Methods, systems and devices for water, organic matter and / or mineral recovery - Patents.com

Abstract

A process for recovery of water, minerals, and / or organic matter, as well as devices and systems for practicing the process, are disclosed. The process may include providing a plurality of evaporator structures, each structure being physically separate from the others, and contacting a first end of each evaporator structure with a liquid containing a plurality of materials (e.g., a solvent and one or more minerals). The process may include allowing capillary forces and siphoning action to draw at least one of the plurality of materials (which may be, for example, a solvent, a volatile organic material, and / or a mineral) from the first end toward a second end, and evaporating one or more of the plurality of materials by transferring at least one form of environmental energy (e.g., solar energy, wind energy, and / or ambient heat of air) directly to each evaporator structure, thereby providing a latent heat of vaporization.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 282,429, filed November 23, 2021, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 335,766, filed April 28, 2022, the entireties of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0002] The present disclosure relates to material recovery, and more particularly to a low energy cost technique for recovering desired materials from liquids using porous elongated structures. [Background technology]

[0003] This section is intended to introduce the reader to various aspects of art that may be related to various aspects of the present invention, which are described and / or claimed below. This discussion is believed to be helpful in providing the reader with background information to facilitate a better understanding of the various aspects of the present invention. As such, it should be understood that these statements are to be read in this light, and not as admissions of prior art. Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0004] As readily available natural resources continue to decrease, alternative technologies for extracting such resources are essential and important components of any sustainable system. Unfortunately, conventional technologies, including common solar water evaporation and water capture, have several significant challenges, including intermittent operation, low water production rates, and scaling up of the systems. [Means for solving the problem]

[0005] Summary of the Invention Various deficiencies in the prior art are addressed below by disclosed compositions of matter and techniques.

[0006] In some embodiments, a process for recovery of water, organic matter, and / or minerals may be provided. The process may include providing a plurality of evaporator structures, such as two-dimensional or three-dimensional evaporator structures, comprising a porous material, each evaporator structure having a first end and a second end opposite the first end and separated by an axial length, each evaporator structure being physically separated from an adjacent evaporator structure. The process may include contacting the first end of each evaporator structure with a liquid, the liquid including a plurality of materials, the plurality of materials including a solvent and at least one target material at a first concentration. The process may include allowing capillary forces or siphoning action to draw at least one material of the plurality of materials (e.g., which may be a volatile organic material or a mineral) from the first end toward the second end. The process may include evaporating one or more of the plurality of materials by transferring at least one form of environmental energy (e.g., solar energy, wind energy, and / or ambient heat of air) directly to each evaporator structure, thereby providing the latent heat of vaporization. In some embodiments, evaporation occurs under ambient temperature conditions. In some embodiments, evaporation occurs at temperatures above 50° C.

[0007] In some embodiments, the process may include collecting the at least one target material after it passes from the first end to the second end. In some embodiments, the process may include determining a concentration of the at least one target material collected. In some embodiments, the process may include adjusting a distance from the second end to a collection reservoir based on the determined concentration.

[0008] In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may include a plurality of fibers twisted around each other to form a helical pattern having at least a first pitch, and the process further includes adjusting a pore size of at least a portion of the evaporator structures of the plurality of evaporator structures by rotating a first portion of the evaporator structure relative to a second portion of the evaporator structure about a central axis, and changing the first pitch to a second pitch different from the first pitch.

[0009] In some embodiments, the liquid may be a saltwater source. In some embodiments, the saltwater source may be seawater, saltwater lake water, reservoir water, groundwater, geothermal brine, or wastewater. In some embodiments, the process may include collecting the water as a vapor or liquid.

[0010] In some embodiments, the at least one material is water, and the process may include capturing and condensing the water. In some embodiments, the liquid may include a plurality of salts. In some embodiments, the plurality of salts may include a first salt and a second salt that include a targeted mineral. In some embodiments, the target mineral may be lithium. In some embodiments, the liquid may include lithium, silver, gold, nickel, cobalt, copper, aluminum, iron, zinc, molybdenum, boron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, selenium, platinum, uranium, silica, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the liquid may include an industrial stream. In some embodiments, the industrial stream may include an organic solvent, an ionic liquid, and / or another industrial stream. In some embodiments, the liquid may include an organic solvent, a volatile fatty acid, or combinations thereof.

[0011] In some embodiments, the process may include allowing capillary forces or siphon action to spatially separate salts in the liquid due to differences in their solubility, hydrophilicity, and local concentrations.

[0012] In some embodiments, the process may include evaporating water and crystallizing a plurality of salts in or on the porous crystallizer, where the salts with lower solubility crystallize within a first distance from the first end, while the salts with higher solubility crystallize after the first distance and before a second distance from the first end, the second distance being greater than the first distance, such that the different salts are precipitated sequentially on the crystallizer structure having both radial and axial structures. In some embodiments, the process may include collecting the first salt that crystallizes at or near the second end, and separately collecting the second salt that crystallizes at or near the first end. In some embodiments, the process may include separating at least a portion of the salt shell at or near the second end from the remainder of the salt shell formed around the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the process may include removing the remainder of the shell from the evaporator structure.

[0013] In some embodiments, the porous material may include at least one of a wood material, a plant-based fabric, a modified plant-based material, an unmodified plant-based material, and a polymer.

[0014] In some embodiments, the process may include pretreating the porous material with an alkaline solution at a concentration of 0.5-2.5M. In some embodiments, the process may include heating the porous material to 70-200 degrees Celsius for 1-10 hours to partially remove one or more impurities. In some embodiments, the process may include freeze-drying the porous material for 12-48 hours. In some embodiments, the process may include surface carbonizing the porous material by pressing and rolling the porous material on a hot plate until the outer surface of the porous material is uniformly carbonized.

[0015] In some embodiments, evaporating may include passing air around and / or through each evaporator structure. In some embodiments, evaporating may include allowing a light source to irradiate the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, evaporating one or more of the plurality of materials may include allowing a salt shell to form around the evaporator structure.

[0016] In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have an axial length of at least 1 meter. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have a length to radius ratio of at least 10:1 and is positioned substantially vertically. In some embodiments, multiple evaporator structures may be arranged in an array.

[0017] In some embodiments, the process may include generating an electric field and applying the electric field to a plurality of evaporator structures. In some embodiments, the process may include removing at least one of the evaporator structures from the liquid. In some embodiments, the process may include cleaning each evaporator structure that has been removed. In some embodiments, the process may include reconnecting a first end of each evaporator structure to the liquid after being cleaned. In some embodiments, the process may include placing a first end of a new evaporator structure in the liquid after at least one of the evaporator structures has been removed from the liquid. In some embodiments, removing at least one of the evaporator structures from the liquid may include simultaneously removing two or more of the plurality of evaporator structures from the liquid.

[0018] In some embodiments, an apparatus for water, organic matter, and / or mineral recovery is provided. The apparatus may include a plurality of evaporator structures, each evaporator structure comprising a porous material, each evaporator structure having a first end and a second end opposite the first end and separated by an axial length, each evaporator structure being physically separated from an adjacent evaporator structure, each evaporator structure having a porous structure configured to draw liquid from the first end toward the second end using capillary forces or siphon action. The apparatus may be configured to allow at least one form of environmental energy to be transferred directly as latent heat for vaporization to each evaporator structure.

[0019] In some embodiments, each evaporator structure includes a plurality of elongated members, each of which is twisted together to form a helical structure. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may include a rigid elongated member having a stiffness greater than the stiffness of the porous material, the porous material being twisted around the rigid member in a helical pattern. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may include a weighting member operably coupled to either the first end or the second end of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have an inner pore structure that is hydrophilic and an outer surface that is hydrophobic. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may be comprised of natural wood materials, polymers, ceramics, porous carbon, geopolymers, hydrogels, woven fabrics, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may be comprised of natural wood materials, twisted fibers derived from natural materials, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have substantially the same geometric shape. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may have a different geometric shape. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may define a geometric shape that is substantially cylindrical, helical, pyramidal, conical, prismatic, or rectangular. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may define a helical geometric shape, and at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures includes natural cotton or vegetable fibers. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may include a bundle of vegetable fibers spun into a thread having a diameter of 1 mm, and four threads are further twisted into a cord having a diameter of 2 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have a surface modification configured to reduce the effects of contaminants. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have a surface modification configured to reduce the effects of contaminants. Each evaporator structure may have an axial length of at least 1 meter. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may be substantially cylindrical and may have a length to radius ratio of at least 10:1.

[0020] In some embodiments, the apparatus may include a frame operably coupled to a first end and / or a second end of each of the plurality of evaporator structures. In some embodiments, the frame may have a cross-section defined by an annulus. In some embodiments, the frame may be configured to position the first end of each of the plurality of evaporator structures to be below a surface of the liquid. In some embodiments, the frame may be configured to position each evaporator structure in a substantially vertical position.

[0021] In some embodiments, a system may be provided. The system may include an apparatus for recovery of water, organic matter, and / or minerals as disclosed herein, and a liquid. The first end of each evaporator structure may be operatively coupled to the liquid, such as positioned within the liquid. In some embodiments, the system may include a container configured to hold the liquid. In some embodiments, the system may include a pump configured to pump the liquid from a liquid source to the container. In some embodiments, the system may include at least one processor configured to control the pump. In some embodiments, the system may include a fan configured to direct air across each evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the system may include a housing configured to surround at least a portion of the apparatus. In some embodiments, the system may include a collection container configured to collect at least one target material present in the liquid after the at least one target material passes from the first end to the second end of the at least one evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the system may include an electric field generator configured to expose each evaporator structure to an electric field.

[0022] In some embodiments, a kit may be provided that may include a plurality of evaporator structures as disclosed herein and a frame configured to couple to the plurality of evaporator structures.

[0023] In some embodiments, an evaporator structure may be provided that includes a plurality of flexible elongate members, each of which is twisted together to form a helical pattern, each of which includes a porous material, each of which has a first end and a second end opposite the first end and spaced an axial length apart, the porous material configured to draw liquid from the first end toward the second end using capillary forces or siphon action; The evaporator structure may include a plurality of flexible elongated members, each of which has an axial length of at least one meter. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure has an inner pore structure that is hydrophilic and an outer surface that is hydrophobic. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may include at least one connector coupled to a first end of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be comprised of natural wood materials, polymers, ceramics, porous carbon, geopolymers, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be comprised of natural wood materials, twisted fibers derived from natural materials, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may include a rigid elongated member having a stiffness greater than the stiffness of each of the flexible elongated members. In some embodiments, each of the flexible elongated members may be twisted around the rigid member in a helical pattern. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may include a weighted member operably coupled to either the first end or the second end of the evaporator structure.

[0024] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the general description of the invention given above and the detailed description of the embodiments given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0025] [Figure 1A] 1 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a process. [Figure 1B] 1 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a process. [Figure 2A] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 2B] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 2C] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 2D] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 2E] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 2F] 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 3A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of a system. [Figure 3B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an embodiment of a system. [Figure 3C] 1A-1C are diagrams of an embodiment of a connector coupled to an evaporator structure. [Figure 3D] FIG. 1 illustrates a simplified cross-sectional side view of one embodiment of a system. [Figure 4] FIG. 2 is a simplified cross-sectional side view showing a salt shell formed around an evaporator structure. [Diagram 5] FIG. 1 is a diagram of one embodiment of an evaporator structure used in series. [Figure 6A] 1 is a graph illustrating the spatial separation and extraction process of lithium from other minerals using one embodiment of an evaporator structure. [Figure 6B] 1 is a graph showing an average 100-fold greater concentration of LiCl from Li-brine. [Figure 6C] 1 is a graph showing an average 5000-fold greater concentration of LiCl from seawater. [Figure 6D] 1 is a graph showing the evaporation rate (ER) achieved using one embodiment of the disclosed evaporator with standard, daily sun incidence, and 0.5 m / sec wind assist conditions. [Figure 7A] 7A-7B are graphs showing that the Li / Na ratio increases along the length of the evaporator structure, with Li being more than 675 times more concentrated at the top when seawater (7A) is used and more than 39 times more concentrated at the top when saltwater (7B) is used. [Figure 7B]7A-7B are graphs showing that the Li / Na ratio increases along the length of the evaporator structure, with Li being more than 675 times more concentrated at the top when seawater (7A) is used and more than 39 times more concentrated at the top when saltwater (7B) is used. [Figure 7C] 1 is a graph showing that the Li / Na ratio is over 200 times higher than in the Na-rich salt shell, showing spatial separation of Li and Na in the radial direction. [Figure 7D] 1 is a graph showing a comparison of the average water evaporation rate (ER) at the SQM Li production site in Salar de Atacama, Chile, with the average evaporation rate of a 24 fiber crystallizer array in the dark, under a day of sunlight, and under a wind speed of 0.5 m / sec. [Figure 8A] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of the geometry and parameters considered in the theoretical model. [Figure 8B] 8A-8C are graphs showing predictions of Li-ion concentration (8B) and Li / Na ratio (8C) as a function of position within the crystallizer. [Figure 8C] 8A-8C are graphs showing predictions of Li-ion concentration (8B) and Li / Na ratio (8C) as a function of position within the crystallizer. [Figure 9] Graph showing evaporation rates for untwisted strings (24±1.2 kg / (m2·hr)), single twisted strings (108±15.2 kg / (m2·hr)), and 4 twisted strings (225±29.7 kg / (m2·hr)). [Figure 10] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a cleaning soak cycle for regenerating an evaporator structure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0026] Detailed Description of the Invention The following description and drawings merely illustrate the principles of the present invention. Thus, it will be understood that a person skilled in the art may devise various arrangements that embody the principles of the present invention and fall within the scope of the present invention, although not expressly described or shown herein. Furthermore, all examples listed herein are expressly intended to be for illustrative purposes only, primarily to help the reader understand the principles of the present invention and the concepts contributed by the inventor(s) to advance the art, and are not to be construed as being limited to such specifically listed examples and conditions. In addition, as used herein, the term "or" refers to a non-exclusive or (e.g., "or otherwise" or "or alternatively"), unless otherwise indicated. Also, the various embodiments described herein are not necessarily mutually exclusive, since some embodiments may be combined with one or more other embodiments to form new embodiments.

[0027] Many of the innovative teachings of the present application are described with particular reference to the presently preferred exemplary embodiments. However, it should be understood that this class of embodiments provides only a few examples of the many advantageous applications of the innovative teachings herein. In general, statements made in the specification of the present application do not necessarily limit any of the various claimed inventions. Moreover, some statements may apply to some inventive features but not to others. Those skilled in the art and informed by the teachings herein will recognize that the present invention is applicable to a variety of other technical fields or embodiments.

[0028] Inspired by natural plant transpiration, modular (3D) engineered evaporators are disclosed that can be made of natural materials and designed and tested for continuous (or substantially continuous) use. These evaporators can be used, for example, for water steam generation to provide affordable clean drinking water. Engineered evaporators can be made of wood materials, fabrics, or other natural materials and can, for example, take advantage of the water convection capabilities of layered wood or fibrous structures, for example, to pull water up from the ground by capillary action and cohesive tension pulling. The extensive surface area evaporates water at a lower temperature than the surrounding air, drawing on multiple environmental energy sources including solar, wind, and ambient heat in the air to achieve continuous operation.

[0029] Because evaporation is less prone to excessive salinity in the water compared to membrane-based separations, the disclosed techniques can also be used for zero liquid discharge and recovery of valuable minerals in precipitates.

[0030] In some embodiments, a process for recovery of water, organics, and / or minerals may be provided. With reference to FIG. 1A, the process 100 may include providing 110 a plurality of evaporator structures. The process may include contacting 115 a first end of each evaporator structure with a liquid.

[0031] Evaporator Structure The evaporator structure can be understood with reference to Figures 2A-2F and 3A-3D.

[0032] 2A, each evaporator structure 200 may include at least one elongated member 201. In some embodiments, the elongated member may be a flexible elongated member. Each elongated member may include or consist of a porous material 202.

[0033] In some embodiments, the porous material may include a plant-based material, a polymer, a ceramic, a porous carbon, a geopolymer, a hydrogel, a fabric, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the porous material may include a natural wood material, a synthetic polymer, a ceramic, a porous carbon, a geopolymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the porous material may be a wood material. In some embodiments, the porous material may be a plant-based fabric. As used herein, the term "fabric" refers to a fabric, a woven material, or a nonwoven material. Knit fabrics may be weft knit, circular knit, warp knit, narrow elastic, and lace. Woven fabrics may be any fabric such as satin weave, twill weave, plain weave, oxford weave, basket weave, and narrow elastic. Nonwoven materials may be meltblown, spunbond, wet laid, staple fiber based ground fibers, and the like. In some embodiments, the porous material may be an unmodified plant-based material such as cotton or cellulose. The term "unmodified" indicates that the plant-based material has not been genetically or chemically modified from a naturally occurring process. For example, a surface treatment that chemically modifies the surface may "modify" the plant-based material, while simply adding an additional coating layer around the porous material leaves the porous material "unmodified." In some embodiments, the porous material may be a modified plant-based material. In some embodiments, the modified plant-based material may be a chemically modified plant-based material.

[0034] The porous material may define a structure having a first end 203 and a second end 204 opposite the first end, the first end and the second end being separated along an axis 205 by an axial length 206. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 0.1 meters. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 0.5 meters. Advantageously, in some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 1 meter. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 1.5 meters. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 10 meters. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 5 meters. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 3 meters.

[0035] In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a maximum outer diameter of 50 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a maximum outer diameter of 25 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a maximum outer diameter of 10 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a minimum outer diameter of 1 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a minimum outer diameter of 2 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a minimum outer diameter of 3 mm. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a minimum outer diameter of 5 mm.

[0036] Advantageously, in some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a length-to-radius ratio of at least 10:1 and is positioned (oriented) substantially vertically. In some embodiments, the length-to-cross-sectional area ratio is at least 5:1. In some embodiments, the length-to-cross-sectional area ratio is at least 10:1. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a length-to-radius ratio of at least 100:1 and is positioned (oriented) substantially vertically. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a length-to-radius ratio of at least 500:1 and is positioned (oriented) substantially vertically.

[0037] The porous material may have pores in both the axial and radial directions, allowing for the transport of material in both the axial and radial directions. In some embodiments, the porous material may have one or more lumens 207 extending from a first end to a second end. In some embodiments, the lumens may be substantially circular in cross-section. In some embodiments, the lumens may be substantially irregular in cross-section.

[0038] Advantageously, in some embodiments, each evaporator structure 200 may have an inner pore structure 261 that is hydrophilic and an outer surface 262 that is hydrophobic. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have an inner pore structure 261 that is oleophilic and an outer surface 262 that is oleophobic. Advantageously, in some embodiments, each elongated member 201 may have an inner pore structure that is hydrophilic and an outer surface that is hydrophobic. In some embodiments, each elongated member may have an inner pore structure that is oleophilic and an outer surface that is oleophobic.

[0039] Porous materials preferably have a porosity (ie, the volume fraction of pores in the material) of greater than 50%.

[0040] In some embodiments, each structure may consist of a single elongated member, as seen in Figure 2A. With reference to Figure 2B, in other embodiments, each structure 210 may include multiple elongated members 211 bonded together. As seen in Figure 2B, the elongated members (sometimes referred to as "fibers") are twisted around one another, such as along an axis 212, to form a helical pattern having a first pitch 214.

[0041] For elongate members having the same axial length, an elongate member that is so twisted will have a shorter distance 217 between the first end 203 and the second end 204 compared to an elongate member that is not so twisted.

[0042] In some embodiments, one or more of the elongate members are formed from a single "fiber" that extends from a first end to a second end. In Figure 2C, it can be seen that in other embodiments, one or more of the elongate members 220 may be made up of multiple short fibers (e.g., fibers 221, 222, 223, and 224) connected together, with each short fiber (e.g., fiber 221) having an overall length in the axial direction (i.e., relative to the central axis 205) that is less than the overall length 226 of the elongate member 220 in the axial direction.

[0043] In some embodiments, when the elongated member is flexible, it may be advantageous to incorporate a rigid member into the evaporator structure, the rigid member operatively connecting to the flexible elongated member. This may be done in a variety of ways.

[0044] 2D, in some embodiments, the evaporator structure 230 may include a rigid elongated member 231 extending along a central axis, and a flexible elongated member (such as an embodiment of the elongated member 201) may be disposed on an outer surface 232 of the rigid elongated member. In some embodiments, a portion 233 of the rigid elongated member may extend axially beyond a first end of the flexible elongated member. In some embodiments, a portion 234 of the rigid elongated member may extend axially beyond a second end of the flexible elongated member. The rigid elongated member should have a stiffness greater than the stiffness of each flexible elongated member.

[0045] With reference to Figure 2E, in some embodiments, the evaporator structure 240 may include a rigid elongate member 231 that is twisted and intertwined with one or more flexible elongate members to form a structure similar to that shown in Figure 2B. Although only a single elongate member, such as elongate member 201, is shown in Figure 2E, one skilled in the art will appreciate that additional elongate members may be readily incorporated.

[0046] In some embodiments, the weight may be operably coupled to an end of the evaporator structure. As seen in FIG. 2F, the evaporator structure 250 may include one or more elongated members (here, only elongated member 201 is shown), with the weight 251 operably coupled to a second end of the elongated member. In some embodiments, the weight may be attached to a flexible elongated member. In some embodiments, the weight may be attached to a rigid elongated member. In some embodiments, the weighted member may be operably coupled to either the first end or the second end of the evaporator structure.

[0047] 3A, a system incorporating multiple evaporator structures can be seen. As shown, the system 300 can include an apparatus 301 that includes multiple evaporator structures 200 as disclosed herein.

[0048] Each evaporator structure is physically separated from an adjacent evaporator structure, where a first evaporator structure 304 is separated from a second evaporator structure 305 by a first distance 302, and the first evaporator structure is separated from a third evaporator structure 306 by a second distance 303. In some embodiments, the distances separating one evaporator structure from an adjacent evaporator structure(s) are identical (e.g., first distance 302=second distance 303). In some embodiments, at least one distance separating an evaporator structure from an adjacent evaporator structure is different from at least one other such distance (e.g., first distance 302≠second distance 303).

[0049] In some embodiments, multiple evaporator structures may be arranged in an array. In some embodiments, the placement of the evaporator structures relative to one another may be based on geographic or environmental conditions. For example, in some embodiments, if a liquid flows from a first location to a second location, the evaporator structure(s) may be placed based on the flow pattern of the liquid.

[0050] As disclosed herein, each evaporator structure includes a porous structure configured to draw liquid from a first end toward a second end using capillary forces or siphon action.

[0051] The evaporator structures may be formed to have a variety of geometric shapes. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may have substantially the same geometric shape. Typically, "substantially the same geometric shape" may be one in which the physical dimensions (including length, angle, etc.) do not vary by more than 10%. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may have a different geometric shape. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure may define a geometric shape that is substantially cylindrical, helical, pyramidal, conical, prismatic, or rectangular.

[0052] In some embodiments, each evaporator structure has the same composition. In some embodiments, each evaporator structure is composed of natural wood materials, twisted fibers from natural materials, fibers from synthetic materials, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, only natural materials are utilized. In some embodiments, only synthetic materials are used. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures defines a helical geometry. In some embodiments, the elongated member(s) of at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may include or consist of natural cotton or vegetable fibers. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures may include a bundle of vegetable fibers spun into a thread having a diameter of 1 mm, and four threads are further twisted into a cord having a diameter of 2 mm.

[0053] In some embodiments, the evaporator structure is coupled to a frame. In some embodiments, the frame 320 may be operably coupled to only the second end. As seen in FIG. 3D, in some embodiments, the frame may be coupled to the first end and the second end. As will be appreciated, the evaporator structure may include a rigid member and the frame may also be coupled to only the first end.

[0054] The frame can be configured to position each evaporator structure in a vertical or substantially vertical position. "Substantially vertical" typically means that if an imaginary line were drawn between the first end and the second end, the line would be within 10 degrees of vertical. In some embodiments, this can include cases where more than 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the evaporator structures are vertical or within 10 degrees of vertical.

[0055] The frame may have any suitable configuration. In some embodiments, the frame may have a cross-section defined by an annulus. In some embodiments, the frame may be constructed from an IR transparent material. In some embodiments, the frame may be constructed from a non-conductive material.

[0056] The frame can be configured to position a first end of each of the multiple evaporator structures within the liquid 310. For example, in some embodiments, the first ends can be positioned below an upper surface 312 of the liquid 310.

[0057] In some embodiments, a container 311 for the liquid 310 may form a frame or may be part of the frame. The container may be open on one side or may be a closed container. A closed container may have a lid that opens and closes as needed, or may have one or more ports for adding or removing materials as needed. In some embodiments, the container may include one or more sensors 315. Such sensors may include a level detector or may be configured to detect the concentration of a particular material within the liquid.

[0058] In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be coupled to the container. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be configured to draw liquid upward from the container. With reference to FIG. 3B, in some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be configured to draw liquid downward from the container. In FIG. 3B, a portion of the evaporator structure may be positioned within the container and positioned such that a first end is positioned within the liquid. In some embodiments, the evaporator structure may pass through an opening 312 in the container 311. The opening may extend through a wall of the container to allow liquid to pass from the container to or through the elongated member that forms the evaporator structure. For example, in some embodiments, liquid enters the first end of the evaporator structure at a first portion 313 that is with the container, then passes through the opening to a second portion 314 below the opening, outside the container, toward the second end.

[0059] As seen in FIG. 3C, in some embodiments, the evaporator structure may be coupled to a connector 340. In some embodiments, the connector may be coupled to a first end of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the connector may be coupled to an outer surface of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the connector may be coupled to an outer surface of the evaporator structure at a location other than the first end.

[0060] The connector may include a lumen 341 extending therethrough. In some embodiments, the lumen may be configured to receive liquid and allow the liquid to reach the evaporator structure.

[0061] The connector may include one or more protrusions or recesses on an outer or inner surface of the connector. For example, as shown in FIG. 3C, in some embodiments, the connector may include threads 342 on an outer surface of the connector. The connector is advantageously configured to be removably connected to the frame. In some embodiments, the connector may be a removable connector to the container.

[0062] It will be understood that the connectors may appear at one or both ends of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the second end of the first evaporator structure may be connected to the first end of the second evaporator structure using a connector. In some embodiments, a single connector is coupled to both structure(s). In some embodiments, the first connector is coupled to the first structure and the second connector is coupled to the second structure, and the two connectors are configured to removably couple together. Such an approach may be useful, for example, in applications where a single portion of an overall combined structure may need to be removed / replaced separately from another portion of the combined structure. When used in this manner, it will be understood that the structures connected in series may be the same or different. For example, in one embodiment, the pore structure in the first evaporator structure may be different from the pore structure in the second evaporator structure connected to it, or may be composed of a different porous material.

[0063] With reference to Figure 3D, in some embodiments, a frame may be attached, advantageously removably attached, to the container, and the evaporator structure may be coupled at both ends of the frame such that a first end is below the surface of the liquid. In some embodiments, the coupling may include attachment of each end to the frame. In some embodiments, both ends may be removably coupled to the frame (e.g., using connectors as seen in Figure 3C).

[0064] liquid Advantageously, the liquid may comprise a plurality of materials. The plurality of materials may comprise a solvent and at least one target material in a first concentration. In some embodiments, the solvent may advantageously be water. If the liquid is aqueous, the internal pore structure of each evaporator structure is preferably hydrophilic. In some embodiments, the solvent may be an oil, such as a hydrocarbon. If the liquid is oil-based, the internal pore structure of each evaporator structure is preferably oleophilic.

[0065] In some embodiments, the liquid may include seawater, salt lake and reservoir water, groundwater, geothermal brine, wastewater, or other salt water sources. In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of materials includes a volatile organic material or a mineral.

[0066] In some embodiments, the liquid (which may be water) may be collected in vapor or liquid form. In some embodiments, the liquid is collected only in vapor form. In some embodiments, the liquid is collected only in liquid form.

[0067] In some embodiments, the liquid may include a metal or metalloid. In some embodiments, the liquid may include lithium, silver, gold, nickel, cobalt, copper, aluminum, iron, zinc, molybdenum, boron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, selenium, platinum, uranium, silica, rare earth elements, or combinations thereof.

[0068] In some embodiments, the liquid may include an organic solvent, a volatile fatty acid, or a combination thereof.

[0069] In some embodiments, the liquid may include a plurality of salts. In some embodiments, the plurality of salts may include a first salt and a second salt that include a targeted mineral. In some embodiments, the targeted mineral may be lithium. In some embodiments, the targeted mineral may be an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, a post-transition metal, a lanthanide, an actinide, or a combination thereof.

[0070] With reference to FIG. 1A, in some embodiments, the process may include adjusting 106 the pore size of at least a portion of the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the pore size may be modified, for example, by chemical treatment (especially for plant-based materials). Such chemical treatments are known in the art. In some embodiments, the pore size may be modified by twisting. In some embodiments, the pores that allow for transport from the first end to the second end may have a pore size of, for example, 20-60 μm. By increasing the twist (reducing the pitch of the helical shape formed by the twisting), these pores are compressed and the average pore size is reduced. With reference to FIG. 2B, in some embodiments, the pore size may be modified by rotating a first portion of the evaporator structure (such as a first end of the elongated member) relative to a second portion of the evaporator structure (such as a second end of the elongated member) about a central axis 212 (i.e., by twisting the members together), where the rotating / twisting changes the first pitch to a second pitch that is different from the first pitch. When the first and second ends are used in rotating the members, the pitch is generally uniform along the length of the evaporator structure. However, the midpoint 218 may be used to form other variations. For example, in some embodiments, the pitch 214 of the elongated members in the first portion 213 of the evaporator structure (e.g., formed by holding the first end and the midpoint and rotating them relative to each other) may be different from the pitch 216 of the elongated members in the second portion 215 (e.g., formed by holding the second end and the midpoint and rotating them relative to each other).

[0071] With reference to FIG. 1A, the process may include allowing capillary forces or siphoning action to draw at least one of the plurality of materials from the first end toward the second end 120. These siphoning capillary forces are useful because they allow different materials in the liquid to travel different distances through the evaporator structure based on various factors. By controlling or adjusting one or more of the factors (e.g., hydrophilicity, pore size) as disclosed herein, and by selecting appropriate dimensions (e.g., specific diameters and lengths) of the evaporator structure, a user may predict or control what, if any, material will exit the second end of the evaporator structure, and may predict or control the profile of the substance in the liquid along the length of the evaporator structure.

[0072] In some embodiments, the process may include applying 121 an electric or magnetic field to the evaporator structure(s). The field may be used, for example, to apply a force to one or more ionic materials in the liquid as it flows through the evaporator structure(s). In some embodiments, the field may be used to slow the transport of the material in the axial direction. In some embodiments, it may be used to accelerate the transport of the material in the axial direction. This may be started and stopped at any time during the process, and either may be periodic in application (e.g., 10 minutes on, 10 minutes off, repeat). In some embodiments, the electric field is applied while some or all of the liquid is being transported through the evaporator structure(s). In some embodiments, the electric field may be applied, for example, by an electric field generator 370 (see FIG. 3B), which may include, for example, an electric coil. In some embodiments, the magnetic field may be applied, for example, by a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

[0073] The process may include crystallizing a plurality of salts in or on a porous crystallizer, where the salt with lower solubility crystallizes within a first distance from a first end, while the salt with higher solubility precipitates sequentially (which, for ease of understanding, may be analogized to chromatographic separation) on a crystallizer structure having both radial and axial structures, or crystallizes after the first distance and before a second distance from the first end, such that at least one salt is collected in dissolved form in a solvent that passes through the second end of the structure, or passes through an evaporator without crystallizing.

[0074] The process may include evaporating 125 one or more of the plurality of materials by transferring at least one form of environmental energy directly to each evaporator structure, thereby providing latent heat of vaporization. In some embodiments, the plurality of forms of environmental energy may include at least one of solar energy (e.g., see sunlight 307 in FIG. 3A ), wind energy (e.g., see wind 308 in FIG. 3A ), and ambient heat of air. In some embodiments, the evaporation may include passing air around and / or through each evaporator structure. In some embodiments, the evaporation may include allowing a light source to illuminate the evaporator structure.

[0075] In some embodiments, evaporation can occur under ambient temperature conditions. In some embodiments, evaporation can occur at temperatures greater than 30° C. In some embodiments, evaporation can occur at temperatures greater than 50° C.

[0076] In some embodiments, evaporating one or more of the plurality of materials may include allowing a salt shell 400 to form around the evaporator structure 200 (see FIG. 4).

[0077] With reference to FIG. 1A, in some embodiments, the process may include collecting 130 the at least one target material after it passes from the first end to the second end. In some embodiments, this may include using a collection reservoir 316 (see FIG. 3B). In some embodiments, the process may include determining 131 a concentration of the at least one target material that is collected. This may be done, for example, using a sensor 317 (see FIG. 3B).

[0078] In some embodiments, the process may include adjusting the process 132. Such adjustments may include chemical modifications to the liquid, or physical adjustments to the evaporator structure(s) and / or collection reservoir.

[0079] For example, the adjustment may include changing the distance from the second end to the collection reservoir based on the determined concentration, in some embodiments this may include reducing the distance between the second end and the collection reservoir if the concentration of the target material is too low.

[0080] In some embodiments, the adjustment may include changing the pH of the liquid, hi some embodiments, the adjustment may include adding a buffer to the liquid.

[0081] In some embodiments, the process may include allowing capillary forces or siphon action to spatially separate 140 salts in the liquid according to differences in their solubility, hydrophilicity, mobility, charge, polarity, and local concentration.

[0082] In some embodiments, the process may include evaporating water and crystallizing a plurality of salts in or on the porous crystallizer, where salts with different solubilities are spatially separated (similar to a chromatographic separation) and the more soluble salts migrate further away from the first end.

[0083] In some embodiments, the process may further include evaporating water and transporting a plurality of salts in or on the porous crystallizer, where salts with lower solubility migrate relatively slowly from the first end while salts with higher solubility migrate relatively quickly from the first end. If not crystallized on the porous crystallizer, salts with different solubilities, mobilities, or charges may pass through the porous crystallizer and be collected as solutes at the end of the crystallizer structure.

[0084] In some embodiments, the process may include initially collecting a first salt having a higher solubility and mobility as a solute after passing through the crystallizer structure, while later collecting a second salt having a lower solubility and mobility as a solute after passing through the crystallizer structure, In some embodiments, the first salt may be collected in a first vessel and the second salt may be collected in a second vessel.

[0085] In some embodiments, the process may include evaporating water and crystallizing 141 multiple salts in or on the evaporator structure(s) (see FIG. 4), where salts with lower solubility 405 are mostly crystallized in a first region 401 within a first distance 402 from the first end, while salts with higher solubility 406 are mostly crystallized in a second region 403 located after the first distance and before a second distance 404 from the first end, the second distance being greater than the first distance from the first end, such that different salts are precipitated sequentially on the evaporator structure having both radial and axial structures. This generally forms a region of the crystallized salt structure (e.g., second region 403) where certain minerals are more concentrated than in other regions (e.g., first region 401).

[0086] In some embodiments, the process may include processing 142 salts that crystallize in or on the evaporator structure(s). For example, in some embodiments, the process may include collecting 143 a first salt (e.g., salt 407) that crystallizes at or near the second end, and separately collecting a second salt (e.g., salt 405) that crystallizes at or near the first end. Note that "at or near" is intended to refer to whatever salt formed closest to the stated end. For example, in some embodiments, the first salt may be the salt closest to the first end, although it may be 0.01 m to 0.2 m away from the second end.

[0087] In some embodiments, the process may include separating 144 at least a portion of the salt shell at or near the second end from the remainder of the salt shell formed around the evaporator structure. In some embodiments, this may include striking the portion of the salt shell with a hammer or other blunt object. In some embodiments, this may include chipping off the salt. In some embodiments, this may include cracking the salt shell using a human hand. In some embodiments, after the first portion is removed, the process may also include removing 145 the remainder of the shell from the evaporator structure.

[0088] In some embodiments, the process may include preparing 101 the evaporator structure(s) prior to exposure to the liquid. In some embodiments, this may include modifying the surface of the evaporator structure(s). For example, in some embodiments, each evaporator structure has a surface modification configured to reduce the effects of contaminants or scalants. Many such surface modifications are known in the art, which may be appropriately selected based on the desired application.

[0089] In some embodiments, especially those using plant-based porous materials such as wood-based materials, hydrophobic lignin may provide mechanical support to cell walls, but may also reduce the wettability of the water flow channels, increasing the risk of cavitation and air bubble formation from the breakage of the water column. To enhance wettability and prevent air cavitation under high evaporation rates, the lignin can be partially removed using hydroxide treatment. For example, the contact angle after partial delignification is reduced from 51° to 32° (contact angle measured using the captive method), and as a result, the solid-liquid adhesion energy increases by a factor of 1.5 according to the Young-Dupré equation.

[0090] In some embodiments, this may include pretreating 102 the porous material with an alkaline solution, such as an alkaline solution at a concentration of 0.5-2.5 M. In some embodiments, this may include heating 103 the porous material at 70-200 degrees Celsius for 1-10 hours to partially remove one or more impurities. In some embodiments, this may include freeze-drying 104 the porous material for 12-48 hours.

[0091] In some embodiments, this may include surface carbonizing the porous material 105. In some embodiments, this may be done by pressing and rolling the porous material on a hot plate until the outer surface of the porous material is uniformly or partially carbonized.

[0092] Surface carbonization can be performed to incorporate the transpiration function of tree leaves into the wood surface. Vascular trees, including aspen, have wood vessels and pith rays with pits that allow for lateral conduction of water. However, the number of pits and pith rays often limits fast steam generation. Surface carbonization was found to create a cuticle layer with significantly increased porosity as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The formation of such a cuticle layer is due to the pyrolysis of the outermost cellulose wall. Mercury intrusion porosimetry testing of several exemplary evaporators revealed that the wood surface has a more uniform pore size distribution with an average pore opening diameter of 8±1.2 μm after carbonization. The increased porosity provides a larger effective surface area for evaporation, and the contracted pore opening diameter enhances water conductivity through capillary action. Furthermore, C=C bonds were created during the carbonization process. Conjugated C=C bonds are known to absorb visible light and thus improve photothermal conversion on wood surfaces.

[0093] In some embodiments, the process may include processing 150 the evaporator structure(s) to remove, replace, and / or reuse the evaporator structure(s) that are actively in use. For example, with reference to FIG. 1B, in some embodiments, the process may include removing 151 at least one of the evaporator structures from the liquid. In some embodiments, two or more evaporator structures are joined together (e.g., via a frame at one or both ends). In some embodiments, the removing step may include simultaneously removing two or more of the multiple evaporator structures from the liquid. In some embodiments, this may include removing the evaporator structure(s) from where they may be attached to a frame or container (e.g., by disconnecting a connector from the liquid container).

[0094] In some embodiments, the process may include cleaning 152 each evaporator structure that has been removed. In some embodiments, the process may include reconnecting 153 a first end of each evaporator structure to the liquid. In some embodiments, the process may include placing 154 a first end of a new evaporator structure in the liquid after at least one of the evaporator structures has been removed from the liquid.

[0095] In some embodiments, the process may include capturing and concentrating 160 water from the liquid exiting the second end of the evaporator structure(s).

[0096] In some embodiments, a system may be provided. With reference to Figure 3A, in some embodiments, the system 300 may include an apparatus 301 as disclosed herein and a liquid 310 in which a first end of each evaporator structure is operably coupled to (e.g., may be positioned within) the liquid. In some embodiments, the system may include a container 311 configured to hold the liquid.

[0097] In some embodiments, the system may include one or more additional components 330. In some embodiments, the one or more additional components may include a pump 331 configured to pump liquid from a liquid source 332 to the container.

[0098] In some embodiments, the system may include at least one processor 333 operably coupled to the pump and configured to control the pump. As will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, the processor(s) may be coupled to a memory and a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium (not shown), which may contain instructions that, when executed by the processor(s), configure the processor(s) to perform certain steps of a process. In some embodiments, the processor(s) may be coupled to one or more sensors (such as sensors 315 and 317 of FIG. 3B).

[0099] In some embodiments, the system may include a housing 390 configured to enclose at least a portion of the device.

[0100] In some embodiments, the system may include a collection vessel 316. The collection vessel may be configured to collect at least one target material present in the liquid after the at least one target material passes from a first end to a second end of the at least one vaporizer structure.

[0101] In some embodiments, the system may include a fan 380 configured to direct air across at least a portion of each evaporator structure. The fan may be coupled to the housing. In some embodiments, the fan may be operably coupled to a processor(s), and the processor(s) may be configured to control the fan. In some embodiments, the processor(s) may control the fan based on information from a sensor, such as the sensor 317 in the collection bin.

[0102] In some embodiments, the system may include an electric field generator 370 configured to expose each evaporator structure to an electric field. In some embodiments, the electric field generator may be operably coupled to a processor(s), and the processor(s) may be configured to control the electric field generator. In some embodiments, the processor(s) may control the electric field generator based on information from a sensor, such as sensor 317 in the collection vessel.

[0103] In the figures, the evaporator structures are shown to be used in parallel. However, the evaporator structures may also be used in series. As seen in FIG. 5, in one embodiment, in a system 500, a first evaporator structure 200 may be coupled to a first liquid 310, and the liquid output from the first structure is captured in a second container 501. A second evaporator structure 502 is coupled to the liquid output from the first structure. As will be appreciated, this may be repeated with additional structures as needed. In some embodiments, the two structures may be identical. In some embodiments, the two structures may be different.

[0104] The water lift height, water evaporation rate, and mineral precipitation of these devices and systems can be controlled by adjusting the characteristics of the evaporator(s), such as pore size, porosity, aspect ratio, surface energy, etc., as well as adjusting operating conditions, such as solar irradiance, wind speed, temperature, and relative humidity.

[0105] Compared to other desalination systems with membrane-based desalination units, the disclosed device requires the least capital investment, the simplest system design, and the least operational or maintenance costs. Drought-stricken areas without a safe or stable water supply are prime candidates for the disclosed device, but small communities and commercial buildings in developed countries may also benefit from its use, making it ideal for off-grid housing and emergency preparedness.

[0106] Meanwhile, valuable minerals in the sediment can be recovered. Compared to state of the art mineral recovery processes (solar evaporation ponds), the disclosed approach significantly shortens the time span of each recovery cycle, reduces land use and increases mineral yield.

[0107] The disclosed 3D evaporator has a much larger surface area for evaporation and much lower heat energy loss compared to conventional solar stills (for water purification) and solar evaporation ponds (for volume reduction and mineral recovery). Compared to other industrialized water or mineral production technologies such as reverse osmosis, multiple effect distillation, multi-stage flash distillation, mechanical vapor compression, etc., which require significant capital investment and energy / chemical consumption during operation, the disclosed approach requires little initial investment and operating cost and utilizes freely available environmental energy.

[0108] The spatially separated precipitation of minerals made possible by the specific design of the 3D evaporator represents a process to selectively extract and recover valuable metals without selective membranes, sorbents, or resins, which are required in other technologies and can be expensive and carbon-heavy. EXAMPLES

[0109] Example 1 In one example, 16 aspen round dwells, each with a diameter of 0.8 cm and a length of 0.5 m, were used as an exemplary raw material for the disclosed method to form a 3D evaporator device derived from natural wood. The aspen dwells were immersed in an alkaline solution of 1.5 M NaOH and 0.3 M Na2SO3 and heated at 80°C for 5 hours to partially remove lignin. The treated aspen dwells were then rinsed extensively with deionized water and then freeze-dried for 24 hours. Surface carbonization was performed by pressing and rolling the dried aspen dwells on a hot plate at 500°C until the wood surface was uniformly carbonized. The carbonized evaporator was then immersed in deionized water to release carbon fragments for an additional 24 hours.

[0110] Individual evaporators were assembled into a square 4x4 array by fixing them onto a pre-templated Styrofoam® frame with a controlled spacing of 0.5 cm between each of the evaporators. The Styrofoam® provided insulation, light reflection, and buoyancy that allowed the evaporators to float on the water surface while 5 cm of the bottom portion was submerged in seawater. The device and liquid were placed in a sealed clear plastic chamber under sunlight, and a solar-powered fan was installed on the side wall to provide 1 m / s airflow through the chamber.

[0111] The water absorption capacity and steam generation rate of a single such 3D evaporator were evaluated under one-day sunlight and dark conditions. Synthetic seawater containing 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution was used as the feed water.

[0112] Natural wood exhibits relatively poor water absorption properties due to the presence of hydrophobic lignin in the xylem. When using unmodified natural wood in the 3D evaporator, it was also shown that the evaporation rate of natural wood also gradually decreased during the evaporation test, indicating that water absorption becomes a bottleneck for steam generation. As seen in the thermal images, partial delignification allowed complete wetting of the engineered trees, and surface carbonization had a slight effect on water conduction since the epidermal layer was only about 10 μm thick. Cross-sectional X-ray images of the engineered trees show that more than 97% of the woody tracheids near the sides, as well as the radial channels (i.e., pith rays), were saturated with water, which provided a sufficient water supply for steam generation. In dark conditions, the temperature of the wood surface was measured to be 17 °C, about 3 °C lower than the surrounding air, as heat is absorbed by water vapor as potential energy. Under a day of sunlight irradiation, the temperature of the upper surface of the engineered trees increased and equilibrated at 22.9 °C. Due to the low thermal conductivity of the wood material and the high evaporation rate of the sidewalls, an increase in surface temperature was only observed within the top inch of the wood, while the remainder of the 3D evaporator evaporated water at a lower temperature similar to dark conditions.

[0113] Compared to natural wood, the engineered 3D evaporators exhibit over 10 times faster water evaporation rates due to the significantly larger effective surface area available for evaporation. Under a full day of sunlight irradiation, the evaporation rate of a single engineered 3D evaporator was measured to be 1.30 ± 0.08 g / hr, translating to a high water production rate of 26.0 ± 1.6 LMH (liters per square meter of projected area per hour) due to the large LAI (leaf projected area per unit area of ​​the wood species). Three sources of energy are believed to contribute to the latent heat required for evaporation: the specific heat of wood and water, solar energy, and ambient heat. Wood contributed heat energy only during the initial stages of evaporation, as the temperature of the wood reached a steady state within a few minutes. The temperature of the water at the wood surface was found to have decreased by 3 °C as it was withdrawn from the supply reservoir. The energy flux associated with this temperature change of the water was 1.5 × 10 -3 W, specifically the latent heat of vaporization (i.e., 0.9 W). The solar irradiance provided on the upper surface of an engineered tree is calculated to be 1000 W / m 2 This is controlled by the size of the upper surface (i.e., 0.5 cm 2 ), was converted to 0.05 W. It was also found that the side surfaces absorb a significant amount of diffuse solar energy (i.e., light reflected by other objects and absorbed by the side surfaces). Indeed, when a light-reflecting cover was installed to cast a shadow on the side surfaces of the engineered trees, the evaporation rate was reduced to 1.04 ± 0.03 g / h (Figure S4). Thus, the energy contribution from diffuse light was estimated to be 0.2 W based on the evaporation rate difference. Thus, the remaining largest energy contribution (i.e., 0.66 W) was attributed to ambient heat, which accounted for more than 70% of the total energy input. When solar irradiance was reduced to 1000 W / m 2 ~500W / m 2 The evaporation rate was found to decrease slightly to 1.05 ± 0.01 g / hr when the light source was gradually decreased to 0.01 ± 0.01 g / hr. Assuming that both direct solar irradiance and diffuse solar energy decrease linearly with the light source, the energy contribution from ambient heat was found to be approximately constant.

[0114] To further verify the energy contribution from ambient heat, the solar simulator was removed, leaving ambient heat as the only major energy contributing source for evaporation. In dark conditions, the total amount of energy for evaporation was found to be 0.57 W, which is comparable to the previous results (i.e., 0.66 W). Thus, by maintaining a cooler surface to allow passive absorption of ambient heat in the surrounding air, the total energy for evaporation can reach 359% of the daily solar irradiance.

[0115] To evaluate the evaporation performance as the system was scaled up, the engineered 3D evaporators were tested in a closed laboratory environment with 0.5 cm spacing between trees. The average steam generation from each of the engineered 3D evaporators decreased and reached a plateau of 0.65 g / hr as the total number of trees increased from 1 to 16. The LAI of the entire system also decreased to 55 due to the void space between the engineered 3D evaporators.

[0116] Analysis of the individual energy contributions within the 4 × 4 tree grid revealed that the ambient heat contribution to the total latent heat of evaporation was reduced to about 65% as a result of the reduced temperature gradient within the tree grid. Nevertheless, the total energy for evaporation could still reach 284% of the daily solar irradiance, resulting in a high steam generation rate of 4.8 LMH. For comparison with other interfacial solar desalination devices, the solar-to-steam conversion efficiency was calculated. The latent heat associated with solar-induced evaporation (i.e., 3.24 g / h when the dark control is subtracted) was 994 W / m, close to the daily solar irradiance provided. 2 Such high efficiency was primarily due to lower than ambient surface temperatures which minimized heat loss. Increasing the number of trees to a much more significant number would result in a LAI of 45 and an overall evaporation rate of about 4.6 LMH based on data extrapolation.

[0117] Similar to other desalination technologies, poor mass transfer is a major obstacle to achieving high performance. Water vapor generated on the side surfaces is likely trapped in the void space between the engineered trees, reducing the vapor pressure difference that causes evaporation. However, having oversized gaps between the engineered trees also impairs the overall efficiency due to reduced LAI. To optimize the evaporation performance, COMSOL Multiphysics was used to simulate mass transfer within the lattice of engineered trees. It was found that the present system had the highest LAI when all the engineered 3D evaporators were set up in close contact. However, the evaporation rate of such a configuration was significantly lower (i.e., 0.26 g / hr) due to rapid saturation of water vapor between the individual 3D evaporators that make up the lattice of engineered 3D evaporators. Increasing the distance between the engineered trees enhanced mass transfer until the evaporation rate plateaued at a distance of about 0.8 cm. Water vapor production from a single 3D evaporator in this case was more than three times faster than that in the close contact setting and remained nearly constant when the gap size was further enlarged. However, as the gap size increases, the LAI decreases exponentially, which offsets the benefits of enhanced mass transfer. The optimized gap size was found to be 0.5 cm for a simulated system with a unidirectional airflow velocity of 0.1 m / s.

[0118] By increasing the airflow through the system without sacrificing the LAI, energy and mass transfer limitations may be reduced. The thickness of the thermal boundary layer (i.e., the thin region where temperature changes as a function of distance from the surface to the atmosphere) is reduced by increasing the fluid velocity, resulting in a reduction in conductive heat transfer resistance. Similarly, the air velocity across the surface will affect the convective mass transfer and vapor diffusion in the boundary layer. Experimental measurements showed that when an airflow of 1.6 m / s was provided by a rotating fan, the evaporation rate increased significantly to 12.9 LMH. When airflow was present, a reduction in air temperature of about 1.5°C and an increase in relative humidity (RH) of 33% were detected across the engineered 3D evaporator grid, indicating enhanced energy and mass transfer. COMSOL simulations also showed that airflow can effectively reduce the thickness of the boundary layer, enhancing both mass and energy transfer. Evaporation enhancement has been realized in Wind Assisted Enhanced Evaporation (WAIV). The tall and thin cylindrical geometry of the exemplary 3D evaporator not only has a larger surface area, but also provides more efficient mass and energy transfer than the flat sheet sails used in WAIV. Eddies or vortexes can form in the flow pattern across the series of cylinders, providing additional mixing.

[0119] When saltwater evaporates, salt is left behind on the evaporative surface. Salt precipitation is the main barrier for solar desalination devices, as the crystals block the pores and scatter sunlight, resulting in lower evaporation rates. Strategies to slow salt discharge have been proposed, including hydrophobic surface modification, fish-school-inspired rinsing, and cross-flow creation. Although these strategies have proven effective for 2D interfacial desalination devices, they have certain limitations, including increased heat losses and cost of materials. In addition, most of the current solar desalination devices suffer from accelerated salt precipitation as a side effect of rapid steam generation, similar to the fouling issues of RO processes. To control membrane fouling, the concept of critical flux needs to be introduced, which is defined as the permeate flux at which the shear- and Brownian diffusion-induced back transport of pollutants exceeds the convective transport to the membrane. In solar desalination systems, stable and sustainable operation is also governed by the critical flux. Given that engineered 3D evaporators have low areal evaporation rates similar to tree leaves, they are less susceptible to salt accumulation.

[0120] To investigate salt precipitation and evaluate the critical flux for operation, the engineered 3D evaporator was tested under continuous and intermittent solar illumination. The evaporation rate was virtually constant at 4.88 LMH during 24 hours of daily sunlight illumination. It can be observed that salt precipitation started at the top surface of the engineered tree and the salt front gradually progressed downwards. The top surface was exposed to direct sunlight, as in many other solar desalination devices, resulting in an evaporation rate higher than the critical flux. The salt accumulated on the engineered tree was weighed to be 1.53 g after 24 hours, approximately 17% of the total amount of salt dissolved in the evaporated feed water. During intermittent operation, the engineered tree was tested under daily sunlight illumination for 12 hours followed by an additional 12 hours under dark conditions as a representation of the diurnal cycle. After lights out, the evaporation rate decreased to 2.87 LMH. It was observed that the salt precipitate gradually disappeared from the wood structure and was completely absent after 12 h of operation under dark conditions, indicating that the engineered 3D evaporator was operated below the critical flux under dark conditions.

[0121] Since ion movement in dry porous media is driven by both evaporation-induced convective fluxes and concentration gradients, an approximate model is presented to fundamentally understand the critical flux. The net salt flux at the top surface of an engineered 3D evaporator is given by:

number

[0122] From equation 6, it is clear that the net salt flux is closely related to the salinity of the feed water. Therefore, the evaporation rate was also evaluated at different water salinities. Increasing the water salinity reduces water evaporation as a result of the decrease in water activity, which subsequently reduces the vapor pressure difference at the water-vapor interface. Nevertheless, the overall convective salt flux is seen to increase with increasing water salinity. On the other hand, increasing the water salinity reduces the concentration gradient across the engineered 3D evaporator, slowing down the back diffusion of salt. When the water salinity is less than 1 wt%, the net salt flux is negative, indicating that salts are unlikely to accumulate when the feed water is relatively dilute. As the salinity increases, the net salt flux under 1 day of sunlight illumination becomes positive, which is consistent with the experimental observations. In dark conditions, the net salt flux is negative at salinities less than 11 wt%, suggesting that salts may passively dissolve during the night. To quantify passive salt dissolution in the engineered 3D evaporator lattice, the concentration of the feed solution (starting at 3.5 wt%) was monitored by measuring the conductivity. When the system operated under full-day sunlight irradiation, salt accumulation increased, reaching a maximum of 1.39 g after 12 h. In dark conditions, back diffusion became dominant, leading to the dissolution of salt crystals as the gap between convective and diffusive salt fluxes narrowed. After 24 h, a total of 641 mg of salt (average 40 mg per tree) was accumulated, which is only 8% of the salt from the evaporated brine. The rest of the salt dissolved back into the feed water, which can be estimated to be nearly infinite if this device is implemented in a natural water body such as the sea. Thus, diffusible self-cleaning proved to be an effective strategy to prevent NaCl precipitation accumulation. The main limitation of such a self-cleaning mechanism is the trade-off between the water lift height and the long diffusion path length. Therefore, a larger surface area for passive evaporation should be achieved through alternative strategies including maximizing the capillary water lift height, increasing the packing density of the trees in the grid, and building microstructures on the evaporator surface. Additionally, the presence of poorly soluble salts such as gypsum and calcite may require aggressive cleaning strategies such as washing or dosing with antiscalant agents.

[0123] The evaporation performance and self-cleaning mechanism of the engineered 3D evaporator have been demonstrated under controlled solar irradiation and environmental conditions. However, field application of such a desalination device would require reliable operation under more complex weather conditions such as cloud cover, shifting solar angle, and changing environmental temperature. To further evaluate the performance of the system, a prototype device with both steam generation and condensation chambers was tested for 48 hours on a rooftop. A solar-powered fan was installed on the side wall of the steam generation chamber to provide airflow of about 1 m / s through the 4×4 engineered 3D evaporator grid to the steam condensation chamber. The airflow not only enhanced convection, but more importantly, drew out ambient air with lower humidity and higher temperature to sustain high evaporation potential. The steam generation rate was affected by the daily cycle of solar irradiation and air temperature. During the daytime, a maximum evaporation rate of about 5 LMH was measured for two consecutive days, which was comparable to the ideal performance in the laboratory. However, due to the sudden increase in relative humidity in the surrounding environment after sunset, the evaporation rate at night was below 1 LMH. Based on the proposed salt precipitation model, back diffusion of salts reverses the net salt flux when the evaporation rate is less than 3 LMH. Indeed, a faster convective salt flux was found based on the evaporation rate between 12:00 PM and 6:00 PM compared to the back diffusion calculated by the concentration change in the supply tank.

[0124] However, due to the reduced evaporation rate, the back diffusion remained nearly constant and exceeded the convective salt flux during the night and early morning. After two days of operation, a total salt accumulation of 361 mg (half that during intermittent laboratory operation) was found, and no visible salt accumulation was observed. A total of 83 mL of distilled water was recovered during the two days, which was about 70% of the total evaporated water. The loss of water vapor was probably due to heat accumulation in the condensation chamber and the inelegant system design. Higher condensation efficiency could be pursued by providing additional heat sinks (e.g., seawater) and creating air circulation in the system. Nevertheless, each square meter of such engineered 3D evaporator grid could produce more than 15 liters of distilled water, which meets the drinking water requirements for a family of five.

[0125] To isolate the energy contributions in the field tests, solar intensity, relative humidity, and air and surface temperatures were monitored. After sunrise, solar irradiance reached a maximum of approximately 800 W / m2 at noon. 2 The evaporation rate increased around 3:00 p.m., when the maximum outdoor temperature of the day was reached, and then decreased to a minimum at sunset. In contrast, the evaporation rate peaked around 3:00 p.m., when the maximum outdoor temperature of the day was reached. Due to the difference in the daily cycle of solar irradiance and air temperature (also known as the diurnal temperature difference), the energy contribution available for evaporation changed accordingly. In the morning, when air temperature was low and relative humidity was high, solar irradiance was the main energy source. With the increase in air temperature in the afternoon, ambient heat in the air became the dominant energy source. In general, solar irradiance contributed 28% of the total energy for evaporation, slightly lower than that measured in the laboratory (i.e., 34%) due to cloud cover and changes in the angle of the sunlight.

[0126] Example 2 Natural cotton fibers were used as raw material to form 14 spiral 3D evaporators. For each evaporator, a bundle of cotton fibers was spun into a thread with a diameter of 1 mm, and four threads were further twisted into one cord with a diameter of 2 mm. The individual crystallizers were assembled into a circular array by hanging them on a ring holder, and the distance between each crystallizer was 2 cm. The other end of each evaporator was placed in the collected seawater.

[0127] Example 3 Critical minerals such as lithium have become a national security and sustainability priority due to the exponential growth in demand for such materials for lithium-ion batteries and electric vehicles (EVs). Currently, less than 1% of the world's lithium is mined and processed in the United States, so ensuring a domestic supply is essential to national security. Currently, nearly all commercial lithium is sourced from ores and brines found on land. Evaporation of brine extraction has been the dominant process since the 1940s due to its low cost compared to extraction from rock. For example, the famous SQM plant in Chile is the largest evaporation site, accounting for 25% of global Li production. Li-bearing brine (with Li concentrations between 0.013 and 0.2%) is pumped to the surface and concentrated in evaporation ponds. Mg 2+ Impurities such as uranium are removed by lime addition, and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is the final product after the addition of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). The entire process can take more than 15 months and requires a large land area (e.g., about 20 km2). 2 In addition, this operation is known to have adverse effects on local groundwater and ecosystems due to seepage of saline brine.

[0128] Alternatively, the ocean contains about 5,000 times more Li than found on land, with about 230 billion tons of Li available. Extracting this important mineral from seawater could be a more sustainable approach to meet growing Li needs, but the low concentrations (e.g., about 0.2 ppm vs. about 20 ppm) make traditional natural evaporation infeasible. Laboratory-scale methods have been reported via adsorption, strong acid ion exchange, electrodialysis, and electrochemical intercalation, but so far these techniques suffer from low selectivity, limited throughput, high cost, and poor scalability. For example, a pulsed electrochemical intercalation process using TiO2-coated FePO4 electrodes was reported to concentrate Li from seawater by about 18,000 times, but the electrodes need to be replaced about every 100–1,000 seconds to maintain high faradaic efficiency, making it difficult to scale up.

[0129] The disclosed approach enables the development of highly efficient evaporators for the extraction of lithium from water, sediments, or soils using environmentally friendly materials. Preliminary studies have demonstrated the successful extraction of Li from seawater, for example using unoptimized long and mesoporous natural cotton fiber crystallizers, which can be achieved at temperatures as low as 0.5 m sec. -1 At a wind speed of about 20 kg m -2· time -1 Due to the difference in solubility between Li and Na salts, the continuous siphoning and evaporation of seawater through the fibrous crystallizer leads to non-uniform salt precipitation along both the radial and axial directions (i.e., compared to Na salts, Li salts are more abundant at the center than the outside of the fibers and at the top than the bottom), thereby increasing the concentration of Li + Na + from the evaporation-based procedure to spatially separate with selectivity ratios of over 10 to 5000. This is the most flexible and highest separation ratio from the evaporation-based procedure.

[0130] Specifically, lithium extraction from low-concentration seawater can be achieved by the solubility differences between multiple cationic species, especially when considering the high solubility of lithium ions compared to other ions including sodium, magnesium, and potassium (see FIG. 6A). Also demonstrated was the fabrication of hydrophilic vertically aligned porous crystallizers that use capillary forces to draw seawater and crystallize different salt species at different heights based on their local concentrations. Salts with lower solubility crystallize at lower heights, while salts with higher solubility, such as Li ions, crystallize near the top of the crystallizer (see, e.g., FIG. 4, where a first region (such as the region represented by salt 405) can be the Na-rich portion and a second region (such as the region represented by salt 407) can be the Li-rich region). As a result, different ions precipitate sequentially on the 3D structure (i.e., both in the radial and axial structures), with Li ions being concentrated and separated at the top position.

[0131] Preliminary results using porous cellulose fibrous crystallizers confirmed such distribution and separation. It was found that the 3D crystallizers could increase the Li / Na ratio by more than 100-fold from typical saltwater (about 0.05% Li / Na), so that lithium was extracted in the top 2 cm portion of the 50 cm long evaporator. Extraction was even more effective for seawater (0.0015% Li / Na), from which the crystallizers could increase the Li / Na ratio by more than 5000-fold in the upper portion of the crystallizer. See Figures 6B and 6C. In contrast, the majority of the Na-rich salt crystals accumulated in the middle portion of the fibers (30-40 cm). These salt crystals formed a solid shell on the outside of the crystallizer structure, which could be easily separated (e.g., by gently pulling the shell out of the evaporator). In this example, the tall and slender 3D evaporator has a high length / radius ratio of about 600, which provides a large surface area for promoting water evaporation.

[0132] In addition, these examples show that common outdoor environmental drivers such as solar energy can increase the evaporation rate by up to about 18 times compared to the existing evaporation ponds at the world's largest saline Li extraction plant (SQM, Salar de Atacama, Chile). With the assistance of a wind speed of 0.5 m / s, the evaporation rate increases by an additional 18 kg m 2 ·time -1 , or a 50-fold increase over SQM evaporation ponds (see FIG. 4D). These findings suggest that the Li extraction process time could be significantly reduced from over 15 months to less than 10 days compared to existing evaporation ponds.

[0133] 3D X-rays were used to scan the crystals formed on the outside of the crystallizer surface. The results showed that surface drying induced strong advection, indicating the distribution of salt ions in both the liquid and solid phases. Finer scan results showed a non-uniform density distribution of salt crystals formed on the 3D crystallizer structure, indicating the distribution of Li-salts and Na-salts, as they have different elemental masses.

[0134] We also used electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) combined with S / TEM to estimate the distribution of Li collected from the crystallizer. The sensitivity of EELS to Li is high enough (0.2 wt%), with low energy loss excitation appearing at 55 eV (Li K-edge). The combination of EELS with high resolution S / TEM has significant advantages in terms of sub-nm spatial resolution at optimized operating conditions. The presence of Li was verified in the peripheral region of the evaporator. A clear boundary between NaCl and LiCl was hypothesized to exist, suggesting that NaCl first precipitated out of solution to form large particles, and then LiCl precipitated in the peripheral region. Preliminary tests revealed that by combining 3D X-ray and S / TEM-EELS, it is possible to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the distribution and amount of Li in salt crystals produced on the 3D crystallizer, which will be of great help to modeling and system development. Furthermore, we aim to clarify the crystallization mechanism in real time via time resolution using tools such as in situ IR nanospectroscopy and / or time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS).

[0135] Example 4 The base material used to fabricate the 3D spatial crystallizer was natural cellulose fiber yarn with a measured diameter of 2 mm. The cellulose fiber yarn was cut into 70 cm strips and then soaked in DI water for 4 h to remove air bubbles within the pores and provide good liquid-solid contact along the entire structure. The fully wetted fiber crystallizer was then placed vertically immersed at about 3 cm at the bottom into a salt water source with continuous replenishment during the experiment. After the extraction cycle, the crystallizer was cut into 2-4 cm strips along the height and dried in a vacuum oven at 40 °C for 24 h to completely remove the moisture. The easily peeled salt shell was removed from the structure and dissolved in DI water for testing. Each individual crystallizer strip was also separately soaked in DI water for over 24 h to ensure all ions were released into solution. The water samples were then appropriately diluted and tested for ion concentration by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) after filtration through a PVDF syringe filter (25 mm, 0.45 μm). Specifically, the Li concentration in all samples was 100%. +and Na + The concentration of was measured by a Thermo Scientific iCAP RQ ICP-MS operated in STD mode at a plasma power of 1550 W and a carrier flow of nebulizer gas of 1.1 L / min. To avoid errors caused by dilution, duplicate samples with different dilution ratios were tested for each sample.

[0136] Two synthetic brine conditions were used for Li extraction testing. The seawater conditions were based on a typical ocean composition: c(Li+) = 0.18 ppm and c(Na+) = 10,800 ppm. The brine conditions were based on a typical geothermal brine composition from the Salar de Atacama, Chile: c(Li+) = 1,500 ppm and c(Na+) = 76,000 ppm.

[0137] Sequential and separable crystallization of lithium from multiple cationic species of different initial concentrations and solubilities is made possible by the capillary and evaporation flows in the fiber crystallizer. The porous structure can push water up about 0.6 m via capillary forces, allowing for much faster water evaporation at the side surfaces. As the water evaporates, salts with higher concentrations and lower solubility, such as NaCl, crystallize at the lower height of the fiber crystallizer, while salts with lower concentrations and higher solubility, such as LiCl, move further up and crystallize near the top. As a result, with sufficient height of the twisted fiber structure, different salts reach their saturation points at different locations and precipitate sequentially along the length of the crystallizer, providing sufficient spatial separation for recovery. Figure 7A shows that during the evaporation operation, the Li / Na weight ratio gradually increases with the height (H) of the crystallizer, and after 60 hours, the Li / Na ratio in the top 10% portion of the crystallizer is more than 675 times higher (1.0%) than the background bulk seawater (0.0015%). A similar trend in Li accumulation was observed when using a typical continental Li-bearing brine (see Fig. 7B), where the crystallizer enriched Li by over 39-fold (77% vs. 2%).

[0138] Spatial separation was also observed along the radial direction (R), where a Na-rich salt shell formed on the outside of the crystallizer. Compared with the very high Na content in the salt shell, the Li / Na ratio was more than 200 times higher in the crystallizer structure. See FIG. 7C. This allows for easy physical separation of Na salts from the crystallizer, further facilitating the recovery of enriched Li in the porous structure. This spatial separation is a result of ion redistribution in the porous material, which is influenced by the competition between advection (induced by water evaporation and capillary flow) and diffusion (induced by ion concentration gradient). At high evaporation rates at the surface of the crystallizer, advection dominates and the salt with higher concentration (NaCl) reaches saturation first and crystallizes at the air / solid interface where drying occurs. If the drying of the water extends from the outside to the center, amorphous Li salts start to crystallize in the central part. This spatial distribution of different salt crystals allows for the selective accumulation and separation of lithium from other cations.

[0139] In this example, the crystallizer features a very high height / radius (H / R) ratio of about 600, which allows for a large surface area and a fast evaporation rate (ER). 2 The projected area of ​​the 2 In addition, when an array of 24 crystallographs was constructed (projected area = 64 cm), a high ER of 1.5 times was observed. 2 ), based on the projected area including the space, 6.8 kg / (m 2 A normalized ER of 1.0 kg / (m ·hr) was obtained, which is more than 18 times faster than that reported by the largest evaporation pond for lithium extraction (3200 mm / year, SQM, Salar de Atacama, Chile) (17). Moreover, when assisted by natural solar irradiation (1 day of sunlight) or wind speed (0.5 m / s), the ER was 9.2 and 17.8 kg / (m ·hr), respectively. 2 This was further accelerated to 100 sq. m (100 sq. m) (see Figure 7D), suggesting that the system could be over 50 times faster than evaporation ponds and, if scaled up appropriately, could potentially significantly reduce the duration of operation from over 15 months to less than 15 days.

[0140] The demonstrated crystallizer is made from natural cellulose fibers manufactured in four twisted strings. 3D X-ray scan images show a cross-section of the 3D structure, with the four strings tightly twisted at an angle of 23-24° to the vertical. When the 70 cm long crystallizer is partially immersed in salt water, evaporation occurs continuously along the lifting height (H) of the water. It was observed that the majority of NaCl crystals formed at about 1 / 3 of the height surrounding the surface of the structure, and the salt layer gradually thinned upwards.

[0141] To unravel the composition of the different salt species and the mechanism of sequential crystallization, the salt density distribution was characterized in two representative parts, one on the top (location 1) and another on top of the thickest salt accumulation (location 2). 3D X-ray images reveal very different salt density and distribution between the two locations. The most observable difference is that in the longitudinal (H) direction, the salt density was much higher at the bottom location 2 than at the top location 1, as evidenced by the color change from red to blue in the 3D X-ray images. In addition, a gradient exists in the density in the radial (R) direction, with cooler colors indicating lower density inside the structure, while warmer colors indicating higher density outside the structure. This supports the hypothesis that Li salts (smaller molar mass) are enriched inside the structure, while Na salts (larger molar mass) are enriched outside the surface. This distribution was further confirmed by other advanced elemental scanning methods. Overall, along the H direction, very high Li contents (Li / Na mass > 77%) were identified at the topmost locations, while lower Li and higher Na contents (Li / Na mass, 1.0–4.3%) were found in the lower 0.85H section, where large NaCl cubic crystals dominated the formation of a thick salt shell.

[0142] A mechanistic model was developed to describe ion transport in an elongated porous cylindrical structure that continuously draws liquid from a reservoir and evaporates along its length. See FIG. 8A. The model calculates the Na(c Na ) or Li ion (c Li) (see, e.g., Figures 8B and 8C). The radius of the crystallizer is R, and ρ is the solution density, while the ions, at saturation, are JPEG2025508879000003.jpg7145 in density The predicted concentration is determined by the effective Peclet number Pe=jH, a dimensionless parameter that quantifies the ratio between advection (driven by the evaporation rate j) and diffusion (quantified by the ion diffusivity D). 2 Considering the very high aspect ratio between the lifted height H and the radius R of the evaporator, advection dominates over diffusion and Pe>>1, causing an exponentially faster increase in the concentration of both ions at the top of the evaporator, c(z=H)=c 0 e 2tj / (ρR) This rapid accumulation of concentration, combined with the fact that Na is much closer to saturation in the bulk solution, JPEG2025508879000005.jpg7145 This results in the rapid precipitation of sodium, which first crystallizes. As a result, after a characteristic time JPEG2025508879000006.jpg8144Na concentration remains constant at the top of the evaporator, in equilibrium with the NaCl salt. This allows Li, which is relatively far from saturation, to increase its relative concentration as evaporation continues to drive solution through the porous NaCl salt shell (Figure 8C). The model results are consistent with our experimental observations (see Figures 7A-B), and also show a significant accumulation of Li, primarily in the top 10% of the wet evaporator.

[0143] The experimental results support the hypothesis that in the radial direction (R), NaCl crystallizes outside the structure while LiCl is concentrated in the central part. This is further supported by cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) scan results, where the Na elemental map shows a circular shape surrounding the crystallizer structure and the Li map shows a dispersed distribution across the cross section of the crystallizer. Focusing on the area between the fiber and the salt crystal, only the salt crystal showed a clear Na spectrum, while the fiber showed no Na signal. In contrast, the Li spectrum was detected throughout the fiber area, with the weakest signal in the lower right corner where the NaCl crystals are located. Thus, NaCl crystals formed outside the fiber, while LiCl formed an amorphous salt throughout the fiber. Such a spatial distribution indeed allows for the individual extraction and separation of Li and Na, which has been demonstrated in the crystallizer array test.

[0144] Salt crystal morphology can be characterized to understand the dynamics of ion redistribution and crystal formation. SEM-EDX investigations of sub-millimeter scale salt clusters were performed, and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) combined with S / TEM was used to investigate the crystal morphology and element distribution at the sub-micron scale. S / TEM scanning images depict square crystals surrounded by amorphous crystals. In zoomed-in scans, a clear boundary between the two types of crystals can be observed, indicating the presence of two different salt species. EELS maps confirmed this assumption, since Na was distributed only on the right side of the boundary, and Li was distributed mainly on the left side. Meanwhile, Cl was present everywhere as a counter ion. These results confirm that the central square crystals are NaCl, while LiCl formed amorphous crystals in the peripheral regions. The clear boundary between Na and Li suggests sequential, rather than simultaneous, crystallization. Since NaCl has lower solubility and higher concentration, it is reasonable that NaCl crystallizes first, while LiCl tends to gradually nucleate around these NaCl cores when the brine dries in place. No EELS spectra of Li were observed for salt particles taken from the outer salt shell of the fibrous structure. This confirms that most of the Li is localized within the mesoporous fibrous structure during the sequential crystallization.

[0145] 3D stranded fiber crystallizers enable lithium separation by providing high aspect ratios and surface areas that allow for stepwise crystallization of different salt species. The stranded structure further enhances this feature as the helical structure provides favorable voids and pathways for the brine to migrate upwards, drying and crystallizing along the way.

[0146] The constructs were made by first twisting the natural cellulose fibers into tight strings (diameter = 1 mm) and then twisting four more strings together to provide a construct with a diameter of 2 mm. For better comparison, the cellulose fibers were also aligned to form a linear construct with a diameter of 1.2 mm. Compared to the untwisted control, the single twisted string lifted water 102% higher, and the four-string twist further increased the lift by 57%. Such twisting is believed to provide a greater suction force to lift the water higher, and as a result, a 351% increase in water evaporation was observed for the single twisted string compared to the untwisted string, and a 108% increase in evaporation for the four-string twist (see Figure 9).

[0147] In some embodiments, n-string twisting may be used, where n>=1. For example, n=4, n=5, n=6, n=7, n=10, n=16, n=100, etc. Laboratory tests have also shown that adding each additional pair of twisted strands may continue to improve water lift by about 10-15%. This effect may be explained by introducing a model of the lift height H resulting from the balance between capillary pressure (which induces upward flow at the pore scale) and gravity (which pulls the fluid downward). Typically, the lift height produced by capillary forces is: JPEG2025508879000007.jpg9144 can be modeled as the surface tension coefficient γ, the gravitational acceleration g, and the median porosity and permeability φ and k, respectively. Increasing the packing of the fibers and strings by twisting reduces their spacing and thus the effective pore size of the heterogeneous evaporator. Since the permeability k is directly proportional to the characteristic pore size of the media, twisting can ultimately result in lower permeability and higher lift height values.

[0148] In this example, the scalability of these fiber crystallizers was also analyzed by building and testing a prototype array of 100 fiber crystallizers (aka evaporator structures). The fiber crystallizers were placed on a plastic mesh so that they could be evenly spaced with the bottom part immersed in the brine. Since NaCl preferentially crystallizes at the air-liquid interface, the formed Na-rich salt shell can be retrieved by gentle vibration or scraping. In contrast, LiCl tends to form crystalline hydrates as the water evaporates and remains within the crystallizer. Therefore, a wash-soak method (as illustrated in Figure 10) was implemented to recover the Li-rich concentrate. The Li / Na weight ratio in the recovered concentrate was found to be 55-105% higher than the pre-concentrated Li-brine in the conventional implementation. Meanwhile, the crystallizers can be regenerated and easily used for the next crystallization cycle. Such a process could be used to recover the Li-rich concentrate at a comparable annual lithium production capacity of the Chilean SQM plant (about 2.4 kt / km). 2 To reach 100 kW (100 kW per year), over 90% of land usage can be saved, which has significant advantages for areas with limited space and environmental concerns. Furthermore, the evaporator structures can be stacked to further reduce the overall system footprint, as they derive their thermal energy primarily from the ambient heat of the air rather than direct solar irradiation.

[0149] Various modifications may be made to the systems, methods, devices, mechanisms, techniques, and portions thereof described herein with respect to the various figures, and such modifications are considered to be within the scope of the present invention. For example, while various embodiments described herein present specific orders of steps or arrangements of functional elements, various other orders / arrangements of steps or functional elements may be utilized within the context of the various embodiments. Additionally, while modifications to the embodiments may be discussed individually, various embodiments may employ multiple modifications simultaneously or sequentially, compound modifications, and the like.

[0150] While various embodiments incorporating the teachings of the present invention have been shown and described in detail herein, those skilled in the art may readily devise many other various embodiments which still incorporate these teachings. Thus, while the above is directed to various embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof. Thus, the appropriate scope of the present invention should be determined according to the claims.

Claims

1. 1. A process for the recovery of water, organic matter, and / or minerals, comprising the steps of: providing a plurality of evaporator structures comprising a porous material, each evaporator structure having a first end and a second end opposite the first end and separated by an axial length, each evaporator structure being physically separated from an adjacent evaporator structure; contacting the first end of each evaporator structure with a liquid, the liquid including a plurality of materials, the plurality of materials including a solvent and at least one target material at a first concentration; allowing capillary forces or siphon action to draw at least one material of the plurality of materials from the first end toward the second end; and vaporizing one or more of said plurality of materials by transferring at least one form of environmental energy directly to each evaporator structure, thereby providing a latent heat of vaporization.

2. The process of claim 1 , further comprising collecting the at least one target material after it passes from the first end to the second end.

3. The process of claim 2 further comprising determining a concentration of the at least one target material collected.

4. The process of claim 3 , further comprising adjusting a distance from the second end to a collection reservoir based on the determined concentration.

5. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein each evaporator structure comprises a plurality of fibers twisted around each other to form a helical pattern having at least a first pitch, and the process further comprises adjusting a pore size of at least a portion of an evaporator structure of the plurality of evaporator structures by rotating a first portion of the evaporator structure relative to a second portion of the evaporator structure about a central axis to change the first pitch to a second pitch different from the first pitch.

6. The process of claim 1 , wherein the liquid comprises an industrial stream.

7. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the industrial stream comprises an organic solvent and / or an ionic liquid.

8. The process of claim 1 , wherein the liquid is a saltwater source.

9. 9. The process of claim 8, wherein the saltwater source is seawater, salt lake and reservoir water, groundwater, geothermal saltwater, or wastewater.

10. 9. The process of claim 8, wherein the water is collected in vapor or liquid form.

11. The process of claim 10 , wherein the at least one material is water, and the process further comprises capturing and condensing the water.

12. The process of claim 11 , wherein the liquid comprises a plurality of salts.

13. 13. The process of claim 12, wherein the plurality of salts comprises a first salt comprising a targeted mineral and a second salt.

14. 14. The process of claim 13, wherein the target mineral is lithium.

15. 12. The process of claim 11, further comprising allowing the capillary forces or siphon action to spatially separate salts in the liquid according to differences in their solubility, hydrophilicity, mobility, charge, polarity, and local concentration.

16. 16. The process of claim 15, further comprising evaporating water and crystallizing the plurality of salts in or on a porous crystallizer, wherein salts having different solubilities are separated spatially similar to a chromatographic separation, such that more soluble salts migrate further from the first end.

17. 16. The process of claim 15, further comprising evaporating water and transporting the plurality of salts in or on the porous crystallizer, wherein salts with lower solubility migrate from the first end at a first rate while salts with higher solubility migrate from the first end at a second rate higher than the first rate, and when not crystallizing on the porous crystallizer, the salts with different solubilities, mobilities, or charges pass through the porous crystallizer and are collected as solutes at the end of the crystallizer structure.

18. 16. The process of claim 15, further comprising evaporating water and crystallizing the plurality of salts in or on the porous crystallizer, wherein the second distance is greater than the first distance such that salts with lower solubility crystallize within a first distance from the first end, while salts with higher solubility crystallize after the first distance and before a second distance from the first end, and different salts precipitate sequentially on the crystallizer structure having both radial and axial structures.

19. 20. The process of claim 18, further comprising collecting the first salt that crystallizes at or near the second end and separately collecting the second salt that crystallizes at or near the first end.

20. 20. The method of claim 18, further comprising initially collecting the first salt having a higher solubility and mobility as a solute after passing through the crystallizer structure, while later collecting the second salt having a lower solubility and mobility as a solute after passing through the crystallizer structure.

21. 20. The process of claim 18, further comprising separating at least a portion of the salt shell at or near the second end from the remainder of the salt shell formed around the evaporator structure.

22. 22. The process of claim 21 further comprising removing the remainder of the shell from the evaporator structure.

23. The process of claim 1 , wherein the at least one of the plurality of materials comprises a volatile organic material or a mineral.

24. The process of claim 1 , wherein the multiple forms of environmental energy include at least one of solar energy, wind energy, and ambient heat of air.

25. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the porous material comprises at least one of a wood material, a plant-based fabric, a modified plant-based material, an unmodified plant-based material, a ceramic, a porous carbon, a geopolymer, a hydrogel, a textile, a synthetic polymer, or a combination thereof.

26. 10. The process of claim 1, further comprising pretreating the porous material with an alkaline solution at a concentration of 0.5 to 2.5M.

27. 10. The process of claim 1, further comprising heating the porous material to 70-200 degrees Celsius for 1-10 hours to partially remove one or more impurities.

28. 10. The process of claim 1, further comprising freeze-drying the porous material for 12 to 48 hours.

29. 10. The process of claim 1, further comprising surface carbonizing the porous material by pressing and rolling the porous material on a hot plate until an outer surface of the porous material is uniformly or partially carbonized.

30. 30. The process of claim 29, wherein carbonizing the exterior surface comprises direct combustion using a butane torch at a temperature in excess of 1000°C.

31. The process of claim 1 , wherein the evaporation occurs under ambient temperature conditions.

32. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the evaporation occurs at a temperature greater than 30°C.

33. The process of claim 1 , wherein the evaporation comprises passing air around and / or through each evaporator structure.

34. The process of claim 1 , wherein the evaporating comprises allowing a light source to illuminate the evaporator structure.

35. The process of claim 1 , wherein evaporating one or more of the plurality of materials comprises allowing a salt shell to form around the evaporator structure.

36. The process of claim 1 , wherein each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 0.1 meters.

37. 10. The process of claim 1, wherein each evaporator structure has a length to radius ratio of at least 5:1 and is positioned substantially vertically.

38. The process of claim 1 , wherein the plurality of evaporator structures are arranged in an array.

39. The process of claim 1 , wherein the liquid comprises a metal or metalloid.

40. 10. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid comprises lithium, silver, gold, nickel, cobalt, copper, aluminum, iron, zinc, molybdenum, boron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, selenium, platinum, uranium, silica, rare earth elements, or combinations thereof.

41. The process of claim 1 , wherein the liquid comprises an organic solvent, a volatile fatty acid, or a combination thereof.

42. The process of claim 1 further comprising applying an electric or magnetic field onto the evaporator structure.

43. The process of claim 1 further comprising removing at least one of the evaporator structures from the liquid.

44. 44. The process of claim 43, further comprising cleaning each evaporator structure being removed.

45. 45. The process of claim 44, further comprising reconnecting the first end of each evaporator structure to the liquid after it has been cleaned.

46. 44. The process of claim 43, further comprising placing the first end of a new evaporator structure in the liquid after the at least one of the evaporator structures is removed from the liquid.

47. 44. The process of claim 43, wherein removing at least one of the evaporator structures from the liquid comprises simultaneously removing two or more of the plurality of evaporator structures from the liquid.

48. 1. An apparatus for the recovery of water, organic matter and / or minerals, comprising: a plurality of evaporator structures, each evaporator structure comprising a porous material, each evaporator structure having a first end and a second end opposite the first end and separated by an axial length, each evaporator structure being physically separated from an adjacent evaporator structure, each evaporator structure having a porous structure configured to draw liquid from the first end toward the second end using capillary forces; The apparatus is configured to allow for the direct transfer of at least one form of environmental energy as latent heat for vaporization to each evaporator structure.

49. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure includes a plurality of elongated members, each elongated member twisted together to form a helical structure.

50. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure includes a rigid elongated member having a stiffness greater than a stiffness of the porous material, the porous material being twisted around the rigid member in a helical pattern.

51. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure includes a weighting member operably coupled to either the first end or the second end of the evaporator structure.

52. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure has an inner pore structure that is hydrophilic and an outer surface that is hydrophobic.

53. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure is constructed from natural wood materials, polymers, ceramics, hydrogels, fabrics, porous carbon, geopolymers, or combinations thereof.

54. 54. The apparatus of claim 53, wherein each evaporator structure is constructed from natural wood materials, twisted fibers derived from natural materials, fibers derived from synthetic materials, or combinations thereof.

55. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure has substantially the same geometric shape.

56. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures has a different geometric shape.

57. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure defines a geometric shape that is substantially cylindrical, helical, pyramidal, conical, prismatic, or rectangular.

58. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures defines a helical geometric shape, and wherein the at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures comprises natural cotton or vegetable fibers.

59. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein at least one of the plurality of evaporator structures comprises a bundle of vegetable fibers spun into a thread having a diameter of 1 mm, and four threads are further twisted into a cord having a diameter of 2 mm.

60. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, further comprising a frame operably coupled to the first end and / or the second end of each of the plurality of evaporator structures.

61. 61. The apparatus of claim 60, wherein the frame has a cross-section defined by an annulus.

62. 62. The apparatus of claim 61, wherein the frame is configured to position the first end of each of the plurality of evaporator structures below a surface of a liquid.

63. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein the frame is configured to position each evaporator structure in a substantially vertical position.

64. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure has a surface modification configured to reduce the effects of contaminants and scalants.

65. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure has an axial length of at least 0.1 meters.

66. 49. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein each evaporator structure is substantially cylindrical and has a length to radius ratio of at least 5:

1.

67. 1. A system comprising: An apparatus for the recovery of water, organic matter and / or minerals according to claim 44; a liquid, wherein the first end of each evaporator structure is positioned in the liquid.

68. 68. The system of claim 67, further comprising a container configured to hold the liquid.

69. 69. The system of claim 68, further comprising a pump configured to pump the liquid from a liquid source to the container.

70. 70. The system of claim 69, further comprising at least one processor configured to control the pump.

71. 68. The system of claim 67, further comprising a fan configured to direct air across each evaporator structure.

72. 68. The system of claim 67, further comprising a housing configured to enclose at least a portion of the device.

73. 68. The system of claim 67, further comprising a collection vessel configured to collect at least one target material present in the liquid after the at least one target material passes from the first end to the second end of the at least one evaporator structure.

74. 68. The system of claim 67, further comprising an electric field generator configured to expose each evaporator structure to an electric field.

75. 1. A kit for the recovery of water, organic matter and / or minerals, comprising: A plurality of evaporator structures according to claim 44; a frame configured to couple to the plurality of evaporator structures.

76. An evaporator structure comprising: a plurality of flexible elongate members, each flexible elongate member twisted together to form a helical pattern, each flexible elongate member comprising a porous material, each flexible elongate member having a first end and a second end opposite the first end and separated by an axial length, the porous material configured to draw liquid from the first end towards the second end using capillary forces; An evaporator structure, wherein each flexible elongate member has an axial length of at least one meter.

77. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, wherein the evaporator structure has an inner pore structure that is hydrophilic and an outer surface that is hydrophobic.

78. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, wherein the evaporator structure is constructed from natural wood materials, polymers, ceramics, porous carbon, geopolymers, or combinations thereof.

79. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, wherein the evaporator structure is constructed from natural wood materials, twisted fibers of natural origin, fibers of synthetic origin, or combinations thereof.

80. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, further comprising a rigid elongate member having a stiffness greater than the stiffness of each flexible elongate member, each flexible elongate member being twisted around the rigid member in the helical pattern.

81. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, further comprising a weighting member operably coupled to either the first end or the second end of the evaporator structure.

82. 77. The evaporator structure of claim 76, wherein a connector is coupled to the first end of the evaporator structure.

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