Methods for reducing pathological alpha-synuclein using agents that modulate FNDC5 or biologically active fragments thereof

Abstract

The present invention provides a method for preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and / or preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder in a subject in need thereof, e.g., a subject with alpha-synucleinopathy, using an agent that modulates Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof, e.g., irisin. The method may further comprise co-administering to the subject an additional agent that increases expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active fragment of Fndc5 is irisin.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 310,873, filed February 16, 2022, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. [Background technology]

[0002] Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive deterioration of motor symptoms, including bradykinesia, resting tremor, and rigidity (A. Berardelli, JC Rothwell, PDThompson, M. Hallett, Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease. Brain 124, 2131-2146 (2001); J. Jankovic, Parkinson's disease: clinical features and diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79, 368-376 (2008). Non-motor symptoms often precede and accompany motor symptoms and include autonomic dysfunction and neuropsychiatric sequelae (M. Asahina, E. Vichayanrat, DALow, V. Iodice, CJ Mathias, Autonomic dysfunction in parkinsonian disorders: assessment and pathophysiology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79, 368-376 (2008)). Psychiatry84,674-680(2013)). The most prominent loss of neurons occurs in dopamine (DA) cells of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), but neuronal loss also occurs in the locus coeruleus, nucleus basalis of Meynert, dorsal raphe nucleus, and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (N. Giguere, S. Burke Nanni, LE Trudeau, On Cell Loss and Selective Vulnerability of Neuronal Populations in Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol9,455(2018)).In addition to neuronal loss, there is an accumulation of misfolded pathological alpha-synuclein that causes PD pathology, including neuronal dysfunction and eventual loss of neurons (S. Mehra, S. Sahay, SK Maji, alpha-Synuclein misfolding and aggregation: Implications in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Proteins Proteom 1867, 890-908 (2019); L. Stefanis, alpha-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2, a009399 (2012)). Treatments for Parkinson's disease include replacement of DA via L-DOPA, DA agonists and other drugs to treat non-motor symptoms. As the disease progresses, deep brain stimulation and other neurosurgical approaches are used to treat the side effects of DA replacement therapy. These treatments only address the symptoms, and no treatment slows the progression or inhibits the underlying factors in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Therefore, there is an urgent need for treatments that can lastingly halt the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

[0003] Irisin is a hormone formed by cleavage of FNDC5. Since its discovery, irisin has been functionally linked to thermogenesis programs (Bostrom et al. (2012) Nature 481:463-468; Oguri et al. (2020) Cell 182:563-577), bone modeling (Colaianni et al. (2015) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112:12157-12162; Kim et al. (2018) Cell 175:1756-1768; Estell et al. (2020) eLife 9:e58172), and cognition (Wrann et al. (2013) Cell Metab. 18:649-659; Wrann (2015) Brain Plast. 1:55-61). However, modulators of FNDC5 and its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) have not been used to treat neurodegenerative diseases to date. There remains a need to develop new therapeutic agents for treating Parkinson's disease and related disorders. [Prior art documents] [Non-patent literature]

[0004] [Non-Patent Document 1] A.Berardelli, JCRothwell, PDThompson, M.Hallett, Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease.Brain124, 2131-2146(2001) [Non-Patent Document 2] J. Jankovic, Parkinson's disease: clinical features and diagnosis.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry79, 368-376(2008) [Non-Patent Document 3] M. Asahina, E. Vichayanrat, DALow, V. Iodice, CJ Mathias, Autonomic dysfunction in parkinsonian disorders: assessment and pathophysiology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry84, 674-680 (2013) [Non-Patent Document 4] N. Giguere, S. Burke Nanni, LE Trudeau, On Cell Loss and Selective Vulnerability of Neuronal Populations in Parkinson's Disease.Front Neurol9,455(2018) [Non-Patent Document 5] S. Mehra, S. Sahay, S. K. Maji, Alpha-Synuclein misfolding and aggregation: Implications in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Proteins Proteom 1867, 890 - 908 (2019)

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Summary of the Invention

[0005] The present invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that increasing expression of Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof increases irisin and has a direct effect on α-synuclein (e.g., pathological α-synuclein) in neurons, and in particular, irisin can prevent the degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons and movement disorders induced by α-synuclein (e.g., pathological α-synuclein), and is useful for alleviating a wide variety of α-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophies. The methods and compositions disclosed herein can also be used to treat cancer cells (e.g., melanoma cells), such as cancers characterized by or caused by an increased amount or level of α-synuclein (e.g., pathological α-synuclein) in the tumor or tumor microenvironment.

[0006] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder (e.g., tremor at rest, e.g., slight tremor in the hands or feet; rigidity (stiffness) of the limbs, neck, or shoulders; difficulty in maintaining balance (postural instability); slowness of movement or gradual loss of spontaneous movement (bradykinesia); difficulty in standing after sitting; stiffness of the limbs or slower movements), and / or at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia (e.g., confusion, poor motor coordination, loss of short-term or long-term memory, confusion about identity, or Methods of preventing or alleviating cognitive impairment (impairment or impaired judgment) in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin. In some embodiments, the subject is afflicted with an alpha-synucleinopathy, e.g., Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy.

[0007] In some aspects, provided herein is a method of blocking accumulation of or reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein (e.g., pathological alpha-synuclein) in the cells of a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof; ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof; and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin.

[0008] The cell may be a neuron, glia, cancer cell, or any cell in which alpha-synuclein (e.g., pathological alpha-synuclein) accumulates and may cause a pathogenic response. The subject may suffer from a cancer characterized by or caused by increased alpha-synuclein (e.g., pathological alpha-synuclein). In some embodiments, the subject suffers from an alpha-synucleinopathy, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy.

[0009] Also provided herein is a method of treating or preventing Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin. The agent may be administered systemically, for example, by intravenous or subcutaneous administration. The agent may be administered in a pharma- ceutically acceptable formulation. The agent may be administered in a therapeutically effective amount to treat Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy. The agent may be administered at least once a day, at least once a week, or at least once a month. In some embodiments, the agent is administered to the subject for a number of months equal to or greater than 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, or 24 months. In some embodiments, the agent is administered for the life of the subject or for the remainder of the subject's life.

[0010] In some embodiments, the agent is a) a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, wherein said fragment lacks the C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, and said polypeptide has one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide; b) a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of residues 73 to 140 of the FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 2, wherein said polypeptide does not encode the C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, and said polypeptide has one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide; c) a polypeptide fragment of the FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 2, the fragment consisting of the sequence of amino acids between residues 1 and 150 of SEQ ID NO: 2, the fragment having one or more of the biological activities of the FNDC5 polypeptide as described above; and d) a polypeptide fragment of FNDC5 comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of a fragment of the FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 4, 6 or 8, wherein said fragment has one or more of the biological activities of the FNDC5 polypeptide as described above.

[0011] In some embodiments, the polypeptide is fused to one or more heterologous polypeptides at its N-terminus and / or C-terminus. The polypeptide may contain amino acid modifications, post-translational modifications, and / or heterologous amino acid sequences that stabilize the polypeptide and / or increase its half-life. In some embodiments, the one or more heterologous polypeptides are Fc domains or fragments thereof. In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally, the Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof is a polypeptide disclosed herein. The nucleic acid may be contained within an expression vector (e.g., a viral expression vector, optionally, the viral expression vector is an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector). Each dose of the viral expression vector is at least 1×10 2 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 3 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 4 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 5 GC / kg particles, at least 1×106 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 7 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 8 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 9 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 10 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 11 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 12 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 13 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 14 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 15 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 16 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 17 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 18 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 19 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 20 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 21 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 22 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 23 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 24 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 25 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 26 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 27 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 28 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 26 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 27 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 28 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 29 GC / kg particles, or at least 1×10 30In some embodiments, the agent crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In some embodiments, the agent does not increase levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in neurons of the subject over the course of treatment. The course of treatment may be at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, The course of treatment may be for 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 months, or longer, or any range therebetween inclusive of the end values, for example, 12 to 24 months. The course of treatment may be for the lifetime of the subject, or for the remainder of the subject's life.

[0012] The method may further include co-administering to the subject an additional agent that increases the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally where the biologically active fragment of Fndc5 is irisin.

[0013] The subject may be a mammal, and optionally the mammal is a rodent, a primate, or a human.

[0014] Also provided herein is a method of stratifying a patient suffering from a condition disclosed herein, the method comprising measuring the level of alpha-synuclein in cells isolated from a subject suffering from an alpha-synucleinopathy, and if the subject's cells are measured to have greater than a predetermined amount of alpha-synuclein (e.g., pathogenic alpha-synuclein), then administering to the subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and optionally the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin. In some embodiments, the predetermined amount of alpha-synuclein can be at least a 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, or 500% increase in the amount of alpha-synuclein (e.g., pathogenic alpha-synuclein) as compared to a control sample (e.g., a biological sample from a patient not afflicted with a disorder or disease disclosed herein). The patent on file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0015] [Figure 1A] Figure 1 shows that irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Figure 1A shows representative images of pS129-α-synuclein (green) in primary cortical neurons preincubated with the indicated concentrations of irisin for 1 h and further incubated with α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for 7 days. Nuclei are stained with DAPI (blue). Scale bar, 20 μm. [Figure 1B] Figure 1B shows that irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Figure 1B shows quantification of p-α-synuclein signal normalized with DAPI. Bars represent mean ± sem. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 3). [Figure 1C] Irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Figure 1C shows representative immunoblots of pS129-α-syn and α-syn in Triton® X-100 soluble and insoluble fractions from primary cortical neurons preincubated for 1 h followed by continuous treatment with the indicated concentrations of irisin and then incubation with α-syn PFFs for 7 days. [Figure 1D] Figure 1D shows that irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Quantification of pS129-α-syn and α-syn levels in the Triton® X-100 insoluble fraction normalized to β-actin shown in Figure 1C. Bars represent mean ± sem. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). [Figure 1E] Irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Figure 1E shows cell death assay quantified from Hoechst and propidium iodide (PI) staining in primary cortical neurons treated for 1 h, followed by continuous treatment with the indicated concentrations of irisin and incubation with α-syn PFFs (5 μg / mL) for 14 days. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). [Figure 1F]Irisin protects neurons against α-synuclein PFF-induced neurotoxicity. FIG. 1F shows cell death assays quantified from Hoechst and propidium iodide (PI) staining in primary cortical neurons preincubated for 1 hour followed by continuous treatment with irisin (50 ng / mL) and incubation with α-syn PFF (5 μg / mL) for 14 days, as well as delayed treatment (1, 2, 4, and 7 days) after α-syn PFF. Bars represent mean ± sem. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. [Figure 2AC] (FIG. 2A) Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. FIG. 2A shows a schematic of the transfer of pathological α-synuclein. Pathological α-synuclein is released from donor cells via exosomes and transferred to recipient cells by endocytosis. (FIG. 2B) Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. FIG. 2B shows primary cortical neurons from WT embryos pretreated with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for 2 h. Endocytosis of α-synuclein-biotin PFFs in the endosome-enriched fraction was determined by immunoblotting using an anti-streptavidin antibody. Bars represent the mean ± sem. Student's t-test (n=3) (ns, not significant). (FIG. 2C) Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. FIG. 2C shows primary cortical neurons from WT embryos pretreated with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for 24 h. α-synuclein secreted within exosomes was detected by Western blot analysis (n=3). There was no significant difference due to irisin treatment. Bars represent mean ± sem. Student's t-test (n=3). ***P<0.0005. [Figure 2D]Figure 2D shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. Figure 2D shows that propagated α-synuclein PFFs are degraded by lysosomes. Primary cortical neurons pretreated with PBS, NH4Cl, or MG132 were incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for an additional 12 h. 12 h after changing to fresh medium, intracellular biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFF levels were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin antibody. Bars represent mean ± sem. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 3). ***P < 0.0005. [Figure 2E] Figure 2 shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. Figure 2E shows that irisin promotes intracellular degradation of propagated α-synuclein PFFs. Primary cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for 12 h. The levels of intracellular biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin antibody 3, 6, or 12 h after changing to fresh medium. Graphs represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 3). *P<0.05, ***P<0.0005. [Figure 2F] Figure 2 shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-synuclein. Figure 2F shows the degradation of pathological α-synuclein PFFs, but not endogenous α-synuclein, by irisin. Primary cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / ml) for 72 h. Levels of pathological and endogenous α-synuclein were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin and α-synuclein antibodies, respectively. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test (n = 4). ND, undetermined; ns, not significant, ***P < 0.0005. [Figure 3AB] (FIG. 3A) Irisin protects α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. FIG. 3A shows a schematic diagram of the in vivo experiment. Two-month-old WT mice were stereotaxically injected into the striatum with PBS or α-synuclein PFF (5 μg / mouse). Two weeks after α-synuclein PFF injection, mice were injected with AAV8-GFP or AAV8-irisin-FLAG (1E10 GC / mouse) via the tail vein. Six months after α-synuclein PFF injection, mice were subjected to behavioral tests (pole test and grip test), stereology, and biochemical analysis. (FIG. 3B) Irisin protects α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. (B) Representative TH and Nissl staining of SNpc DA neurons from PBS- or α-synuclein PFF-injected mice treated with AAV-GFP or AAV-irisin 6 months after α-synuclein PFF or PBS injection. Scale bar, 400 μm. [Figure 3C] Figure 3 shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3C shows stereological counts of TH+ cells. Data are mean ± sem. ***P<0.0005, two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=5 mice per group). [Figure 3D] Figure 3D shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3D shows stereological counts of TH+Nissl cells. Data are mean ± sem. ***P<0.0005, two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=5 mice per group). [Figure 3E] Figure 3 shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3E shows representative immunoblots of TH, DAT, and β-actin in the ipsilateral striatum of injected mice. Quantification of TH and DAT levels in the striatum normalized to β-actin. Bars represent mean ± sem. ***P<0.0005, two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). [Figure 3F]Figure 3F shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Representative photomicrographs of striatal sections stained for TH fiber density. [Figure 3G] Figure 3G shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Quantification of dopaminergic fiber density in the striatum using Image J software (NIH). Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 6). [Figure 3H] Showing that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo, Figure 3H shows representative immunoblots of pS129-α-syn and α-syn in detergent-soluble and insoluble fractions from the SNpc of injected mice. [Figure 3I] Figure 3I shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3I shows quantification of pS129-α-syn and α-syn levels in the detergent-insoluble fraction normalized to β-actin. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 3J] Figure 3J shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Pole tests were performed 180 days after intrastriatal α-syn PBS or PFF injections. Data are mean ± sem. *P<0.05, ***P<0.0005, two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=12-13 mice per group). [Figure 3K] Figure 3K shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Grip strength testing was performed 180 days after intrastriatal α-syn PBS or PFF injections. Data are mean ± sem. *P<0.05, ***P<0.0005, two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=12-13 mice per group). [Figure 3L]Figure 3L shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3L shows dopamine concentrations in the striatum of PBS- or α-syn PFF-injected mice treated with AAV-GFP or AAV-irisin, as determined by HPLC. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=7 mice per group). [Figure 3M] Figure 3M shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3M shows DOPAC concentrations in the striatum of PBS or α-syn PFF-injected mice treated with AAV-GFP or AAV-irisin 6 months after α-syn PFF or PBS injection, as measured by HPLC. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=7 mice per group). [Figure 3N] Figure 3N shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. HVA concentrations in the striatum of PBS or α-syn PFF-injected mice treated with AAV-GFP or AAV-irisin 6 months after α-syn PFF or PBS injection, as measured by HPLC. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=7 mice per group). [Figure 3O] Figure 3O shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3O shows 3MT concentrations in the striatum of PBS or α-syn PFF-injected mice treated with AAV-GFP or AAV-irisin 6 months after α-syn PFF or PBS injection, as measured by HPLC. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=7 mice per group). [Figure 3P]Figure 3P and Figure 3Q show that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3P and Figure 3Q show DA turnover as determined by (DOPAC+HVA) / DA (Figure 3P) and (DOPAC+3MT) / DA calculated from the striatum (Figure 3Q). Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 7 mice per group). [Figure 3Q] Figure 3P and Figure 3Q show that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3P and Figure 3Q show DA turnover as determined by (DOPAC+HVA) / DA (Figure 3P) and (DOPAC+3MT) / DA calculated from the striatum (Figure 3Q). Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 7 mice per group). [Figure 3R] Figure 3 shows that irisin protects against α-synuclein PFF-induced pathology in vivo. Figure 3R shows grip strength testing performed 180 days after intrastriatal α-syn PBS or PFF injections. Data are mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n = 12-13 mice per group). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. [Figure 4A] Figure 4A shows a schematic of the proteomic analysis, showing that irisin reduces α-syn levels. [Figure 4B] Irisin reduces α-syn levels. Figure 4B shows a volcano plot of protein changes. Proteins were quantified from primary cortical neurons with or without preincubation of irisin (50 ng / mL) and further incubated with α-syn PFFs (1 μg / mL) for 1 day and analyzed for differentially expressed proteins in PFF- and irisin-treated cells. The cutoff used to select differentially expressed proteins was q-value <0.05. [Figure 4C]Irisin reduces α-syn levels. Figure 4C shows a volcano plot of protein changes. Proteins were quantified from primary cortical neurons with or without preincubation of irisin (50 ng / mL) and further incubated with α-syn PFFs (1 μg / mL) for 4 days and analyzed for differentially expressed proteins in PFF- and irisin-treated cells. The cutoff used to select differentially expressed proteins was q-value <0.05. [Figure 4D] Figure 4D shows that irisin reduces α-syn levels. Figure 4D shows relative protein levels of ApoE in primary cortical neurons 1 and 4 days after PBS, α-syn PFFs, or α-syn PFFs with irisin administration analyzed by mass spectrometry. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 4E] Figure 4E shows that irisin reduces α-syn levels. Figure 4E shows relative protein levels of Snca in primary cortical neurons 1 and 4 days after PBS, α-syn PFFs, or α-syn PFFs with irisin administration analyzed by mass spectrometry. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 4F] Irisin reduces α-syn levels. Figure 4F shows representative immunoblots of pS129-α-syn, α-syn, and α-syn-biotin in detergent-insoluble and soluble fractions from cortical neurons after 1 or 4 days of treatment. [Figure 4G] Figure 4G shows that irisin reduces α-syn levels. Quantification of α-syn-biotin and α-syn levels in detergent soluble fractions normalized to β-actin. Bars represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. ND, not determined; ns, not significant. [Figure 5A] Figure 5A shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Figure 5A shows primary cortical neurons from WT embryos pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / mL) for 24 h. Levels of α-syn-biotin and α-syn in the endolysosomal enriched fraction were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin and anti-α-syn antibodies, respectively. Rab7 is a marker for endosomes, Lamp2 is a marker for lysosomes, HSP60 is a marker for mitochondria, and α-tubulin is a marker for the cytoplasm. Bars represent the mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). [Figure 5B] Figure 5B shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Figure 5B shows primary cortical neurons from WT embryos pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h and further incubated with biotin-conjugated α-synuclein PFFs (1 μg / mL) for 24 h. Levels of α-syn-biotin and α-syn in the endolysosomal enriched fraction were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin and anti-α-syn antibodies, respectively. Rab7 is a marker for endosomes, Lamp2 is a marker for lysosomes, HSP60 is a marker for mitochondria, and α-tubulin is a marker for the cytoplasm. Bars represent the mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). [Figure 5C]Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. FIG. 5C shows that irisin promotes intracellular degradation of expanded α-syn PFFs. Primary cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 hour and incubated with biotin-conjugated α-syn PFFs (1 μg / mL) in the presence of 50 ng / mL irisin for an additional 12 hours, followed by medium replacement with 50 ng / mL irisin without α-syn PFFs. The levels of intracellular biotin-conjugated α-syn PFFs were determined by immunoblotting using an anti-streptavidin antibody 3, 6, and 12 hours after changing to fresh medium containing 50 ng / mL irisin. Graphs represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 5D] Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. FIG. 5D shows that expanded α-syn PFFs are degraded by lysosomes. Primary cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h and incubated with biotin-conjugated α-syn PFFs (1 μg / mL) for an additional 12 h, after which fresh medium or medium containing NH4Cl was replaced for 3 h. α-syn-biotin and α-syn levels were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin and anti-α-syn antibodies, respectively. Graphs represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 5E]Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Figure 5E shows that expanded α-syn PFFs are degraded by lysosomes. Primary cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h and incubated with biotin-conjugated α-syn PFFs (1 μg / mL) for an additional 12 h, after which fresh medium or medium containing NH4Cl was replaced for 3 h. α-syn-biotin and α-syn levels were determined by immunoblotting using anti-streptavidin and anti-α-syn antibodies, respectively. Graphs represent mean ± SEM. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 5F] Figure 5F shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Representative microscopy images of pS129-α-syn (green) in primary cortical neurons treated with α-syn PFF (1 μg / mL) for 4 days. Two days after α-syn PFF treatment, irisin and NH4Cl were incubated for 2 days. DAPI (blue) is used for nuclear staining. (Scale bar, 20 μm.) Quantification of p-α-syn signal normalized with DAPI. Bars represent mean ± SEM. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=3). [Figure 5G] Irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Figure 5G shows representative immunoblots of pS129-α-syn and α-syn in detergent-soluble and insoluble fractions from primary cortical neurons incubated with α-syn PFFs for 4 days followed by post-treatment with irisin and NH4Cl for 2 days. [Figure 5H] Figure 5H shows that irisin increases the degradation of pathological α-syn. Quantification of pS129-α-syn and α-syn levels in detergent-insoluble fractions normalized to β-actin. Bars represent mean ± SEM. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test (n=4). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. ND, not determined; ns, not significant. [Figure 6A]Figure 6A shows that irisin induces the clearance of α-synuclein aggregates in cultured SK-Mel2 and A375 melanoma cells in a dose-dependent manner. [Figure 6B] Figure 6B shows that irisin induces the clearance of α-syn in SK-Mel2 melanoma cells, and Figure 6B shows that α-synuclein KO SK-Mel2 melanoma cells lost its irisin-mediated effect. [Figure 6C] Figure 6C shows that irisin induces clearance of α-syn in SK-Mel2 melanoma cells. Immunocompromised mice implanted with A375 melanoma cells have a lower tumor burden upon AAV8-irisin treatment compared to AA8-GFP-treated controls, and irisin-mediated reduction in tumor burden correlates with reduced levels of aggregated α-synuclein in tumor tissue. [Figure 7A] Blood-brain penetration of intravenously injected irisin is shown. In FIG. 7A, 2 weeks after intrastriatal α-syn PFF injection, mice were injected with AAV8-GFP or AAV8-Irisin-FLAG (1E10 GC / mouse) via the tail vein. Six months after α-syn PFF injection, irisin-FLAG levels in plasma were determined by ELISA and qPCR, respectively. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=6 mice per group). [Figure 7B] Blood-brain penetration of intravenously injected irisin is shown. In FIG. 7B, 2 weeks after intrastriatal α-syn PFF injection, mice were injected with AAV8-GFP or AAV8-Irisin-FLAG (1E10 GC / mouse) via the tail vein. Six months after α-syn PFF injection, irisin mRNA expression in the liver was determined by ELISA and qPCR, respectively. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=6 mice per group). [Figure 7C]Blood-brain penetration of intravenously injected irisin. In FIG. 7C, C57BL / 6 mice were injected intravenously (IV) with 1 mg / kg purified irisin-His for 1 h, and the concentration of irisin in plasma was measured by ELISA. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=3 mice per group). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. [Figure 7D] Blood-brain penetration of intravenously injected irisin. In FIG. 7D, C57BL / 6 mice were injected intravenously (IV) with 1 mg / kg purified irisin-His for 1 h, and the concentration of irisin in the brain was measured by ELISA. Bars represent mean ± sem. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. (n=3 mice per group). *P<0.05, **P<0.005, ***P<0.0005. [Figure 8A] Tandem mass spectrometry of α-syn PFF-treated neurons. Figure 8A shows a volcano plot of protein changes. Proteins quantified from primary cortical neurons treated with PBS or α-syn PFF (1 μg / ml) for 1 day were analyzed for differentially expressed proteins in α-syn PFF-treated cells. [Figure 8B] Tandem mass spectrometry of α-syn PFF-treated neurons (Figure 8A) and (B) shows volcano plots of protein changes. Proteins quantified from primary cortical neurons treated with PBS or α-syn PFF (1 μg / ml) for 4 days were analyzed for differentially expressed proteins in α-syn PFF-treated cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0016] The present invention is based, in part, on the discovery that modulators of Fndc5 and biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) can act to prevent or reduce degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, prevent or alleviate at least one movement disorder, and / or prevent or alleviate at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia, for example, to prevent or treat alpha-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or neuroaxonal dystrophy. The present disclosure provides methods of using modulators of Fndc5 and biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) in such methods.

[0017] I. Definition In order that the present invention may be more readily understood, certain terms are first defined. Further definitions are set forth throughout the detailed description.

[0018] The articles "a" and "an" are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, "an element" means one element or more than one element.

[0019] As used herein, the term "administering" a substance, such as a therapeutic entity, to an animal or cell is intended to refer to distributing, delivering, or applying the substance to an intended target. With respect to a therapeutic agent, the term "administering" is intended to refer to contacting or distributing, delivering, or applying the therapeutic agent to an animal by any suitable route for delivering the therapeutic agent to a desired location in the animal, including delivery by either parenteral or oral routes, intramuscular injection, subcutaneous / intradermal injection, intravenous injection, buccal administration, transdermal delivery, and administration by intranasal or intratracheal routes.

[0020] The term "α-synucleinopathy" includes any neurodegenerative disease or disorder characterized by the accumulation of α-synuclein in cells or tissues (e.g., neurons, nerve fibers, glial cells, cancer cells, etc.). In some embodiments, the accumulation of α-synuclein is associated with multisystem neurodegeneration and underlies a wide range of clinical syndromes, movement disorders / parkinsonism (Parkinson's disease, pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration), dementia (Parkinson's disease dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies) and autonomic dysfunction (pure autonomic failure, multiple system atrophy). Pathogenetically, they may result from disturbances in the metabolism of α-synuclein (e.g., increased synthesis or formation of oligomers due to insufficient degradation). Thus, as used herein, "α-synuclein" and "pathogenic α-synuclein" are interchangeable and refer to an increase in the amount of misfolded, phosphorylated, and / or mutated α-synuclein, or an increase in the overall level of any form, including wild-type, of α-synuclein in a cell or tissue that may predispose to or cause a pathogenic condition in a subject (e.g., an α-synucleinopathy or cancer as disclosed herein). While trace levels of phosphorylated α-synuclein are detectable in healthy brains, much of the α-synuclein accumulated in Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease brains is phosphorylated on serine 129 (Ser-129). Thus, an increase in the level of α-synuclein may refer not only to the total level of wild-type α-synuclein, but also to any mutated form of α-synuclein or phosphorylated form of α-synuclein, e.g., α-synuclein phosphorylated on serine 129 (Ser-129).Duplication and triplication of the α-synuclein locus can cause α-synucleinopathy (Giobbie-Hurder, A., et al. (2017). An immunogenic personal neoantigen vaccine for patients with melanoma. Nature, 547 (7662), 217-221., Singleton, AB, et al. (2003). α-synuclein locus triplication causes Parkinson's disease. Science (New York, NY), 302 (5646), 841). Polymorphisms in the α-synuclein gene can increase or decrease the risk of developing α-synucleinopathy based on the expression of α-synuclein (Pedersen, CC, et al. (2021). A systematic review of associations between common SNCA variants and clinical heterogeneity in Parkinson's disease. NPJ Parkinson's disease, 7 (1), 54). Subjects with increased levels of α-synuclein include patients with increased measured levels of pathogenic forms of α-synuclein (such as phosphorylated forms), even when wild-type levels remain constant or are reduced. Increased levels of α-synuclein phosphorylated on serine 129 (Ser-129). Similarly, lowering or decreasing levels of α-synuclein includes lowering or decreasing the amount of misfolded α-synuclein, mutated α-synuclein, wild-type α-synuclein, or the overall level of α-synuclein. Similarly, blocking accumulation of α-synuclein includes blocking or maintaining the current amount of misfolded α-synuclein, mutated α-synuclein, wild-type α-synuclein, or the increase in the overall level of α-synuclein.

[0021] Subjects affected by alpha-synucleinopathy may exhibit degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, at least one movement disorder (e.g., tremor at rest, e.g., slight tremor in the hands or feet; rigidity (stiffness) of the limbs, neck, or shoulders; difficulty with balance (postural instability); slowness of movement or gradual loss of spontaneous movement (bradykinesia); difficulty standing after sitting; stiffness of the limbs or slower movements) and / or at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia (e.g., confusion, poor motor coordination, loss of short-term or long-term memory, confusion about identity, or impaired judgment).

[0022] Alpha-synuclein is a highly conserved protein that belongs to a multigene family that includes beta-synuclein and gamma-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein is strongly expressed in neurons, highly concentrated in presynaptic terminals, and transported mainly to the delayed component. Abnormal axonal transport of alpha-synuclein may cause or be associated with synucleinopathies. This is based on the observation that axonal alpha-synuclein pathology is prominent in disease, and also on experimental evidence suggesting that alpha-synuclein may play a role in presynaptic vesicle transport. As used herein, alpha-synucleinopathy also includes age-related delays in the normal transport of alpha-synuclein (KA Jellinger, Synucleinopathies, Encyclopedia of Movement Disorders, Academic Press, 2010, Pages 203-207). Non-limiting representative examples of α-synucleinopathies include Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, and neuroaxonal dystrophies.

[0023] Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by tremor and slow movement. Some patients with Parkinson's disease have a family history of the condition, and familial cases may result from genetic mutations in a group of genes, such as the LRRK2, PARK2, PARK7, PINK1, or SNCA genes.

[0024] Dementia with Lewy bodies (i.e., Lewy Body dementia) is characterized by the accumulation of aggregated α-synuclein in Lewy bodies, similar to Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia, but may also involve aggregation of amyloid-beta and tau proteins.

[0025] Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder most often associated with memory impairment and cognitive decline. Cardinal pathological features of the disease include the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Dominantly inherited familial AD (FAD) can be caused by mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PSEN1) or PSEN2 genes. Early-onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD), defined as disease affecting people before age 65, is slightly more common than FAD cases. Late-onset AD (LOAD), which is more common, is considered sporadic, but genetic risk factors have been identified, most notably the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE). Although suggestive pathology is not exhaustive, symptoms of Alzheimer's disease include moderate cortical atrophy, most notable in multimodal associated cortical and limbic structures, extracellular amyloid plaques, Hirano bodies, granulovacuolar degeneration (GVD), cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and / or neurofibrillary tangles. More than 50% of AD patients have α-synuclein pathology in addition to tau and amyloid beta. See Twohig, D., & Nielsen, HM (2019). α-synuclein in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Molecular neurodegeneration, 14(1), 23.

[0026] Multiple system atrophy is a progressive brain disorder that affects movement and balance and disrupts the function of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls bodily functions that are largely involuntary, such as regulating blood pressure. The most frequent autonomic symptoms associated with multiple system atrophy are a sudden drop in blood pressure when standing (orthostatic hypotension), urinary problems, and erectile dysfunction in men. Two main types of multiple system atrophy have been described and are differentiated by the main signs and symptoms at the time of diagnosis. In one type, known as MSA-P, a group of movement abnormalities called parkinsonism predominates. These abnormalities include abnormally slow movements (bradykinesia), muscle rigidity, tremors, and an inability to hold the body upright and balance (postural instability). The other type of multiple system atrophy, known as MSA-C, is characterized by cerebellar ataxia, which causes problems with coordination and balance. This form of the condition can also include speech disorders (dysarthria) and problems controlling eye movements.

[0027] Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy (INAD) is a rare neurodegenerative disease characterized by the regression of acquired motor skills, delayed motor coordination, and eventual loss of voluntary muscle control. Biallelic mutations in the PLA2G6 gene have been identified as the most common cause of INAD.

[0028] The term "amino acid" is intended to encompass any molecule, natural or synthetic, that contains both amino and acidic functional groups and can be included in a polymer of naturally occurring amino acids. Exemplary amino acids include the naturally occurring amino acids, their analogs, derivatives, and congeners, amino acid analogs with variant side chains, and all stereoisomers of any of the foregoing. The names of natural amino acids are abbreviated herein according to the IUPAC-IUB recommendations.

[0029] The term "bind" or "interact" refers to an association that can be a stable association between two molecules, e.g., between a polypeptide encompassed by the invention and a binding partner, due to, e.g., electrostatic, hydrophobic, ionic and / or hydrogen bonding interactions under physiological conditions. Exemplary interactions include protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, protein-small molecule, and small molecule-nucleic acid interactions.

[0030] The term "biological sample", when used in reference to diagnostic assays, is intended to include tissues, cells, and biological fluids isolated from a subject, as well as tissues, cells and fluids present within subpleural fluid, pus, saliva, sebum, semen, serum, sweat, synovial fluid, tears, urine, vaginal lubrication, vitreous fluid, and vomit.

[0031] The term "cancer" or "tumor" refers to the presence of cells that have characteristics typical of cancer-causing cells, such as uncontrolled proliferation, immortality, metastatic potential, rapid growth and proliferation rate, and certain characteristic morphological features.

[0032] Cancer cells are often in the form of a tumor, although such cells may exist alone in an animal or may be non-tumorigenic cancer cells, such as leukemia cells. As used herein, the term "cancer" includes pre-cancerous conditions and malignant cancers. Cancers include, but are not limited to, B cell cancers, e.g., myelomas such as multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, heavy chain diseases, e.g., alpha chain disease, gamma chain disease, and mu chain disease, benign monoclonal gammopathy, and immunocytic amyloidosis, melanoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, bronchial cancer, colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, urinary bladder cancer, brain or central nervous system cancer, peripheral nervous system cancer, esophageal cancer, cervical cancer, uterine or endometrial cancer, oral cavity or pharynx cancer, liver cancer, kidney cancer, testicular cancer, biliary tract cancer, small intestine or appendix cancer, salivary gland cancer, thyroid cancer, adrenal cancer, osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, cancer of hematological tissues, and the like. Other non-limiting examples of cancer types amenable to methods encompassed by the present disclosure include human sarcomas and carcinomas, such as fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma, liposarcoma, chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, chordoma, angiosarcoma, endothelial tumor, lymphangiosarcoma, lymphangioendothelial tumor, synovial tumor, mesothelioma, Ewing's tumor, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, sweat gland carcinoma, sebaceous gland carcinoma, papillary carcinoma, papillary adenocarcinoma, cystadenocarcinoma, medullary carcinoma, bronchial carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, hepatoma, cholangiocarcinoma, liver cancer, choriocarcinoma, seminoma, embryonal carcinoma, Wilms' tumor, cervical cancer , bone cancer, brain tumor, testicular cancer, lung cancer, small cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, epithelial cancer, glioma, astrocytoma, medulloblastoma, craniopharyngioma, ependymoma, pinealoma, hemangioblastoma, acoustic neuroma, oligodendroglioma, meningioma, melanoma, neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, leukemias, such as acute lymphocytic leukemia and acute myeloid leukemia (myeloblastic, promyelocytic, myelomonocytic, monocytic, and erythroleukemia), chronic leukemias (chronic myeloid (granulocytic) leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia), and polycythemia vera, lymphomas (Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's disease), myeloma, multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, and heavy chain disease.In some embodiments, the cancer is epithelial in nature, including, but not limited to, bladder cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, gynecological cancer, kidney cancer, laryngeal cancer, lung cancer, oral cancer, head and neck cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, or skin cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, or colon cancer. In yet other embodiments, the epithelial cancer is non-small cell lung cancer, non-papillary renal cell carcinoma, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, or breast cancer. Epithelial cancers may be characterized in a variety of other ways, including, but not limited to, serous, endometrioid, mucinous, clear cell, Brenner, or anaplastic. In some embodiments, the cancer comprises a solid tumor. In some embodiments, the tumor is an adenocarcinoma, an adrenal tumor, anal tumor, bile duct tumor, bladder tumor, bone tumor, blood producing tumor, brain / CNS tumor, breast tumor, cervical tumor, colorectal tumor, endometrial tumor, esophageal tumor, Ewing's tumor, eye tumor, gallbladder tumor, gastrointestinal tumor, kidney tumor, laryngeal or hypopharyngeal tumor, liver tumor, lung tumor, mesothelial tumor, multiple myeloma, muscle tumor, nasopharyngeal tumor, neuroblastic tumor, oral cavity tumor, osteosarcoma tumor, ovarian tumor, pancreatic tumor, penile tumor, pituitary tumor, primary tumor, prostate tumor, retinal tumor, transverse gland muscle tumor, salivary gland tumor, soft tissue sarcoma, melanoma, metastatic tumor, basal cell carcinoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, testicular tumor, thymus tumor, thyroid tumor, uterine tumor, vulvar tumor, vaginal tumor, or Wilms' tumor.

[0033] The term "isolated polypeptide" refers, in certain embodiments, to a polypeptide prepared from recombinant DNA or RNA, or synthetic origin, or some combination thereof, and which (1) is not associated with proteins with which it is normally found in nature, (2) is isolated from the cell in which it normally occurs, (3) is isolated free of other proteins from the same cellular source, (4) is expressed by cells from a different species, or (5) is not naturally occurring.

[0034] The term "label" or "labeled" refers to the incorporation or attachment (optionally covalently or non-covalently) of a detectable marker to a molecule such as a polypeptide. Various methods of labeling polypeptides are known in the art and may be used. Examples of polypeptide labels include, but are not limited to, radioisotopes, fluorescent labels, heavy atoms, enzyme labels or reporter genes, chemiluminescent groups, biotinyl groups, predetermined polypeptide epitopes recognized by secondary reporters (e.g., leucine zipper pair sequences, binding sites for secondary antibodies, metal binding domains, epitope tags). Examples and uses of such labels are described in more detail below. In some embodiments, the labels are connected by spacer arms of various lengths to reduce potential steric hindrance.

[0035] In some embodiments, the term "neuronal degeneration" or "neuron degeneration" includes any loss of neuronal cells in a particular region of the nervous system. The loss can be rapid or slow and progressive. Progressive loss of nervous tissue includes the death of neurons over a period of time. Degeneration can be the result of the inability of neurons to regenerate themselves after neurodegenerative cell death or severe damage caused to nervous tissue. Neuronal loss in a single subject can be qualified in any number of ways, including comparison of neuronal number or density to a population average based on age or other demographics. As another example, loss of neuronal number or density can be corrected as an initial measurement of neuronal number or density, and a decrease in the loss of number or density at a second measurement in time can indicate neuronal degeneration. Alternatively, neuronal degeneration can be quantified by measurement of metabolites such as 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) or striatal DA.

[0036] As used herein, "pathogenic α-synuclein" refers to an increase in the amount of misfolded and / or mutated α-synuclein, or an increase in the overall level of any form, including wild-type, of α-synuclein in a cell or tissue that may predispose to or cause a pathogenic condition in a subject (e.g., an α-synucleinopathy or cancer as disclosed herein). While trace levels of phosphorylated α-synuclein are detectable in healthy brains, much of the α-synuclein accumulated in Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease brains is phosphorylated on serine 129 (Ser-129). Thus, an increase in the level of α-synuclein may refer not only to the total level of wild-type α-synuclein, but also to any mutated form of α-synuclein, such as α-synuclein phosphorylated on serine 129 (Ser-129).

[0037] "Tumor microenvironment" is an art-recognized term that refers to the cellular environment in which a tumor resides, including, for example, the interstitial fluid surrounding the tumor, surrounding blood vessels, immune cells, other cells, fibroblasts, signaling molecules, and the extracellular matrix.

[0038] In some embodiments, the term "subject" refers to a mammalian subject, such as a rodent, a primate, or a human.

[0039] The term "treatment," as used herein, is defined as the application or administration of a therapeutic agent to a patient having a disease or disorder, a symptom of a disease or disorder, or a predisposition toward a disease or disorder, or to an isolated tissue or cell line from a patient, with the intent to cure, heal, alleviate, palliate, alter, relieve, ameliorate, or affect the disease or disorder, the symptom of the disease or disorder, or the predisposition toward a disease or disorder. Therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, polypeptides, small molecules, peptides, peptidomimetics, nucleic acid molecules, antibodies, ribozymes, siRNA molecules, and sense and antisense oligonucleotides as described herein.

[0040] As used herein, the terms "Fndc5" and "Frcp2" refer to the fibronectin type III domain containing 5 protein and are intended to include fragments, variants (e.g., allelic variants) and derivatives thereof. The nucleotide and amino acid sequences of mouse Fndc5, corresponding to GenBank accession numbers NM_027402.3 and NP_081678.1, respectively, are set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 2. There are at least three splice variants that encode different human Fndc5 isoforms (isoform 1, NM_001171941.2, NP_001165412.1; isoform 2, NM_153756.2, NP_715637.1; and isoform 3, NM_001171940.1, NP_001165411). The nucleic acid and polypeptide sequences for each isoform are provided herein as SEQ ID NOs: 3-8, respectively. Nucleic acid and polypeptide sequences of FNDC5 orthologs in mouse and non-human organisms are known, e.g., chimpanzee FNDC5 (XM_003949350.1, XP_003949399.1, XM_001155446.3, and XP_001155446.3), monkey FNDC5 (XM_001098747.2 and XP_001098747.2), , helminth FNDC5 (XM_544428.4 and XP_544428.4), rat FNDC5 (XM_002729542.3 and XP_002729588.2), chicken FNDC5 (XM_417814.2; XP_417814.2), and zebrafish FNDC5 (XM_001335368.1; XP_001335404.1).In addition, many anti-Fndc5 antibodies with different characterized specificities and suitability for various immunochemical assays are commercially available and known in the art, including antibody LS-C486450 from Lifespan Biosciences, antibodies AG-25B-0027 and -0027B from Adipogen, antibody HPA051290 from Atlas Antibodies, antibodies PAN576Hu01, Hu02, Mu01, and Mu02 from Uscn Lifesciences, antibodies OACD03594 and OACD03595 from Aviva Systems Biology, antibody orb39441 from Biorbyt, antibody ab93373 from Abcam, antibody NBP2-14024 from Novus Biologicals, antibodies 509549 and 044959 from United States Biological, antibody ABCA2332953 from Abgent, and the like.

[0041] In some embodiments, fragments of Fndc5 that have one or more biological activities of the full-length Fndc5 protein are described and used. Such fragments may comprise or consist of at least one fibronectin domain of the Fndc5 protein that does not contain the full-length Fndc5 protein sequence. In some embodiments, Fndc5 fragments may comprise or consist of the signal peptide, extracellular, fibronectin, hydrophobic, and / or C-terminal domains of the Fndc5 protein that do not contain the full-length Fndc5 protein sequence. As further shown in the Examples, Fndc5 orthologs are highly homologous and retain common structural domains that are well known in the art. In other embodiments, the term "irisin" refers to a fragment representing residues 29 or 30-140 of SEQ ID NO:2, or the corresponding residues in the FNDC5 orthologs thereof. [Table 1-1] [Table 1-2] [Table 1-3] [Table 1-4]

[0042] It will be understood that specific sequence identifiers (SEQ ID NOs) are referenced throughout this specification for illustrative purposes and therefore should not be construed as limiting. Any marker encompassed by the present invention, including but not limited to the markers described herein, are well known in the art and may be used in embodiments encompassed by the present invention.

[0043] II. Screening Assays Methods (also referred to herein as "screening assays") are provided for identifying enhancers of expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), i.e., candidate or test compounds or agents (e.g., polypeptides, peptides, peptidomimetics, small molecules (organic or inorganic) or other drugs) that promote or enhance the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Compounds identified using the assays described herein may be useful for modulating Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), e.g., increasing the expression or activity of Fndc5 or irisin. These compounds would therefore be useful for treating or preventing alpha-synucleinopathy, since administration of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to a subject having alpha-synucleinopathy can ameliorate symptoms. In addition, these compounds may be useful for treating or preventing cancers caused or characterized by alpha-synuclein, since administration of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to a subject having a cancer caused or characterized by alpha-synuclein can ameliorate symptoms.

[0044] These assays are designed to identify agents that replicate the function of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) and bind to or interact with such proteins, or other intracellular or extracellular proteins that interact with such proteins. Such compounds may include, but are not limited to, peptides, antibodies, nucleic acid molecules, siRNA molecules, or small organic or inorganic compounds. Such compounds may also include other cellular proteins.

[0045] Agents identified via assays such as those described herein may be useful, for example, to increase expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or activity-induced gene expression and / or physiology in neurons and / or cancerous tissues (e.g., tissues from cancers characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein), or, for example, to maintain neuronal cell integrity or reduce neuronal cell degradation. Thus, these compounds would be useful for treating or preventing alpha-synucleinopathy. In some embodiments, increasing the activity or expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) is sufficiently effective to treat or prevent alpha-synucleinopathy. For example, a partial agonist or agonist administered at a certain dosage or for a certain time to increase the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) would act to reduce the level of pathological alpha-synuclein in the tissue.

[0046] In one embodiment, the invention provides an assay for screening candidate or test compounds that are substrates or interact with Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). In another embodiment, the invention provides an assay for screening candidate or test compounds that bind to or modulate the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides an assay for screening candidates for Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) that have desired functional characteristics. Test agents encompassed by the invention can be obtained using any of the many approaches in combinatorial library methods known in the art, including biological libraries, spatially addressable parallel solid-phase or solution-phase libraries, synthetic library methods that require deconvolution, "one bead one compound" library methods, and synthetic library methods using affinity chromatography selection. While the biological library approach is limited to peptides or peptide libraries, the other four approaches are applicable to peptide, non-peptide oligomer, or small molecule libraries of compounds (Lam, KS (1997) Anticancer Drug Des. 12:145).

[0047] Examples of methods for synthesizing molecular libraries can be found in the art, for example, in DeWitt et al. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:6909; Erb et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:11422; Zuckermann et al. (1994). J. Med. Chem. 37:2678; Cho et al. (1993) Science 261:1303; Carrell et al. (1994) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 33:2059; Carell et al. (1994) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 33:2061; and Gallop et al. (1994) J. Med. Chem. 37:1233.

[0048] Libraries of compounds can be synthesized in solution (e.g., Houghten (1992) Biotechniques 13:412-421), or on beads (Lam (1991) Nature 354:82-84), chips (Fodor (1993) Nature 364:555-556), bacteria (Ladner USP 5,223,409), spores (Ladner USP'409), plasmids (Cull et al. (1992) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:1865-1869), or on phages (Scott and Smith (1990) Science 249:386-390; (Devlin (1990) Science 249:404-406); (Cwirla et al. al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 87:6378-6382; (Felici (1991) J. Mol. Biol. 222:301-310); (Ladner supra.) may be presented.

[0049] In one embodiment, the assay is a cell-based assay in which cells, e.g., neuronal or cancer cells, are contacted with a test agent, e.g., Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), and the ability of the test compound to prevent or reduce neuronal degeneration, prevent or alleviate at least one movement disorder, and / or prevent or alleviate at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia, treat or prevent alpha-synucleinopathy, or reduce the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a subject's cells is determined. Determining the ability of a test agent to perform the function under consideration can be accomplished by monitoring biomarkers, e.g., biopsies, biomarker expression, physical assays, etc., as described herein.

[0050] The ability of a test agent to modulate the binding of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to a substrate may also be determined. Determining the ability of a test agent to modulate such binding may be accomplished, for example, by coupling the substrate with a radioisotope or enzyme label, such that binding of the substrate to Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be determined by detecting the labeled substrate in a complex. Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may also be coupled with a radioisotope or enzyme label to monitor the ability of a test agent to modulate binding to a substrate in a complex. Determining the ability of a test agent to bind to Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be accomplished, for example, by coupling the agent with a radioisotope or enzyme label, such that binding of the agent to Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be determined by detecting the labeled substrate in a complex. For example, such an agent may bind to Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), either directly or indirectly, 125 I, 35 S, 14 C, or 3 H and radioisotopes are detected by direct counting of radioluminescence or by scintillation counting. Agents may also be enzymatically labeled with, for example, horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, or luciferase, and the enzymatic label is detected by determination of conversion of an appropriate substrate to product.

[0051] It is also within the scope of the invention to determine the ability of an agent to interact with Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), with or without labeling of any of the interacting agents. For example, a microphysiometer may be used to detect interactions without labeling any of the components (McConnell, HMet al. (1992) Science 257:1906-1912. As used herein, a "microphysiometer" (e.g., Cytosensor) is an analytical instrument that uses a light-addressable potentiometric sensor (LAPS) to measure the rate at which a cell acidifies its environment.

[0052] In another embodiment, a modulator of expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be identified in a method in which a cell is contacted with a candidate agent, such as Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), and the expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein in the cell is determined. The level of expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein in the presence of the candidate agent is compared to the level in the absence of the candidate agent. If the expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein in the presence of the candidate agent is greater (statistically significantly greater) than in the absence of the candidate agent, the candidate agent is identified as a stimulator of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein expression. The level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein expression in a cell can be determined by methods described herein for detecting Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) mRNA or protein.

[0053] In some embodiments, the assays described herein may be performed in a cell-free format using known components of genetic expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). It may be desirable to immobilize certain components of the assay, such as Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), and such embodiments may benefit from the use of well-known adaptations for biomolecule immobilization, such as the use of microtiter plates, beads, test tubes, microcentrifuge tubes in combination with derivatizable moieties, such as fusion protein domains, biotinylation, antibodies, and the like.

[0054] The present invention further pertains to novel agents identified by the above-described screening assays. Accordingly, it is within the scope of this invention to further use agents identified as described herein in appropriate animal models.

[0055] Any of the compounds, including but not limited to those identified in the assay systems described above, may be tested for compounds capable of alleviating the conditions disclosed herein, including the ability of the compounds to modulate nucleic acid or polypeptide expression and / or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), thereby identifying compounds capable of alleviating the conditions. Cell-based and animal model-based assays for identifying compounds that exhibit such an ability to alleviate the conditions described herein (e.g., treat or prevent muscular dystrophy).

[0056] In one aspect, the cell-based system described herein may be used to identify agents, such as nucleic acids encoding Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin), that modulate Fndc5 polypeptide expression or activity or treat cancers characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein or alpha-synucleinopathies. For example, such cell lines may be exposed to agents at concentrations and for a time sufficient to induce such alleviation of disease symptoms in the exposed cells. After exposure, the cells may be examined to determine whether one or more of the disease phenotypes have been altered to resemble a more normal or wild-type phenotype.

[0057] In addition, animals or animal-based disease systems such as those described herein may be used to identify such agents. Such animal models may be used as test substrates for the identification of drugs, pharmaceuticals, therapies, and interventions that may be effective in modulating Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to treat or prevent, for example, cancers characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein, or alpha-synucleinopathies.

[0058] In addition, gene expression patterns may be used to evaluate the ability of compounds to modulate the expression or activity of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin). These compounds would therefore be useful for treating, preventing, or evaluating cancers characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein, or alpha-synucleinopathies. For example, the expression pattern of one or more genes may form part of a "gene expression profile" or "transcription profile", which may then be used in such evaluation. "Gene expression profile" or "transcription profile", as used herein, includes the pattern of mRNA expression obtained for a given tissue or cell type under a given set of conditions. Gene expression profiles may be generated, for example, by utilizing differential display procedures, northern analysis, and / or RT-PCR. Gene expression profiles may be characterized for known conditions in cell- and / or animal-based model systems. These known gene expression profiles may then be compared to identify the effects that a test compound must have to modify such gene expression profile, to make the profile more similar to a more desirable profile.

[0059] Additionally, provided herein are methods of screening a subject by measuring or calculating the amount or level of alpha-synuclein in the subject's cells to determine whether the subject may benefit from the treatment methods described herein. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods of administering an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, when cells in the subject exhibit increased levels of alpha-synuclein.

[0060] Alpha-synuclein can be measured by any method known in the art. For example, a biological sample can be taken from a patient. The sample can be obtained by any means known in the art. The sample can also be taken directly from the nervous system, tumor, or tumor microenvironment.

[0061] In addition, the assays described herein may include measuring alpha-synuclein postsynapses isolated from cells. These may be performed in a cell-free format using known components of alpha-synuclein gene expression. It may be desirable to immobilize certain components of the assay, and such embodiments may benefit from the use of well-known adaptations for biomolecule immobilization, such as the use of microtiter plates, beads, test tubes, microcentrifuge tubes in combination with derivatizable moieties such as fusion protein domains, biotinylation, antibodies, etc. Gene or nucleic acid expression patterns may also be utilized to assess the levels of alpha-synuclein in cells.

[0062] The detection methods encompassed by the present invention can be used to detect mRNA, protein, or genomic DNA of alpha-synuclein or pathogenic forms of alpha-synuclein in biological samples in vitro and in vivo. For example, in vitro techniques for detection of mRNA include Northern hybridization and in situ hybridization. In vitro techniques for detection of protein include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence. In vitro techniques for detection of genomic DNA include Southern hybridization. Additionally, in vivo techniques for detection of protein include introducing into a subject a labeled antibody against the desired protein to be detected. For example, the antibody can be labeled with a radioactive marker whose presence and location in a subject can be detected by standard imaging techniques.

[0063] Pathogenic forms of alpha-synuclein or antibodies directed against alpha-synuclein can also be used in disease diagnosis and prognosis. Such antibodies are well known in the art (see, e.g., antibodies ab138501 or ab212184 from Abcam, antibody catalog number 32-8100 or catalog number MA1-90346 from ThermoFisher. Antibodies may be procured from The Michael J. Fox Foundation. In addition, such diagnostic methods may be used to detect abnormalities in the expression levels of such polypeptides, or abnormalities in the structure and / or tissue, cellular, or subcellular location of such polypeptides. Structural differences may include, for example, differences in size, electronegativity, or antigenicity of a mutant polypeptide compared to a normal polypeptide. Proteins from the tissue or cell type being analyzed may be readily detected or isolated using techniques well known to those of skill in the art, including, but not limited to, Western blot analysis. For a detailed description of methods for performing Western blot analysis, see Sambrook et al, 1989, supra, at Chapter 18. Protein detection and isolation methods used herein may also be described by Harlow and Lane, e.g., (Harlow, E. and Lane, D., 1988, "Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York (hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety).

[0064] This may be achieved, for example, by immunofluorescence techniques using fluorescently labeled antibodies (see below) combined with light microscopy, flow cytometry, or fluorimetric detection. The antibodies (or fragments thereof) useful according to the present invention may additionally be used histologically, such as immunofluorescence or immunoelectron microscopy, for in situ detection of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin). In situ detection may be achieved by removing a histological specimen from a subject and applying thereto a labeled antibody of the present invention. The antibody (or fragment) may be applied by overlaying the labeled antibody (or fragment) on the biological sample. By using such a procedure, it is possible to determine not only the presence of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin), but also its distribution in the examined tissue. Using the present invention, the skilled artisan will readily recognize that any of a variety of histological methods (e.g., staining procedures) may be modified to achieve such in situ detection.

[0065] In many cases, a solid phase support or carrier is used as a support capable of binding an antigen or antibody. Well-known supports or carriers include glass, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, dextran, nylon, amylase, natural and modified cellulose, polyacrylamide, gabbro, and magnetite. The nature of the carrier can be soluble to some extent or insoluble for the purposes encompassed by the present invention. The support material can have virtually any possible structural configuration so long as the coupled molecule is capable of binding to the antigen or antibody. Thus, the configuration of the support can be spherical, such as beads, or cylindrical, such as the inner surface of a test tube, or the outer surface of a rod. Alternatively, the surface can be flat, such as a sheet, test strip, etc. Supports include, but are not limited to, polystyrene beads. Those skilled in the art will know many other suitable carriers for binding antibodies or antigens, or will be able to ascertain such by use of routine experimentation.

[0066] One means for labeling antibodies is via linkage to an enzyme for use in an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Voller, "The Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)", Diagnostic Horizons 2:1-7, 1978, Microbiological Associates Quarterly Publication, Walkersville, MD; Voller, et al., J. Clin. Pathol. 31:507-520 (1978); Butler, Meth. Enzymol. 73:482-523 (1981); Maggio, (ed.) Enzyme Immunoassay, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1980; Ishikawa, et al., (eds.) Enzyme Immunoassay, Kugaku Shoin, Tokyo, 1981). The enzyme bound to the antibody reacts with an appropriate substrate, such as a chromogenic substrate, in such a way as to produce a chemical moiety that can be detected, for example, by spectrophotometric, fluorometric, or visual means. Enzymes that can be used to detectably label the antibody include, but are not limited to, malate dehydrogenase, staphylococcal nuclease, delta-5-steroid isomerase, yeast alcohol dehydrogenase, alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, triose phosphate isomerase, horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, asparaginase, glucose oxidase, beta-galactosidase, ribonuclease, urease, catalase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, glucoamylase, and acetylcholinesterase. Detection can be achieved by colorimetric methods using a chromogenic substrate for the enzyme. Detection can also be achieved by visual comparison of the extent of enzymatic reaction of the substrate in comparison with similarly prepared standards.

[0067] Detection can also be accomplished using any of a variety of other immunoassays. For example, by radioactively labeling an antibody or antibody fragment, it is possible to detect fingerprint gene wild-type or mutant peptides by the use of radioimmunoassays (RIA) (see, for example, Weintraub, B., Principles of Radioimmunoassays, Seventh Training Course on Radioligand Assay Techniques, The Endocrine Society, March, 1986, which is incorporated herein by reference). Radioisotopes can be detected by such means as the use of a gamma counter or scintillation counter, or by autoradiography.

[0068] It is also possible to label an antibody with a fluorescent compound. When a fluorescently labeled antibody is exposed to light of the appropriate wavelength, its presence can be detected due to fluorescence. The most commonly used fluorescent labeling compounds include fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, o-phthaldehyde, and fluorescamine. Antibodies can also be labeled with 152 Fluorescent metals, such as Eu, or others of the lanthanide series, may be used to detectably label the antibodies. These metals may be attached to the antibodies using, for example, metal chelating groups such as diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).

[0069] An antibody can also be detectably labeled by coupling the antibody to a chemiluminescent compound. The presence of the chemiluminescent-tagged antibody is then determined by detecting the presence of luminescence that arises during the course of a chemical reaction. Examples of particularly useful chemiluminescent labeling compounds are luminol, isoluminol, theromatic acridinium ester, imidazole, acridinium salt, and oxalate ester.

[0070] Similarly, a bioluminescent compound may be used to label an antibody encompassed by the present invention. Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence found in biological systems in which a catalytic protein increases the efficiency of the chemiluminescent reaction. The presence of a bioluminescent protein is determined by detecting the presence of luminescence. Important bioluminescent compounds for purposes of labeling are luciferin, luciferase, and aequorin.

[0071] Diagnostic procedures can also be performed in situ directly on tissue sections (fixed and / or frozen) of the tissue of interest obtained from biopsy or resection, such that no nucleic acid purification is required. Nucleic acid reagents can be used as probes and / or primers for such in situ procedures (see, e.g., Nuovo, GJ, 1992, PCR in situ hybridization: protocols and applications, Raven Press, NY).

[0072] Additionally, methods are provided herein for screening a subject by detecting duplications of the alpha-synuclein locus in the genome of cells in the subject to determine whether the subject may benefit from the treatment methods described herein. Duplications and triplications of the alpha-synuclein locus can cause alpha-synucleinopathy. Polymorphisms in the alpha-synuclein gene can increase or decrease the risk of developing alpha-synucleinopathy based on the expression of alpha-synuclein.

[0073] The invention further provides methods for detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms in the gene encoding alpha-synuclein or duplications of the alpha-synuclein locus. Because single nucleotide polymorphisms constitute mutation sites adjacent to regions of invariant sequence, their analysis requires no more than the determination of the identity of a single nucleotide present at the mutation site, and does not require the determination of the complete gene sequence for each subject. Several methods have been developed to facilitate the analysis of such single nucleotide polymorphisms.

[0074] In one embodiment, single nucleotide polymorphisms may be detected by using special exonuclease-resistant nucleotides, as disclosed, for example, in Mundy, CR (U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127). According to this method, a primer complementary to the allelic sequence immediately 3' to the polymorphic site is allowed to hybridize to a target molecule obtained from a particular animal or human. If the polymorphic site on the target molecule contains a nucleotide complementary to the particular exonuclease-resistant nucleotide derivative present, that derivative is incorporated at the end of the hybridized primer. Such incorporation renders the primer resistant to exonucleases, thereby allowing its detection. Since the identity of the exonuclease-resistant derivative of the sample is known, the finding that the primer has become resistant to exonucleases reveals that the nucleotide present at the polymorphic site of the target molecule is complementary to that of the nucleotide derivative used in the reaction. This method has the advantage that it does not require the determination of large amounts of unrelated sequence data.

[0075] In another embodiment encompassed by the present invention, a solution-based method is used to determine the identity of the nucleotide at a polymorphic site (Cohen, D. et al. (French Patent 2,650,840; PCT Application WO 91 / 02087). Like the Mundy method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127, a primer is used that is complementary to the allelic sequence immediately 3' to the polymorphic site. This method determines the identity of the nucleotide at that site using a labeled dideoxynucleotide derivative that becomes incorporated onto the end of the primer if it is complementary to the nucleotide at the polymorphic site.

[0076] An alternative method known as Genetic Bit Analysis or GBA is described by Goelet, P. et al. (PCT Application No. 92 / 15712). The method of Goelet, P. et al. uses a mixture of labeled terminators and primers complementary to the sequence 3' of the polymorphic site. The labeled terminators incorporated are therefore determined by and complementary to the nucleotides present at the polymorphic site of the target molecule being evaluated. In contrast to the method of Cohen et al. (FR 2,650,840, PCT Application No. WO 91 / 02087), the method of Goelet, P. et al. is in some embodiments a heterogeneous phase assay in which the primers or the target molecule are immobilized on a solid phase.

[0077] Several primer-directed nucleotide incorporation procedures for assaying polymorphic sites in DNA have been described (Komher, J Set al., Nucl. Acids. Res. 17:7779-7784 (1989); Sokolov, B. P., Nucl. Acids Res. 18:3671 (1990); Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Genomics 8:684-692 (1990); Kuppuswamy, M Net al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 88:1143-1147 (1991); Prezant, T. R. et al., Hum. Mutat. 1:159-164 (1992); Ugozzoli, L. et al., GATA 9:107-112 (1992); Nyren, P. et al., GATA 9:107-112 (1992); al., Anal. Biochem. 208:171-175 (1993)). These methods differ from GBA in that they all rely on the incorporation of labeled deoxynucleotides to distinguish bases at polymorphic sites. In such formats, signal is proportional to the number of deoxynucleotides incorporated, so that polymorphisms occurring at the same nucleotide orientation can result in a signal proportional to the orientation length (Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Amer. J. Hum. Genet. 52:46-59 (1993)).

[0078] Another method of detecting levels of alpha-synuclein in a subject's cells involves an in vitro amplification technique called "real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QUIC)" to detect forms of the protein. This technique differs from other amplification techniques by "quaking" the sample. The "quaking" in the name of this technique refers to the fact that in the RT-QuIC assay, the sample is literally subjected to shaking. This action breaks up aggregates of pathogenic protein, which are then further incubated and amplified to detectable levels. In some embodiments, patients are stratified and selected for the methods disclosed herein following RT-QUIC analysis of alpha-synuclein in the subject's cells. Further details regarding this technique include the following: Bargar,C.,et al.(2021).Streamlined α-synuclein RT-QuIC assay for various biospecimens in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies.Acta neuropathologica communications,9(1),62;Poggiolini,I.,et al.(2021).Diagnostic value of cerebrospinal fluid α-synuclein seed quantification in synucleinopathies.Brain:a journal of neurology,awab431.Advance online publication;Zerr I.(2021).RT-QuIC for detection of prodromal α-synucleinopathies.The Lancet.Neurology,20(3),165-166).

[0079] Further methods beyond those described above may be used to determine the identity of allelic variants of polymorphic regions located in the coding region of the gene encoding alpha-synuclein or in duplications of the alpha-synuclein locus. For example, identification of allelic variants encoding mutated proteins can be achieved by using antibodies that specifically recognize the mutant protein, for example in immunohistochemistry or immunoprecipitation.

[0080] III. Treatment method The present invention provides both prophylactic and therapeutic methods of preventing and / or treating conditions that would benefit from preventing or reducing neuronal degeneration, preventing or alleviating at least one motor disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia (e.g., in patients afflicted with alpha-synucleinopathy), or reducing the level of alpha-synuclein (e.g., in subjects (e.g., humans) afflicted with alpha-synucleinopathy, or a cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein, in a subject (e.g., a human) at risk of (or susceptible to) the condition, wherein the condition is prevented or treated by administering to said subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof. In some embodiments, including both prophylactic and therapeutic methods, the agent is administered in a pharma- ceutically acceptable formulation.

[0081] Thus, one aspect of the invention provides a method of decreasing or reducing the level of alpha-synuclein in a cell (e.g., a neuronal cell or a cancer cell), the method comprising contacting the cell with an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, thereby decreasing the level of alpha-synuclein in the cell. In one embodiment, the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin. The method may be performed in vivo, ex vivo, or in vitro. The cell or tissue may be in need of treatment if it is affected by a condition disclosed herein, e.g., an alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by an increased level of alpha-synuclein.

[0082] In some embodiments, the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin. In some embodiments, the agent is a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment lacking a C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, said polypeptide having one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide. The agent can also be a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of residues 73-140 of the FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, said polypeptide not encoding a C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, said polypeptide having one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide. Another form of the agent is a polypeptide fragment of the FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment consisting of a sequence of amino acids between residues 1-150 of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment having one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide. In some embodiments, the agent is a polypeptide fragment of FNDC5 comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of a fragment of an FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 4, 6 or 8, wherein said fragment has one or more of the biological activities of the FNDC5 polypeptide described above.

[0083] The compositions disclosed herein may be administered for any period of time effective to achieve the desired therapeutic response for a particular patient, composition, and mode of administration without being toxic to the patient. The period of time may be at least 1 day, at least 10 days, at least 20 days, at least 30 days, at least 60 days, at least 3 months, at least 6 months, at least 1 year, at least 3 years, at least 5 years, or at least 10 years. The doses may be administered sporadically or at regular intervals as needed. For example, the doses may be administered monthly, weekly, biweekly, once every three weeks, once a day, or twice a day. In certain embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at regular intervals over a period of time. In some embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at least once a week. In some embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at least twice a week. In certain embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at least three times a week. In some embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at least once a day. In some embodiments, the doses of the composition are administered at least twice a day. In some embodiments, doses of the composition are administered for at least 1 week, at least 2 weeks, at least 3 weeks, at least 4 weeks, at least 1 month, at least 2 months, at least 3 months, at least 4 months, at least 5 months, at least 6 months, at least 1 year, at least 2 years, at least 3 years, or at least 5 years.

[0084] In some embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the cells and / or tissues and / or administering to the subject an additional agent that increases expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof. A biologically active fragment of Fndc5 can be irisin.

[0085] For both preventative and therapeutic methods of treatment, such treatments can be specifically tailored or modified based on knowledge gained from the field of pharmacogenomics. "Pharmacogenomics," as used herein, refers to the application of genomics technologies, such as gene sequencing, statistical genetics, and gene expression analysis, to drugs in clinical development and on the market. More specifically, the term refers to the study of how a patient's genes determine their response to a drug (e.g., the patient's "drug response phenotype" or "drug response genotype").

[0086] Thus, another aspect encompassed by the present invention provides a method for tailoring a subject's prophylactic or therapeutic treatment with drugs described according to that individual's drug response genotype. Pharmacogenomics allows the clinician or physician to target prophylactic or therapeutic treatments to patients who will benefit most from the treatment and avoid treating patients who will experience toxic drug-related side effects.

[0087] A. Preventive Methods In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for preventing a condition in a subject that may benefit from lowering or decreasing alpha-synuclein levels. As a non-limiting representative example, a method for treating or preventing alpha-synucleinopathy (e.g., Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or neuroaxonal dystrophy) is provided, which involves administering to a subject an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and / or an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, or a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof. Subjects at risk for alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein can be identified, for example, by any or a combination of diagnostic or prognostic assays described herein. A subject may be at risk for an α-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of α-synuclein. Administration of a prophylactic agent may occur prior to the manifestation of symptoms characteristic of an α-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of α-synuclein, such that the condition or symptoms thereof are prevented or, alternatively, delayed in progression.

[0088] B. Therapeutic methods In one aspect, the invention provides methods for treating alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein. As non-limiting representative examples, methods are provided that administer Fndc5 polypeptides or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin), or polynucleotides encoding the above-mentioned Fndc5 polypeptides or biologically active fragments thereof, and / or enhancers of expression or activity of such polypeptides / nucleic acids.

[0089] Thus, another aspect encompassed by the present invention relates to a method of modulating the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) for the purpose of treating cancers characterized by or caused by an increased level of alpha-synuclein, or alpha-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophies, and for use in therapy. In an exemplary embodiment, the modulating method encompassed by the present invention involves reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or a polynucleotide encoding the above-mentioned Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, or an enhancer of the expression or activity of such a polypeptide or nucleic acid. In one embodiment, the agent simulates one or more activities of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or an enhancer of expression or activity of such a polypeptide. Examples of such stimulatory agents include small molecule agonists and mimetics, e.g., peptidomimetics. These modulating methods can be performed in vitro or ex vivo (e.g., by culturing a cell with the agent), or alternatively in vivo (e.g., by administering the agent to a subject). In one embodiment, the method involves administering an agent (e.g., an agent identified by a screening assay described herein) or combination of agents that modulates the expression or activity of irisin or is otherwise useful for treating or preventing alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein.

[0090] Increasing the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) results in the treatment or prevention of conditions that would benefit from preventing or reducing the degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy, and thus provides a method for treating, preventing, and / or evaluating a condition of interest. A variety of techniques can be used to increase the expression, synthesis, or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), using a polynucleotide encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof as described above, or an enhancer of the expression or activity of such a polypeptide.

[0091] For example, Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or a polynucleotide encoding the above-mentioned Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and / or an enhancer of the expression or active protein of such a polypeptide / polynucleotide, can be administered to a subject. Any of the techniques discussed below can be used for such administration. A person skilled in the art will readily know how to determine the concentration of an effective, non-toxic dose of a protein using techniques such as those described below.

[0092] In addition, nucleic acid sequences, such as RNA sequences, encoding such proteins may be directly administered to a subject in sufficient concentrations to produce a level of Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or an enhancer of expression or activity of such polypeptide, so that the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in the cell is increased. Any of the techniques discussed below that achieve intracellular administration of a compound, such as liposomal administration, may be used to administer such nucleic acid molecules. RNA molecules may be produced, for example, by recombinant techniques, such as those described herein. Other pharmaceutical compositions, drugs, or therapies may be used in combination with the agents described herein. Furthermore, subjects may be treated by gene replacement therapy. For example, one or more copies of a polynucleotide encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or an enhancer of expression or activity of such polypeptide, may be inserted into a cell using vectors, including, but not limited to, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and retroviruses, in addition to other particles that introduce DNA into cells, such as liposomes. In addition, techniques such as those described above can be used to introduce desired gene sequences into human cells.Furthermore, the expression or activity of transcription activators acting on Fndc5 can be increased, thereby increasing the expression or activity of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin).Small molecules that directly or indirectly enhance the expression or activity of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can also be used.

[0093] Cells, e.g., autologous cells, containing the Fndc5 expressing gene sequence can then be introduced or reintroduced into the subject. Such cell replacement techniques may be well suited for use in treating or preventing disease, e.g., when the gene product is a secreted extracellular gene product.

[0094] IV. Pharmaceutical Compositions In some embodiments, methods encompassed by the invention involve the use of agents that increase the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), e.g., enhancers of the expression or activity of such a polypeptide, alone or in combination with other agents useful for treating or preventing alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased levels of alpha-synuclein.

[0095] Such agents that increase the expression or activity of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can be formulated as pharmaceutical compositions. They can be administered to a subject in a therapeutically effective amount using a pharmaceutical composition suitable for such administration. Such compositions typically include an agent (e.g., a nucleic acid molecule or a protein) and a pharma- ceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein, the language "pharma-ceutically acceptable carrier" is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic agents, and absorption delaying agents, etc., that are compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharma-ceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, its use in the composition is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be added to the composition.

[0096] The term "effective amount" of an agent that induces expression and / or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) is an amount necessary or sufficient to increase expression and / or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in an appropriate context, such as a cell, a subject, a population of subjects, in vitro or ex vivo. The effective amount can vary depending on factors such as the type of therapeutic agent(s) used, the size of the subject, or the severity of the disorder.

[0097] As used herein, the term "therapeutically effective amount" means an amount of an agent that increases expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or a composition containing such an expression or activity-increasing agent, effective to bring about some desired therapeutic effect, such as expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), in a subject, at a reasonable benefit / risk ratio.

[0098] Pharmaceutical compositions used in the therapeutic methods encompassed by the present invention can be formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Administration can be systemic or local. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical), transmucosal, and rectal administration. Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneous application can contain the following components: a sterile diluent, e.g., water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerin, propylene glycol, or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents, e.g., benzyl alcohol or methylparabens; antioxidants, e.g., ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agents, e.g., ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; buffers, e.g., acetates, citrates, or phosphates; and agents for adjusting tonicity, e.g., sodium chloride or dextrose. The pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes, or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic.

[0099] Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions, and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. For intravenous administration, suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor EL™ (BASF, Parsippany, NJ), or phosphate buffered saline (PBS). In all cases, the composition must be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, etc. Often, isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride, are included in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.

[0100] Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin), or an enhancer of expression or activity of such polypeptides, in the required amount in a suitable solvent with one or a combination of the ingredients listed above, followed by filtration sterilization. In general, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle containing a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those listed above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, some preparation methods are vacuum drying and freeze-drying, which produce a powder of the active ingredient and any additional desired ingredients from its previously sterile-filtered solution.

[0101] Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. They can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with an excipient and used in the form of tablets, troches, or capsules. Oral compositions can also be prepared using a fluid carrier for use as a mouthwash, where the compound in the fluid carrier is applied orally, swirled in the mouth and expectorated or swallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and / or adjuvant materials can also be included as part of the composition. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches, and the like can contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth, or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate or Sterotes; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetener such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavor.

[0102] For administration by inhalation, the compounds are delivered in the form of an aerosol spray from pressured container or dispenser which contains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide, or a nebulizer.

[0103] Systemic administration can also be by transmucosal or transdermal means. For transmucosal or transdermal administration, a penetrant suitable for the barrier to be permeated is used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art, and include, for example, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, and fusidic acid derivatives. Transmucosal administration can be achieved through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories. For transdermal administration, the active compound is formulated into ointments, salves, gels, or creams generally known in the art.

[0104] Agents that modulate Fndc5 or irisin expression or activity can also be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g., with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and other glycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery.

[0105] In one embodiment, the agent that modulates the expression or activity of Fndc5 or irisin is prepared with a carrier that protects the compound from rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable biocompatible polymers such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid can be used. Methods for preparing such formulations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Materials can also be commercially obtained from Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes that target infected cells with monoclonal antibodies against viral antigens) can also be used as pharma- ceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811.

[0106] For ease of administration and uniformity of dosage, it is particularly advantageous to formulate oral or parenteral compositions in dosage unit form.Dosage unit form as used herein refers to a physically separate unit suitable as a single dosage for the subject to be treated, each unit containing a predetermined amount of active compound calculated to produce a desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier.In some embodiments, the specification of dosage unit form encompassed by the present invention is determined by and directly depends on the unique characteristics of the agent that modulates Fndc5 activity, the specific therapeutic effect to be achieved, and the inherent limitations of the art of mixing such agents for the treatment of subjects.

[0107] The toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such agents may be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, for example to determine the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between the toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index, which may be expressed as the ratio LD50 / ED50. Agents that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. Although agents that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care must be taken in designing a delivery system that targets such agents to the affected tissue site in order to minimize potential damage to uninfected cells, thereby reducing side effects.

[0108] Data obtained from cell culture assays and animal studies can be used to formulate a range of dosages for use in humans. In certain embodiments, the dosage of such Fndc5 or irisin modulating agents is within a range of circulating concentrations that includes the ED50 with little or no toxicity. Dosages can vary within this range depending on the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. For any agent used in the therapeutic methods encompassed by the present invention, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays. A dose can be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC50 (i.e., the concentration of the test compound that achieves half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) determined in cell culture. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in humans. Levels in plasma can be measured, for example, by high performance liquid chromatography.

[0109] As defined herein, a therapeutically effective amount (i.e., an effective dosage) of a protein or polypeptide ranges from about 0.001-30 mg / kg body weight, about 0.01-25 mg / kg body weight, about 0.1-20 mg / kg body weight, about 1-10 mg / kg, 2-9 mg / kg, 3-8 mg / kg, 4-7 mg / kg, or 5-6 mg / kg body weight. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that certain factors, including, but not limited to, the severity of the disease or disorder, previous treatments, the general health and / or age of the subject, and other diseases present, may influence the dosage required to effectively treat a subject. Furthermore, treatment of a subject with a therapeutically effective amount of a protein, polypeptide, or antibody may include a single treatment or a series of treatments.

[0110] In one example, a subject is treated with a polypeptide in the range of about 0.1-20 mg / kg body weight once a week for about 1-10 weeks, preferably 2-8 weeks, about 3-7 weeks, or about 4, 5, or 6 weeks. It will also be understood that the effective dosage of the antibody, protein, or polypeptide used for treatment may increase or decrease over the course of a particular treatment. Changes in dosage may be obtained and revealed by the results of the diagnostic assays described herein.

[0111] The present invention encompasses agents that modulate expression or activity. The agent may be, for example, a small molecule. For example, such small molecules include, but are not limited to, peptides, peptidomimetics, amino acids, amino acid analogs, polynucleotides, polynucleotide analogs, nucleotides, nucleotide analogs, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight of less than about 10,000 grams per mole (i.e., including heteroorganic and organometallic compounds), organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight of less than about 5,000 grams per mole, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight of less than about 1,000 grams per mole, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight of less than about 500 grams per mole, as well as salts, esters, and other pharmaceutically acceptable forms of such compounds. It is understood that the appropriate dose of a small molecule agent depends on many factors that are typically within the mind of a skilled physician, veterinarian, or researcher. The dose(s) of the small molecule will vary, for example, depending on the identity, size, and condition of the subject or sample being treated, as well as, if applicable, the route by which the composition is administered, and the effect that the practitioner desires the small molecule to have on the nucleic acid or polypeptide encompassed by the present invention.

[0112] Exemplary doses include milligram or microgram amounts of small molecule per kilogram of subject or sample weight (e.g., about 1 microgram to about 500 milligrams per kilogram, about 100 micrograms to about 5 milligrams per kilogram, or about 1 microgram to about 50 micrograms per kilogram). It is further understood that the appropriate dose of a small molecule will depend on the potency of the small molecule with respect to the expression or activity being modulated. Such appropriate doses may be determined using the assays described herein. When one or more of these small molecules are administered to an animal (e.g., a human) to modulate the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), a physician, veterinarian, or researcher may, for example, prescribe a relatively low dose initially and then increase the dose until an appropriate response is obtained. In addition, it will be understood that the specific dose level for any particular animal subject will depend on a variety of factors, including the activity of the particular compound used, the age, weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject, the time of administration, the route of administration, the rate of excretion, any drug combinations, and the degree of expression or activity to be modulated, e.g., the intended use of agonism or antagonism.

[0113] Additionally, the agents described herein may be conjugated to additional therapeutic moieties of interest, such as growth factors, intracellular targeting domains, etc., as are well known in the art. The conjugates encompassed by the present invention may be used to modify a given biological response, and the drug moiety should not be construed as being limited to classical chemical therapeutic agents. For example, the drug moiety may be a protein or polypeptide having a desired biological activity. Such proteins may include toxins, such as abrin, ricin A, pseudomonas exotoxin, or diphtheria toxin; proteins, such as tumor necrosis factor, alpha-interferon, beta-interferon, nerve growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, tissue plasminogen activator; or biological response modifiers, such as lymphokines, interleukin-1 ("IL-1"), interleukin-2 ("IL-2"), interleukin-6 ("IL-6"), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor ("GM-CSF"), granulocyte-colony stimulating factor ("G-CSF"), or other growth factors.

[0114] The nucleic acid molecule encompassed by the method of the present invention can be inserted into a vector and used as a gene therapy vector. The gene therapy vector can be delivered to a subject by, for example, intravenous injection, local administration (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,470), or stereotactic injection (see, for example, Chen et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3054-3057). The pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy vector can include the gene therapy vector in an acceptable diluent, or can include a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is embedded. Alternatively, when the complete gene delivery vector can be produced intact from recombinant cells, for example, in the case of retroviral vectors, the pharmaceutical preparation can include one or more cells that produce the gene delivery system.

[0115] As defined herein, a therapeutically effective amount (i.e., an effective dosage) of vector particles is at least 1×10 2 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 3GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 4 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 5 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 6 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 7 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 8 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 9 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 10 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 11 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 12 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 13 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 14 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 15 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 16 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 17 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 18 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 19 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 20 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 21 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 22 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 23 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 24 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 25 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 26 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 27 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 28 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 26 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 27 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 28 GC / kg particles, at least 1×10 29 GC / kg particles, or at least 1×10 30The range is GC / kg particles. One skilled in the art will appreciate that certain factors, including but not limited to the severity of the disease or disorder, previous treatments, the general health and / or age of the subject, and other diseases present, may affect the dosage required to effectively treat a subject. Furthermore, treatment of a subject with a therapeutically effective amount of a nucleic acid vector may include a single treatment or a series of treatments.

[0116] Any means for introducing polynucleotides into mammals, human or non-human, or their cells, can be adapted to the practice of the present invention to deliver the various constructs encompassed by the present invention to the intended recipient. In one embodiment encompassed by the present invention, the DNA construct is delivered to the cell by transfection, i.e., by delivery of "naked" DNA, or in a complex with a colloidal dispersion system. Colloidal systems include macromolecular complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems, such as oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. In certain embodiments, the colloidal system of the present invention is lipid-complexed DNA or liposome-formulated DNA. In the former approach, for example, prior to formulation of the DNA with lipids, a plasmid containing a transgene with the desired DNA construct may first be experimentally optimized for expression (e.g., inclusion of introns in the 5' untranslated region and elimination of unnecessary sequences (Felgner et al. (1995) AnnNY Acad. Sci., 126-139). Thereafter, formulation of the DNA with, for example, various lipid or liposomal materials may be achieved using known methods and materials and delivered to a recipient mammal. See, e.g., Canonico et al. (1994) Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol., 10:24-29; Tsan et al. (1994) Am. J. Physiol., 268; Alton et al. (1993) Nat. Genet., 5:135-142; and U.S. Patent No. 5,679,647 by Carson et al.

[0117] Liposome targeting can be classified based on anatomical and mechanistic factors. Anatomical classification is based on selectivity level, e.g., organ-specific, cell-specific, and organelle-specific. Mechanistic targeting can be differentiated based on whether it is passive or active. Passive targeting exploits the natural tendency of liposomes to distribute to cells of the reticuloendothelial system (RES) in organs, including sinusoidal capillaries. On the other hand, active targeting involves modification of liposomes by binding them to specific ligands, such as monoclonal antibodies, sugars, glycolipids, or proteins, or by changing the composition or size of the liposomes, to achieve targeting to organs and cell types other than their naturally occurring localization sites.

[0118] The surface of targeted delivery system can be modified in various ways. In the case of liposome targeted delivery system, lipid groups can be incorporated into the lipid bilayer of liposome to maintain targeting ligand in stable association with the liposome bilayer. Various linking groups can be used to link lipid chains to targeting ligand. Delivery vehicle, such as naked DNA or DNA associated with liposome, can be administered to several sites in a subject (see below).

[0119] The nucleic acid can be delivered in any desired vector. These include viral or non-viral vectors, including adenoviral vectors, adeno-associated viral vectors, retroviral vectors, lentiviral vectors, and plasmid vectors. Exemplary types of viruses include HSV (herpes simplex virus), AAV (adeno-associated virus), HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), BIV (bovine immunodeficiency virus), and MLV (murine leukemia virus). The nucleic acid can be administered in any desired format that provides a sufficiently efficient level of delivery, for example, in viral particles, liposomes, nanoparticles, and complexed to polymers.

[0120] The nucleic acid encoding the protein or nucleic acid of interest may be present in a plasmid or viral vector, or other vectors known in the art. Such vectors are well known, and any vector may be selected for a particular application. In one embodiment encompassed by the present invention, the gene delivery vehicle comprises a promoter and a demethylase coding sequence. In some embodiments, the promoter is a tissue-specific promoter and a promoter activated by cell proliferation, such as the thymidine kinase and thymidylate synthase promoters. Other promoters include promoters activated by infection with viruses, such as the alpha- and beta-interferon promoters, and promoters activated by hormones such as estrogen. Other promoters that may be used include the Moloney virus LTR, the CMV promoter, and the mouse albumin promoter. The promoter may be constitutive or inducible.

[0121] In another embodiment, naked polynucleotide molecules are used as gene delivery vehicles as described in WO90 / 11092 and U.S. Patent No. 5,580,859. Such gene delivery vehicles may be either growth factor DNA or RNA, and in certain embodiments are linked to killed adenovirus. Curiel et al., Hum. Gene. Ther. 3:147-154, 1992. Other vehicles that may optionally be used include DNA-ligands (Wu et al., J. Biol. Chem. 264:16985-16987, 1989), lipid-DNA combinations (Felgner et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:7413 7417, 1989), liposomes (Wang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 84:7851-7855, 1987), and microprojectiles (Williams et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88:2726-2730, 1991).

[0122] The gene delivery vehicle may optionally include viral sequences, such as a viral origin of replication or packaging signal. These viral sequences may be selected from viruses such as astroviruses, coronaviruses, orthomyxoviruses, papovaviruses, paramyxoviruses, parvoviruses, picornaviruses, poxviruses, retroviruses, togaviruses, or adenoviruses. In certain embodiments, the growth factor gene delivery vehicle is a recombinant retroviral vector. Recombinant retroviruses and their various uses are described in many references, including, for example, Mann et al., Cell 33:153, 1983; Cane and Mulligan, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 81:6349, 1984; Miller et al., Human Gene Therapy 1:5-14, 1990; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,405,712, 4,861,719, and 4,980,289; and PCT Application Nos. WO89 / 02,468, WO89 / 05,349, and WO90 / 02,806. See, e.g., EP 0,415,731, WO 90 / 07936, WO 94 / 03622, WO 93 / 25698, WO 93 / 25234, U.S. Pat. No. 5,219,740, WO 9311230, WO 9310218, Vile and Hart, Cancer Res. 53:3860-3864, 1993; Vile and Hart, Cancer Res. 53:962-967, 1993; Ram et al., Cancer Res. 53:83-88, 1993; Takamiya et al., J. Neurosci. Res. 33:493-503, 1992; Baba et al. A number of retroviral gene delivery vehicles can be utilized in the present invention, including those described in (U.S. Pat. No. 4,777,127, GB 2,200,651, EP 0,345,242 and WO 91 / 02805).

[0123] Other viral vector systems which can be used to deliver polynucleotides encompassed by the invention are derived from herpes viruses, e.g., herpes simplex virus (U.S. Pat. No. 5,631,236, issued May 20, 1997, by Woo et al., and WO 00 / 08191, by Neurovex), vaccinia virus (Ridgeway (1988) Ridgeway, "Mammalian expression vectors," In: Rodriguez RL, Denhardt DT, ed. Vectors: A survey of molecular cloning vectors and their uses. Stoneham: Butterworth, Baichwal and Sugden (1986) "Vectors for gene transfer derived from animal DNA viruses: Transient and stable expression of transferred genes," In: Kucherlapati R, ed. Gene transfer. New York: Plenum Press; Coupar et al. (1988) Gene, 68:1-10), and several RNA viruses. Viruses include, but are not limited to, alphaviruses, poxyviruses, arenaviruses, vaccinia viruses, polioviruses, etc., which offer several attractive features to a variety of mammalian cells (Friedmann (1989) Science, 244:1275-1281; Ridgeway, 1988, supra; Baichwal and Sugden, 1986, supra; Coupar et al., 1988; Horwich et al., (1990) J. Virol., 64:642-650).

[0124] In other embodiments, the target DNA in the genome may be manipulated using methods well known in the art. For example, the target DNA in the genome may be manipulated by deletion, insertion, and / or mutation, which are retroviral insertion, artificial chromosome technology, gene insertion, random insertion with tissue-specific promoters, gene targeting, transposable elements, and / or any other method for introducing foreign DNA or for producing modified DNA / modified nuclear DNA. Other modification techniques include deleting DNA sequences from the genome and / or modifying the nuclear DNA sequence. For example, the nuclear DNA sequence may be modified by site-directed mutagenesis. In some embodiments, genome editing may be used to regulate the copy number or gene sequence of a protein of interest, for example, constitutive or inducible knockout or mutation of a protein of interest, such as Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention. For example, CRISPR-Cas systems may be used for precise editing of genomic nucleic acids (e.g., to create non-functional or null mutations). In such embodiments, CRISPR guide RNAs and / or Cas enzymes may be expressed. For example, a vector containing only a guide RNA can be administered to an animal or cell transgenic for the Cas9 enzyme. Similar strategies can be used (e.g., designer zinc fingers, transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs), or homing meganucleases).Such systems are well known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,697,359; Sander and Joung (2014) Nat. Biotech. 32:347-355; Hale et al. (2009) Cell 139:945-956; Karginov and Hannon (2010) Mol. Cell 37:7; U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2014 / 0087426 and 2012 / 0178169; Boch et al. (2011) Nat. Biotech. 29:135-136; Boch et al. (2009) Science 326:1509-1512; Moscou and Bogdanove (2009) Science 326:1501; Weber et al. (2011) PLoS One6:e19722; Li (See, for example, Zhang et al. (2011) Nucl. Acids Res. 39:6315-6325; Zhang et al. (2011) Nat. Biotech. 29:149-153; Miller et al. (2011) Nat. Biotech. 29:143-148; Lin et al. (2014) Nucl. Acids Res. 42:e47). Such genetic strategies can use constitutive or inducible expression systems according to methods well known in the art.

[0125] In other embodiments, recombinant Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be administered to a subject. In some embodiments, a fusion protein (e.g., Fc fusion protein as discussed above) with enhanced biological properties may be constructed and administered. In addition, Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be modified according to pharmacological methods well known in the art (e.g., pegylation, glycosylation, oligomerization, etc.) to further enhance desirable biological activities such as increased bioavailability and reduced proteolysis.

[0126] V. Predictive Medicine The present invention also relates to the field of predictive medicine, where diagnostic assays, prognostic assays, and monitoring of clinical trials are used for prognostic (predictive) purposes, thereby prophylactically treating individuals. Thus, one aspect of the present invention relates to diagnostic assays for determining the level of expression or activity of alpha-synuclein protein and / or nucleic acid in the context of a biological sample (e.g., blood, serum, fluid, cells, or tissue, e.g., cancer cells or neuronal cells or tissue), to determine whether an individual is suffering from, or at risk for developing, a condition that would benefit from reducing or lowering the level or amount of alpha-synuclein. The present invention also provides prognostic (or predictive) assays for determining whether an individual is at risk for developing such a condition.

[0127] One particular embodiment includes a method for assessing whether a subject suffers from or is at risk of developing alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased alpha-synuclein, comprising, for example, detecting expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in a cell (e.g., a cancer cell or a neuronal cell) from a sample from the subject, wherein a decrease in expression or activity indicates the presence of alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased alpha-synuclein in the subject, or the presence of a risk of developing alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer characterized by or caused by increased alpha-synuclein. The subject's sample to be tested may, for example, include cancer cells or neuronal cells.

[0128] Another embodiment encompassed by the present invention relates to monitoring the effect of agents that increase the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (eg, irisin) in clinical trials.

[0129] A. Prognostic and Diagnostic Assays To determine whether a subject is suffering from or at risk of developing a condition disclosed herein, a biological sample may be obtained from the subject, and the biological sample may be contacted with a compound or agent capable of detecting Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) or a polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA or genomic DNA) encoding the above-mentioned Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof in the biological sample. The agent for detecting mRNA or genomic DNA may include a labeled nucleic acid probe capable of hybridizing to the mRNA or genomic DNA. The nucleic acid probe may be a sequence complementary to the Fndc5 or irisin nucleic acid shown in Table 1, or a portion thereof, such as an oligonucleotide of at least 15, 20, 25, 30, 25, 40, 45, 50, 100, 250, or 500 nucleotides in length sufficient to specifically hybridize under stringent conditions to the desired mRNA or genomic DNA. Other suitable probes for use in the diagnostic assays encompassed by the present invention are described herein.

[0130] The term "biological sample" is intended to include tissues, cells, and biological fluids isolated from a subject, as well as tissues, cells, and biological fluids present within a subject. That is, the detection methods encompassed by the present invention can be used to detect Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) mRNA, protein, or genomic DNA in a biological sample in vitro and in vivo. For example, in vitro techniques for detection of mRNA include Northern hybridization and in situ hybridization. In vitro techniques for detection of protein include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence. In vitro techniques for detection of genomic DNA include Southern hybridization. Additionally, in vivo techniques for detection of protein include introducing into a subject a labeled antibody against the desired protein to be detected. For example, the antibody can be labeled with a radioactive marker whose presence and location in the subject can be detected by standard imaging techniques.

[0131] In another embodiment, the method further involves obtaining a control biological sample from a control subject, contacting the control sample with a compound or agent capable of detecting protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA such that the presence of the desired protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA is detected in the biological sample, and comparing the presence of the protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA in the control sample to the presence of the protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA in the test sample.

[0132] Analysis of one or more polymorphic regions of the nucleic acid of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in a subject may be useful for predicting whether the subject has or is likely to develop a condition that may benefit from a reduction in the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in the subject's cells. In some embodiments, the methods encompassed by the present invention may be characterized as including detecting the presence or absence of a particular allelic variant of one or more polymorphic regions of a gene, such as a premature truncation or stop codon mutation that does not code for a biologically active protein, in a sample of cells from the subject. An allelic difference may be (i) a difference in the identity of at least one nucleotide, or (ii) a difference in the number of nucleotides, which may be a single nucleotide or multiple nucleotides. The present invention also provides a method for detecting a difference in the gene encoding Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), such as a chromosomal rearrangement, e.g., a chromosomal translocation. The present invention may also be used for prenatal diagnosis.

[0133] The detection method can be allele-specific hybridization using a probe that overlaps the polymorphic site and has about 5, 10, 20, 25, or 30 nucleotides around the polymorphic region. In one embodiment encompassed by the present invention, several probes capable of specifically hybridizing to allelic variants are attached to a solid support, e.g., a "chip." Oligonucleotides can be attached to the solid support by various processes, including lithography. For example, the chip can hold up to 250,000 oligonucleotides (GeneChip, Affymetrix). Mutation detection analysis using these chips containing oligonucleotides, also called "DNA probe arrays," is described, for example, in Cronin et al. (1996) Human Mutation 7:244. In one embodiment, the chip contains all the allelic variants of at least one polymorphic region of a gene. The solid support is then contacted with a test nucleic acid, and hybridization to the specific probes is detected. Thus, the identity of multiple allelic variants of one or more genes can be identified in a simple hybridization experiment. For example, the identity of an allelic variant of a nucleotide polymorphism in a 5' upstream regulatory element can be determined in a single hybridization experiment.

[0134] Other detection methods require first amplifying at least a portion of the nucleic acid before identifying the allelic variant. Amplification can be performed, for example, by PCR and / or LCR according to methods known in the art (see Wu and Wallace, (1989) Genomics 4:560). In one embodiment, the genomic DNA of the cell is exposed to two PCR primers and amplification for a sufficient number of cycles to produce the required amount of amplified DNA. In some embodiments, the primers are located 150-350 base pairs apart.

[0135] Alternative amplification methods include self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli, JC et al., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878), transcription amplification systems (Kwoh, DY et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1173-1177), Q-beta replicase (Lizardi, PM et al., 1988, Bio / Technology 6:1197), and self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli et al., (1989) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 87:1874), and nucleic acid-based sequence amplification (NaBSA), or any other nucleic acid amplification method, followed by detection of the amplified molecules using techniques well known to those skilled in the art. These detection schemes are particularly useful for detection of nucleic acid molecules when they are present in very low numbers.

[0136] In one embodiment, any of a variety of sequencing reactions known in the art may be used to directly sequence at least a portion of the Fndc5-encoding gene or the irisin-encoding gene, or portions thereof, and detect allelic variants (e.g., mutations) by comparing the sequence of the sample sequence to the corresponding reference (control) sequence. Exemplary sequencing reactions include those based on the technology developed by Maxam and Gilbert (Proc. Natl Acad Sci USA (1977) 74:560) or Sanger (Sanger et al. (1977) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci 74:5463). Sequencing by mass spectrometry (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,835 and International Patent Application Publication No. WO 94 / 16101, entitled "DNA Sequencing by Mass Spectrometry" by H. Koster; U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,835 and International Patent Application Publication No. WO 94 / 21822, entitled "DNA Sequencing by Mass Spectrometry Via Exonuclease Degradation" by H. Koster) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,605,798 and International Patent Application No. PCT / US96 / 03651, entitled "DNA Diagnostics Based on Mass Spectrometry" by H. Koster; Cohen et al. (1996) Adv Chromatogr 36:127-162; and Griffin et al. (1993) Appl. It is also contemplated that any of a variety of automated sequencing procedures may be utilized in performing the subject assays, including automated sequencing procedures (Biotechniques (1995) 19:448), including automated sequencing procedures (Biochem Biotechnol 38:147-159). In certain embodiments, it will be apparent to one of skill in the art that the occurrence of only one, two or three of the nucleic acid bases need to be determined in the sequencing reaction. For example, where only one nucleotide is to be detected, e.g., A-track, etc. may be performed.

[0137] Still other sequencing methods are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,732, entitled "Method of DNA sequencing employing a mixed DNA-polymer chain probe," and U.S. Pat. No. 5,571,676, entitled "Method for mismatch-directed in vitro DNA sequencing."

[0138] In some cases, the presence of a particular allele of a gene encoding Fndc5 or irisin in DNA from a subject can be demonstrated by restriction enzyme analysis. For example, a particular nucleotide polymorphism can result in a nucleotide sequence that contains a restriction site that is not present in the nucleotide sequence of another allelic variant.

[0139] In further embodiments, protection from cleavage agents (such as nucleases, hydroxylamine, or osmium tetroxide, and with piperidine) may be used to detect mismatched bases in RNA / RNA DNA / DNA, or RNA / DNA heteroduplexes (Myers, et al. (1985) Science 230:1242). In general, the technique of "mismatch cleavage" begins with providing a heteroduplex formed by hybridizing a sample nucleic acid, e.g., RNA or DNA, obtained from a tissue sample with an optionally labeled control nucleic acid, e.g., RNA or DNA, that contains the nucleotide sequence of an Fndc5 allelic variant. The double-stranded duplex is treated with an agent that cleaves single-stranded regions of the duplex, such as duplexes formed based on base pair mismatches between the control and sample strands. For example, the RNA / DNA duplex can be treated with RNase and the DNA / DNA hybrid can be treated with S1 nuclease to enzymatically digest the mismatched regions. In other embodiments, either the DNA / DNA duplex or the RNA / DNA duplex may be treated with hydroxylamine or osmium tetroxide and piperidine to digest mismatched regions. After digesting the mismatched regions, the resulting material is then separated by size on a denaturing polyacrylamide gel to determine whether the control and sample nucleic acids have the same nucleotide sequence or whether they are different nucleotides. See, for example, Cotton et al. (1988) Proc. Natl Acad Sci USA 85:4397; Saleeba et al. (1992) Methods Enzymol. 217:286-295. In one embodiment, the control or sample nucleic acid is labeled for detection.

[0140] In another embodiment, allelic variants may be identified by denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) (Oefner and Underhill (1995) Am. J. Human Gen. 57:Suppl. A266). DHPLC uses reversed-phase ion-pair chromatography to detect heteroduplexes generated during amplification of PCR fragments from individuals who are heterozygous at specific nucleotide loci within the fragment (Oefner and Underhill (1995) Am. J. Human Gen. 57:Suppl. A266). Generally, PCR products are produced using PCR primers that flank the DNA of interest. DHPLC analysis is performed and the resulting chromatogram is analyzed to identify base pair changes or deletions based on specific chromatographic profiles (see O'Donovan et al. (1998) Genomics 52:44-49).

[0141] In other embodiments, alterations in electrophoretic mobility are used to identify the type of desired allelic variant. For example, single-stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) can be used to detect the difference in electrophoretic mobility between mutant and wild-type nucleic acids (see also Orita et al. (1989) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci USA 86:2766; Cotton (1993) Mutat Res 285:125-144; and Hayashi (1992) Genet Anal Tech Appl 9:73-79). Single-stranded DNA fragments of sample and control nucleic acids can be denatured and renatured. The secondary structure of single-stranded nucleic acids varies with sequence, and the resulting alterations in electrophoretic mobility allow even single base changes to be detected. DNA fragments can be labeled or detected with labeled probes. The sensitivity of the assay can be enhanced by using RNA (rather than DNA), whose secondary structure is more sensitive to sequence changes. In another embodiment, the subject method utilizes heteroduplex analysis to separate double-stranded heteroduplex molecules based on alterations in electrophoretic mobility (Keen et al. (1991) Trends Genet 7:5).

[0142] In yet another embodiment, the identity of the allelic variant of a polymorphic region is obtained by analyzing the migration of the nucleic acid containing the polymorphic region in a polyacrylamide gel with a gradient of a denaturing agent and is assayed using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) (Myers et al. (1985) Nature 313:495). When DGGE is used as the analysis method, the DNA is modified to ensure that it does not completely denature, for example, by adding a GC clamp of approximately 40 bp of high melting temperature GC-rich DNA by PCR. In a further embodiment, a temperature gradient is used instead of a denaturing agent gradient to identify the difference in mobility between control and sample DNA (Rosenbaum and Reissner (1987) Biophys Chem 265:1275).

[0143] Examples of techniques for detecting at least one nucleotide difference between two nucleic acids include, but are not limited to, selective oligonucleotide hybridization, selective amplification, or selective primer extension.For example, an oligonucleotide probe may be prepared with a known polymorphic nucleotide located at the center (allele-specific probe), and then hybridized to target DNA under conditions that allow hybridization only if a perfect match is found (Saiki et al. (1986) Nature 324:163; Saiki et al. (1989) Proc. Natl Acad. Sci USA 86:6230; and Wallace et al. (1979) Nucl. Acids Res. 6:3543).Such allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization techniques can be used for the simultaneous detection of several nucleotide changes in different polymorphic regions of genes encoding Fndc5 or irisin. For example, an oligonucleotide having the nucleotide sequence of a particular allelic variant is attached to a hybridization membrane, which is then hybridized with a labeled sample nucleic acid. Analysis of the hybridization signal then reveals the identity of the nucleotides in the sample nucleic acid.

[0144] Alternatively, allele-specific amplification techniques that rely on selective PCR amplification can be used in conjunction with the present invention. The oligonucleotides used as primers for specific amplification can carry the allele variant of interest in the center of the molecule (so that amplification depends on differential hybridization) (Gibbs et al. (1989) Nucleic Acids Res. 17: 2437-2448), or at the 3'-most side of one primer, where mismatches block or reduce polymerase extension under appropriate conditions (Prossner (1993) Tibtech 11: 238; Newton et al. (1989) Nucl. Acids Res. 17: 2503). This technique is also called "PROBE" for Probe Oligo Base Extension. In addition, it may be desirable to introduce a novel restriction site in the region of the mutation to perform cleavage-based detection (Gasparini et al. (1992) Mol. Cell Probes 6:1).

[0145] In another embodiment, the identification of allelic variants is carried out using oligonucleotide ligation assay (OLA), for example as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,998,617 and Landegren, U. et al., (1988) Science 241:1077-1080. The OLA protocol uses two oligonucleotides designed to hybridize to adjacent sequences of a single strand of a target. One of the oligonucleotides is linked to a separation marker, e.g., biotinylated, and the other is detectably labeled. If the exact complementary sequence is found in the target molecule, the oligonucleotides hybridize with their ends adjacent, creating a ligation substrate. Ligation then allows the labeled oligonucleotide to be recovered using avidin, or another biotin ligand. Nickerson, DA et al. describe a nucleic acid detection assay that combines attributes of PCR and OLA (Nickerson, DA et al., (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 87:8923-8927. In this method, PCR is used to achieve exponential amplification of target DNA, which is then detected using OLA.

[0146] Several techniques based on this OLA method have been developed and can be used to detect specific allelic variants of polymorphic regions of the Fndc5 gene. For example, US Patent No. 5,593,826 discloses an OLA that uses an oligonucleotide with a 3'-amino group and a 5'-phosphorylated oligonucleotide to form a conjugate with a phosphoramidate bond. In another variety of OLA described by Tobe et al. ((1996) Nucleic Acids Res 24:3728), OLA combined with PCR allows typing of two alleles in a single microtiter well. By marking each of the allele-specific primers with unique haptens, namely digoxigenin and fluorescein, each OLA reaction can be detected by using hapten-specific antibodies labeled with different enzyme reporters, alkaline phosphatase, or horseradish peroxidase. This system allows the detection of two alleles using a high-throughput format that leads to the production of two different colors.

[0147] The present invention further provides methods for detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms in the gene encoding Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Because single nucleotide polymorphisms constitute mutation sites adjacent to regions of invariant sequence, their analysis requires no more than the determination of the identity of a single nucleotide present at the mutation site, and does not require the determination of the complete gene sequence for each subject. Several methods have been developed to facilitate the analysis of such single nucleotide polymorphisms.

[0148] In one embodiment, single nucleotide polymorphisms may be detected by using specific exonuclease-resistant nucleotides, as disclosed, for example, in Mundy, CR (U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127). According to this method, a primer complementary to the allelic sequence immediately 3' to the polymorphic site is allowed to hybridize to a target molecule obtained from a particular animal or human. If the polymorphic site on the target molecule contains a nucleotide complementary to the particular exonuclease-resistant nucleotide derivative present, that derivative is incorporated at the end of the hybridized primer. Such incorporation renders the primer resistant to exonucleases, thereby allowing its detection. Since the identity of the exonuclease-resistant derivative of the sample is known, the finding that the primer has become resistant to exonucleases reveals that the nucleotide present at the polymorphic site of the target molecule is complementary to that of the nucleotide derivative used in the reaction. This method has the advantage that it does not require the determination of large amounts of unrelated sequence data.

[0149] In another embodiment encompassed by the present invention, a solution-based method is used to determine the identity of the nucleotide at a polymorphic site (Cohen, D. et al. (French Patent 2,650,840; PCT Application WO 91 / 02087). Like the Mundy method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127, a primer is used that is complementary to the allelic sequence immediately 3' to the polymorphic site. This method determines the identity of the nucleotide at that site using a labeled dideoxynucleotide derivative that becomes incorporated onto the end of the primer if it is complementary to the nucleotide at the polymorphic site.

[0150] An alternative method known as Genetic Bit Analysis or GBA is described by Goelet, P. et al. (PCT Application No. 92 / 15712). The method of Goelet, P. et al. uses a mixture of labeled terminators and primers complementary to the sequence 3' of the polymorphic site. The labeled terminators incorporated are therefore determined by and complementary to the nucleotides present at the polymorphic site of the target molecule being evaluated. In contrast to the method of Cohen et al. (FR 2,650,840, PCT Application No. WO 91 / 02087), the method of Goelet, P. et al. is in some embodiments a heterogeneous phase assay in which the primers or the target molecule are immobilized on a solid phase.

[0151] Several primer-directed nucleotide incorporation procedures for assaying polymorphic sites in DNA have been described (Komher, J Set al., Nucl. Acids. Res. 17:7779-7784 (1989); Sokolov, B. P., Nucl. Acids Res. 18:3671 (1990); Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Genomics 8:684-692 (1990); Kuppuswamy, M Net al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 88:1143-1147 (1991); Prezant, T. R. et al., Hum. Mutat. 1:159-164 (1992); Ugozzoli, L. et al., GATA 9:107-112 (1992); Nyren, P. et al., GATA 9:107-112 (1992); al., Anal. Biochem. 208:171-175 (1993)). These methods differ from GBA in that they all rely on the incorporation of labeled deoxynucleotides to distinguish bases at polymorphic sites. In such formats, signal is proportional to the number of deoxynucleotides incorporated, so that polymorphisms occurring at the same nucleotide orientation can result in a signal proportional to the orientation length (Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Amer. J. Hum. Genet. 52:46-59 (1993)).

[0152] Other methods than those described above may be used to determine the identity of the allelic variant of the polymorphic region located in the coding region of the gene encoding Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). For example, the identification of the allelic variant encoding a mutated protein can be performed by using an antibody that specifically recognizes the mutant protein, for example, in immunohistochemistry or immunoprecipitation. Antibodies against wild-type Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or mutant forms of such proteins, can be prepared according to methods known in the art.

[0153] Antibodies directed against reference or mutant Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) may also be used for disease diagnosis and prognosis. Such antibodies are well known in the art (see, for example, antibody LS-C166197 from Lifespan Bioscienes, antibody AG-25B-0027 from Adipogen, antibody HPA051290 from Atlas Antibodies, antibody PAN576Hu02 from UscnLifescienes, antibody OACD03594 from Aviva Systems Biology, antibody NBP2-14024 from Novus Biologicals, etc.). In addition, such diagnostic methods may be used to detect abnormalities in the expression levels of such polypeptides, or abnormalities in the structure and / or tissue, cellular, or subcellular location of such polypeptides. Structural differences may include, for example, differences in size, electronegativity, or antigenicity of the mutant polypeptide compared to the normal polypeptide. Proteins from the tissue or cell type being analyzed can be easily detected or isolated using techniques well known to those of skill in the art, including, but not limited to, Western blot analysis. For a detailed description of methods for performing Western blot analysis, see Sambrook et al., 1989, supra, at Chapter 18. Protein detection and isolation methods used herein can also be those described in Harlow and Lane, e.g., (Harlow, E. and Lane, D., 1988, "Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

[0154] This may be achieved, for example, by immunofluorescence techniques using fluorescently labeled antibodies (see below) combined with light microscopy, flow cytometry, or fluorimetric detection. The antibodies (or fragments thereof) useful according to the present invention may additionally be used histologically, such as immunofluorescence or immunoelectron microscopy, for in situ detection of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin). In situ detection may be achieved by removing a histological specimen from a subject and applying thereto a labeled antibody of the present invention. The antibody (or fragment) may be applied by overlaying the labeled antibody (or fragment) on the biological sample. By using such a procedure, it is possible to determine not only the presence of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin), but also its distribution in the examined tissue. Using the present invention, the skilled artisan will readily recognize that any of a variety of histological methods (e.g., staining procedures) may be modified to achieve such in situ detection.

[0155] In many cases, a solid phase support or carrier is used as a support capable of binding an antigen or antibody. Well-known supports or carriers include glass, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, dextran, nylon, amylase, natural and modified cellulose, polyacrylamide, gabbro, and magnetite. The nature of the carrier can be soluble to some extent or insoluble for the purposes encompassed by the present invention. The support material can have virtually any possible structural configuration so long as the coupled molecule is capable of binding to the antigen or antibody. Thus, the configuration of the support can be spherical, such as beads, or cylindrical, such as the inner surface of a test tube, or the outer surface of a rod. Alternatively, the surface can be flat, such as a sheet, test strip, etc. Supports include, but are not limited to, polystyrene beads. Those skilled in the art will know many other suitable carriers for binding antibodies or antigens, or will be able to ascertain such by use of routine experimentation.

[0156] One means for labeling antibodies is via linkage to an enzyme for use in an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Voller, "The Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)", Diagnostic Horizons 2:1-7, 1978, Microbiological Associates Quarterly Publication, Walkersville, MD; Voller, et al., J. Clin. Pathol. 31:507-520 (1978); Butler, Meth. Enzymol. 73:482-523 (1981); Maggio, (ed.) Enzyme Immunoassay, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1980; Ishikawa, et al., (eds.) Enzyme Immunoassay, Kugaku Shoin, Tokyo, 1981). The enzyme bound to the antibody reacts with an appropriate substrate, such as a chromogenic substrate, in such a way as to produce a chemical moiety that can be detected, for example, by spectrophotometric, fluorometric, or visual means. Enzymes that can be used to detectably label the antibody include, but are not limited to, malate dehydrogenase, staphylococcal nuclease, delta-5-steroid isomerase, yeast alcohol dehydrogenase, alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, triose phosphate isomerase, horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, asparaginase, glucose oxidase, beta-galactosidase, ribonuclease, urease, catalase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, glucoamylase, and acetylcholinesterase. Detection can be achieved by colorimetric methods using a chromogenic substrate for the enzyme. Detection can also be achieved by visual comparison of the extent of enzymatic reaction of the substrate in comparison with similarly prepared standards.

[0157] Detection can also be accomplished using any of a variety of other immunoassays. For example, by radioactively labeling an antibody or antibody fragment, it is possible to detect fingerprint gene wild-type or mutant peptides by using radioimmunoassays (RIA) (see, for example, Weintraub, B., Principles of Radioimmunoassays, Seventh Training Course on Radioligand Assay Techniques, The Endocrine Society, March, 1986, which is incorporated herein by reference). Radioisotopes can be detected by such means as the use of a gamma counter or scintillation counter, or by autoradiography.

[0158] It is also possible to label an antibody with a fluorescent compound. When a fluorescently labeled antibody is exposed to light of the appropriate wavelength, its presence can be detected due to fluorescence. The most commonly used fluorescent labeling compounds include fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, o-phthaldehyde, and fluorescamine. Antibodies can also be labeled with 152 Fluorescent metals, such as Eu, or others of the lanthanide series, may be used to detectably label the antibodies. These metals may be attached to the antibodies using, for example, metal chelating groups such as diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).

[0159] An antibody can also be detectably labeled by coupling the antibody to a chemiluminescent compound. The presence of the chemiluminescent-tagged antibody is then determined by detecting the presence of luminescence that arises during the course of a chemical reaction. Examples of particularly useful chemiluminescent labeling compounds are luminol, isoluminol, theromatic acridinium ester, imidazole, acridinium salt, and oxalate ester.

[0160] Similarly, a bioluminescent compound may be used to label an antibody encompassed by the present invention. Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence found in biological systems in which a catalytic protein increases the efficiency of the chemiluminescent reaction. The presence of a bioluminescent protein is determined by detecting the presence of luminescence. Important bioluminescent compounds for purposes of labeling are luciferin, luciferase, and aequorin.

[0161] If the polymorphic region is located within an exon in either the coding or non-coding portion of the gene, the identity of the allelic variant can be determined by determining the molecular structure of the mRNA, pre-mRNA, or cDNA, which can be determined using any of the methods described above for determining the molecular structure of genomic DNA.

[0162] The methods described herein can be carried out, for example, by utilizing a prepackaged diagnostic kit, such as those described above, that includes at least one probe or primer nucleic acid described herein, which can be conveniently used to determine whether a subject has or is at risk of developing a disease associated with a particular allelic variant of interest. The sample nucleic acid analyzed by any of the diagnostic and prognostic methods described above can be obtained from any cell type or tissue of the subject. For example, the subject's body fluid (e.g., blood) can be obtained by known techniques (e.g., venipuncture). Alternatively, nucleic acid testing can be performed on a dried sample (e.g., hair or skin). A fetal nucleic acid sample can be obtained from the mother's blood, as described in International Patent Application WO91 / 07660 to Bianchi. Alternatively, amniotic fluid corpuscles or chorionic villi can be obtained to perform prenatal testing.

[0163] Diagnostic procedures can also be performed in situ directly on tissue sections (fixed and / or frozen) of the tissue of interest obtained from biopsy or resection, such that no nucleic acid purification is required. Nucleic acid reagents can be used as probes and / or primers for such in situ procedures (see, e.g., Nuovo, GJ, 1992, PCR in situ hybridization: protocols and applications, Raven Press, NY).

[0164] In addition to methods that primarily focus on the detection of a single nucleic acid sequence, profiles can also be evaluated in such detection schemes. Fingerprint profiles can be generated, for example, by utilizing differential display procedures, Northern analysis and / or RT-PCR.

[0165] B. Monitoring Efficacy During Clinical Trials The present invention further provides a method for determining the effectiveness of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), or an enhancer of its expression or activity, in the treatment or prevention of a condition that may benefit from reducing or lowering the level or amount of alpha-synuclein, etc., or assessing the risk of developing such a condition (e.g., a condition disclosed herein). For example, the effectiveness of such an enhancer of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) expression or activity may be monitored in subject clinical trials. In such clinical trials, for example, the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) involved in the expression pathway of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be used as a "readout" or marker of a particular cellular phenotype.

[0166] For example, but not limited to, genes including Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) that are regulated in cells by treatment with an agent that increases the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be identified. Thus, to study the effect of an agent that increases the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in a subject suffering from or at risk of developing a condition, an agent used as a prophylactic agent (e.g., clinical trial), cells may be isolated, RNA prepared, and analyzed for the expression or activity level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), and other genes involved in the pathway of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). The level of gene expression (e.g., gene expression pattern) may be quantified by Northern blot analysis or RT-PCR as described herein, or alternatively, by measuring the amount of protein produced by one of the methods described herein, or by measuring the level of activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). In this manner, the gene expression pattern may serve as a marker indicative of the physiological response of cells to an agent that increases the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). This response state may be determined at various times before and during treatment of an individual with an agent that increases the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin).

[0167] In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for monitoring the effectiveness of treatment of a subject with an agent (e.g., an agonist, antagonist, peptidomimetic, protein, peptide, nucleic acid, siRNA, or small molecule identified by a screening assay described herein) that increases expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), comprising the steps of: (i) obtaining a pre-administration sample from the subject prior to administration of the agent, such as a sample comprising cancer cells or neuronal cells; (ii) detecting the level of expression of Fndc5 or irisin protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA in the pre-administration sample; and (i) detecting the level of expression of Fndc5 or irisin protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA in the pre-administration sample. (ii) obtaining one or more post-administration samples from the subject; (iv) detecting the level of expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in the post-administration sample, for example by analyzing protein, mRNA, or genomic DNA; (v) comparing the level of expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in the pre-administration sample with the level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in the post-administration sample or multiple post-administration samples; and (vi) modifying administration of the agent to the subject accordingly. For example, it may be desirable to increase the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to a level higher than that detected, i.e., to increase the efficacy of the agent. According to such an embodiment, the expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may be used as an indicator of the efficacy of the agent even in the absence of an observable phenotypic response.

[0168] VI. Isolated Nucleic Acids, Polypeptides, Antibodies, Vectors, and Host Cells Useful for the Methods Described Herein Nucleic acids, polypeptides, vectors, and host cells related to Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (eg, irisin) are useful for practicing the methods described herein.

[0169] Isolated nucleic acid molecules encoding Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) are well known in the art. As used herein, the term "nucleic acid molecule" is intended to include DNA molecules (i.e., cDNA or genomic DNA) and RNA molecules (i.e., mRNA), as well as analogs of DNA or RNA produced using nucleotide analogs. Nucleic acid molecules can be single-stranded or double-stranded. An "isolated" nucleic acid molecule is one that is separated from other nucleic acid molecules present in the natural source of the nucleic acid. In some embodiments, an "isolated" nucleic acid does not include sequences that naturally flank the nucleic acid in the genomic DNA of the organism from which the nucleic acid is derived (i.e., sequences located at the 5' and 3' ends of the nucleic acid). For example, in various embodiments, an isolated Fndc5 nucleic acid molecule can include less than about 5 kb, 4 kb, 3 kb, 2 kb, 1 kb, 0.5 kb, or 0.1 kb of nucleotide sequences that naturally flank the nucleic acid molecule in the genomic DNA of the cell from which the nucleic acid is derived (i.e., brown adipocyte). Moreover, an "isolated" nucleic acid molecule, e.g., a cDNA molecule, can be substantially free of other cellular material, or culture medium if produced by recombinant techniques, or chemical precursors or other chemicals if chemically synthesized.

[0170] Nucleic acid molecules encompassed by the present invention, for example, nucleic acid molecules having a nucleotide sequence that is at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% or more (e.g., about 98%) homologous to the nucleotide sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15, or a portion thereof (i.e., 100, 200, 300, 400, 450, 500, or more nucleotides) set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15, can be isolated using standard molecular biology techniques and the sequence information provided herein. For example, human Fndc5 cDNA can be isolated from human cell lines using all or a portion of SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or fragments thereof, as a hybridization probe and standard hybridization techniques (i.e., as described in Sambrook, J., Fritsh, EF, and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd, ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989). Furthermore, a nucleic acid molecule comprising all or a portion of SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a nucleotide sequence that is at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% or more homologous to the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof, can be isolated by polymerase chain reaction using oligonucleotide primers designed based on the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof, or a homologous nucleotide sequence thereof.For example, mRNA may be isolated from the cells disclosed herein (i.e., by the guanidinium-thiocyanate extraction procedure of Chirgwin et al. (1979) Biochemistry 18:5294-5299) and cDNA may be prepared using reverse transcriptase (i.e., Moloney MLV reverse transcriptase available from Gibco / BRL, Bethesda, MD; or AMV reverse transcriptase available from Seikagaku America, Inc., St. Petersburg, FL). Synthetic oligonucleotide primers for PCR amplification may be designed based on the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or fragments thereof, or homologous nucleotide sequences. Nucleic acids encompassed by the invention may be amplified using cDNA or alternatively genomic DNA as a template and appropriate oligonucleotide primers according to standard PCR amplification techniques. Nucleic acids so amplified may be cloned into an appropriate vector and characterized by DNA sequence analysis. Furthermore, oligonucleotides corresponding to Fndc5 nucleotide sequences can be prepared by standard synthetic techniques, ie, using an automated DNA synthesizer.

[0171] Probes based on the Fndc5 nucleotide sequence may be used to detect transcripts or genomic sequences encoding the same or homologous proteins. In certain embodiments, the probe further comprises a label group attached thereto, i.e., the label group may be a radioisotope, a fluorescent compound, an enzyme, or an enzyme cofactor. Such probes may be used as part of a diagnostic test kit to identify cells or tissues expressing Fndc5 protein, for example, by measuring the level of Fndc5-encoding nucleic acid in a sample of cells from a subject, i.e., by detecting Fndc5 mRNA levels.

[0172] Nucleic acid molecules encoding other Fndc5 members and thus having a nucleotide sequence that differs from the Fndc5 sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or fragments thereof, are contemplated. Additionally, nucleic acid molecules encoding Fndc5 proteins from different species and thus having a nucleotide sequence that differs from the Fndc5 sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15 are also intended to be within the scope of the present invention. For example, a rat or monkey Fndc5 cDNA can be identified based on the nucleotide sequence of human and / or mouse Fndc5.

[0173] In one embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule(s) encompassed by the invention encode a protein or portion thereof comprising an amino acid sequence sufficiently homologous to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or a fragment thereof, such that the protein or portion thereof increases one or more of the following biological activities: 1) expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), 2) activity-induced immediate early gene expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), 3) preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia in a subject in need thereof, or 4) reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell.

[0174] As used herein, the language "sufficiently homologous" refers to a protein or portion thereof having an amino acid sequence that includes a minimum number of amino acid residues identical or equivalent to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or a fragment thereof (e.g., amino acid residues having a similar side chain as the amino acid residues of SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or a fragment thereof), such that the protein or portion thereof increases one or more of the following biological activities: 1) expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 2) activity-induced immediate early gene expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 3) preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia in a subject in need thereof; or 4) reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell.

[0175] In another embodiment, the protein is at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more homologous to the entire amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof.

[0176] A portion of the protein encoded by the Fndc5 or irisin nucleic acid molecule is a biologically active fragment of Fndc5. As used herein, the term "biologically active portion" is intended to include a portion of Fndc5 (e.g., a domain / motif) that has one or more of the biological activities of the full-length Fndc5 protein, for example, as listed above.

[0177] Standard binding assays, such as immunoprecipitation and yeast two-hybrid assays described herein, or functional assays, such as RNAi or overexpression experiments, may be performed to determine the ability of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to retain the biological activity of the full-length Fndc5 protein.

[0178] The present invention further encompasses nucleic acid molecules which differ from the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof, due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, and therefore which encode the same Fndc5, or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), as that encoded by the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15. In another embodiment, an isolated nucleic acid molecule encompassed by the invention has a nucleotide sequence encoding a protein having an amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof, or an amino acid sequence that is at least about 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more homologous to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof, or a fragment thereof, or a protein that differs by at least 1, 2, 3, 5 or 10 amino acids, but not more than 30, 20, 15 amino acids, from SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 or irisin polypeptide consists of a nucleic acid sequence encoding a portion of a full-length Fndc5 or irisin fragment of interest having an amino acid length less than 195, 190, 185, 180, 175, 170, 165, 160, 155, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, or 70 amino acids in length.

[0179] It will be understood by those skilled in the art that DNA sequence polymorphisms that result in changes in the amino acid sequence of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) may exist within a population (e.g., a mammalian population, e.g., a human population). Such genetic polymorphisms in the Fndc5 gene may exist among individuals within a population due to natural allelic diversity. As used herein, the terms "gene" and "recombinant gene" refer to a nucleic acid molecule that includes an open reading frame encoding an Fndc5 or irisin protein, e.g., a mammalian (e.g., human) Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Such natural allelic diversity may typically result in 1-5% variation in the nucleotide sequence of the Fndc5 gene. Any and all such nucleotide variations and resulting amino acid polymorphisms in Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) that are the result of natural, naturally occurring allelic variation and that do not alter the functional activity of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) are intended to be within the scope encompassed by the present invention. Additionally, nucleic acid molecules encoding Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) from other species, and thus having nucleotide sequences that differ from the human or mouse sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, or 7, are intended to be within the scope encompassed by the present invention. Nucleic acid molecules corresponding to naturally occurring allelic variants and homologs of the human or mouse cDNA of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention may be isolated based on their homology to the human or mouse nucleic acid sequences of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) disclosed herein using the human or mouse cDNA, or portions thereof, as hybridization probes by standard hybridization techniques under stringent hybridization conditions (as described herein).

[0180] In addition to naturally occurring allelic variants of the sequence of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) that may be present in a population, one of skill in the art will further understand that changes may be introduced by mutation into the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or a fragment thereof, thereby resulting in a change in the amino acid sequence of the encoded Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) without altering the functional capability of the Fndc5 or irisin protein. For example, nucleotide substitutions resulting in amino acid substitutions at "non-essential" amino acid residues can be made in the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or a fragment thereof. A "non-essential" amino acid residue is one that can be altered from the wild-type sequence of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof) without altering the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), whereas an "essential" amino acid residue is required for the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). However, other amino acid residues (e.g., amino acid residues that are not conserved or are only semi-conserved between mouse and human) may not be essential for activity and thus are likely to be amenable to modification without altering the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Additionally, amino acid residues that are essential for the function of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in the context of the methods described herein, but are not essential for Fndc5 function related to thermogenesis, gluconeogenesis, cellular metabolism, etc., are likely to be amenable to modification.

[0181] Thus, another aspect encompassed by the present invention relates to nucleic acid molecules encoding Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) that contain changes in amino acid residues that are not essential for the activity of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin). Such proteins differ in amino acid sequence from SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or fragments thereof, but retain at least one activity of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) as described herein. In one embodiment, an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a protein, wherein the protein lacks one or more domains (e.g., fibronectin, extracellular, signal peptide, hydrophobic, and / or C-terminal domains) of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin).

[0182] "Sequence identity or homology" as used herein refers to the sequence similarity between two polypeptide molecules or two nucleic acid molecules. If a position in both of the two compared sequences is occupied by the same base or amino acid monomer subunit, for example, if a position in each of the two DNA molecules is occupied by adenine, then the molecules are homologous or sequence identical at that position. The percentage of homology or sequence identity between two sequences is a function of the number of matching or homologous identical positions shared by the two sequences divided by the number of positions compared, multiplied by 100. For example, if 6 out of 10 positions in two sequences are the same, the two sequences are 60% homologous or have 60% sequence identity. As an example, the DNA sequences ATTGCC and TATGGC share 50% homology or sequence identity. Generally, the comparison is performed when the two sequences are aligned to give maximum homology. Unless otherwise specified, "loop-out regions," e.g., resulting from deletions or insertions in one of the sequences, are counted as mismatches.

[0183] The comparison of sequences and the determination of percent homology between two sequences may be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm. In one embodiment, the alignment may be performed using the Clustal Method. The multiple alignment parameters include GAP Penalty=10, Gap Length Penalty=10. For DNA alignments, the pairwise alignment parameters may be Htuple=2, Gap penalty=5, Window=4, and Diagonals saved=4. For protein alignments, the pairwise alignment parameters may be Ktuple=1, Gap penalty=3, Window=5, and Diagonals Saved=5.

[0184] In one embodiment, the percent identity between two amino acid sequences is determined using the Needleman and Wunsch (J. Mol. Biol. (48): 444-453 (1970)) algorithm implemented in the GAP program in the GCG software package (available online) using either a Blossom62 matrix or a PAM250 matrix, and gap weights of 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, or 4, and length weights of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In yet another embodiment, the percent identity between two nucleotide sequences is determined using the GAP program in the GCG software package (available online) using a NWSgapdna.CMP matrix, gap weights of 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80, and length weights of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In another embodiment, the percent identity between two amino acid or nucleotide sequences is determined using the algorithm of E. Meyers and W. Miller (CABIOS, 4:11-17 (1989)) as implemented in the ALIGN program (version 2.0) (available online), using a PAM120 weight residue table, a gap length penalty of 12, and a gap penalty of 4.

[0185] An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) homologous to the protein of SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or a fragment thereof, can be generated by introducing one or more nucleotide substitutions, additions, or deletions into the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or a fragment thereof, or a homologous nucleotide sequence such that one or more amino acid substitutions, additions, or deletions are incorporated into the encoded protein. Mutations can be introduced into SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or a fragment thereof, or a homologous nucleotide sequence by standard techniques such as site-directed mutagenesis and PCR-mediated mutagenesis. In one embodiment, conservative amino acid substitutions are made at one or more predicted non-essential amino acid residues. A "conservative amino acid substitution" is one in which an amino acid residue is replaced with an amino acid residue having a similar side chain. Families of amino acid residues having similar side chains are defined in the art. These families include amino acids with basic side chains (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine), acidic side chains (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid), uncharged polar side chains (e.g., glycine, asparagine, glutamine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine), nonpolar side chains (e.g., alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan), bet217-420ranched side chains (e.g., threonine, valine, isoleucine), and aromatic side chains (e.g., tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, histidine). Thus, a predicted non-essential amino acid residue in Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be replaced with another amino acid residue from the same side chain family.Alternatively, in another embodiment, mutations may be introduced randomly along all or part of the coding sequence of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), for example by saturation mutagenesis, and the resulting mutants may be screened for the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) as described herein to identify mutants that retain the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Following mutagenesis of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof, the encoded protein may be recombinantly expressed (as described herein) and the activity of the protein may be determined, for example, using the assays described herein.

[0186] The level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be assessed by any of a wide variety of well-known methods for detecting expression of transcribed molecules or proteins, including, but not limited to, immunological methods for detecting proteins, protein purification methods, protein function or activity assays, nucleic acid hybridization methods, nucleic acid reverse transcription methods, and nucleic acid amplification methods.

[0187] In some embodiments, the level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) is ascertained by measuring gene transcripts (e.g., mRNA), by measuring the amount of translated protein, or by measuring the activity of the gene product. Expression levels can be monitored in a variety of ways, including detecting mRNA levels, protein levels, or protein activity, any of which can be measured using standard techniques. Detection can include quantification of gene expression (e.g., genomic DNA, cDNA, mRNA, protein, or enzyme activity) levels, or alternatively, can be a qualitative assessment of gene expression levels, specifically compared to control levels. The type of level detected will be clear from the context.

[0188] In certain embodiments, the mRNA expression level of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can be determined by both in situ and in vitro formats in biological samples using methods known in the art. The term "biological sample" is intended to include tissues, cells, biological fluids and their isolates isolated from a subject, as well as tissues, cells and fluids present within a subject. Many expression detection methods use isolated RNA. For in vitro methods, any RNA isolation technique that does not select for the isolation of mRNA can be utilized to purify RNA from cells (see, for example, Ausubel et al., ed., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York 1987-1999). In addition, large amounts of tissue samples can be easily processed using techniques well known to those skilled in the art, such as, for example, the one-step RNA isolation process of Chomczynski (1989, U.S. Patent No. 4,843,155).

[0189] The isolated mRNA can be used in hybridization or amplification assays, including, but not limited to, Southern or Northern analysis, polymerase chain reaction analysis, and probe arrays. One diagnostic method for detecting mRNA levels involves contacting the isolated mRNA with a nucleic acid molecule (probe) that can hybridize to the mRNA encoded by the gene to be detected. The nucleic acid probe can be a full-length cDNA or a portion thereof, such as an oligonucleotide of at least 7, 15, 30, 50, 100, 250, or 500 nucleotides in length, sufficient to specifically hybridize under stringent conditions to the mRNA or genomic DNA encoding Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Other suitable probes for use in the diagnostic assays encompassed by the present invention are described herein. Hybridization of the mRNA with the probe indicates that Fndc5 is expressed.

[0190] In one format, mRNA is fixed to a solid surface and contacted with a probe, for example, by running isolated mRNA on an agarose gel and transferring mRNA from the gel to a membrane such as nitrocellulose.In an alternative format, a probe(s) is fixed to a solid surface and mRNA is contacted with a probe(s), for example, in a gene chip array, for example, an Affymetrix™ gene chip array.Those skilled in the art can easily adapt known mRNA detection methods for use in detecting the level of Fndc5 mRNA expression level.

[0191] Alternative methods for determining the mRNA expression level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in a sample include, for example, rtPCR (experimental embodiment shown in Mullis, 1987, U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202), ligase chain reaction (Barany, 1991, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:189-193), self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli et al., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878), transcription amplification systems (Kwoh et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1173-1177), Q-beta replicase (Lizardi et al., 1988, Bio / Technology 6:1197), rolling circle replication (Lizardi et al., 1989, Bio / Technology 6:1197), and the like. al., U.S. Patent No. 5,854,033), or any other nucleic acid amplification method, followed by detection of the amplified molecules using techniques well known to those of skill in the art. These detection schemes are particularly useful for detection of nucleic acid molecules when they are present in very low numbers. As used herein, amplification primers are defined as a pair of nucleic acid molecules that can anneal to the 5' or 3' regions of a gene (the positive and negative strands, respectively, or vice versa) and may contain a short region between them. Generally, amplification primers are about 10-30 nucleotides in length and flank a region about 50-200 nucleotides in length. Under appropriate conditions and with appropriate reagents, such primers allow for the amplification of a nucleic acid molecule that contains the nucleotide sequence flanked by the primers.

[0192] For in situ method, it is not necessary to isolate mRNA from cells before detection.In such method, cell or tissue sample is prepared / processed using known histological method.Then, the sample is fixed on a support, typically a glass slide, and then contacted with the probe that can hybridize to Fndc5 mRNA.

[0193] As an alternative to making a determination based on the absolute expression level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), the determination may be based on the normalized expression level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). The expression level is normalized by correcting the absolute expression level of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) by comparing its expression with that of a gene that is not Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), such as a constitutively expressed housekeeping gene. Suitable genes for normalization include housekeeping genes such as the actin gene, or epithelial cell-specific genes. This normalization allows the expression level in one sample, e.g., a subject sample, to be compared with another sample, e.g., a normal sample, or between samples from different sources.

[0194] The level or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can also be detected and / or quantified by detecting or quantifying the expressed polypeptide. Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be detected and quantified by any of several means well known to those of skill in the art. These may include analytical biochemical methods such as electrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), superdiffusion chromatography, or various immunological methods such as fluid or gel precipitation reactions, immunodiffusion (single or double), immunoelectrophoresis, radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence assay, Western blotting, etc. Those skilled in the art can easily adapt known protein / antibody detection methods for use in determining whether a cell expresses Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin).

[0195] Also provided is a soluble, purified and / or isolated form of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Hereinafter, irisin and fragments thereof are considered to be encompassed within the term "fragment of Fndc5."

[0196] In one aspect, a polypeptide of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can comprise a full-length Fndc5 amino acid sequence, or a full-length Fndc5 amino acid sequence having from 1 to about 20 conservative amino acid substitutions. The amino acid sequence of any Fndc5 polypeptide described herein can also be at least 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 99.5% identical to an Fndc5 polypeptide sequence of interest described herein and known in the art, or a fragment thereof. In addition, any Fndc5 polypeptide described herein, or a fragment thereof, increases one or more of the following biological activities: 1) expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 2) activity-induced immediate early gene expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 3) preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment in a subject in need thereof; or 4) reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell. In another aspect, the present invention contemplates a composition comprising an isolated polypeptide of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) and less than about 25%, or alternatively less than 15%, or alternatively less than 5% of contaminating biopolymers or polypeptides.

[0197] The present invention further provides compositions, e.g., nucleic acids, vectors, host cells, etc., related to producing, detecting, or characterizing Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Such compositions can function as compounds that modulate the expression and / or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), such as antisense nucleic acids.

[0198] In some embodiments, the Fndc5 polypeptide or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) comprises amino acid modifications, post-translational modifications, and / or heterologous amino acid sequences that stabilize the polypeptide and / or increase its half-life. In certain embodiments, the Fndc5 polypeptide or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention may be a fusion protein that includes a domain that increases its solubility and bioavailability and / or facilitates its purification, identification, detection, and / or structural characterization. Exemplary domains include, for example, glutathione S-transferase (GST), protein A, protein G, calmodulin binding peptide, thioredoxin, maltose binding protein, HA, myc, polyarginine, polyHis, polyHis-Asp, or FLAG fusion proteins and tags. Additional exemplary domains include domains that alter protein localization in vivo, such as signal peptides, type III secretion system targeting peptides, transcytosis domains, and nuclear localization signals. In various embodiments, the polypeptide of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragment (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention may include one or more heterologous fusions. The polypeptide may include multiple copies of the same fusion domain, or may include fusions to two or more different domains. Fusions may occur at the N-terminus of the polypeptide, the C-terminus of the polypeptide, or both the N-terminus and C-terminus of the polypeptide. It is also within the scope of the present invention to include a linker sequence between the polypeptide encompassed by the present invention and the fusion domain to facilitate the construction of the fusion protein or to optimize the protein expression or structural constraints of the fusion protein. In one embodiment, the linker is a linker as described herein, e.g., a linker of at least 8, 9, 10, 15, 20 amino acids. The linker may be, for example, an unstructured recombinant polymer (URP), e.g., a URP that is 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20 amino acids in length, i.e., the linker has limited secondary structure or lacks secondary structure, e.g., the Chou-Fasman algorithm.In another embodiment, the polypeptide may be constructed to include a protease cleavage site between the fusion polypeptide encompassed by the invention and the polypeptide for removal of the tag after protein expression or thereafter. Examples of suitable endoproteases include, for example, Factor Xa and TEV protease.

[0199] In some embodiments, the Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be fused to an antibody (e.g., IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4) fragment (e.g., an Fc polypeptide). Techniques for preparing these fusion proteins are known and are described, for example, in WO99 / 31241 and Cosman et.al. (2001) Immunity 14:123-133. Fusion to an Fc polypeptide provides the added advantage of facilitating purification by affinity chromatography on a Protein A or Protein G column.

[0200] In yet another embodiment, Fndc5 polypeptides or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) can be labeled with a fluorescent label to facilitate their detection, purification or structural characterization. In an exemplary embodiment, Fndc5 polypeptides or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention can be fused to heterologous polypeptide sequences that generate detectable fluorescent signals, including, for example, green fluorescent protein (GFP), enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), Renilla Reniformis green fluorescent protein, GFPmut2, GFPuv4, enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP), enhanced blue fluorescent protein (EBFP), citrine, and discosoma-derived red fluorescent protein (dsRED).

[0201] Another aspect encompassed by the present invention relates to the use of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) to raise anti-Fndc5 antibodies, and peptide fragments suitable for use as immunogens. An "isolated" or "purified" protein or biologically active portion thereof is substantially free of cellular material when produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or chemical precursors or other chemicals when chemically synthesized. The language "substantially free of cellular material" includes preparations of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) protein in which the protein is separated from cellular components of the cells in which it is naturally produced or recombinantly produced. In one embodiment, the language "substantially free of cellular material" includes preparations of Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) having less than about 30% (by dry weight) of non-Fndc5 protein (also referred to herein as "contaminating protein"), less than about 20% of non-Fndc5 protein, less than about 10% of non-Fndc5 protein, or less than about 5% of non-Fndc5 protein. When the Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) is recombinantly produced, it is also substantially free of culture medium, i.e., culture medium represents less than about 20%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% of the volume of the protein preparation. The language "substantially free of chemical precursors or other chemicals" includes preparations of Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) in which the protein is separated from chemical precursors or other chemicals involved in the synthesis of the protein. In one embodiment, the language "substantially free of chemical precursors or other chemicals" includes preparations of Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) having less than about 30% (by dry weight) chemical precursors of non-Fndc5 chemicals, less than about 20% chemical precursors of non-Fndc5 chemicals, less than about 10% chemical precursors of non-Fndc5 chemicals, or less than about 5% chemical precursors of non-Fndc5 chemicals. In some embodiments, an isolated protein or biologically active portion thereof is devoid of contaminating proteins from the same animal from which the Fndc5 protein is derived.Typically, such proteins are produced by recombinant expression of, for example, human Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (eg, irisin) in non-human cells.

[0202] In some embodiments, the protein or portion thereof comprises an amino acid sequence sufficiently homologous to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or a fragment thereof, such that the protein or portion thereof maintains one or more of the following biological activities or, in a complex, increases one or more of the following biological activities: 1) expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), 2) activity-induced immediate early gene expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin), 3) preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia in a subject in need thereof, or 4) reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell. The portion of the protein is, in some embodiments, a biologically active portion as described herein. In another embodiment, Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof, or an amino acid sequence that is at least about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more homologous to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14, or a fragment thereof, respectively. In yet another embodiment, the Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) has an amino acid sequence encoded by a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes (e.g., hybridizes under stringent conditions) to the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof, or to a nucleotide sequence that is at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% or more homologous to the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, or a fragment thereof.In some embodiments, the Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention also has at least one of the Fndc5 biological activities or complex-related activities described herein. For example, the Fndc5 protein or biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) encompassed by the present invention comprises an amino acid sequence encoded by a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes (e.g., hybridizes under stringent conditions) to the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, or 15, or a fragment thereof, and increases one or more of the following biological activities: 1) expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 2) activity-induced immediate early gene expression of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin); 3) preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, preventing or alleviating at least one movement disorder, and / or preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of cognitive impairment or dementia in a subject in need thereof; 4) reducing the level or amount of alpha-synuclein in a cell; or 5) expression or activity of at least one biomarker associated with alpha-synucleinopathy or cancer disclosed herein.

[0203] Biologically active portions of Fndc5 proteins include amino acid sequences derived from the amino acid sequence of Fndc5 protein, such as the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14, or fragments thereof, or peptides comprising the amino acid sequence of a full-length Fndc5 protein or a protein homologous to Fndc5 protein, which contains fewer amino acids than a full-length protein homologous to Fndc5 protein and exhibits at least one activity of Fndc5 protein, or complexes thereof. Typically, biologically active portions (e.g., peptides, e.g., peptides that are 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, or more amino acids in length) include domains or motifs, such as a signal peptide, an extracellular domain, a fibronectin domain, a hydrophobic domain, and / or a C-terminal domain. In certain embodiments, biologically active portions of proteins that contain one or more domains / motifs described herein can reduce one of the following: Symptoms of Fndc5 include: 1) resting tremor, e.g., slight tremor in the hands or feet; 2) rigidity (stiffness) of the limbs, neck, or shoulders; 3) difficulty with balance (postural instability); 4) slowness of movement or gradual loss of spontaneous movement (bradykinesia); 6) difficulty standing after sitting; 7) stiffness of the limbs; and 8) slower movements. In some embodiments, a biologically active portion of a protein comprising one or more of the domains / motifs described herein can reduce one of the following: confusion, poor motor coordination, loss of short-term or long-term memory, confusion about identity, or impaired judgment. Additionally, other biologically active portions of the protein that lack other regions can be prepared by recombinant techniques and evaluated for one or more of the activities described herein. In some embodiments, a biologically active portion of an Fndc5 protein comprises one or more selected domains / motifs or portions thereof that have biological activity. In exemplary embodiments, the Fndc5 fragment comprises and / or consists of about amino acids 29-140, 29-150, 30-140, 30-150, 73-140, 73-150, 1-140, 1-150, or any range between residues 1-150 of SEQ ID NO:2.In another embodiment, the Fndc5 fragment consists of a portion of a full-length Fndc5 fragment of interest having an amino acid length less than 195, 190, 185, 180, 175, 170, 165, 160, 155, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, or 70 amino acids in length.

[0204] The protein of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be produced by recombinant DNA technology. For example, a nucleic acid molecule encoding the protein is cloned into an expression vector (as described above), the expression vector is introduced into a host cell (as described above), and the protein of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) is expressed in the host cell. The protein of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can then be isolated from the cell by an appropriate purification scheme using standard protein purification techniques. As an alternative to recombinant expression, the protein Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be chemically synthesized using standard peptide synthesis techniques. Furthermore, the native protein of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) can be isolated from body fluids such as plasma or cells, for example, using an anti-Fndc5 antibody (described further below).

[0205] Also provided are chimeric or fusion proteins of the above-mentioned Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin). As used herein, a "chimeric protein" or "fusion protein" comprises a protein of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) operably linked to a non-Fndc5 polypeptide, such as an Fc domain, an IgG1 Fc domain, an IgG2 Fc domain, an IgG3 Fc domain, and an IgG4 Fc domain, a dimerization domain, an oligomerization domain, an agent that promotes plasma solubility, an albumin, a signal peptide, a peptide tag, a 6-His tag, a thioredoxin tag, a hemagglutinin tag, a GST tag, or an OmpA signal sequence tag. "Fndc5 polypeptide" refers to a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence corresponding to Fndc5, and "non-Fndc5 polypeptide" refers to a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence corresponding to a protein that is not substantially homologous to the Fndc5 protein, such as a protein that is different from the Fndc5 protein and is derived from the same or a different organism, respectively. Within the fusion protein, the term "operably linked" is intended to indicate that the Fndc5 polypeptide and the non-Fndc5 polypeptide are fused in frame to each other. The non-Fndc5 polypeptide may be fused to the N-terminus or C-terminus of the Fndc5 polypeptide, respectively. For example, in one embodiment, the fusion protein is an Fndc5-GST and / or Fndc5-Fc fusion protein, in which the Fndc5 sequence is fused to the N-terminus of a GST or Fc sequence, respectively. Such fusion proteins may facilitate the purification, expression, and / or bioavailability of recombinant Fndc5. In another embodiment, the fusion protein is an Fndc5 protein containing a heterologous signal sequence at its C-terminus. In certain host cells (e.g., mammalian host cells), expression and / or secretion of Fndc5 may be increased by the use of a heterologous signal sequence.

[0206] In some embodiments, chimeric or fusion proteins encompassed by the present invention are produced by standard recombinant DNA techniques. For example, DNA fragments encoding different polypeptide sequences are ligated together in frame, for example, by using blunt or sticky ends for ligation, restriction enzyme digestion to provide suitable ends, filling-in of sticky ends if necessary, alkaline phosphatase treatment to avoid undesired ligation, and enzymatic ligation according to conventional techniques. In another embodiment, the fusion gene can be synthesized by conventional techniques including automated DNA synthesizers. Alternatively, PCR amplification of gene fragments can be performed using anchor primers that provide complementary overhangs between two consecutive gene fragments, which can then be annealed and reamplified to generate a chimeric gene sequence (see, for example, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, eds. Ausubel et al. John Wiley & Sons: 1992). In addition, many expression vectors are commercially available that already encode a fusion moiety (e.g., a GST polypeptide). A nucleic acid encoding Fndc5, or a biologically active fragment thereof (eg, irisin), can be cloned into such an expression vector such that the fusion moiety is linked in-frame to the Fndc5 protein.

[0207] Also provided are homologs of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) that function as either agonists (mimetics) or antagonists of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin). In certain embodiments, agonists and antagonists stimulate or inhibit a subset of the biological activity of the naturally occurring form of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin), respectively. Thus, certain biological effects can be elicited by treatment with a homolog having a limited function. In one embodiment, treatment of a subject with a homolog having a subset of the biological activity of the naturally occurring form of the protein has fewer side effects in the subject compared to treatment with a naturally occurring form of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin).

[0208] Homologs of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) can be generated by mutagenesis, e.g., discrete point mutation or truncation of the protein. As used herein, the term "homolog" refers to a variant form of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin) that acts as an agonist or antagonist of the activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). An agonist can retain substantially the same or a subset of the biological activities of the protein. An antagonist of the protein can inhibit one or more of the activities of the naturally occurring form of the protein, e.g., by competitively binding to downstream or upstream members of the Fndc5 cascade, including Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof (e.g., irisin). Thus, mammalian Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) and homologs thereof encompassed by the present invention can be, for example, either positive or negative regulators of neuronal cell function.

[0209] In an alternative embodiment, homologs of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can be identified by screening a combinatorial library of mutants, e.g., truncation mutants, of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) for agonistic or antagonistic activity. In one embodiment, a variegated library of variants of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) is generated by combinatorial mutagenesis at the nucleic acid level and encoded by a variegated gene library. A variegated library of variants of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can be produced, for example, by enzymatically ligating a mixture of synthetic oligonucleotides to a gene sequence such that a degenerate set of potential sequences of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) can be expressed as individual polypeptides or alternatively as a set of larger fusion proteins that contain the set of sequences therein (e.g., for phage display). There are various methods that can be used to generate a library of potential homologs of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) from degenerate oligonucleotide sequences. Chemical synthesis of degenerate gene sequences can be performed in an automatic DNA synthesizer, and the synthetic genes can then be ligated into an appropriate expression vector. The use of a degenerate set of genes allows the provision of all of the sequences encoding the desired set of potential sequences of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin) in one mixture. Methods for synthesizing degenerate oligonucleotides are known in the art (see, for example, Narang, SA (1983) Tetrahedron 39:3; Itakura et al. (1984) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 53:323; Itakura et al. (1984) Science 198:1056; Ike et al. (1983) Nucleic Acid Res. 11:477).

[0210] In addition, libraries of fragments of Fndc5 can be used to generate a diversified population of Fndc5 fragments for screening and subsequent selection of homologs of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin). In one embodiment, libraries of coding sequence fragments can be generated by treating double-stranded PCR fragments of the coding sequence of Fndc5 or biologically active fragments thereof (e.g., irisin) with nuclease under conditions where nicking occurs only about once per polypeptide, denaturing the double-stranded DNA, renaturing the DNA to form double-stranded DNA that may contain sense / antisense pairs from different nicked products, removing single-stranded portions from the reformed double strands by treatment with S1 nuclease, and ligating the resulting fragment library into an expression vector. This method can result in an expression library that encodes N-terminal, C-terminal, and internal fragments of various sizes of Fndc5 protein.

[0211] Several techniques are known in the art for screening gene products of combinatorial libraries made by point mutation or truncation, and for screening cDNA libraries for gene products with selected properties. Such techniques are adaptable for rapid screening of gene libraries generated by combinatorial mutagenesis of homologs of Fndc5 or its biologically active fragments (e.g., irisin). The most widely used techniques that can be adapted for high-throughput analysis for screening large gene libraries typically include cloning the gene library into a replicable expression vector, transforming appropriate cells with the resulting library of vectors, and expressing the combinatorial genes under conditions where detection of the desired activity facilitates isolation of the vector encoding the gene whose product is detected. Recursive ensemble mutagenesis (REM), a new technique that enhances the frequency of functional mutants in libraries, can be used in combination with screening assays to identify Fndc5 homologs (Arkin and Youvan (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:7811-7815; Delagrave et al. (1993) Protein Engineering 6:327-331).

[0212] In addition, useful host cells and vectors for expressing the desired nucleic acids and proteins for use in accordance with the methods described herein are described above. EXAMPLES

[0213] This invention is further illustrated by the following examples, which should not be construed as limiting.

[0214] Example 1: Materials and Methods for Example 2 animal C57BL / 6 WT mice used in the experiments were obtained from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, ME). All housing, breeding, and procedures were performed in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Experimental Animals and approved by the Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee.

[0215] Preparation of α-synuclein PFFs Recombinant mouse α-synuclein protein was purified as previously described (TIKam et al., Poly(ADP-ribose) drives pathologic α-synuclein neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Science 362 (2018)), and endotoxin was removed by the Toxineraser endotoxin removal kit (GeneScript). For the generation of α-synuclein PFFs, α-synuclein protein was sonicated for 30 s (0.5 s pulses on / off) at 10% amplitude in a thermomixer (1,000 rpm at 37°C) (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) with constant stirring for 7 days before use (Branson Digital Sonifier, Danbury, CT). Synthesis and purification of PAR polymers were performed as described (EB Affar et al., Immunological determination and size characterization of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesized in vitro and in vivo. Biochim Biophys Acta 1428, 137-146 (1999)). For generation of α-syn-biotin PFFs, biotin was conjugated to recombinant α-synuclein using EZ-linked sulfo-NHS-LC-biotin (Thermo Scientific, Grand Island, NY, USA) using a 2-3 molar ratio of biotin to α-synuclein, and α-synuclein-biotin PFFs were prepared as described above.

[0216] Preparation of irisin and AAV-irisin Recombinant proteins were prepared in mammalian cells as previously described (H. Kim et al., Irisin mediates effects on bone and fat via αV integrin receptors. Cell 175, 1756-1768. e17 (2018)). Irisin-flag constructs were prepared as previously described (MRIslam et al., Exercise hormone irisin is a critical regulator of cognitive function. Nat. Metab. 3, 1058-1070 (2021)). The pENN.AAV.CB7.CI.pm20d1flag.WPRE.rBG vector (Addgene plasmid #132682), in which pm20d1flag was replaced using PstI / HindIII restriction enzymes, was used for cloning the N-terminal portion of mouse FNDC5 (signal peptide, amino acid residues 1-28) and the irisin ORF and flag tag. Correct insertion of the signal peptides of mouse FNDC5 and irisin ORF was confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Packaging into AAV (serotype 8) was performed at Penn Vector Core. AAV8-GFP (pENN.AAV.CB7.CI.eGFP.WPRE.rBG) was used as a control and was generated by Penn Vector Core and obtained from Addgene (Addgene#105542).

[0217] Stereotactic injection of α-syn PFFs and intravenous injection of AAV-irisin Two-month-old WT mice were deeply anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine (100 mg / kg) and xylazine (20 mg / kg) and immobilized in a stereotaxic instrument. PBS or α-synuclein PFFs (5 μg) were injected unilaterally into the striatum (2 μl per hemisphere at 0.4 μl / min) [anteroposterior (AP) = +2.0 mm, mediolateral (ML) = ±2.0 mm, dorsoventral (DV) = +2.8 mm from bregma]. After injection, the needle was maintained for an additional 5 min for complete absorption of the solution. After surgery, animals were monitored and provided with post-operative care. Two weeks after α-synuclein PFF injection, mice were injected with AAV8-GFP or AAV8-irisin-FLAG (100 μl of 1 × 10 per mouse) in 100 μl of 1 × 10 per mouse. 10 Mice were injected with 1000 mg / kg / day (GC) into the tail vein. Behavioral testing was performed 6 months after injection, and the mice were euthanized for biochemical and histological analysis. For biochemical testing, tissues were immediately dissected and frozen at -80°C. For histological testing, mice were perfused with PBS, perfused with 4% PFA, and the brains were removed, subsequently fixed in 4% PFA overnight, transferred to 30% sucrose, and stored frozen.

[0218] Preparation of tissue lysates and Western blot analysis Dissected brain tissue was homogenized and lysis buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1% Triton® x-100, 0.5% SDS, 0.5% deoxycholate, phosphatase inhibitor mix I and II (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), and complete protease inhibitor mix (Roche, Indianapolis, IN)] was prepared using a Diax 900 homogenizer (Sigma-Aldrich). The homogenate was rotated for 30 min at 4° C. for complete lysis, centrifuged at 15,000×g for 20 min, and the supernatant was used for further analysis. Protein levels were quantified using the BCA assay (Pierce, Rockford, IL), and samples were separated using SDS-polyacrylamide gels and transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes. Membranes were blocked with 5% nonfat milk in TBS-T (Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween®-20) for 1 h and subjected to immunoblotting using the indicated primary antibodies and incubated with the appropriate HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (Cell signaling, Danvers, MA). [Table 2]

[0219] Measurement of irisin accumulation in the brain C57BL / 6 mice were intravenously injected with purified irisin-His (1 mg / kg) for 1 h. After plasma collection, mice were perfused with PBS and brains were immediately removed. Levels of irisin-His in plasma and brain lysates were determined by His-tag ELISA detection kit (GenScript) according to the manufacturer's specifications.

[0220] Endosome and exosome enrichment Endosomes were enriched to detect internalized α-synuclein-biotin PFFs as described previously (X. Mao et al., Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiated by binding lymphocyte-activation gene 3. Science 353 (2016)). Primary cultured neurons were incubated with α-synuclein-biotin PFFs for 2 h, after which trypsin was added to remove membrane-bound α-synuclein-biotin PFFs. Neurons were lysed 20 times using a syringe in lysis buffer [250 mM sucrose, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA] with complete protease inhibitor mixture (Roche). Endosome-enriched fractions were obtained by sequential centrifugation at 1000×g for 10 min, 16,000×g for 20 min, and 100,000×g for 60 min at 4°C. Exosomes were enriched to detect secreted α-synuclein as previously described (E. Emmanouilidou et al., Cell-produced α-synuclein is secreted in a calcium-dependent manner by exosomes and impacts neuronal survival. J Neurosci 30, 6838-6851 (2010)). Supernatants from primary cortical neurons treated with α-synuclein-biotin PFF for 24 h were collected and spun at 300×g for 10 min to remove cells. The supernatants were then sequentially centrifuged at 2000×g for 10 min, 10,000×g for 30 min, and 100,000×g for 90 min at 4°C. The final pellet containing the exosomes was washed once with PBS and centrifuged again at 100,000 × g for 90 min. The remaining pellet was resuspended in lysis buffer.

[0221] Primary neuron culture and treatments Primary cortical neurons from WT embryos were prepared as previously described (TIKam et al., FcgammaRIIb-SHIP2 axis links Abeta to tau pathology by disrupting phosphoinositide metabolism in Alzheimer's disease model. Elife5 (2016)). Briefly, primary cortical neurons were cultured at embryonic day 16 in neurobasal medium supplemented with B-27, 0.5 mM L-glutamine, penicillin and streptomycin (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). For 7 days in vitro (DIV), the indicated concentrations of irisin were preincubated for 1 h, and α-synuclein PFFs were further incubated for the indicated times before cell death assays or biochemical experiments. Neuronal medium was replaced with fresh medium alone or fresh medium containing irisin every 3–4 days.

[0222] Specifically, cultured neurons were treated only once with 5-fluorodeoxyuridine (5-FDU) (MP Biomedicals) at a final concentration of 10 μM. Thus, half of the medium was replaced with fresh neurobasal medium containing 20 μM 5-FDU once 24 h after seeding. Cells were then maintained in neurobasal medium containing B-27, 0.5 mM L-glutamine, penicillin, and streptomycin (Invitrogen). Half of the neurobasal medium was replaced every 3–4 days, and thus 5-FDU was diluted at subsequent medium changes. For irisin treatment, proteins were added to the culture medium to the indicated final concentrations for 1 h on day 7 in vitro (7DIV). After 1 h preincubation with irisin, half of the cell culture medium was replaced with fresh medium containing α-syn PFF and irisin. For subsequent irisin treatments, half of the cell culture medium was replaced with fresh medium alone or medium containing irisin every 3–4 days. Sequential extraction of soluble and insoluble α-syn in Triton® X-100 was performed as previously described (JL Guo et al., Distinct α-synuclein strains differentially promote tau inclusions in neurons. Cell 154, 103-117 (2013)). Neuronal lysates were prepared in Triton® lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, [pH 7.6] 150 mM NaCl, 1% Triton® X-100, phosphatase inhibitor mix I and II [Sigma-Aldrich], and complete protease inhibitor mix [Roche]). After sonication, the Triton® soluble fraction was collected from the supernatant, followed by centrifugation at 100,000×g for 30 min at 4° C.The remaining pellet was washed in Triton® lysis buffer, resuspended in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, [pH 7.6] 150 mM NaCl, 2% SDS, phosphatase inhibitor mix I and II [Sigma-Aldrich], and complete protease inhibitor mix [Roche]), sonicated, and centrifuged at 100,000×g for 30 min at room temperature. The supernatant was used as the Triton-insoluble fraction.

[0223] Cell death assessment Primary cultured cortical neurons were treated with 5 μg / ml α-synuclein PFFs in the presence or absence of irisin for 14 days. Cell death was determined by staining with 7 μM Hoechst 33342 and 2 μM propidium iodide (PI) (Invitrogen). Images were captured and counted by a Zeiss microscope equipped with automated computer-assisted software (Axiovision 4.6, Carl Zeiss, Dublin, CA).

[0224] Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence Mice were perfused with PBS and 4% PFA, and brains were removed and transferred to 30% sucrose for cryoprotection. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed on 40 μm thick serial brain sections. For histological studies, free-floating sections were blocked with 10% goat serum in PBS with 0.2% Triton® X-100 and incubated with TH antibody followed by incubation with biotin-conjugated anti-rabbit antibody. After washing, ABC reagent (Vector laboratories, Burlingame, CA) was added and sections were developed using SigmaFast DAB peroxidase substrate (Sigma-Aldrich). Sections were counterstained with Nissl (0.09% thionine). For quantification, both TH- and Nissl-positive DA neurons from the SNpc region were counted using a computer-assisted image analysis system consisting of an Axiophot optical fractionator (Carl Zeiss) with a computer-controlled motorized stage (Ludl Electronics, Hawthorne, NY), a Hitachi HV C20 camera, and Stereo Investigator software (MicroBright-Field, Williston, VT) by an investigator who was blinded to the treatment condition with groups randomly assigned by the optical fractionator, using an unbiased method for cell counting. The total number of TH-stained neurons and Nissl counts were analyzed as previously described (SS Karuppagounder et al., The c-Abl inhibitor, nilotinib, protects dopaminergic neurons in a preclinical animal model of Parkinson's disease. Sci Rep 4, 4874 (2014)). For immunofluorescence studies in primary cultures, Ser129 p-α-synuclein antibody was incubated followed by Alexa-fluor 488-conjugated secondary antibody (Invitrogen). Fluorescence images were acquired by confocal scanning microscope (LSM710, Carl Zeiss).All images were processed by Zen software (Carl Zeiss). Selected areas within a threshold signal intensity range were measured using ImageJ software.

[0225] Measurement of dopamine and derivatives using HPLC Striata dissected from the brain were sonicated in ice-cold perchloric acid (0.01 mM) containing 0.01% EDTA. The homogenate was centrifuged at 15,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C, and debris in the supernatant was removed using a 0.2 μm filter. Dopamine levels were analyzed using an HPLC column (3 mm × 150 mm, C-18 reversed-phase column, Atlantis T3 3 μm, Thermo Scientific) and a dual-channel coulochem III electrochemical detector (Model 5300, ESA Inc.). 60 ng of 3,4-dihydroxybenzylamine (DHBA) was used as an internal standard. Values ​​were normalized to protein concentration measured from the BCA protein assay kit (Pierce), and data were expressed in ng / mg protein.

[0226] Mass spectrometry sample preparation Primary cortical neurons were preincubated with irisin (50 ng / ml) for 1 h and α-synuclein PFFs were further incubated for 1 or 4 days. Lysates were used for quantitative protein mass spectrometry analysis using isobaric tagging using the TMT method. Soluble lysates were extracted from cells using a buffer consisting of 1% Triton® X-100 in Tris buffer (50 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.4) and protease inhibitors. Protein concentrations were measured and 15 μg of protein from each sample was prepared for MS analysis. Samples were diluted with an equal volume of buffer (400 mM EPPS, pH 8.5, 0.5% SDS, 10 mM Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride) and incubated for 10 min at room temperature. Iodoacetimide (final concentration 10 mM) was added and further incubated in the dark for 25 min, followed by the addition of DTT (final concentration 10 mM). Buffer exchange was performed using a modified SP3 protocol as previously reported (C.S.Hughes et al., Ultrasensitive proteome analysis using paramagnetic bead technology. Mol. Syst. Biol. 10, 757 (2014); C.S.Hughes et al., Single-pot, solid-phase-enhanced sample preparation for proteomics experiments. Nat. Protoc. 14, 68-85 (2019)). Briefly, approximately 250 μg of each SpeedBead magnetic carboxylate-modified particle (Cytiva, 45152105050250, 65152105050250) mixed in a 1:1 ratio was added to each sample. Samples were combined with ethanol to a final ethanol concentration of at least 50% and incubated for 15 min with gentle shaking. After washing three times with 80% ethanol, proteins were eluted from the SP3 beads using 200 mM EPPS (pH 8.5) containing trypsin (ThermoFisher Scientific) and Lys-C (Wako) and digested overnight at 37°C with vigorous shaking.Samples were combined with acetonitrile (final concentration 33%) and then labeled with TMTpro-18plex reagent (65 μg) (ThermoFisher Scientific). After confirmation of >97% labeling, excess TMTpro reagent was quenched by addition of hydroxylamine (final concentration 0.3%). Acetonitrile was removed from the pooled samples by high vacuum centrifugation for 1 h and acidified using formic acid. Peptides were desalted using a Sep-Pak Vac 50 mg tC18 cartridge (Waters) and eluted in 70% acetonitrile, 1% formic acid. Dried peptides were resuspended in 10 mM ammonium bicarbonate (pH 8.0) and 5% acetonitrile. 24 fractions were collected after fractionation by basic pH reverse phase HPLC, dried, resuspended in 5% acetonitrile and 1% formic acid, and desalted by stage tip. Peptides were eluted in 70% acetonitrile and 1% formic acid, dried, and finally resuspended in 5% acetonitrile and 5% formic acid. A total of 11 of the 24 fractions were analyzed by LC-MS / MS.

[0227] Mass spectrometry data acquisition Data were acquired on an Orbitrap Eclipse mass spectrometer coupled with a Proxeon EASY nLC 1000 LC pump. Prepared peptides were solubilized in 5% ACN / 5% formic acid and loaded onto a C18 column (30 cm, 2.6 μm Accucore, 100 μm ID) and eluted with a 120 min gradient. High field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectroscopy was used during data collection with compensation voltages (CV) of -40V, -60V, and -80V. MS1 precursor scans were acquired on the Orbitrap with the following parameters: 120K resolution, AGC target of 4e5, and maximum injection time of 50 ms. The ion trap was used to collect MS2 scans (1 s per CV) using collision-induced dissociation fragmentation. MS2 scans were collected with the following settings: NCE 35%, AGC target of 2e4, maximum injection time 50 ms, isolation window 0.5 Da. A real-time search algorithm, Orbiter, was used to trigger MS3 quantitative scans. These scans were acquired on an Orbitrap with the following settings: 50,000 resolution, 2 × 10 5 ~5×10 5 AGC of 100 ms, injection time of 150 ms, HCD collision energy of 45%. Protein level closeout was set to 5 peptides per protein for 6 fractions and 2 peptides per protein for 5 fractions (DK Schweppe et al., Full-featured, real-time database searching platform enables fast and accurate multiplexed quantitative proteomics. J. Proteome Res. 19, 2026-2034 (2020)).

[0228] Mass spectrometry data analysis Raw files were converted to mzXML. Monocle was used to reassign monoisotopic peaks. Database searches used all mouse entries from Uniprot (July 2014) combined with all protein sequences in reverse order. Sequences of frequent contaminating proteins were also included. Searches were performed using Comet with a precursor ion tolerance of 50 ppm and a product ion tolerance of 1.0005 Da. Static modifications were set as follows: TMTpro (+304.2071 Da) on lysine residues and peptide N-terminus and carbamidomethylation of cysteine ​​residues (+57.0215 Da). Methionine oxidation (+15.9949 Da) was set as a variable modification.

[0229] For increased confidence in large-scale protein identification by mass spectrometry, peptide-spectrum matches were filtered to a false discovery rate (FDR) of 1% using linear discriminant analysis (LDA) for each trial as previously described (EL Huttlin et al., A tissue-specific atlas of mouse protein phosphorylation and expression. Cell 143, 1174-1189 (2010)). (JE Lias, SPGygi, Target-decoy search strategy for increased confidence in large-scale protein identifications by mass spectrometry. Nat. Methods 4, 207-214 (2007)). LDA used the following parameters: comet log expect, distinct sequence delta comet log expect (percent difference between the first and next hits at distinct peptide sequences), missed cleavages, peptide length, peptide charge state, precursor mass accuracy, and percent matched ions. In contrast to peptide-level FDR, where each trial was filtered separately, protein-level FDR was estimated at the level of the complete dataset. For each protein, individual peptide posterior probabilities (determined by LDA) were multiplied to obtain protein-level probability estimates. Proteins were filtered to a targeted 1% FDR level using the Picked FDR method (MM Savitski, M. Wilhelm, H. Hahne, B. Kuster, M. Bantscheff, A scalable approach for protein false discovery rate estimation in large proteomic data sets. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 14, 2394-2404 (2015)).

[0230] To quantify reporter ions, the most intense m / z was used to scan a 0.003 Da window around the theoretical m / z of each reporter ion. Reporter ion intensities were corrected for isotopic impurities using the specifications provided by the manufacturer. Only peptides with a sum of signal-to-noise >160 (across all channels) were included. Proteins were quantified by summing the TMTpro signal-to-noise values ​​of individual peptides.

[0231] Statistical Analysis or Proteomic Data Statistical analysis was performed using Perseus (S. Tyanova et al., The Perseus computational platform for comprehensive analysis of (prote)omics data. Nat. Methods 13, 731-740 (2016)). Total quantified proteins were filtered to remove unreviewed TrREMBL sequences and proteins were quantified using single peptides. Substitution-based FDR was used to identify significant changes. The following settings within Perseus were used: FDR, 0.05; S0, 0.1; and number of randomizations, 250.

[0232] Behavioral testing Behavioral deficits in AAV-irisin-treated α-synuclein PFF-injected mice were assessed by pole and grip strength tests one week before euthanasia. All experiments were performed by an investigator blinded to treatment condition and randomly assigned to groups.

[0233] Pole test. A metal rod (75 cm long, 9 mm diameter) wrapped in bandage gauze was used as the pole. Before the actual test, the mice were trained for two consecutive days, and each training session consisted of three test trials. The mice were placed 7.5 cm from the top of the pole, and the turning time and the total time to reach the base of the pole were recorded. The end of the test was defined as placing all four paws at the base. The maximum cut-off time to stop the test and recording was 60 s. After each trial, the maze was washed with 70% ethanol.

[0234] Grip strength test. Neuromuscular function was measured by determining the maximum peak force generated by the mouse using an apparatus (Bioseb, USA). Mice were placed on a metal grid and allowed to grasp with either the forelimbs or both limbs, recorded as "forelimbs" and "forelimbs and hindlimb", respectively. The tail was gently pulled and the force applied to the grid before the mouse lost its grip was recorded as the peak tension in grams (g).

[0235] statistical analysis All data are expressed as mean ± sem using at least three independent experiments. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism 7. Differences between double and multiple means were assessed by unpaired two-tailed Student's t-test and ANOVA, respectively, followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. Evaluations with P < 0.05 were considered significant.

[0236] Data availability Mass spectrometry data have been deposited at the ProteomeXchange Consortium (PXD032670) (TI. Kam et al., Amelioration of pathologic α-synuclein-induced Parkinson's disease by irisin. ProteomeXchange Consortium. Deposited March 20, 2022).

[0237] Example 2: Amelioration of pathological α-synuclein-induced Parkinson's disease by irisin Irisin is a small polypeptide secreted by muscle and other tissues into the blood of mice and humans (P. Bostrom et al., A PGC1-alpha-dependent myokine that drives brown-fat-like development of white fat and thermogenesis. Nature 481, 463-468 (2012); MP Jedrychowski et al., Detection and Quantitation of Circulating Human Irisin by Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Cell Metab 22, 734-740 (2015)). The amino acid sequence is 100% conserved between mice and humans, suggesting an important and conserved function. Importantly, expression of irisin and its precursor protein FNDC5 increases in muscle with many forms of exercise in rodents and humans. Exercise training by tandem mass spectrometry increases irisin levels in human blood (MP Jedrychowski et al., Detection and Quantitation of Circulating Human Irisin by Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Cell Metab 22, 734-740 (2015)). In adipocytes, osteocytes and osteoclasts, integrin αV / β5 is the main functional receptor for irisin (H. Kim et al., Irisin Mediates Effects on Bone and Fat via alphaV Integrin Receptors. Cell 175, 1756-1768 e1717 (2018)).

[0238] Physical activity may possibly prevent and alleviate symptoms of multiple forms of neurodegeneration, including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and PD (KSBhalsing, MMAbbas, LCS Tan, Role of Physical Activity in Parkinson's Disease. Ann Indian Acad Neurol 21, 242-249 (2018); BMBown, JJ Peiffer, RN Martins, Multiple effects of physical activity on molecular and cognitive signs of brain aging: can exercise slow neurodegeneration and delay Alzheimer's disease? Mol Psychiatry 18, 864-874 (2013); SHChoi et al., Combined adult neurogenesis and BDNF mimic exercise effects on cognition in an Alzheimer's mouse model. Science 361 (2018); I. Marques-Aleixo et al., Preventive and Therapeutic Potential of Physical Exercise in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Antioxidant Redox Signal 34, 674-693 (2021).

[0239] The effects of irisin on various models of neurodegeneration are presented herein. It has been shown that increasing expression of FNDC5 in the liver and increasing irisin in the blood by the use of adenoviral vectors stimulated a "locomotor-like" program of gene expression in the hippocampus (CDWrann et al., Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1alpha / FNDC5 pathway. Cell Metab18,649-659 (2013)). Furthermore, expression of FNDC5 using these same viral vectors rescued memory impairment in a mouse model of AD (MVLourenco et al., Exercise-linked FNDC5 / irisin rescues synaptic plasticity and memory defects in Alzheimer's models. Nat Med25,165-175(2019)). Recently, irisin was shown to be the active moiety that modulates cognitive function in four separate mouse models. Importantly, increased blood levels of mature, cleaved irisin were sufficient to improve cognitive function and reduce neuroinflammation in two different AD models (Mrislam et al., Exercise hormone irisin is a critical regulator of cognitive function. Nat Metab 3, 1058-1070 (2021)). Moreover, irisin itself crossed the blood-brain barrier (BBB), at least when the protein was produced from the liver using these AAV vectors.

[0240] Herein, we investigate the effect of irisin on the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease using an α-synuclein preformed fibril (α-synuclein PFF) seeding model in culture and in vivo. Pathological α-synuclein is thought to spread "prion-like" in the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease and certain other neurological disorders, causing neuronal death and dysfunction. Herein, irisin was shown to have a potent effect in preventing both pathological α-syn accumulation and neuronal cell death in primary cell cultures. Furthermore, elevated blood irisin levels in mice normalize histological signs in the SNc and Parkinson's-like symptoms with movement and grip strength induced by intrastriatal injection of α-syn PFFs. These data suggest the potential therapeutic value of irisin in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative conditions involving α-synuclein.

[0241] result Irisin prevents the formation of pathological α-synuclein and protects neurons from α-syn PFF-induced neurotoxicity. Administration of α-synuclein PFFs to cortical neurons induces endogenous α-synuclein to misfold and become pathological (TIKam et al., Poly(ADP-ribose) drives pathologic α-synuclein neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Science 362 (2018); KCLuk et al., Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiates Parkinson-like neurodegeneration in nontransgenic mice. Science 338, 949-953 (2012)). This transformation can be monitored by phosphorylation of α-syn serine 129 (p-α-syn) (H. Fujiwara et al., α-Synuclein is phosphorylated in synucleinopathy lesions. Nat Cell Biol 4, 160-164 (2002). Pretreatment of cortical neurons with 5 ng / ml irisin for 1 hour significantly reduced the levels of p-α-synuclein, and 50 and 500 ng / ml irisin prevented the formation of p-α-syn, as determined by immunocytochemistry (Figures 1A and 1B) and immunoblot analysis (Figures 1C and 1D) 7 days after administration of α-synuclein PFFs. Irisin also inhibited the formation of p-α-syn by Triton®. 1 h pretreatment of cortical neurons with 5, 50 and 500 ng / ml irisin prevented the accumulation of X-100 insoluble p-α-synuclein and α-synuclein (Figure 1C and 1D). 1 h pretreatment of cortical neurons with irisin prevented α-synuclein PFF-induced cortical neuronal death as assessed 14 days after administration of α-synuclein PFFs (Figure 1E). In addition to 1 h irisin pretreatment, irisin was able to prevent cortical neuronal death 1 or 2 days after administration of α-syn PFFs (Figure 1F). 4 and 7 day posttreatment with irisin did not affect α-synuclein PFF-induced cell death (Figure 1F).Collectively, these data demonstrated that irisin prevented the formation of pathological α-synuclein and protected neurons from α-synuclein PFFs-induced neurotoxicity.

[0242] Irisin inhibits the internalization and proliferation of α-Syn. To determine the molecular pathways by which irisin may prevent α-syn PFF-induced neurodegeneration, proteomes from primary cultured cortical neurons treated with α-syn PFF for 1 or 4 days in the absence and presence of irisin were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS / MS) (Figure 4A). Statistical analysis of quantified proteins showed that 2 and 26 proteins were differentially regulated by α-syn PFF after 1 and 4 days of treatment, respectively (Figures 8A and 8B). Among them, 100% and 34.6% of proteins were counterregulated by irisin after 1 and 4 days of α-syn PFF treatment (Figures 4B and 4C). Notably, irisin treatment significantly altered the abundance of 22 and 15 proteins after 1 and 4 days of α-syn PFF treatment compared to α-syn PFF-treated neurons alone (Figures 4B and 4C).α-Syn PFF treatment significantly upregulated ApoE protein (Figure 4D), and the ε4 genotype in humans regulates α-syn pathology (AA Davies et al., APOE genotype regulates pathology and disease progression in synucleinopathy. Sci. Transl. Med. 12, eaay3069 (2020)) and is associated with increased risk of dementia in PD (J. Bras et al., Genetic analysis implicates APOE, SNCA and suggests lysosomal dysfunction in the etiology of dementia with Lewy bodies. Hum. Mol. Genet. 23, 6139-6146 (2014); IFMata et al., APOE, MAPT, and SNCA genes and cognitive performance in Parkinson disease. JAMA Neurol. 71, 1405-1412 (2014)) and is associated with increased risk of dementia in AD (J. Kim, JM Basak, DM Holtzman, The role of apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 63, 287-303 (2009)). Irisin significantly downregulated ApoE (Figure 4D). Importantly, α-syn protein itself, which was increased after α-syn PFF administration, showed a decrease 1 and 4 days after irisin treatment (Figure 4E). We measured the levels of α-syn in the Tx-soluble and Tx-insoluble fractions after treatment of cortical neurons with biotin-labeled α-syn PFFs (α-syn-biotin PFFs) and irisin.Previous experiments have shown that α-syn-biotin enters neurons in a similar manner to unlabeled α-syn PFFs, templated to endogenous α-syn, which then becomes misfolded and pathogenic (X. Mao et al., Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiated by binding lymphocyte-activation gene 3. Science 353, aah3374 (2016)). Pretreatment and continuous treatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h significantly reduced the levels of α-syn-biotin PFFs in both the Tx-soluble fraction 1 or 4 days after α-syn PFF administration and the Tx-insoluble fraction 4 days after administration (Figure 4F and Figure 4G). Endogenous α-syn levels paralleled the changes in α-syn-biotin (Figure 4F and Figure 4G). Pathological formation of p-α-syn in the Tx-insoluble fraction starts 4 days after α-syn PFF administration (TIKam et al., Poly(ADP-ribose) drives pathologic α-synuclein neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Science 362, eaat8407(2018)), which was prevented by irisin (Figure 4F). Collectively, these data suggest that irisin may prevent the intracellular accumulation of pSer129-positive pathological forms of α-syn by reducing the internalization and aggregation of α-syn.

[0243] Irisin enhances lysosomal degradation of α-synuclein PFFs. α-synuclein PFFs are taken up by neurons via receptor-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis or tunneling nanotubes (S. Abounit et al., Tunneling nanotubes spread fibrillar α-synuclein by intercellular trafficking of lysosomes. EMBO J35, 2120-2138 (2016); BB Holmes et al., Heparan sulfate proteoglycans mediated internalization and propagation of specific proteopathic seeds. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A110, E3138-3147 (2013); X. Mao et al., Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiated by binding lymphocyte-activation gene 3. Science353 (2016); N. Uemura, MTUemura, KC Luk, VM Lee, JQ Trojanowski, Cell-to-Cell Transmission of Tau and α-Synuclein. Trends Mol Med26,936-952(2020), which ends up in endolysosomes where it can template endogenous monomeric α-synuclein and misfold into pathological α-synuclein (MM Apetri et al., Direct Observation of alpha-Synuclein Amyloid Aggregates in Endocytic Vesicles of Neuroblastoma Cells. PLoS One11,e0153020(2016); RJ Karpowicz, Jr.et al.,Selective imaging of internalized proteopathic alpha-synuclein seeds in primary neurons reveals mechanistic insight into transmission of synucleinopathies.J Biol Chem292,13482-13497(2017);C.Masaracchia et al.,Membrane binding,internalization,and sorting of alpha-synuclein in the cell.Acta NeuropatholCommun6,79(2018). Once inside the cell, α-synuclein PFFs and endogenous pathological α-synuclein are released via exosomes as part of prion-like intercellular transmission (E. Emmanouilidou et al., Cell-produced alpha-synuclein is secreted in a calcium-dependent manner by exosomes and impacts neuronal survival. J Neurosci 30, 6838-6851 (2010); J. Ngolab et al., Brain-derived exosomes from dementia with Lewy bodies propagate alpha-synuclein pathology. Acta Neuropathol Commun 5, 46 (2017). To determine whether irisin affects the intercellular transmission of α-syn, we investigated the expression of α-syn in exosomal and endolysomal fractions after treatment of cortical neurons with biotin-labeled α-syn PFFs (α-syn-biotin) and irisin. The levels of PFFs were monitored. α-Syn-biotin PFFs were used to distinguish biotin-labeled α-syn PFFs from endogenous α-synuclein. Previous experiments have shown that α-syn-biotin behaves in a similar manner to unlabeled α-synuclein PFFs (X. Mao et al.,Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiated by binding lymphocyte-activation gene 3. Science 353 (2016)). Pretreatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h did not affect the presence of α-syn-biotin-PFF in the exosomal fraction of cortical neurons treated with α-syn-biotin-PFF (Figures 2A and 2B). On the other hand, pretreatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h significantly reduced the levels of α-syn-biotin-PFF in the endolysomal fraction (Figures 2A and 2C). To determine whether internalized α-syn-biotin-PFF is degraded via the lysosomal or ubiquitin proteasome system, the effects of the lysosomal inhibitor NH4Cl and the proteasome inhibitor MG132 were evaluated. NH4Cl prevented the degradation of α-syn-biotin PFFs, whereas MG132 had no effect (Figure 2D). Pretreatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h significantly reduced the levels of α-syn-biotin PFFs in cortical neurons at 3 and 6 h after treatment of cortical neurons with α-syn-biotin PFFs (Figure 2E). This reduction in the levels of α-synuclein-biotin PFFs was reduced by NH4Cl (Figure 2E). Pretreatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / ml irisin for 1 h did not affect endogenous α-synuclein but reduced α-synuclein-biotin PFF levels (Figure 2F).

[0244] We also investigated whether irisin might inhibit the intracellular accumulation of α-syn by regulating the endolysosomal degradation of α-syn. We measured the levels of α-syn PFF in the endolysosome-containing fraction after treatment of primary cortical neurons with α-syn-biotin PFF and irisin. Pretreatment and continuous treatment of cortical neurons with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h significantly reduced the levels of α-syn-biotin PFF in the endolysosome-containing fraction (Figures 5A and 5B). To determine whether internalized α-syn-biotin PFF is degraded via the lysosomal or ubiquitin proteasome system, we evaluated the effects of the well-known lysosomal inhibitor NH4Cl or the proteasome inhibitor MG132, which affect the degradation of α-syn in the absence or presence of irisin. In the absence of irisin, NH4Cl prevented the degradation of α-syn-biotin PFF, whereas MG132 had no effect (Figure 2D). To detect endolysosomal degradation of internalized α-syn, primary cultured cortical neurons were pretreated with 50 ng / mL irisin for 1 h and further incubated with 50 ng / mL irisin and α-syn-biotin PFF (1 μg / mL) for 12 h. In this experiment, the medium was replaced with one containing irisin but without α-syn-biotin PFF. This irisin treatment significantly reduced α-syn-biotin PFF levels in cortical neurons 3 and 6 h after medium replacement in cortical neurons (Figure 5C). This decrease in the levels of α-syn-biotin PFFs by irisin treatment was inhibited by NH4Cl (Figures 5D and 5E), suggesting that irisin reduces pathological α-syn by enhancing the pathway of lysosomal-mediated degradation. To confirm that irisin-induced lysosomal degradation of internalized α-syn PFFs reduces pathological α-syn, we monitored the effect of irisin in the presence and absence of NH4Cl on the formation of p-α-syn (Figures 5F-5H). Primary cultured cortical neurons were treated with α-syn PFFs for 2 days, followed by treatment with 50 ng / mL irisin in the presence and absence of low doses of NH4Cl.This has previously been shown to exhibit minimal neurotoxicity (A. Klejman et al., Mechanisms of ammonia-induced cell death in rat cortical neurons: Roles of NMDA receptors and glutathione. Neurochem. Int. 47, 51-57 (2005)). Post-treatment with irisin 2 days after α-syn PFF administration significantly reduced levels of p-α-syn, whereas co-administration of NH4Cl prevented the reduction of p-α-syn by irisin (Figure 5F-5H).

[0245] Together, these results indicate that irisin prevented the pathological transmission of α-synuclein by promoting endolysosomal degradation of α-syn PFFs.

[0246] Irisin prevents DA neuron loss in the intrastriatal α-synuclein PFF model of PD. To determine whether irisin can prevent pathological α-synuclein-induced degeneration, α-synuclein PFFs were stereotactically injected into the striatum of mice (TIKam et al., Poly(ADP-ribose) drives pathologic α-synuclein neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Science 362 (2018); KCLuk et al., Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiates Parkinson-like neurodegeneration in nontransgenic mice. Science 338, 949-953 (2012). The protective role of irisin was assessed by AAV8-irisin versus AAV8-GFP tail vein injection 2 weeks after intrastriatal α-synuclein PFF injection (Figure 3A). Previous studies indicate that this route of administration of irisin provides sufficient irisin brain levels to reduce pathology in two models of AD (MRIslam et al., Exercise hormone irisin is Importantly, this vector does not infect or express in the brain (MRIslam et al., Exercise hormone irisin is a critical regulator of cognitive function. Nat. Metab. 3, 1058-1070 (2021)). 5.5 mo after tail vein injection of AAV8-irisin-FLAG, it was observed that irisin-FLAG was significantly elevated in plasma and liver in both intrastriatal phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and α-syn PFF-injected mice (Figures 7A and 7B). Intravenous injection of irisin-His peptide (1 mg / kg) in mice resulted in a significant elevation of irisin-His in plasma and brain, indicating that exogenous irisin can increase irisin levels in the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier (Figures 7C and 7D).

[0247] One month after intrastriatal α-syn PFF injection, pathogenic spread of α-synuclein to the substantia nigra was initiated (TIKam et al., Poly(ADP-ribose) drives pathologic α-synuclein neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Science 362 (2018). As previously described (KCLuk et al., Pathological alpha-synuclein transmission initiates Parkinson-like neurodegeneration in nontransgenic mice. Science 338, 949-953 (2012); X.Mao et al., Pathological alpha-synuclein transmission initiated by binding lymphocyte-activation gene 3. Science 353 (2016)), WT mice were found to have α-syn Six months after single intrastriatal injection of PFFs, mice showed approximately 50% loss of DA neurons, as assessed by unbiased stereological counts of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and Nissl-stained neurons (Figures 3B-3D). AAV8-irisin injections prevented the loss of DA neurons compared to AAV8-GFP-injected mice (Figures 3B-3D). Immunoblot analysis showed that TH and dopamine transporter (DAT) levels were also decreased in response to α-synuclein PFFs, and this decrease was prevented by AAV8-irisin (Figure 3E). Concomitant with the loss of DA neurons, TH fiber density was decreased in the striatum of α-syn PFF-injected mice with AAV8-GFP injections, but not with AAV8-irisin injections (Figures 3F and 3G). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) demonstrated that α-syn We found that there was a decrease in striatal DA and its metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA), and 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT), in PFF-injected mice.This loss of dopamine and its metabolic byproducts was blocked by 87%, 95%, 72% and 70% in AAV8-irisin-injected mice, respectively (Figure 3L and Figure 3M-3O). DA turnover was increased in striatal α-syn PFF-injected mice injected with AAV8-GFP injection, but these effects were suppressed in AAV8-irisin-injected mice (Figure 3P and Figure 3Q). AAV8-irisin prevented the accumulation of insoluble pathological p-α-synuclein and α-synuclein, but had no effect on soluble α-synuclein monomer levels, compared to AAV8-GFP-treated mice (Figure 3H and Figure 3I). In addition, AAV8-irisin prevented α-synuclein PFF-induced behavioral impairments in the pole test (Figure 3J) and grip strength test (Figure 3K and Figure 3R). Taken together, these results indicate that irisin prevents the loss of DA neurons and prevents neurobehavioral impairment-induced striatal α-synuclein PFFs.

[0248] Incorporation by Reference The contents of all references, patent applications, patents, and published patent applications cited throughout this specification, as well as any figures and sequence listings, are hereby incorporated by reference.

[0249] Equivalent Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments encompassed by the disclosure described herein which equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.

Claims

1. 1. A method of preventing or reducing degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons and preventing or alleviating at least one symptom of at least one movement disorder and / or cognitive impairment or dementia in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising administering to said subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding said Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is suffering from an alpha-synucleinopathy.

3. 3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the subject is suffering from Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or neuroaxonal dystrophy.

4. The at least one movement disorder is a) resting tremor, e.g. slight tremor in the hands or feet; b) stiffness of the limbs, neck, or shoulders; c) difficulty in maintaining balance (postural instability); d) slowness of movement or gradual loss of spontaneous movement (bradykinesia); e) Difficulty standing after sitting; f) stiffness in the limbs, and The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein said step (c) is selected from the group consisting of: g) slower movement.

5. At least one symptom of the cognitive impairment or dementia is a) A state of confusion; b) poor motor coordination; c) loss of short-term or long-term memory; d) Identity confusion, or e) impaired judgment.

6. 1. A method of blocking accumulation of alpha-synuclein in the cells of a subject in need thereof or lowering or decreasing the level or amount thereof, said method comprising administering to said subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding said Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein the subject is suffering from an alpha-synucleinopathy.

8. The method of claim 6 or 7, wherein the cell is a neuron or glia.

9. The method of any one of claims 6 to 8, wherein the subject is suffering from Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or neuroaxonal dystrophy.

10. 8. The method of claim 6 or 7, wherein the cell is a cancer cell, optionally wherein the cell is a melanoma cell.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the subject is afflicted with a cancer characterized by or caused by increased alpha-synuclein.

12. The method according to any one of claims 6 to 11, wherein the α-synuclein is pathogenic α-synuclein.

13. 1. A method of treating or preventing Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising administering to said subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding said Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin.

14. The method of any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein the agent is administered systemically, optionally wherein the systemic administration is intravenous or subcutaneous.

15. The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the agent is administered in a pharma- ceutically acceptable formulation.

16. 16. The method of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the agent is administered in a therapeutically effective amount to treat Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy (MSA), Alzheimer's disease, or neuroaxonal dystrophy.

17. 17. The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the medicament is administered at least once a day, at least once a week, or at least once a month.

18. 18. The method of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the agent is administered to the subject for more than a number of months equal to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, or 24 months, and optionally, the agent is administered to the subject for the lifetime of the subject.

19. The drug is a) a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment lacking a C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, said polypeptide having one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide; b) a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of residues 73-140 of said FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, wherein said polypeptide does not encode said C-terminal domain sequence of said FNDC5 polypeptide, and said polypeptide has one or more of said biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide; c) a polypeptide fragment of said FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment consisting of a sequence of amino acids between residues 1-150 of SEQ ID NO:2, said fragment having one or more of said biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide; and d) a polypeptide fragment of FNDC5 comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 70% identity to the amino acid sequence of a fragment of an FNDC5 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 4, 6 or 8, wherein said fragment has one or more of the biological activities of said FNDC5 polypeptide.

20. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the polypeptide is fused at its N-terminus and / or C-terminus to one or more heterologous polypeptides.

21. 21. The method of claim 19 or 20, wherein the polypeptide comprises amino acid modifications, post-translational modifications, and / or heterologous amino acid sequences that stabilize the polypeptide and / or increase its half-life.

22. 19. The method of claim 17 or 18, wherein the one or more heterologous polypeptides is an Fc domain or a fragment thereof.

23. 20. The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the agent is a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and optionally, the Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof is a polypeptide according to any one of claims 17 to 19.

24. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the nucleic acid is contained within an expression vector.

25. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the expression vector is a viral expression vector, optionally wherein the viral expression vector is an adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector.

26. Each dose of the viral expression vector is at least 1.0×10 １１ 26. The method of claim 25 comprising GC / kg particles.

27. 27. The method of any one of claims 23 to 26, wherein the agent crosses the blood-brain barrier.

28. 28. The method of any one of claims 1 to 27, wherein the agent does not increase levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in neurons of the subject over the course of treatment.

29. 29. The method of any one of claims 1 to 28, further comprising co-administering to the subject an additional agent that increases expression or activity of Fndc5 or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active fragment of Fndc5 is irisin.

30. 30. The method of any one of claims 1 to 29, wherein the subject is a mammal, optionally wherein the mammal is a rodent, a primate, or a human.

31. 1. A method of performing patient stratification in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising measuring the level of alpha-synuclein in cells isolated from a subject suffering from an alpha-synucleinopathy, and if the subject's cells are measured to have more than a predetermined amount of alpha-synuclein, said method comprising administering to the subject an agent selected from the group consisting of: i) an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, ii) a nucleic acid encoding an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, and iii) an enhancer of expression and / or activity of an Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof or a nucleic acid encoding said Fndc5 polypeptide or a biologically active fragment thereof, optionally wherein the biologically active Fndc5 fragment is irisin.

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