effector region of a different immunoglobulin class or subclass.

[0276] In some embodiments, the antibody is a humanized antibody. Generally, a non-human antibody is humanized to reduce its immunogenicity. A humanized antibody usually comprises one or more variable regions (e.g., CDRs) or portions thereof that are non-human (e.g., derived from a mouse variable region sequence), and possibly some framework regions or portions thereof that are non-human, and further comprises one or more constant regions derived from a human antibody sequence. Methods for humanizing non-human antibodies are known in the art. Other organisms, such as transgenic mice or other mammals, can be used to express humanized or human antibodies. Other methods for humanizing antibodies include, for example, variable domain resurfacing, CDR grafting, specificity determining residue (SDR) grafting, guided selection, and framework shuffling.

[0277] As an alternative to humanization, fully human antibodies can be produced. As a non-limiting example, transgenic animals (e.g., mice) can be produced that are capable of producing a full repertoire of human antibodies upon immunization in the absence of endogenous immunoglobulin production. For example, homozygous deletion of the antibody heavy chain joining region (JH) gene in chimeric and germ-line mutant mice has been described to result in complete inhibition of endogenous antibody production. Introduction of human germ-line immunoglobulin gene sequences in such germ-line mutant mice results in the production of human antibodies upon antigen exposure. As another example, human antibodies can be produced by hybridoma-based methods, e.g., by using primary human B cells to generate cell lines that produce human monoclonal antibodies.

[0278] Human antibodies may be produced using phage display or yeast display technology. In phage display, a repertoire of variable heavy and variable light chain genes is amplified and expressed in a phage display vector. In some embodiments, the antibody library is a natural repertoire amplified from a human source. In some embodiments, the antibody library is a synthetic library created by cloning and recombining heavy and light chain sequences to generate a large pool of antibodies with different antigen specificities. Phages usually display antibody fragments (e.g., Fab or scFv fragments), which are then screened for binding to the antigen of interest.

[0279] In some embodiments, antibody fragments (e.g., Fab, Fab', F(ab')2, scFv, V H , or V HH) are produced. Various techniques have been developed for the production of antibody fragments. Originally, these fragments were obtained by proteolytic digestion of intact antibodies. However, these fragments can now be produced directly using recombinant host cells. For example, antibody fragments can be isolated from antibody phage libraries. Alternatively, Fab'-SH fragments can be directly recovered from E. coli cells and chemically ligated to form F(ab')2 fragments. F(ab')2 fragments may also be directly isolated from recombinant host cell culture by other procedures. Other techniques for the production of antibody fragments will be apparent to those skilled in the art.

[0280] In some embodiments, the antibody or antibody fragment is conjugated to another molecule, such as polyethylene glycol (PEGylation) or serum albumin, to provide increased half-life in vivo.

[0281] IX. Nucleic Acids, Vectors, and Host Cells In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibodies disclosed herein are prepared using recombinant methods. Thus, in some aspects, the disclosure provides isolated nucleic acids comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding any of the anti-PILRA antibodies as described herein (e.g., any one or more of the CDRs, heavy chain variable regions, and light chain variable regions described herein); vectors comprising such nucleic acids; and host cells into which the nucleic acids are introduced, used to replicate the nucleic acids encoding the antibodies and / or to express the antibodies.

[0282] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide (e.g., the isolated polynucleotide) comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an antibody as described herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding one or more amino acid sequences (e.g., CDR, heavy chain, or light chain sequences) disclosed in Table 1. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence having at least 85% sequence identity (e.g., at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% sequence identity) to a sequence (e.g., CDR, heavy chain, or light chain sequence) disclosed in Table 1. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide described herein is operably linked to a heterologous nucleic acid (e.g., a heterologous promoter).

[0283] Suitable vectors containing a polynucleotide encoding an antibody or fragment thereof of the present disclosure include cloning vectors and expression vectors. The cloning vector selected may vary depending on the host cell intended to be used, but useful cloning vectors usually have the ability to replicate autonomously, may have a single target for a specific restriction endonuclease, and / or may carry a marker gene that can be used to select clones containing the vector. Examples include plasmids and bacterial viruses, such as pUC18, pUC19, Bluescript (e.g., pBS SK+) and its derivatives, mpl8, mpl9, pBR322, pMB9, ColE1, pCR1, RP4, phage DNA, and shuttle vectors such as pSA3 and pAT28. These and many other cloning vectors are available from commercial vendors such as BioRad, Strategene, and Invitrogen.

[0284] Expression vector is generally a replicable polynucleotide construct that contains the nucleic acid of the present disclosure.Expression vector can replicate in host cell either as episome or integral part of chromosomal DNA.Suitable expression vector includes but is not limited to plasmid, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, retrovirus, and any other vector.

[0285] Suitable host cells for cloning or expressing polynucleotides or vectors as described herein include prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.In some embodiments, the host cell is a prokaryotic cell.In some embodiments, the host cell is a eukaryotic cell, such as a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell or a lymphoid cell.In some embodiments, the host cell is a human cell, such as a human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell.

[0286] In another aspect, a method for producing an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein is provided. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing a host cell as described herein (e.g., a host cell expressing a polynucleotide or vector as described herein) under conditions suitable for antibody expression. In some embodiments, the antibody is then recovered from the host cell (or host cell culture medium).

[0287] X. Therapeutic Methods Using Anti-PILRA Antibodies In another aspect, methods of treatment using the anti-PILRA antibodies disclosed herein (e.g., the anti-PILRA antibodies described in Section III above) are provided. In some embodiments, methods of treating neurodegenerative diseases are provided. In some embodiments, methods of modulating one or more PILRA activities (e.g., in a subject with a neurodegenerative disease) are provided.

[0288] In some embodiments, a method of treating a neurodegenerative disease is provided. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's disease, primary age-related tauopathy, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), frontotemporal dementia, frontotemporal dementia linked to chromosome 17 with parkinsonism, argyrophilic grain dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis / Parkinson-dementia complex of Guam (ALS-PDC), corticobasal degeneration, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, dementia pugilistica, diffuse neurofibrillary tangle disease with calcification, Down's syndrome, familial British dementia, familial Danish dementia, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease, globuloglial tauopathy, Guadeloupean parkinsonism with dementia, PSP in Guadeloupean In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Nasu-Hakola disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is frontotemporal dementia. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Parkinson's disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Nasu-Hakola disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is frontotemporal dementia. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Parkinson's disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Nasu-Hakola disease. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is frontotemporal dementia. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease is Parkinson's disease. In some embodiments, the method includes administering to a subject an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to an hPILRA protein, e.g., an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein, or a pharmaceutical composition comprising an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein.

[0289] In some embodiments, an anti-PILRA antibody (or antigen-binding portion or pharmaceutical composition thereof) as described herein is used to treat a neurodegenerative disease characterized by PILRA activity. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disease characterized by PILRA activity is Alzheimer's disease.

[0290] In some embodiments, a method of modulating one or more PILRA activities in a subject (e.g., a subject with a neurodegenerative disease) is provided. In some embodiments, the method includes antagonizing or reducing PILRA activity, for example, blocking the binding of a ligand to hPILRA, altering phosphorylation of one or more downstream proteins (e.g., increasing phosphorylation of EGFR or STAT3; decreasing phosphorylation of STAT1), enhancing cellular respiration, fatty acid metabolism (e.g., fatty acid oxidation), and ATP production, enhancing cell migration, increasing expression of anti-inflammatory genes or proteins, and / or decreasing cytokine protein expression. Thus, in another aspect, a method of antagonizing PILRA activity, for example, in a subject with a neurodegenerative disease, is provided. In some embodiments, the method of modulating one or more PILRA activities in a subject includes administering to the subject an isolated antibody or antigen-binding portion thereof that specifically binds to hPILRA protein, for example, an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein, or a pharmaceutical composition comprising an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein.

[0291] In some embodiments, the subject being treated is a human, e.g., an adult or a child.

[0292] In some embodiments, a method of reducing plaque accumulation in a subject with a neurodegenerative disease is provided. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject an antibody or pharmaceutical composition as described herein. In some embodiments, the subject has Alzheimer's disease. In some embodiments, the subject is an animal model of a neurodegenerative disease (e.g., a 5XFAD or APP / PS1 mouse model). In some embodiments, plaque accumulation is measured by amyloid plaque imaging and / or tau imaging, e.g., using a positron emission tomography (PET) scan. In some embodiments, administration of an anti-PILRA antibody reduces plaque accumulation by at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% compared to a baseline value (e.g., plaque accumulation level in the subject before administration of the anti-PILRA antibody).

[0293] In some embodiments, anti-PILRA antibody is administered to a subject in a therapeutically effective amount or therapeutically effective dose. However, the dosage may vary depending on several factors, including the selected route of administration, the formulation of the composition, the patient's response, the severity of the condition, the subject's weight, and the prescribing physician's judgment. The dosage may be increased or decreased over time as required for each individual patient. In certain instances, the patient is initially administered a low dosage, which is then increased to an effective dosage that is acceptable to the patient. The determination of an effective amount is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art.

[0294] The route of administration of the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein can be oral, intraperitoneal, transdermal, subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal, inhalation, topical, intralesional, rectal, intrabronchial, nasal, transmucosal, intestinal, ocular, or otic delivery, or any other method known in the art. In some embodiments, the antibodies are administered orally, intravenously, or intraperitoneally.

[0295] In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody (and optionally another therapeutic agent) is administered to the subject for an extended period of time, e.g., at least 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350 days, or longer.

[0296] XI. Pharmaceutical Compositions and Kits In another aspect, pharmaceutical compositions and kits are provided that include an antibody that specifically binds to hPILRA protein. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions and kits are used to treat neurodegenerative diseases. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions and kits are used to modulate (e.g., enhance or inhibit) one or more PILRA activities, such as phosphorylation of EGFR, STAT3, and / or STAT1.

[0297] Pharmaceutical Compositions In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition is provided comprising an anti-PILRA antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof as described in Section III above.

[0298] In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises an anti-PILRA antibody described herein and further comprises one or more pharma- ceutically acceptable carriers and / or excipients. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include any solvent, dispersion medium, or coating that is physiologically compatible and does not interfere with or otherwise inhibit the activity of the active agent. A variety of pharma-ceutically acceptable excipients are well known in the art.

[0299] In some embodiments, the carrier is suitable for intravenous, intramuscular, oral, intraperitoneal, intrathecal, transdermal, topical, or subcutaneous administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers may contain one or more physiologically acceptable compound(s) that act, for example, to stabilize the composition or to increase or decrease the absorption of the active agent(s). Physiologically acceptable compounds may include, for example, carbohydrates such as glucose, sucrose, or dextran, antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, chelating agents, low molecular weight proteins, compositions that reduce the clearance or hydrolysis of the active agent, or excipients or other stabilizers, and / or buffers. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and their formulations are well known in the art.

[0300] The pharmaceutical compositions described herein can be manufactured in a manner known to those skilled in the art, for example, by conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping, or lyophilizing processes. The following methods and excipients are merely illustrative and do not limit the invention in any way.

[0301] For oral administration, anti-PILRA antibodies can be formulated by combining with pharma- ceutically acceptable carriers well known in the art. Such carriers allow the compounds to be formulated as tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, emulsions, lipophilic and hydrophilic suspensions, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, and the like, for oral ingestion by the patient to be treated. Pharmaceutical preparations for oral use can be obtained by mixing the compounds with solid excipients, optionally grinding the resulting mixture, and processing the mixture of granules, if necessary, after adding suitable auxiliaries, to obtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitable excipients include, for example, sugars, including fillers, such as lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; cellulose preparations, such as corn starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, tragacanth gum, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and / or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If desired, disintegrating agents may be added, such as cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate.

[0302] Anti-PILRA antibodies can be formulated for parenteral administration by injection, e.g., bolus injection or continuous infusion. For injection, the compound or compounds can be formulated into a preparation by dissolving, suspending, or emulsifying them in an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent, e.g., vegetable oil or other similar oil, synthetic fatty acid glyceride, higher fatty acid ester, or propylene glycol, and optionally with conventional additives such as solubilizers, isotonicity agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, stabilizers, and preservatives. In some embodiments, the compounds can be formulated in aqueous solutions, e.g., physiologically compatible buffers such as Hank's solution, Ringer's solution, or physiological saline buffer. Preparations for injection can be provided in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or multi-dose containers with added preservatives. The compositions can take the form of suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and can contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing, and / or dispersing agents.

[0303] Typically, pharmaceutical compositions for use in in vivo administration are sterile. Sterilization can be accomplished by methods known in the art, such as heat sterilization, steam sterilization, filter sterilization, or irradiation.

[0304] The dosage and desired drug concentration of the pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure may vary depending on the specific application envisaged. The determination of the appropriate dosage or route of administration is well within the skill of a person skilled in the art. The suitable dosage is also described above.

[0305] kit In some embodiments, a kit is provided that includes an anti-PILRA antibody, hi some embodiments, the anti-PILRA antibody is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof as described in Section III above.

[0306] In some embodiments, the kit further comprises one or more additional therapeutic agents. For example, in some embodiments, the kit comprises an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein and further comprises one or more additional therapeutic agents for use in treating a neurodegenerative disease, such as Alzheimer's disease. In some embodiments, the therapeutic agent is an agent for use in treating cognitive or behavioral symptoms of a neurodegenerative disease (e.g., an antidepressant, a dopamine agonist, or an antipsychotic). In some embodiments, the therapeutic agent is a neuroprotective agent (e.g., carbidopa / levodopa, an anticholinergic agent, a dopaminergic agent, a monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitor, a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor, a glutamatergic agent, a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, a cannabinoid, a caspase inhibitor, melatonin, an anti-inflammatory agent, a hormone (e.g., estrogen or progesterone), or a vitamin).

[0307] In some embodiments, the kit comprises an anti-PILRA antibody as described herein and further comprises one or more reagents for measuring activity induced by the anti-PILRA antibody (e.g., for measuring EGFR, STAT3, and / or STAT1 phosphorylation).

[0308] In some embodiments, the kit further comprises instructional materials (e.g., instructions for using the kit for a treatment method as described above) containing directions (i.e., protocols) for carrying out the methods described herein. The instructional materials typically include, but are not limited to, written or printed materials. Any medium capable of storing such instructions and communicating them to an end user is contemplated by the present disclosure. Such media include, but are not limited to, electronic storage media (e.g., magnetic disks, tapes, cartridges, chips), optical media (e.g., CD-ROMs), and the like. Such media may include an address of an internet site that provides such instructional materials. EXAMPLES

[0309] The present disclosure will now be described in more detail with reference to specific examples. The following examples are provided for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the present disclosure in any manner.

[0310] Example 1. Assessment of binding to PILRA and PILRB in IPSC-derived microglia, HEK293, and CHO-K1 cells Binding of PILRA mAb to HEK293, CHO-K1, and human iPSC-derived microglia Parental HEK293 cells were labeled with NucBlue Live ReadyProbes Reagent for 30 min. Parental HEK293 cells and HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA were mixed, washed, and incubated with various concentrations of anti-PILRA antibodies or isotype control antibodies in FACS diluent (PBS, 0.2% BSA, and 1 nM EDTA) for 30 min on ice. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent, incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 min on ice, and washed once. Binding of antibodies to cells was detected by FACS, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived by data analysis performed with FLOJO software (Figures 1A-1C).

[0311] CHO-K1 cells and CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA were incubated with anti-PILRA or isotype control antibodies at a single concentration of 100 nM on ice for 30 min. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent and then incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 min on ice and washed once with FACS diluent. Binding of antibodies to cells was detected by FACS and MFI was derived by data analysis performed with FLOJO software (Figure 1G). Figures 1A-1C and 1G together demonstrate binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to hPILRA expressed on HEK293 and CHO-K1 cells. The lack of binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to parental HEK293 and CHO-K1 cells also demonstrates the specificity of binding.

[0312] Human microglia derived from wild-type IPSCs (human iMicroglia; PILRA R78 / G78 heterozygous) or PILRA-deficient-of-function (LoF) IPSCs (human PILRA LoF iMicroglia) were treated with 100 nM biotinylated anti-PILRA or isotype control antibodies for 45 min on ice. Cells were washed with PBS and subsequently incubated with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated streptavidin for 30 min on ice. Cells were washed several times with PBS and then imaged using a confocal microscope. The average fluorescent spot area per cell was calculated using Harmony Software. Data are shown as a fold representation relative to the background signal in control wells treated with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated streptavidin only (Figures 1J and 1K). Figures 1J and 1K together demonstrate binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to human iMicroglia, a CNS-related cell type that has endogenous cell surface levels of hPILRA. Furthermore, the lack of anti-PILRA antibody binding to human PILRA LoF iMicroglia demonstrated the specificity of binding to hPILRA.Furthermore, the lack of isotype control antibody binding to both human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia demonstrated the lack of non-specific antibody binding to CNS-related cell types.

[0313] Binding of PILRA mAbs to CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA or hPILRB CHO-K1 cells, CHO-K1 cells expressing cynoPILRA, and CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRB were incubated with anti-PILRA or isotype control antibodies at a single concentration of 100 nM on ice for 30 min. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent, then incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 min on ice, and washed once with FACS diluent. Binding of the antibodies to the cells was detected by FACS, and MFI was derived by data analysis performed with FLOJO software. As shown in Figure 2A, the anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO-K1 cells expressing cynoPILRA, but not to CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRB or parental CHO-K1 cells. Binding of the anti-PILRA antibodies to cynoPILRA expressed on CHO-K1 cells demonstrated binding of the antibodies to cell surface targets and cynomolgus cross-reactivity. These are unique binding properties that enable antibody safety evaluation and TE / PK / PD studies in cynomolgus monkeys.

[0314] Overall, the anti-PILRA antibody bound to HEK293 and CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA, as well as CHO-K1 cells expressing cynoPILRA, demonstrating binding specificity and cynomolgus cross-reactivity. The antibody also bound to human iMicroglia expressing hPILRA at the endogenous cell surface level, but not to PILRA LoF iMicroglia.

[0315] Example 2. Characterization of anti-PILRA antibodies Binding properties The binding affinity of anti-PILRA antibodies to the extracellular domains (ECDs) of hPILRA, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA was measured by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument (Table 2). Antibodies were captured onto a Biacore™ Series S CM5 sensor chip immobilized with mouse anti-human Fab (human Fab capture kit from GE Healthcare), followed by injection of 3-fold serial dilutions of recombinant ECD reagent at a flow rate of 30 μL / min. Each sample was analyzed using a 3-minute association followed by a 10-minute dissociation. After each injection, the sensor chip was regenerated using a regeneration buffer of 50 mM glycine (pH 2.0). on and k off A 1:1 Langmuir model of simultaneous fitting was used for kinetic analysis.

[0316] Epitope mapping The PILRA binding epitopes of anti-PILRA antibodies were identified by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument. Anti-PILRA antibodies were captured on a Biacore™ Series S CM5 sensor chip immobilized with mouse anti-human Fab (human Fab capture kit from GE Healthcare), followed by injection of single point mutant variants of PILRA to PILRB at a concentration of 1 μM. For epitope binning, 1 μM of recombinant human PILRA was injected for 300 seconds into each channel of the Biacore™ Series S CM5 sensor chip immobilized with anti-PILRA antibodies. Then, binding of the secondary anti-PILRA antibodies was monitored by injection of a single anti-PILRA antibody every cycle.

[0317] Ligand blockade of human PILRA The ligand blocking characteristics of anti-PILRA antibodies were evaluated by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument (Figures 3A and 3B). Anti-PILRA antibodies were captured on a Biacore™ Series S CM5 sensor chip immobilized with mouse anti-human Fab (human Fab capture kit from GE Healthcare), followed by injection of 300 nM recombinant hPILRA ECD. hPILRA-ligand interactions were then monitored by injection of the following recombinant PILRA ligands: hNPDC1 (35-181), hPANP (76-178), and HSV gB (23-279), which are known sialylated ligands of PILRA. Blocking of ligand binding to hPILRA demonstrated that the antibodies were able to antagonize hPILRA.

[0318] Table 2 below shows the binding affinity of the anti-PILRA antibodies to hPILRA G78, hPILRA R78, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA, the EC50 values ​​of binding measured in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78, the hPILRA binding epitopes of the antibodies, and whether the antibodies blocked the various ligands tested.

[0319] [Table 2]

[0320] As mentioned above, all of our anti-PILRA antibodies showed strong binding to hPILRA (both G78 and R78 variants) and cynoPILRA, while they showed no or very weak binding to hPILRB. Furthermore, 8 of the 11 antibodies blocked all ligands tested, while clone 9 and clone 10 blocked HSV gB(23-279). However, all four reference antibodies showed no binding to cynoPILRA and only blocked HSV gB(23-279).

[0321] Example 3. Signal transduction pathways induced by anti-PILRA antibodies Assessment of phosphokinase protein activity (EGFR and STAT3 Y705) in human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia Understanding PILRA downstream signaling is important to identify antagonist antibodies. Wild-type human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia at DIV72 were plated in serum-supplemented medium. After 24 hours, the medium was replaced to remove serum, and cells were lysed after 72 hours. Phosphokinase levels of pEGFR Y1086 (Figure 4A) and pSTAT3 Y705 (Figure 4B) were measured using the Proteome Profiler Human Phospho-Kinase Array Kit (ARY003C, R&D Systems) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

[0322] Assessment of downstream signaling (STAT3 Y705, STAT3 S727, and EGFR) by anti-PILRA antibodies in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 or hPILRA R78 Parental HEK293 cells or HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 (PILRA with Gly at position 78) or hPILRA R78 (PILRA with Arg at position 78) were treated with 100 nM anti-PILRA mAb or isotype control in low serum conditions (1% fetal bovine serum) for 30–60 min. Cells were fixed with 4% ice-cold paraformaldehyde and stained for pSTAT3 Y705 (treated for 30 min; Figure 4C), pSTAT3 S727 (treated for 60 min; Figure 4D), and pEGFR Y1086 (treated for 60 min; Figure 4E) using standard immunohistochemistry protocols. Cells were imaged by confocal microscopy, images were analyzed with Harmony Software, and the mean fluorescent spot area and intensity were calculated per cell.

[0323] To assess anti-PILRA mAb dose responsiveness, HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 were treated with increasing doses of anti-PILRA antibodies (<200 nM) for 30 min in low serum conditions (Figure 4F). Table 3 lists the fold over background (fold induction of pSTAT3 Y705 with each antibody compared to isotype control antibody) and EC50 values ​​indicating the potency in nM of pSTAT3 Y705 induction for each antibody. The dose-responsive induction of pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 can be used to rank antagonist antibodies based on potency and maximal effect. Induction of phosphorylation of STAT3 Y705, STAT3 S727, and EGFR Y1086 in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 but not in parental HEK293 cells demonstrated specific PILRA-dependent downstream signaling. Furthermore, no signaling was induced with an isotype control antibody, demonstrating PILRA selectivity and specificity.

[0324] [Table 3]

[0325] Humanized anti-PILRA antibodies were also tested for induction of phospho-STAT signaling. As shown in Figures 4G and 4H, anti-PILRA antibodies were administered in increasing doses to HEK cells expressing human PILRA 78G and induced pSTAT3 Y705 (Figure 4G) or pSTAT3 S727 (Figure 4H) after 30 minutes. EC50 values ​​(Table 4) show the potency in nM of pSTAT3 Y705 or pSTAT3 S727 induction for each antibody. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM fold expression relative to isotype control (n=2 biological replicates (Figure 4G), n=2 technical replicates (Figure 4H)).

[0326] [Table 4]

[0327] Furthermore, as shown in Figures 4K and 4L, anti-PILRA antibodies were administered in increasing doses to HEK293 cells expressing human PILRA 78R and induced pSTAT3 Y705 (Figure 4K) or pSTAT3 S727 (Figure 4L) after 30 minutes. EC50 values ​​(Table 5) show the potency in nM of pSTAT3 Y705 induction for each antibody. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM fold expression relative to isotype control (n=3 biological replicates (Figure 4K), n=2 technical replicates (Figure 4L)).

[0328] [Table 5]

[0329] Dose-responsive induction of pSTAT3(Y705) and / or pSTAT3(S727) in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA 78R or 78G can be used to rank antagonist antibodies based on potency and maximal effect.

[0330] To assess whether pSTAT3 Y705 induction was mTOR-dependent, cells were treated with the mTOR inhibitors Torin1 (31.25–500 nM) or AZD8055 (3.125–50 nM) for 2 h, followed by addition of 100 nM anti-PILRA mAb or isotype control for 30 min. Figure 4I shows that pSTAT3 Y705 induced by anti-PILRA antibody was partially inhibited by the mTOR inhibitor.

[0331] Furthermore, FIG. 4J shows that anti-PILRA antibodies induced pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing AD-protective PILRA R78. Anti-PILRA antibodies (antibody clone 2) that bind to PILRA G78 partially blocked the induction of pSTAT3 Y705 in HEK293 cells expressing AD-protective PILRA R78. Anti-PILRA antibodies that do not bind to the G78 epitope (antibody clones 9, 10, and 5) showed similar pSTAT3 Y705 induction in PILRA G78 and PILRA R78. pSTAT3 was not induced in parental HEK293 cells. AD-protective PILRA variant R78 has reduced ligand-binding capacity and probably has lower affinity for antibodies that bind G78 (e.g., antibody clones 2 and 4). The frequency of this AD-protective PILRA variant R78 varies worldwide. This variant is a minor allele in African (10%) and European (38%) populations, but a major allele in East Asian (65%) populations. Anti-PILRA antibodies that bind to PILRA R78 may be associated with loss of affinity in most individuals. However, antibody clone 5, which binds to a different epitope, induced strong downstream signaling (pSTAT3 Y705) in cells expressing the R78 variant of PILRA. Such anti-PILRA antibodies may help to eliminate the risk of loss of efficacy against cells expressing PILRA R78, as observed with antibodies that bind to G78, for example antibody clone 2.

[0332] Assessment of STAT1 in human iMicroglia, PILRA LoF iMicroglia, and HEK293 cells Wild-type human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV45. After 24 hours, medium was replaced and serum was removed. Four days after plating, cells were treated with 100 nM anti-PILRA antibody and lysed 30 minutes later. Phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 levels (Figure 4M) were measured using the AlphaLisa assay according to the manufacturer's instructions.

[0333] Wild-type human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV58. After 24 hours, medium was changed to remove serum, and cells were lysed after 72 hours. Total STAT1 levels (Figure 4N) were measured using the AlphaLisa assay according to the manufacturer's instructions. Phospho-STAT1 Y701 levels (Figure 4O) in lysed parental HEK293 cells or HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 were also measured using the AlphaLisa assay according to the manufacturer's instructions.

[0334] Anti-PILRA antibodies were used to administer wild-type human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia. As shown in Figure 4P, only 30 min administration of anti-PILRA antibodies at 100 nM reduced phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 levels, mimicking the phenotype of PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Anti-PILRA antibodies were also used to administer parental HEK293 cells and HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78. As shown in Figures 4Q and 4R, anti-PILRA mAb reduced phosphorylated STAT1 Y701 and total STAT1 levels in HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78. This was not the case with parental HEK293 cells or isotype control antibodies.

[0335] Overall, our results show that basal changes in the phosphorylation status of EGFR, STAT3, and STAT1 in anti-PILRA antibody-treated wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia suggest that these pathways are downstream of PILRA, an important finding related to previously unknown PILRA biology.

[0336] Example 4. Evaluation of PILRA-dependent iMicroglia migration Understanding the PILRA-dependent functions of human IPSC-derived microglia in vitro may help predict their functions in vivo. Enhancement of microglial motility may be beneficial in neurodegenerative diseases.

[0337] Wild-type human iMicroglia, PILRA LoF iMicroglia, and PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (PILRA LoF OE) at DIV53 were plated at 20,000 cells per well in 96-well plates, and a rubber stopper was used to create a cell-free detection zone in the center. On day 2, anti-PILRA antibody (100 nM), isotype control (100 nM), or PBS in fresh medium (wild-type human iMicroglia and PILRA LoF iMicroglia samples) was added, and the rubber stopper was removed. On day 6, NucBlue was added and cells were imaged using a confocal microscope. Images were analyzed with Harmony Software to calculate the average area of ​​nuclear labeling within the detection zone.

[0338] Re-expression of hPILRA in PILRA LoF iMicroglia reversed the migration phenotype back to wild-type levels, demonstrating that migration is a PILRA-dependent and specific endpoint (Figure 5A). Anti-PILRA antibodies that phenocopy PILRA LoF iMicroglia function are classified as functional antagonists. As shown in Figures 5B and 5C, anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced migration of wild-type iMicroglia to the cell-free detection zone 120 hours after stopper removal, similar to PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells. The lack of a migration phenotype with an isotype control antibody demonstrated specificity. Both PILRA LoF iMicroglia and wild-type iMicroglia received vehicle (PBS) only.

[0339] Furthermore, anti-PILRA antibodies were shown to enhance cell migration towards the chemoattractant complement 5a (C5a). Wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells were harvested at DIV62 (Figure 5D) or DIV110 (Figure 5E) and subsequently labeled with calcein AM dye for transwell assays. Cells in Figure 5E were pretreated with anti-PILRA antibodies or isotype control (100 nM) for 4 days before harvesting. Human complement 5a (10 ng / ml) was added to the lower chamber at time 0 as a chemoattractant. Data are shown as mean + / - SEM (n=3 technical replicates). Figures 5D and 5E show that PILRA LoF enhanced iMicroglia migration toward the chemoattractant complement 5a (C5a) (Figure 5D), and anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced iMicroglia chemotaxis toward C5a, similar to PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells (Figure 5E).

[0340] Anti-PILRA antibodies also enhanced secretion of motility proteins by microglia. Human iMicroglia derived from wild-type (PILRA R78 / G78 heterozygote) IPSCs were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV42. After 24 hours, the medium was replaced to remove serum, and cells were treated with anti-PILRA antibody clone 5 (100 nM) or isotype control for 4 days. Soluble analytes in the supernatants treated with anti-PILRA antibody clone 5 or isotype control were analyzed with the proteome profiler kit Human Soluble Receptor Array Kit - Non-Hematopoietic Panel (R&D ARY012). Data are shown as mean expression + / - SD relative to isotype (n=2 technical replicates). Figures 5F and 5G show that anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced secretion of integrins (Figure 5F) and cadherins (Figure 5G) into the supernatant by iMicroglia 4 days after treatment.

[0341] This example demonstrates that anti-PILRA antibodies acted as functional antagonists to PILRA and phenocopied PILRA LoF iMicroglia function by enhancing cell migration. The antibodies also increased cellular secretion of cadherins and integrins, motility proteins associated with enhanced cell migration.

[0342] Example 5. Effect of PILRA on the anti-inflammatory phenotype in iMicroglia Understanding PILRA-dependent function of human iMicroglia in vitro may help predict their function in vivo. Modulation of inflammatory conditions may be beneficial in neurodegenerative diseases. To assess PILRA-dependent transcriptional changes, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium. After 24 hours, medium was replaced to remove serum. After 72 hours, LPS (10 ng / ml) or vehicle was added to stimulate cytokine responses. Cells were harvested 24 hours after LPS treatment and RNA was isolated from five independent harvests (DIV59, DIV63, DIV70, DIV73, DIV77) derived from the same differentiated batch of wild-type or PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Two technical replicates per harvest for each condition were pooled.

[0343] To assess PILRA-dependent IL1RA cytokine secretion, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV70. After 24 hours, the medium was replaced, serum was removed, and cells were treated with antibody (100 nM). 72 hours after medium replacement, supernatants were collected and analyzed by human IL1RA MSD.

[0344] Regarding the transcriptional changes of IL1RN and IL1RA cytokine secretion in serum-free medium, PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia promoted IL1RN gene expression (Figure 6A) and IL1RA cytokine secretion (Figure 6B) compared to wild-type iMicroglia. Furthermore, anti-PILRA antibody (100 nM, 72 hours) stimulated IL1RA cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia in serum-free medium, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia (Figure 6C). Anti-PILRA antibody did not increase IL1RA secretion in PILRA LoF iMicroglia.

[0345] To assess LPS-induced PILRA-dependent proinflammatory cytokine secretion, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV53. After 24 hours, medium was replaced to remove serum, and wild-type cells were treated with antibody (100 nM). After 72 hours, LPS (10 ng / ml) was added to stimulate cytokine responses. Supernatants were collected 24 hours after LPS treatment and analyzed by human pro-inflammatory (4-plex) MSD and human IP-10 MSD.

[0346] Regarding LPS-induced transcriptional changes, PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced TNF, IL-6, and CXCL10 gene expression compared to wild-type iMicroglia (Figures 6D-6F). Regarding LPS-induced cytokine secretion changes, PILRA LoF in PILRA LoF iMicroglia suppressed LPS-induced TNFα, IL-6, and IP-10 secretion compared to wild-type iMicroglia (Figures 6G-6I).

[0347] Furthermore, anti-PILRA antibodies were able to attenuate LPS-induced IP-10, TNFα, and IL-6 cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia (Figures 6J-6O).

[0348] Additionally, iMicroglia cells expressing homozygous G78 or R78 PILRA were also used to test the anti-inflammatory effects of the antibodies. CRISPR-mediated KI lines were generated to determine the effect of antibodies on homozygous G78R PILRA (AD-protective; R78) and R78G PILRA (standard AD-risk; G78) gene variants. Microglia were plated in serum-supplemented medium at DIV54. After 24 hours, medium was replaced to remove serum and iMicroglia cells were treated with antibodies (100 nM). After 72 hours, LPS (10 ng / ml) was added to stimulate cytokine responses. Supernatants were collected 24 hours after LPS treatment and analyzed by human IP-10 MSD. Data are presented as mean + / - SEM. Figures 6P and 6Q show that anti-PILRA antibody (100 nM) attenuated LPS-induced IP-10 cytokine secretion in iMicroglia derived from IPSCs expressing homozygous G78 (Figure 6P) and R78 (Figure 6Q) PILRA in serum-free medium. Anti-PILRA antibody promoted an anti-inflammatory phenotype in IPSC-derived microglia with any PILRA allele combination (R78 / R78, R78 / G78, or G78 / G78), demonstrating antagonist function in CNS-related cell types that have endogenous cell surface levels of hPILRA receptor.

[0349] This example demonstrates that anti-PILRA antibodies stimulated IL1RA cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia. Furthermore, anti-PILRA antibodies attenuated LPS-induced cytokine secretion in wild-type iMicroglia and IPSC-derived iMicroglia with endogenous hPILRA levels. Overall, anti-PILRA antibodies promoted an anti-inflammatory phenotype.

[0350] Example 6. Effect of PILRA on mitochondrial respiration Metabolic dysfunction in microglia is a pathological hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. To evaluate PILRA-dependent effects on mitochondrial respiration in basal conditions, wild-type iMicroglia, PILRA LoF iMicroglia, and PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (DIV51) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well in pre-coated 96-well plates suitable for the Seahorse XF assay. 72 hours after plating, serum-supplemented medium (C+++) was replaced with substrate-limited medium (SLM) to stimulate cellular lipid metabolism overnight. On the day of the assay, for the measurement of mitochondrial fitness and capacity, the Seahorse long-chain fatty acid oxidation kit was run according to the manufacturer's instructions and oligomycin (1.5 μM), FCCP (2 μM), and rotenone / antimycin (0.5 μM) were injected sequentially. As shown in Figures 7A and 7B, PILRA LoF iMicroglia showed increased maximal respiration and mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity. Re-expression of PILRA in PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (PILRA LoF+OE) restored mitochondrial respiration to wild-type levels.

[0351] To assess anti-PILRA mAb-dependent effects on mitochondrial respiration, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia cells (DIV67) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well in pre-coated 96-well plates suitable for the Seahorse XF assay. 24 hours after plating, serum-supplemented medium (C+++) was replaced with substrate-limited medium (SLM) to stimulate cellular lipid metabolism. During substrate limitation, 100 nM of anti-PILRA antibody was administered for a 72-hour treatment period. On the day of the assay, for the measurement of mitochondrial fitness and capacity, the Seahorse long-chain fatty acid oxidation kit was run according to the manufacturer's instructions and etomoxir (4 μM), oligomycin (1.5 μM), FCCP (2 μM), and rotenone / antimycin (0.5 μM) were injected sequentially. Anti-PILRA antibodies (100 nM) increased maximal respiration (Figure 7C and 7E) and mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity (Figure 7D and 7F) in wild-type iMicroglia compared to isotype controls. The antibody had no further effect on PILRA LoF iMicroglia, indicating antibody specificity. The effects of antibody treatment and genotype were mitigated by inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1), suggesting that fatty acid oxidation is a major driver of improved mitochondrial function.

[0352] To evaluate the effect of PILRA LoF on the reduction of non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate induced by Aβ1-42 fibrils, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia (DIV67) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well in a pre-coated 96-well plate suitable for the Seahorse XF assay. Serum-supplemented medium (C+++) was replaced with glutamine-free DMEM XF assay medium containing Aβ1-42 fibrils (100 nM). Sonication of fibrils was performed for 10 min before overnight cell treatment. On the day of the assay, for the measurement of mitochondrial fitness and capacity, the Seahorse Mitostress Kit was performed according to the manufacturer's instructions, and oligomycin (1.5 μM), FCCP (1 μM), and rotenone / antimycin (0.5 μM) were injected sequentially. To evaluate the effect of anti-PILRA mAb, wild-type and PILRA LoF iMicroglia (DIV80) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well. Anti-PILRA antibody was administered at 100 nM 24 hours after plating and supplemented during the change to glutamine-free DMEM XF medium. As shown in Figures 7G and 7H, the decrease in non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate induced by Aβ1-42 fibrils in wild-type iMicroglia (gray bars in Figure 7G) can be rescued by anti-PILRA antibody (striped gray bars in Figure 7H).

[0353] To evaluate the PILRA-dependent effect on mitochondrial ATP production rate, wild-type iMicroglia, PILRA LoF iMicroglia, and PILRA LoF iMicroglia expressing hPILRA (DIV61) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well in pre-coated 96-well plates suitable for the Seahorse XF assay. Cells were incubated in serum-supplemented medium for 72 hours, after which the Seahorse ATP Production Rate Kit was run in DMEM XF assay medium according to the manufacturer's instructions. For ATP production rate measurements, sequential injections of oligomycin (1.5 μM) and rotenone / antimycin (0.5 μM) were applied (Figure 7I). To evaluate the effect of anti-PILRA mAb, wild-type iMicroglia (DIV40) were plated at a density of 20k cells / well. Anti-PILRA antibody was administered at 100 nM 24 hours after plating and was replenished during the change to DMEM XF medium. PILRA LoF iMicroglia showed increased ATP production along with higher mitochondrial OXPHOS activity (Figure 7I). Anti-PILRA antibodies recapitulated PILRA LoF in wild-type iMicroglia and increased the rate of ATP generation (Figure 7J).

[0354] Overall, anti-PILRA antibodies enhanced mitochondrial activity in wild-type iMicroglia, including maximum respiratory capacity, reserve reserve, and ATP production rate. Anti-PILRA antibodies also enhanced fatty acid oxidation in wild-type iMicroglia, mimicking the phenotype observed in PILRA LoF iMicroglia, suggesting a potentially higher ability to metabolize lipid substrates that accumulate in disease. Furthermore, non-mitochondrial respiration was also enhanced by PILRA LoF and anti-PILRA antibodies. Non-mitochondrial respiration is primarily due to superoxide production by NOX2, which, if left unregulated, can have deleterious effects such as lipid and protein oxidation.

[0355] Example 7. Effect of PILRA on peripheral immune cells Human PILRA is expressed on neutrophils and monocytes. Binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to these peripheral immune cells allows for peripheral evaluation of therapeutic equivalence. To assess binding of anti-PILRA mAbs, human leukocytes were enriched from heparinized whole blood by hypotonic lysis of red blood cells and resuspended in cold PBS containing 0.5% BSA and 2 mM EDTA. Fc receptors were blocked with Human TruStain FcX. Cells were then labeled with fluorescent antibodies against CD3, CD14, CD19, CD45, CD66b, and PILRA. Fluorescence intensity was quantified by flow cytometry. Anti-PILRA antibodies were able to bind ex vivo to monocytes (Figure 8A) and neutrophils (Figure 8B). They did not bind to B cells and T cells (Figures 8C and 8D).

[0356] To assess whether anti-PILRA mAbs activate neutrophils and monocytes, human leukocytes were enriched from heparinized whole blood by hypotonic lysis of red blood cells and resuspended in RPMI1640 complete cell culture medium. Cells were treated with 100 nM of antibodies or 10 ng / mL of LPS in both aqueous and solid phases for 24 h. They were then washed and labeled with fluorescent antibodies against CD11b, CD14, CD25, CD66b, and HLA-DR. Fluorescence intensity was quantified by flow cytometry. Anti-PILRA antibodies did not activate human neutrophils and monocytes ex vivo. Cells treated with anti-PILRA antibodies did not show an increase in CD25 (Figure 8E) or HLA-DR (Figures 8F and 8G). CD25 and HLA-DR expression was compared to positive controls (ie, LPS-treated and anti-CD3 antibody-treated) and negative controls (ie, isotype control-treated and PBS-treated).

[0357] To assess whether anti-PILRA mAbs activate human leukocytes ex vivo, human leukocytes were enriched from heparinized whole blood by hypotonic lysis of red blood cells and resuspended in RPMI1640 complete cell culture medium. Cells were treated with 100 nM of antibody or 10 ng / mL of LPS in both aqueous and solid phase for 24 h. Supernatants were collected after centrifugation at 1000 g for 20 min and stored at 80°C. Soluble protein was quantified using the MSD Human Proinflammatory Panel I kit. As shown in Figures 8H and 8I, ex vivo human leukocytes did not increase inflammatory cytokine production after 24 h treatment with 100 nM of anti-PILRA antibody in either aqueous phase (Figure 8H) or solid phase (Figure 8I).

[0358] Overall, based on the lack of key cell surface markers and proinflammatory cytokine secretion, anti-PILRA antibodies did not have any major effect on myeloid cell activation ex vivo.

[0359] Example 8. Epitope bins of anti-PILRA antibodies The PILRA binding epitopes of the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein and four anti-PILRA reference antibodies were identified by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument. Anti-PILRA antibodies were captured on a Biacore™ Series S CM5 sensor chip immobilized with mouse anti-human Fab (human Fab capture kit from GE Healthcare), followed by injection of various mutant variants of PILRA to PILRB (hPILRA M1 to hPILRA M11 (SEQ ID NOs: 109 to 119)) at a concentration of 1 μM. Figure 9A shows the molecular structures depicting the hPILRA epitopes of the anti-PILRA antibodies. The PILRA binding epitopes were identified by the lack of antibody binding to specific mutations of PILRA to PILRB (Figure 9B). As shown in Figure 9B, reference antibodies #1 to #4 were confirmed to bind epitope bin #3 (amino acids 116 to 118 of hPILRA). The heavy and light chain sequences of each of the reference antibodies #1 to #4 are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 128 to 135. In each of the light and heavy chain sequences, the sequences of CDR1 to CDR3 are in bold, and VL and V H The sequences of are underlined. Of the anti-PILRA antibodies described herein, only clone 10 binds to epitope bin #3, while the remaining antibodies all bind to epitopes different from reference antibodies #1 to #4.

[0360] We were able to identify different binding epitopes of the anti-PILRA antibodies, a result that also demonstrated the diversity of epitopes encompassed by our antibodies.

[0361] Example 9. Evaluation of reference anti-PILRA antibodies The binding affinities of the four anti-PILRA reference antibodies to hPILRA, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA were measured by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument (described in Example 2). The EC50 values ​​of binding of the four reference antibodies were also measured in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78.

[0362] [Table 6]

[0363] As shown by both Table 6 below and FIG. 11, reference antibodies #1-#4 did not bind to cynoPILRA and therefore lacked cross-reactivity between hPILRA and cynoPILRA.

[0364] Example 10. Humanized anti-PILRA antibodies and their characterization Exemplary anti-PILRA antibodies were humanized. The binding affinity of the humanized antibodies to hPILRA ECD was characterized by SPR using a Biacore 8K instrument (Table 7). Each of the antibodies listed in Table 7 contains two wild-type Fc polypeptides (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 94) that form the Fc domain of the antibody.

[0365] [Table 7]

[0366] Furthermore, humanized antibody clones 36 to 39 were generated. The binding affinities of these clones to hPILRA G78, hPILRA R78, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA were measured by SPR (Table 8).

[0367] [Table 8]

[0368] Furthermore, the EC50 values ​​for binding of humanized antibodies with altered Fc polypeptides were measured in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78 or hPILRA R78 (Table 9). In addition, the EC50 values ​​for inducing phospho-pSTAT3 Y705 were also measured.

[0369] [Table 9]

[0370] Table 10 below further shows the binding affinity of selected humanized anti-PILRA antibodies to hPILRA G78, hPILRA R78, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA, the EC50 values ​​of binding measured in HEK293 cells expressing hPILRA G78, and the antibody binding epitopes of hPILRA.

[0371] [Table 10]

[0372] The inventors have succeeded in generating humanized anti-PILRA antibodies that retain strong binding affinity to hPILRA (both G78 and R78 variants) and cynoPILRA, and much weaker binding to hPILRB.

[0373] Example 11. Binding of humanized anti-PILRA antibodies to cells HEK293 cells overexpressing PILRA G78 or R78 were stained with NucBlue Live cell stain for 30 min at room temperature. Parental HEK293 cells and HEK hPILRA G78 cells were mixed, washed, and incubated with various concentrations of anti-PILRA antibodies or isotype control antibodies using FACS diluent (PBS, 2% FBS, 1 mM EDTA) at 290 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent and incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG at 290 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. Antibody binding to cells was detected by BD FACS Canto II, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived after analyzing the results with FLOJO and PRISM software. A total of N=3 cell lines were analyzed in duplicate to account for internal variability. The same protocol was used for CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA G78. Figures 1D and 1E show that the anti-PILRA antibodies bound to HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78 but not to parental cells. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​for HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78: Clone 6: 9.3 nM; Clone 7: 12.95 nM; Clone 12: 12.04 nM; Clone 15: 11.2 nM; Clone 23: 21.4 nM; and Clone 35: 12.8 nM. Figure 1F further shows that the humanized antibodies also bound to HEK293 cells expressing PILRA R78. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​against HEK293 cells expressing PILRA R78: Clone 2: 5.1 nM; Clone 6: 2 nM; Clone 7: 2.5 nM; Clone 12: 2.7 nM; Clone 15: 2.7 nM; Clone 23: 3.7 nM; and Clone 35: 3.1 nM. Furthermore, Figures 1H and 1I show that the anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO-K1 cells expressing PILRA G78 but not to the parental cells. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​against CHO-K1 cells expressing PILRA G78: Clone 6: 7.6 nM; Clone 7: 10 nM; Clone 12: 10.8 nM; Clone 15: 9 nM; Clone 23: 18.2 nM; and Clone 35.

[0374] Antibodies were also tested for binding to iMicroglia. CRISPR knock-in lines were generated to measure antibody binding to cells carrying homozygous G78R PILRA (AD-protective; R78) or R78G PILRA (standard AD-risk; G78) gene variants. Human iMicroglia heterozygous for PILRA G78 or PILRA R78 were treated with 100 nM biotinylated PILRA antibody or isotype control antibody for 45 minutes on ice. Cells were washed with PBS and then incubated with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated streptavidin for 30 minutes on ice. Cells were washed several times with PBS and then imaged using a confocal microscope. The average fluorescent spot area per cell was calculated using Harmony Software. Data are shown as fold-representation (mean + / - SD) relative to background signal in control wells treated with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated streptavidin alone. As shown in Figures 1L and 1M, anti-PILRA antibodies bound to iMicroglia derived from human IPSCs homozygous for PILRA G78 (Figure 1L) or PILRA R78 (Figure 1M). Clone 2, which binds to the G78 epitope, did not show specific binding to iMicroglia expressing PILRA R78. The AD-protective PILRA R78 variant has reduced ligand-binding capacity and a lower affinity for clone 2. The frequency of this AD-protective variant varies worldwide. This variant is a minor allele in African (10%) and European (38%) populations, but a major allele in East Asian (65%) populations. Anti-PILRA antibodies that bind to this epitope may be associated with loss of affinity in most individuals. Therefore, we attempted to develop an antibody that binds to both variants.

[0375] Binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to iMicroglia homozygous for protective PILRA R78 or to human PILRA R78 expressed on HEK293 demonstrated binding to cell surface targets. Binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to human iPSC-derived Microglia with any PILRA allele combination (R78 / R78, R78 / G78, or G78 / G78) demonstrated binding to CNS-related cell types that have endogenous cell surface levels of hPILRA receptors. This result predicts that the antibodies will bind with high affinity to PILRA in humans regardless of allele.

[0376] The antibody also showed binding to cynoPILRA but not to hPILRB, which is desirable. CHO-K1 cells and CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA were stained with NucBlue Live cell stain for 30 min at room temperature. Cells were mixed, washed, and incubated with various concentrations of PILRA antibody or isotype control antibody using FACS diluent (PBS, 2% FBS, 1 mM EDTA) at 290 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent and incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG at 290 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. Antibody binding to cells was detected by BD FACS Canto II, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived after analyzing the results with FLOJO and PRISM software. A total of N=3 (B) or N=1 (C) cell lines were analyzed in duplicate to account for internal variability. Figures 2B and 2C show that anti-PILRA antibodies bound to CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA (Figure 2B) but not to CHO cells expressing hPILRB (Figure 2C).

[0377] Furthermore, this antibody was shown not to bind to hPILRB. Human PILRB-DAP12 OE HEK293 cells were stained with NucBlue Live cell stain for 30 minutes at room temperature. Cells were mixed, washed, and incubated with various concentrations of PILRA antibody, isotype control antibody, or PILRB-binding positive control antibody (HC: SEQ ID NO: 156; and LC: SEQ ID NO: 157; EC50 in hPILRB-DAP12 OE HEK293 cells is 1.2 nM) using FACS diluent (PBS, 2% FBS, 1 mM EDTA) at 290 rpm for 30 minutes at 4°C. Cells were washed twice with FACS diluent and incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 minutes at 290 rpm for 4°C. Antibody binding to cells was detected by BD FACS Canto II, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived after analyzing the results with FLOJO and PRISM software. To account for internal variability, a total of N = 3 cell lines were analyzed in duplicate. Figure 2D shows that anti-PILRA antibodies did not bind to HEK293 cells expressing hPILRB-DAP12.

[0378] This example further demonstrated that the humanized anti-PILRA antibodies maintained the desired selective binding profile, binding strongly to hPILRA and cynoPILRA on various cell types, e.g., HEK293 cells expressing PILRA G78 or R78, CHO-K1 cells expressing hPILRA G78 or cynoPILRA, and human iPSC-derived iMicroglia expressing PILRA G78 or R78, and very weakly to hPILRB.

[0379] Example 12. Comparison with reference antibodies We attempted to determine the binding profile of the antibodies to hPILRA, hPILRB, and cynoPILRA, comparing them with the PILRA reference antibody. For this, CHO-K1, CHO-hPILRA, CHO-hPILRB, or CHO-cyPILRA cells were incubated with anti-PILRA or isotype control antibodies at a single concentration of 100 nM on ice for 30 min. The cells were washed twice with FACS diluent, then incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 min on ice and washed once with FACS diluent. Binding of the antibodies to the cells was detected by FACS, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived by data analysis performed with FLOJO software. Data are shown as fold signal over background (isotype control). Mean value + / - SD (n=2 technical replicates).

[0380] Figures 2E and 2F show that the reference antibody bound to CHO cells expressing hPILRA, but crucially, not to CHO cells expressing cynoPILRA In contrast, our antibody bound to both hPILRA and cynoPILRA, but not to hPILRB.

[0381] Example 13. Sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 or R78 HEK cells HEK293 cells expressing PILRA 78G or PILRA 78R were treated with SialEXO (Genovis). SialEXO is used to remove sialic acid on native glycoproteins and acts on O-linked and N-linked glycans. It is a combination of two sialidases that act on α2-3, α2-6, and α2-8 linkages. Cells were incubated with 400 nM sialidase in serum-free DMEM at 37°C for 1 hour to remove sialic acid on native glycoproteins (i.e., PILRA ligands). Cells were then washed twice and incubated and stained with NucBlue Live stain at room temperature for 30 minutes. Parental HEK293 cells and HEK human PILRA 78G (or 78R) cells were mixed, washed, and incubated with various concentrations of anti-PILRA antibodies or isotype control antibodies for 30 minutes. The cells were washed twice with FACS diluent (PBS containing 2% FBS and 1 mM EDTA) and incubated with Alexa Fluor 647-conjugated anti-human IgG for 30 minutes at 290 rpm and 4°C. Antibody binding to cells was detected by BD FACS Canto II, and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was derived after analyzing the results by FLOJO and PRISM software. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​on HEK293 PILRA G78 cells without sialidase treatment: Clone 5: 17 nM; Clone 6: 13 nM; Clone 7: 9.5 nM; and Clone 1: 6.8 nM. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​on HEK293 PILRA G78 cells with sialidase treatment: Clone 5: 9.8 nM; Clone 6: 4.8 nM; Clone 7: 3.2 nM; and Clone 1: 1.8 nM. 3C-3F show that sialidase treatment of PILRA G78 HEK cells enhanced binding of anti-PILRA antibodies.

[0382] Following the same protocol, sialidase treatment was also performed on HEK cells expressing PILRA R78. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​on HEK293 PILRA R78 cells without sialidase treatment: Clone 5: 1.3 M; Clone 6: 0.7 nM; Clone 7: 0.7 nM; and Clone 1: 14 nM. The antibodies have the following EC50 values ​​on HEK293 PILRA R78 cells with sialidase treatment: Clone 5: 0.9 nM; Clone 6: 0.3 nM; Clone 7: 0.3 nM; and Clone 1: 5.6 nM. Figures 3G-3J show that sialidase treatment of PILRA R78 HEK cells had little effect on the binding of anti-PILRA antibodies.

[0383] Removal of cell surface sialylated ligands increased binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to cells overexpressing PILRA G78, indicating that our antibodies compete with endogenous cis-ligands for binding to PILRA, which is further supported by the fact that sialidase treatment had little effect on binding of anti-PILRA antibodies to PILRA R78 cells, which show reduced ligand binding.

[0384] Example 14. Anti-PILRA antibodies demonstrated target binding in vivo To test anti-PILRA antibodies in vivo, we generated BAC transgenic (BACtg) mice carrying human genomic sequences including the PILRA gene. These mice were generated from the C57BL / 6J (JAX stock number: 000664) strain by microinjecting the BAC clone CTD-2110B7 into embryos. This BAC clone contains the full-length coding regions of human PILRA (R78 version) and PILRB as well as their regulatory elements. We confirmed the expression of human PILRA in this model. These mice were administered 50 mg / kg of clone 6 1 and 4 days before sacrifice. The mice were then anesthetized with Avertin, perfused with PBS, and the brains were removed and frozen on dry ice. Brain tissue was homogenized to prepare brain lysates, and total protein concentrations were determined by BCA. Mesoscale Discovery streptavidin-coated plates were further coated with biotinylated PILRA capture antibody (R&D Systems, AF6484) for 1 h at room temperature at 800 rpm, then washed three times with TBST. Brain lysate samples were split into two aliquots of 50 μl each. The first aliquot was spiked-in with clone 6 (10 μg / ml final concentration) to saturate any PILRA present, while the second aliquot received assay buffer only to quantify the amount of PILRA bound upon in vivo administration. These aliquots were then applied to the plate and incubated at room temperature at 800 rpm for 1 h, followed by washing three times with TBST. Finally, anti-human suflotag antibody was added at 0.25 μg / ml as detection antibody and incubated at room temperature at 800 rpm for 1 h, followed by washing three times with TBST. Fluorescence was measured using a Meso SECTOR S plate reader and PILRA concentrations were normalized to total protein levels.

[0385] Figures 12A and 12B show that anti-PILRA antibodies demonstrated target binding in the brain and plasma 1 and 4 days after administration of 50 mg / kg in BACtg mice expressing human PILRA. Anti-PILRA antibodies increased total receptor levels of full-length (brain) and soluble (plasma) human PILRA receptor compared to animals administered an isotype antibody.

[0386] Antibody concentrations in various organs were also investigated using an anti-human IgG ELISA (capture antibody: donkey anti-hu IgG(Fab')2 (minimal cross-reactivity, JIR #709-006-098); detection antibody: goat anti-hu IgG(Fab')2 (minimal cross-reactivity, JIR #109-036-098)). Figures 12C-12H show that anti-PILRA antibodies exhibited IgG-like pharmacokinetics in brain, plasma, liver, lung, spleen, and bone marrow 1 and 4 days after IV dosing of 50 mg / kg in BACtg mice expressing human PILRA.

[0387] Pharmacokinetic profiles of anti-PILRA or control (non-targeting) antibodies in the PILRA / PILRB BACtg mouse model resulted in comparable drug exposure profiles in plasma and other tissues tested. These data indicate that anti-PILRA mAbs acted as typical antibodies in this animal model without binding to the target.

[0388] Additional Arrays TIFF2024546924000020.tif234170TIFF2024546924000021.tif230170TIFF20245469240 00022.tif229170TIFF2024546924000023.tif218170TIFF2024546924000024.tif174170

Claims

1. An isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to cynomolgus monkey paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (cynoPILRA), wherein the binding affinity to the cynoPILRA is at least two times stronger than its binding affinity to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor beta (hPILRB).

2. 2. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof also binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA).

3. An isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA) and cynomolgus monkey PILRA (cynoPILRA), wherein the binding affinity to the cynoPILRA is within 100-fold of the binding affinity to the hPILRA.

4. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 2 or 3, wherein the binding affinity to hPILRA is at least 10 times stronger than the binding affinity to hPILRB.

5. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the binding affinity to the cynoPILRA is at least 10 times stronger than the binding affinity to the hPILRB.

6. 1. An isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA), wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63, 64, 78, 106, 143, 116-118, and 182-186, wherein the positions are determined with reference to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:

1.

7. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 78, 106, and 143.

8. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 7, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to G78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO:

1.

9. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 7, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to R78, K106, and E143 of SEQ ID NO:

136.

10. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 63 and 64.

11. 11. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 10, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to T63 and A64 of SEQ ID NO:

1.

12. 7. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to one or more amino acids at one or more of positions 106, 116-118, and 182-186.

13. 13. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 12, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to K106 of SEQ ID NO:

1.

14. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 12, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to Q116, K117, and / or Q118 of SEQ ID NO:

1.

15. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 6 or 12, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof binds to Q182, G183, K184, R185, and / or R186 of SEQ ID NO:

1.

16. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof is (a) a heavy chain CDR1 (CDR-H1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 11; (b) a heavy chain CDR2 (CDR-H2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12-19 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 12-19; (c) a heavy chain CDR3 (CDR-H3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20-29 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 20-29; (d) a light chain CDR1 (CDR-L1) sequence having at least 90% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30-38 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 30-38; (e) a light chain CDR2 (CDR-L2) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39-46 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39-46; and (f) a light chain CDR3 (CDR-L3) sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47-53 or having up to two amino acid substitutions compared to the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 47-53. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof according to any one of claims 1 to 15, comprising:

17. 17. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 16, wherein the amino acid substitutions are conservative substitutions.

18. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof may be (i) CDR-H1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4; CDR-H2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12; CDR-H3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20; CDR-L1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 30; CDR-L2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 39; and CDR-L3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47 or comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47; or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47, or (iii) CDR-H1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:6 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:6; CDR-H2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:14 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:14; CDR-H3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:23 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:23; CDR-L1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:32 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:32; CDR-L2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:40 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:40; and CDR-L3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:48 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:48; (iv) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or (v) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49 or comprising one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or (vi) CDR-H1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:8 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:8; CDR-H2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:16 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:16; CDR-H3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:26 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:26; CDR-L1, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:35 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:35; CDR-L2, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:43 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:43; and CDR-L3, which comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:50 or which comprises one or more conservative substitutions compared to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:

50.

18. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 16 or 17, comprising:

19. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof is (a) GX １ TFX ２ X ３ X ４ X ５ X ６ H (SEQ ID NO: 74), １ is F or Y, and X ２ is D or I, and X ３ is D or G, and X ４ is Y or F, and X ５ is A or Y, and X ６ is M or I, (b) X １ X ２ X ３ X ４ X ５ S.G.X. ６ X ７ X ８ (SEQ ID NO: 75), １ is G or W, and X ２ is F, M, or I; X ３ is S or N, and X ４ is W or P, and X ５ is N or E, and X ６ is S or D, and X ７ is I or T, and X ８ is G or T, (c) X １ X ２ X ３ X ４ X ５ X ６ X ７ X ８ X ９ FDX １０ A CDR-H3 sequence comprising the sequence of (SEQ ID NO: 76), １ is D or absent, and X ２ is K or G, and X ３ is S or N, and X ４ is I or W, and X ５ is S, G, or N; X ６ is A or F, and X ７ is A or P, and X ８ is G or D, and X ９ is R or T, and X １０ is Y, S, or F; (d) X １ X ２ S.X. ３ X ４ IX ５ X ６ X,YLN (SEQ ID NO: 77), １ is Q or R, and X ２ is A or S, and X ３ is R or Q, and X ４ is R, G, or S; X ５ is N or S, and X ６ is N or I, (e) X １ ASX ２ LX ３ X ４ A CDR-L2 sequence comprising the sequence of (SEQ ID NO: 78), １ is D or V, and X ２ is N or S, and X ３ is E or Q, and X ４ is T or S, and (f) QQX １ X ２ X ３ X ４ P.X. ５ X (SEQ ID NO: 79), １ is Y or S, and X ２ is D or Y, and X ３ is N or S, and X ４ is L or A, and X ５ is L or F, The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 16, comprising:

20. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof may be (i) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:4, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:12, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:20, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:30, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47, or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:5, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:13, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:22, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:31, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:39, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:47, or (iii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 6, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 23, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 32, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 40, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:

48.

20. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 19, comprising:

21. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof is (i) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:24, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:33, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:41, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or (ii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:7, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:25, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:34, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:42, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:49, or (iii) CDR-H1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:8, CDR-H2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:16, CDR-H3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:26, CDR-L1 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:35, CDR-L2 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:43, and CDR-L3 comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:

50. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 16, comprising:

22. A heavy chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54 to 63. Ｈ 22. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 21, comprising the sequence:

23. The V Ｈ 23. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 22, wherein the sequence comprises any one of SEQ ID NOs: 54-63.

24. A heavy chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144 and 158. Ｈ 22. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 21, comprising the sequence:

25. The V Ｈ 25. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 24, wherein the sequence comprises any one of SEQ ID NOs: 137-144 and 158.

26. A light chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64 to 73. Ｌ 26. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 25, comprising the sequence:

27. The V Ｌ 27. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 26, wherein the sequence comprises any one of SEQ ID NOs: 64-73.

28. A heavy chain variable region (V) having at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145 to 149. Ｌ 26. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 25, comprising the sequence:

29. The V Ｌ 29. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 28, wherein the sequence comprises any one of SEQ ID NOs: 145-149.

30. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof may be (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 54 Ｈ V comprising the sequence and SEQ ID NO:65 Ｌ Array, or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 56 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:66 Ｌ Array, or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 57 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:67 Ｌ Array, or (iv) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 58 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:68 Ｌ Array, or (v) V comprising SEQ ID NO:59 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:69 Ｌ Array, or (vi) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 60 Ｈ V comprising the sequence and SEQ ID NO:70 Ｌ array 30. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 29, comprising:

31. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof may be (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 54 Ｈ V comprising the sequence and SEQ ID NO:65 Ｌ Array, or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 56 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:66 Ｌ Array, or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 57 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO:67 Ｌ array 31. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 30, comprising:

32. The antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof may be (i) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 137 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 145 Ｌ Array, or (ii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 140 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 145 Ｌ Array, or (iii) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 143 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 146 Ｌ Array, or (iv) V comprising SEQ ID NO: 143 Ｈ V comprising sequence and SEQ ID NO: 149 Ｌ array 30. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 29, comprising:

33. 33. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the antibody comprises two Fc polypeptides forming an Fc domain.

34. 34. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 33, wherein one or both Fc polypeptides comprise a sequence having at least 85% identity to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:

94.

35. 35. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 34, wherein the antibody is IgG1.

36. 36. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of any one of claims 1 to 35, wherein the antibody is a full-length antibody.

37. An isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that binds to human paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor alpha (hPILRA), wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof recognizes an epitope that is the same as or substantially the same as an epitope recognized by an antibody clone selected from the group consisting of antibody clones 1 to 39 of Table 1.

38. 38. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment of claim 37, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment recognizes an epitope that is the same as or substantially the same as an epitope recognized by an antibody clone selected from the group consisting of antibody clones 2, 4, and 5.

39. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 38, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof antagonizes hPILRA activity.

40. 40. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 39, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof blocks binding of sialylated proteins to hPILRA.

41. 41. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 40, wherein the sialylated protein is sialylated NPDC1, PANP, HSV-1 gB, COLEC12, C4a, C4b, DAG1, or Clec4g.

42. 42. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 41, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof enhances phosphorylation of EGFR or STAT3, or decreases phosphorylation of STAT1.

43. 43. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 42, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof enhances cell migration.

44. 44. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 43, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof enhances microglial migration.

45. 45. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 44, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof enhances expression of an anti-inflammatory gene or protein.

46. 46. ​​The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 45, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof enhances expression of the IL1RN gene.

47. 47. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 46, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof reduces the expression or secretion of a proinflammatory cytokine protein.

48. 48. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 47, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof reduces expression of TNF, IL-6, and / or IP-10.

49. 49. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 48, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof increases cellular respiration.

50. 50. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 49, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof increases mitochondrial respiration.

51. 51. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 50, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof increases ATP production.

52. 52. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 51, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof increases fatty acid metabolism.

53. 53. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 52, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof does not activate peripheral immune cells.

54. 54. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of claim 53, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof does not activate neutrophils and monocytes.

55. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 54, wherein the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.

56. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 55, wherein the antibody is a chimeric antibody.

57. 57. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 56, wherein the antibody is a humanized antibody.

58. 58. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 57, wherein the antibody is a fully human antibody.

59. 59. The isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 58, wherein the antigen-binding fragment is a Fab, F(ab')2, scFv, or a bivalent scFv.

60. An antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that competes with the isolated antibody of any one of claims 1 to 59 for binding to hPILRA.

61. 60. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 59 and a pharma- ceutically acceptable carrier.

62. A polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof of any one of claims 1 to 59.

63. A vector comprising the polynucleotide of claim 62.

64. A host cell comprising the polynucleotide of claim 62.

65. A method for producing an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, comprising culturing a host cell under conditions in which the isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof encoded by the polynucleotide of claim 62 is expressed.

66. An isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof according to any one of claims 1 to 59 or a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 61; Their instructions and Including the kit.

67. 62. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an isolated antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof according to any one of claims 1 to 59 or a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 61.

68. The neurodegenerative disease is selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's disease, primary age-related tauopathy, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), frontotemporal dementia, frontotemporal dementia linked to chromosome 17 with parkinsonism, argyrophilic grain dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Guam amyotrophic lateral sclerosis / Parkinsonism dementia complex (ALS-PDC), corticobasal degeneration, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, dementia pugilistica, diffuse neurofibrillary tangle disease with calcification, Down's syndrome, familial British dementia, familial Danish dementia, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease, globular glial tauopathy, Guadeloupean parkinsonism with dementia 68. The method of claim 67, wherein the disease is selected from the group consisting of: dementia, PSP in Guadeloupe, Hallervorden-Spatz disease, hereditary diffuse leukoencephalopathy with neuroaxonal spheroid formation (HDLS), Huntington's disease, inclusion body myositis, multiple system atrophy, myotonic dystrophy, Nasu-Hakola disease, dementia with predominantly neurofibrillary tangles, Niemann-Pick disease type C, pallidal-pontine-nigral degeneration, Parkinson's disease, Pick's disease, postencephalitic parkinsonism, prion protein cerebral amyloid angiopathy, progressive subcortical gliosis, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, and dementia with neurofibrillary tangles.

69. 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease.

70. 1. A method for determining whether a molecule has activity against a PILRA protein, comprising: (a) contacting a cell expressing the PILRA protein with the molecule; (b) contacting a cell of the same type as in step (a), which has lower PILRA expression, with the molecule either prior to, simultaneously with, or after step (a); (c) measuring in both cells one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and microglial migration, wherein a change in the level of one of these measurements between cells indicates that the molecule has activity against the PILRA protein of step (a); The method comprises:

71. The method of claim 70, wherein the cell of step (a) naturally expresses the PILRA protein.

72. The method of claim 70 or 71, wherein the cells with lower PILRA expression are knocked out for the PILRA protein.

73. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the cell is a microglia.

74. 74. The method of claim 73, wherein the cells are iMicroglial.

75. 75. The method of claim 74, wherein the cells are PILRA LoFi iMicroglial.

76. The method of claim 70, wherein the cells of step (a) have been engineered or modified to express or overexpress the PILRA protein.

77. The method of claim 76, wherein the cells having lower PILRA expression naturally express the PILRA protein or have not been engineered or modified to express the PILRA protein.

78. The method of any one of claims 70 to 77, wherein the molecule is from a molecular library.

79. 79. The method of any one of claims 70 to 78, wherein the molecule is known to bind to the PILRA protein.

80. The method of any one of claims 70 to 78, wherein it is not known whether said molecule binds to said PILRA protein.

81. The method of any one of claims 70 to 80, wherein the molecule is an antibody, a peptide, a small organic molecule, or a nucleic acid.

82. 1. A method for determining whether a molecule that binds to a PILRA protein modulates a signaling response or activity in a cell expressing PILRA, comprising: (a) contacting the cell with the molecule; (b) measuring one of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) levels, phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) levels, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR) levels, cadherin expression, integrin expression, and microglial migration, wherein a change in the level of one of the measurements indicates that the molecule modulates the signaling response or activity in the cells expressing PILRA; The method comprises:

83. 83. The method of claim 82, wherein the change is an increase or decrease in the level of one of the measurements when the cell is contacted with the molecule compared to the level in the cell without the molecule.

84. 84. The method of claim 82 or 83, wherein the cell is in an in vitro assay.

85. 84. The method of claim 82 or 83, wherein the cell is in a mammal.

86. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein step (a) comprises administering the molecule to the mammal.

87. The method of any one of claims 82 to 86, wherein the cell is a microglia, a myeloid cell, a monocyte, or a neutrophil.

88. An engineered human induced pluripotent stem cell (IPSC) or IPSC cell line, wherein the IPSC has been modified to express two copies of a gene encoding the R78 variant or G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

89. 89. The engineered human IPSC or IPSC cell line of claim 88, wherein the IPSC is modified at an endogenous genomic locus.

90. An engineered microglial cell model derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs), wherein the IPSCs have been modified to express two copies of a gene encoding the R78 or G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

91. 91. The engineered microglial cell model of claim 90, wherein the IPSCs are modified at an endogenous genomic locus.

92. A matched pair of cell lines, (a) a first cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein; and (b) a second cell line of the pair is homozygous for a gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein; Both the first and second cell lines of the pair are derived from the same parent cell line, and one or both cell lines are engineered in the endogenous PILRA gene. The matched pair of cell lines.

93. 93. The matched pair of cell lines of claim 92, wherein the parental cell lines are homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein.

94. 93. The matched pair of cell lines of claim 92, wherein the parental cell lines are homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

95. 93. The matched pair of cell lines of claim 92, wherein the parental cell lines are heterozygous for the genes encoding the R78 and G78 variants of the PILRA protein.

96. 96. The matched pair of cell lines of any one of claims 92 to 95, further comprising a third cell line that is heterozygous for the genes encoding the G78 and R78 variants of the PILRA protein.

97. 97. The matched pair of cell lines of claim 96, wherein the third cell line is derived from the parent cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant or the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

98. 1. A method of producing a myeloid cell line or a stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line, comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 and G78 variants of a PILRA protein; (b) engineering the cell line by modifying the gene encoding the PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein or the G78 variant of the PILRA protein; Including, the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant prior to engineering; The method.

99. 1. A method for generating a matched pair of cell lines, comprising: (a) determining whether an existing myeloid cell line, or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line, is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein, is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein, or is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 and G78 variants of a PILRA protein; (b) (i) engineering a first cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and / or (ii) engineering a second cell line by modifying a gene encoding a PILRA protein to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of the PILRA protein. The method comprises:

100. 100. The method of claim 99, wherein the engineered cell line was not homozygous for the gene encoding the selected variant prior to engineering.

101. The existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises: Modifying said existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of said PILRA protein. The method of any one of claims 98 to 100, comprising:

102. The existing cell line of step (a) is homozygous for the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises: Modifying said existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of said PILRA protein. The method of any one of claims 98 to 100, comprising:

103. The existing cell line of step (a) is heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 variant and the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, and the operation of step (b) comprises: Modifying the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, and an engineered cell line homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein. The method of any one of claims 98 to 100, comprising:

104. 104. The method of any one of claims 98 to 103, wherein the myeloid cell line is an IPSC line.

105. 1. A method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line, which are heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 and G78 variants of the PILRA protein, comprising: (a) engineering an existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding an R78 variant of a PILRA protein; (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the pre-existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein; The method comprises:

106. 1. A method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line, which are heterozygous for genes encoding the R78 and G78 variants of the PILRA protein, comprising: (a) engineering an existing cell line to generate a first engineered cell line that is homozygous for a gene encoding a G78 variant of a PILRA protein; (b) engineering either the cell line generated in step (a) or the pre-existing cell line to generate a second engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein; The method comprises:

107. A method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein, the method comprising a step of engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein.

108. A method for generating a matched pair of cell lines from an existing myeloid cell line or an existing stem cell line capable of differentiating into a myeloid cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the G78 variant of the PILRA protein, the method comprising a step of engineering the existing cell line to generate an engineered cell line that is homozygous for the gene encoding the R78 variant of the PILRA protein.

109. 109. The method of any one of claims 105 to 108, wherein the myeloid cell line is an IPSC line.

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