Systems, apparatus, and methods for producing synthetic fuels

Abstract

The specific embodiments described herein provide a synthetic fuel production system. The synthetic fuel production system includes a syngas production station for producing syngas, a crude oil production station for producing heavy synclude, and a crude oil cracking station for converting the heavy synclude into a synthetic fuel. The synthetic fuel production system can produce syngas using an electrocatalytic system, which may include an anode, a cathode, an oxygen evolution catalyst, a hydrogen / carbon monoxide evolution catalyst, and an electrolyte, the pH of which is acidic for at least a portion of the syngas production period.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Cross-reference of related applications This disclosure relates to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 470,596, filed with the U.S.P.T. Office on June 2, 2023, entitled "SYSTEM, APPARATUS, AND METHOD TO CREATE SYNTHETIC FUEL," which is incorporated in its entirety by reference; U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 532,839, filed with the U.S.P.T. Office on August 15, 2023, entitled "SYSTEM, APPARATUS, AND METHOD TO CREATE SYNTHETIC FUEL," which is incorporated in its entirety by reference; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 556,105, filed with the U.S.P. Office on February 21, 2024, entitled "CATALYST FOR USE IN SYNGAS PRODUCTION," which is incorporated in its entirety by reference.

[0002] Technical field This disclosure generally relates to the field of energy, and more specifically to systems, apparatus, and methods for producing synthetic fuels. [Background technology]

[0003] background Electro-fuels are a type of synthetic fuel that can be a drop-in alternative fuel. E-fuels are produced using synthesis gas (syngas), which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO) in varying proportions. The recovered carbon dioxide can also be used to produce synthetic e-fuels, and when these are burned, approximately the same amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, resulting in an overall low carbon footprint. E-fuels do not originate from fossil energy sources; instead, they are generally obtained from chemical processes based on hydrogen and carbon dioxide. [Overview of the project] [Means for solving the problem]

[0004] e-fuels are typically produced with the help of electricity from renewable energy sources, water, and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Unlike conventional fuels, they do not emit additional CO2, but are climate neutral or nearly climate neutral. For compatibility with today's internal combustion engines, e-fuels can also power vehicles, aircraft, and ships, thereby allowing internal combustion engines to continue operating, but in a more climate-friendly way. Thus, e-fuels can offer ecological and economic benefits because they are climate-friendly, compatible with conventional engines, and relatively easy to use. Furthermore, the use of e-fuels requires no conversion of existing transport, existing distribution, and existing fuel / gas infrastructure.

[0005] Brief explanation of the drawing To provide a more complete understanding of this disclosure and its features and merits, the following description is referenced in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Similar reference numerals represent similar parts. [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0006] [Figure 1A] This is a simplified block diagram of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 1B] This is a simplified block diagram of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 1C] This is a simplified block diagram of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3A] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a PV-driven electrocatalytic catalyst system for generating synthesis gas according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3B] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a PV-driven electrocatalytic catalyst system for generating synthesis gas according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating illustrative details of a portion of a crude oil production station according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a crude oil refining station according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 6A] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a direct air capture (DAC) system for capturing carbon dioxide used by a system for producing synthetic fuels, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 6B] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a DAC system for capturing carbon dioxide used by a system for producing synthetic fuels, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a reaction vessel in an electrocatalytic catalyst system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a reaction vessel in an electrocatalytic catalyst system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 9] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a reaction vessel in an electrocatalytic catalyst system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a reaction vessel in an electrocatalytic catalyst system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 11] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a portion of a reaction vessel in an electrocatalytic catalyst system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 12] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a simplified table illustrating exemplary details related to the reaction in the reaction vessel of an electrocatalytic system that helps to produce syngas according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13] This is a simplified scanning electron microscope image illustrating exemplary details of a catalyst used in a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 14] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of one embodiment of the present disclosure, which uses carbon nanotubes and a solvent to produce hydrogen. [Figure 15] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine is used as a catalyst for forming syngas. [Figure 16] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine is used as a catalyst for forming syngas. [Figure 17] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine and carbon nanotubes are used as catalysts for forming syngas. [Figure 18] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine and carbon nanotubes are used as catalysts in a solvent to form syngas. [Figure 19] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine and carbon nanotubes are used as catalysts in a solvent to form syngas. [Figure 20] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine, carbon nanotubes, and platinum are used as catalysts for forming syngas. [Figure 21] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine, carbon nanotubes, and platinum are used as catalysts for forming syngas. [Figure 22]This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine, carbon nanotubes, and platinum are used as catalysts for forming syngas. [Figure 23] This is a simplified block diagram illustrating exemplary details of a part of a system for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, in which cobalt phthalocyanine, carbon nanotubes, and platinum are used as catalysts for forming syngas. [Figure 24] This is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential behaviors that may be associated with a system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] This is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential behaviors that may be associated with a system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 26] This is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential behaviors that may be associated with a system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0007] The drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, as their dimensions can be significantly altered without departing from the scope of this disclosure.

[0008] Detailed explanation The following detailed description illustrates an example of apparatus, method, and system relating to a process for producing synthetic fuel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. Features such as structure, function, and / or properties are described for convenience with reference to one embodiment. Various embodiments may be implemented with any suitable one or more of the described features.

[0009] overview The photoelectrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) to syngas (H2 / CO) is an attractive pathway to low-carbon fuels. However, the development of efficient and stable electrocatalysts for the electrochemical conversion of syngas remains a challenge. Currently, there is a need to produce low-carbon intensity fuels and store daytime photovoltaic (PV) energy in chemical bonds for on-demand deployment. One means of producing low-carbon intensity fuels is to utilize electrocatalytic devices to convert water and carbon dioxide into synthesis gas (syngas). Syngas, which is widely used in the chemical industry, is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) gas and hydrogen gas. For example, syngas can be used in the Fischer-Tropsch reaction for fuels and lubricants, to produce polymers (e.g., polycarbonates), to produce alcohols (e.g., MeOH), to burn directly as fuel, to use in steelmaking, to use in the Haber-Bosch process, and to produce other compounds and / or processes. In other examples, syngas can be used for power generation (e.g., gas turbines, internal combustion engines, fuel cells, etc.), to produce hydrogen for use in the hydrotreatment process of oil refineries (e.g., the syngas redox (SGR) process), to use in fuel cells, to produce chemicals, fertilizers, transport fuels, etc., to produce methanol, to produce ethanol, and / or for other uses of syngas. Currently, syngas is typically produced through steam-methane reforming (SMR) or coal gasification using the reaction CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2.

[0010] Current methods for producing syngas are carbon-intensive processes that generate approximately 5-15 mol% carbon dioxide and release approximately 38-77 mol% anthropogenic CO2, assuming natural gas turbine power with an efficiency of approximately 60-30% on a methane basis. What is needed is a process or means to reduce the carbon intensity of syngas production. One way to reduce the carbon intensity of the syngas production process is by utilizing CO2 as a precursor for net-zero production through PV-driven electrocatalysis.

[0011] One type of PV-driven electrocatalyst system that may be employed is a PV-integrated electrocatalyst system. Another type of PV-driven electrocatalyst system that may be employed is a PV-separated electrocatalyst system. Other PV-integrated electrocatalyst systems may also be employed, and it should be noted that PV-integrated and PV-separated electrocatalyst systems are used as non-limiting examples.

[0012] PV-integrated electrocatalysis systems (PVIEs) and PV-divorced electrocatalysis systems (PV-ECs) have similar structures using polymer electrolyte membrane equalizers (PEMs), with the addition of a shared electrode between the PV cell and the integrated PEM. For example, PV-ECs and PVIEs can be used for water splitting and CO2 reduction and may include four or five core components. More specifically, PV-ECs and PVIEs may include a catalyst-containing oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrode (anode), a catalyst-containing hydrogen / carbon monoxide evolution reaction (HCER) electrode (cathode), an electrolyte, a reaction separation membrane, and, in the case of PVIEs, an integrated PV cell.

[0013] OER reaction: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ HCER reaction: 4H + +CO2→H2+CO+H2O Specifically, a PVIE consists of an integrated light absorber / catalyst interface that absorbs incident solar flux and can directly produce molecules such as H2, CO, methanol, ethanol, propanol, formic acid, acetic acid, ethylene, propene, methane, ethane, and propane at the required potential, in contrast to generating electricity in typical PV applications. An advantage of an integrated PVIE is the possibility of recovering heat from the PV cell by the reaction solution, in contrast to a separated PV-EC system, which can improve the efficiency of the catalyst used in this system by reducing the voltage requirement (i.e., overpotential) for driving the electrolytic reaction. Another advantage of an integrated PVIE is its ability to cool the PV cell to increase its efficiency, in contrast to a separated PV-EC system. Yet another advantage of an integrated PVIE is that, in contrast to a separated PV-EC system, a PVIE can be used in a dark electrolysis chamber (J>1A / cm²). 2 ) has a lower current density (J = 15~30 mA / cm²) compared to 2 The advantage is that it operates in a small area (i.e., 0.1 cm²), thus promoting low loading of precious metal catalysts. High-efficiency PVIE operates in a small area (i.e., 0.1 cm²). 2 This can be achieved using a multi-junction III-V semiconductor PV cell (e.g., GaAs) that can exhibit a solar-to-hydrogen (STH) conversion efficiency of approximately 19% in the device.

[0014] Recent performance test results for several PVIEs indicate low cost ($30 / m²). 2 Using a two-terminal (2T) metal halide perovskite (MHP) and silicon (Si) tandem PV cell (US$2023), continuous operation for over 100 hours resulted in a 1 cm³ (1 cm³) 2In the active area, a 20.8% STH efficiency (certified by LBNL) was demonstrated. Both the record efficiency and durability are enabled by a conductive adhesive barrier (CAB) that facilitates nearly complete conversion of the power from a two-terminal (2T) tandem electrode to drive unassisted water splitting. PV-EC(CO2) on a CuSn oxide HCER catalyst, with a solar-to-chemical (STC) efficiency for CO equal to approximately 20%, was also demonstrated with nearly unity Faradaic efficiency. A conversion rate of about 300 g*hr -1 m -2 has also been demonstrated. At such high STC efficiency, the desired H2 / CO ratio for the target syngas applications can be achieved by utilizing existing catalysts for the CO2 reduction reaction under acidic conditions and supplementing with an external H2 source. Currently known CO2 reduction schemes targeting CO typically operate under alkaline conditions to avoid H2 production and produce carbonate as an energy sink byproduct. When the CO2 reduction reaction is carried out under acidic conditions, H2 is formed in low yields. This is the desired reaction, and the H2 yield can be increased as desired through process and catalyst optimization.

[0015] The foundation of syngas generation systems lies in improved catalyst design, as well as durability / efficiency at practical scale. For example, bimetallic catalysts have shown great potential for the electrochemical reduction of CO2 to CO, formic acid (HCOOH), methane, and ethylene (C2H4). Combinations of two different metals can synergistically improve catalytic performance and product selectivity for CO. More specifically, bimetallic catalysts such as CuSn, AuAg, and NiFe and NiCu have been demonstrated to exhibit excellent selectivity for CO generation. The presence of Cu can promote the activation of reactants and suppress the formation of carbon deposits, while nickel can improve hydrogenation and reforming reactions. Currently, most PV-EC efforts in this field are carried out under alkaline conditions (pH > 7) to suppress H2 generation at the cost of bicarbonate or carbonate byproduct formation. Here, since H2 is the desired product for syngas formation, the reactor solution utilizes a low pH (pH < 7) to avoid the formation of fouling carbonates and promote H2 generation.

[0016] Syngas production systems are scalable according to design options and constraints, and are not limited by supply chain constraints or material synthesis limitations. For example, a syngas production system may include a gas production station, a crude oil production station, and a crude oil refining station. A gas production station can extract CO2 from the atmosphere and convert the extracted CO2 into synthesis gas, or syngas. More specifically, syngas can be formed using a co-electrocatalyst: H2O + CO2 → H2 + CO + O2, or by forming hydrogen and CO separately and then combining them: CH4 → 2H2 + C(s) and CO2 → CO + 1 / 2O2. A gas production station may include a reactor containing a hydrogen electrode as the cathode and an oxygen electrode as the anode. Energy for syngas production can be supplied by renewable energy sources such as geothermal, hydroelectric, solar, or wind energy. The produced syngas can be sent to a crude oil production station or other stations or facilities capable of processing syngas. For example, syngas can be used for power generation, to produce hydrogen, to produce methanol, to produce ethanol, to produce kerosene, to produce diesel, to produce propane, and / or for other uses of syngas.

[0017] In non-specific examples, conductivity and hydrogen reduction (2H + +2e -A carbon nanotube (CNT) matrix for →H2) can be used as a catalyst in hydrogen evolution reactions to produce hydrogen. In some examples, hydrogen reduction is further promoted by the addition of platinumic acid (H2PtCl6) as a platinum (Pt) source. In some examples, A2PtX4 and A2PtX6 (wherein A=H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and X=F, Cl, Br, I), or other similar compounds or combinations of compounds can be used in addition to platinumic acid, or in place of platinumic acid as a Pt source. Pt can be used at very low concentrations (e.g., 0.0024 mg / cm³). 2 ) can exist and are likely to form very small (monatomic or small nanoparticle) active sites within the matrix for H2 formation. Note that the CNT matrix can be used for hydrogen reduction in applications other than those discussed herein and can be used in any electrolytic cell reactor type and / or any other reaction.

[0018] Another non-limiting example is conductivity and hydrogen reduction (2H + +2e -A cobalt(II) phthalocyanine (CoPc) catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix for syngas formation can be used as an electrolytic cell catalyst for syngas formation. In some examples, hydrogen reduction in reactions using a CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix is ​​further accelerated by adding platinumic acid (H2PtCl6) as a platinum (Pt) source. In some examples, A2PtX4 and A2PtX6 (wherein A=H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and X=F, Cl, Br, I), or other similar compounds or a combination of compounds can be used in addition to or instead of platinumic acid as a Pt source. A CoPc catalyst embedded in a Pt-added CNT matrix may contribute to the production of syngas at a desired H2 / CO ratio of 2:1. It should be noted that a CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix can be used to form syngas in applications other than those discussed herein and can be used in any electrolytic cell reactor type and / or any other reaction.

[0019] When syngas is sent to a crude oil production station, the crude oil production station can use syngas to produce heavy synthetic crude oil (synclude), methanol, or other products that can be produced from synlude by the crude oil production station. For example, syngas can be converted to synlude using the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction. In some specific examples, one or more of the following can be used as catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction: iron, cobalt, ruthenium, thorium, nickel, copper, manganese, chromium, vanadium, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, zirconium, and other similar catalysts, including but not limited to carbides, nitrides, oxides, phosphides, sulfides, arsenides, selenides, and tellurides of these metals.

[0020] Heavy synclude produced at a crude oil production station can be sent to a crude oil refinery. The crude oil refinery can use the heavy synclude to produce synthetic fuels (e.g., propane, gasoline, kerosene, diesel) or other products (e.g., lubricants, waxes). A crude oil refinery can also be a crude oil cracking station, a hydrotreatment station, or some other type of process that can be used to convert heavy synclude into synthetic fuels or other products.

[0021] For example, a crude oil refining station can be converted into a crude oil cracking station. More specifically, a crude oil cracking station can convert heavy syncludes into synthetic fuels using a catalytic cracking process. The catalytic cracking process involves, for example, the presence of a solid acid catalyst. The solid acid catalyst may include silica alumina, zeolite, ZSM-5, NiMo, MCM-41, NiMo / MCM-41, NiMo / ASA, NiMo / USY, metals (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, or a combination of molybdenum and tungsten), or other types of catalysts that can help facilitate the formation of carbocations through the process of rearrangement and cleavage of CC bonds, thereby converting heavy syncludes into synthetic fuels.

[0022] In another example, a crude oil refinery can be a hydrogenation station. More specifically, hydrogenation is a catalytic transformation process in petroleum refining to remove impurities such as nitrogen and sulfur compounds from a hydrocarbon stream. During hydrogenation, crude oil fractions react selectively with hydrogen at relatively high temperatures and moderate pressures in the presence of a catalyst. This process converts undesirable aromatics, olefins, nitrogen, metals, and organosulfur compounds into stabilization products. Some hydrogenated fractions require additional processing to meet final product specifications. Each hydrogenation unit is tailored to the feedstock and the final product. For example, the process for hydrogenating naphtha is not the same as the process for diesel fuel. The most common fractions hydrogenated in refineries include light naphtha, heavy naphtha, jet fuel or kerosene, and diesel oil (e.g., light and heavy coker diesel oil). The feedstock is first pressurized and added to the hydrogen stream. This mixture is heated to approximately 290–430°C before entering a fixed-bed or other reactor operating at approximately 7–180 bar. Higher temperatures and pressures are used to process heavier feedstocks such as diesel fuel. However, overall, the temperatures in the hydrotreatment apparatus are relatively mild to avoid molecular decomposition, while still being high enough to allow the feedstock to react. Within the fixed-bed reactor, hydrocracking and mild hydrocracking reactions occur, converting sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and other contaminants into hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, water vapor, and other stabilizing byproducts. The catalyst used in the reactor is a critical design consideration that significantly impacts the final product. When sulfur removal is the primary objective, cobalt-molybdenum catalysts are preferred. When the sulfur content of the crude oil is relatively low, nitrogen removal becomes the priority, and nickel-molybdenum catalysts are selected. Depending on the conditions and composition of the outlet flow, the byproducts are discarded, recycled, or sent for further processing.

[0023] The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide, also known as the electrolysis of carbon dioxide, is the process of using electrical energy to convert CO2 into a more reduced chemical species. As mentioned above, electrocatalytic systems such as PV-EC and PVIE, used to decompose water and reduce CO2, may have four or five core components. More specifically, the electrocatalytic system may include an oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrode (anode) with a catalyst, a hydrogen / CO evolution reaction (HCER) electrode (cathode) with a catalyst, an electrolyte, a reaction separation membrane, and, in the case of PVIE, an integrated PV cell. The reactor may further include gas diffusion electrodes (GDEs) or carbon paper on both sides of the membrane to allow gas diffusion within the reactor. GDEs are typically composed of carbon, but may be any porous material that does not adversely affect the desired electrochemical reaction. The OER and HCER catalysts may be coated onto the GDEs, carbon paper, membrane, or a combination thereof.

[0024] In all electrocatalytic systems, pH must be controlled. One method of controlling pH is to use an aqueous mixture containing a cathode electrolyte and / or anode electrolyte. The problem with controlling the pH of current systems using cathode electrolytes and / or anode electrolytes is that the cathode electrolyte and / or anode electrolyte must be continuously added to the system. Repeated addition of cathode electrolytes and / or anode electrolytes can be expensive and cumbersome.

[0025] In some of the electrocatalytic systems described herein, the pH of the system can be controlled using pressurized CO2. The amount of CO2 in the electrolyte determines the pH, and the most common cause of acidity in the electrolyte is dissolved CO2. This is because when CO2 is introduced into the electrolyte, some of the CO2 becomes carbonic acid (H2CO3), and carbonic acid lowers the pH of the system (for example, lowering the pH of the cathode electrolyte in the system). The reaction is as follows: CO 2(aq) +H2O→H2CO 3(aq)Therefore, the more CO2 in the electrolyte, the lower the pH. Electrocatalytic systems can be powered using a power source. For example, an electrocatalytic system may be powered using energy obtained from a PV source, a power grid, a nuclear power plant, a wind power plant, a geothermal power plant, a hydroelectric power plant, or any other type of source capable of generating the energy required to power the electrocatalytic system.

[0026] In an electrocatalytic system, when the reaction vessel is pressurized with CO2, two different equilibria exist. One equilibrium produces carbonic acid as described above, and the other equilibrium occurs when the pressure increases beyond the equilibrium breakover point (shown in Figure 12). When the pressure of CO2 becomes sufficiently high (e.g., beyond the equilibrium breakover point), the equation (CO2) is met. 2(aq) The left side of the equation (H₂CO₃ → H₂CO₃) becomes saturated, which means that mainly only carbonic acid exists, rather than CO₂. Carbonic acid is in equilibrium with protons and bicarbonate. This is important because the pH reached at nominal pressure is 5 or 7. When sufficiently high pressure is reached (e.g., past the equilibrium breakover point), the equation (H₂CO₃ → H₂CO₃) becomes saturated. + (aq) +HCO3 - (aq) The right-hand side of the equation becomes dominant, and the solution has a pH low enough to carry out the reaction for syngas production without the addition of an external additional cathode electrolyte and / or additional anode electrolyte or any external electrolyte or acid. When CO2 is added at or beyond the equilibrium breakover point, the reaction in the system forms a bicarbonate, which is the electrolyte, and protons (CO2 + H2O), which act as the acid. This reaction is continuously replenished without the need to add any electrolyte, acid, or any external additional cathode electrolyte and / or additional anode electrolyte, which helps reduce two parts of the cost of running the system.

[0027] The electrolyte in the reaction vessel of the electrocatalytic system includes a conductive medium used for charge transport in some electrolytic cells. In some embodiments, a cathode electrolyte and an anode electrolyte may be used, and the cathode electrolyte may have the same configuration as the anode electrolyte. In other embodiments, the cathode electrolyte may have a different configuration from the anode electrolyte. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte and the anode electrolyte collectively include an electrolyte. The membrane in the reaction vessel of the electrocatalytic system impairs the material that separates the cathode reaction and the anode reaction in some electrolytic cells. The membrane may be continuous, some may be porous, some may be mesoporous, some may be nanoporous, some may be microporous, some may be charge-selective, some may be ion-selective, some may be inorganic, and some may be organic.

[0028] The cathode electrolyte may be present in alkaline electrolyzers (AE), proton exchange membrane electrolyzers, anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolyzers, solid oxide electrolyzers (SOE), molten carbonate electrolyzers (MCE), or other types of reaction vessels in electrocatalytic systems. The alkaline electrolyte can be a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution, which is the most commonly used cathode electrolyte in alkaline electrolyzers. Potassium hydroxide electrolytes provide good ionic conductivity and enable efficient electrolysis at relatively low temperatures. Other examples of alkaline electrolytes include NaOH, LiOH, K2CO3, Na2CO3, and NH4OH.

[0029] The proton exchange membrane electrolyte can be a perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) membrane. PFSA membranes function as a solid electrolyte and do not require a liquid cathode electrolyte. They provide proton conduction between the anode and cathode compartments, facilitating the generation of hydrogen gas at the cathode.

[0030] Solid oxide electrolytic cells (SOEs) operate at high temperatures and employ solid oxide materials as the cathode electrolyte. These materials possess oxygen ion conductivity, enabling the transport of oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode. Molten carbonate electrolytic cells (MCEs) use molten carbonate at high temperatures as the cathode electrolyte. Typically, a mixture of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is used.

[0031] The anode electrolyte may be present in alkaline electrolytic cells, proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells, solid oxide electrolytic cells, molten carbonate electrolytic cells, or other types of reaction vessels in electrocatalytic systems. The alkaline electrolyte can be a potassium hydroxide solution. Potassium hydroxide is commonly used as both the cathode and anode electrolytes in alkaline electrolytes. Potassium hydroxide solution provides good ionic conductivity and allows for efficient electrolysis at relatively low temperatures. Other examples of alkaline electrolytes include NaOH, LiOH, K2CO3, Na2CO3, and NH4OH.

[0032] Proton exchange membrane electrolytes can include dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), or ionic salts. Dilute sulfuric acid is commonly used as the electrolyte in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells. Dilute sulfuric acid provides the protons (H2SO4) for the electrochemical reaction that occurs at the anode. + It provides a source, thereby enabling the production of hydrogen gas. Phosphoric acid can also be used as an electrolyte in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells. Dilute sulfuric acid promotes the dissociation of water molecules and protons (H +) are generated, and the electrochemical reaction at the anode and cathode is promoted. In anion exchange membranes, alkaline electrolytes such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be used. These alkaline solutions generate hydroxide ions (OH) for the electrochemical reaction at the anode. - ) provides, thereby enabling the production of hydrogen gas. The exchange membrane can also utilize electrolytes of specific ionic salts such as ammonium formate (NH4HCO2) or ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3). These solutions act as electrolytes and provide protons (H) for the respective electrochemical reactions at the cathode or anode. + ) or hydroxide ion (OH - ) provides.

[0033] Solid oxide electrolytic cells operate at high temperatures and employ solid oxide materials as both the cathode and anode electrolytes. These materials possess oxygen ion conductivity, enabling the transport of oxygen ions between the anode and cathode. Molten salt electrolytic cells utilize high-temperature molten salts as the anode electrolyte. Commonly used molten salts include sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (KCl).

[0034] Flow-type electrolytic cells utilize separate compartments for the anode and cathode, thereby allowing the use of different electrolytes as the cathode and anode electrolytes. Some cathode and anode electrolytes used in flow-type electrolytic cells include electrolytes, organic electrolytes, non-aqueous organic electrolytes, ionic liquids, redox pairs, and other electrolytes.

[0035] The electrolyte may include acidic and alkaline solutions. The acidic solution may include dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution or phosphoric acid (H3PO4) solution used as the cathode electrolyte in a flow-through electrolytic cell, and the proton (H) required for the cathode reaction. +The alkaline solution provides a cathode electrolyte that can include a KOH solution or a NaOH solution, which provides high ionic conductivity and promotes electrochemical reactions at the cathode.

[0036] Organic electrolytes include aqueous organic electrolytes. For example, organic solvents such as acetonitrile (CH3CN) mixed with a supporting electrolyte such as tetrabutylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TBABF4) can function as cathode and anode electrolytes in flow-through electrolytic cells. These organic electrolytes provide different redox pairs and can enable specific electrochemical reactions.

[0037] Non-aqueous organic electrolytes such as propylene carbonate (PC), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), or acetonitrile, combined with appropriate supporting salts, can be used as cathode and anode electrolytes to enable specific electrochemical reactions in flow-type electrolytic cells. For example, tetraalkylammonium salts such as tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4) or tetraethylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TEAPF6) are commonly used as organic electrolytes for flow-type electrolytic cells. These salts provide the ions necessary to carry out the electrochemical reactions. Other alkyl groups such as methyl, propyl, butyl, and their isomers can be used. Also, various lithium salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) or lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) can be used as electrolyte salts in organic electrolytes. These salts contain lithium cations (Li +) dissociates into the corresponding anion and provides ionic conductivity. Sodium salts, including sodium tetrafluoroborate (NaBF4) or sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF6), can be used as electrolyte salts in organic electrolytes for flow reactor type electrolytic cells. These salts contain sodium cations (Na + ) and the corresponding anion dissociates, facilitating ion transport. Potassium salts such as potassium tetrafluoroborate (KBF4) or potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF6) can be used as electrolyte salts in organic electrolytes. These salts contain potassium cations (K + ) dissociates into an imidazolium cation and corresponding anion, thereby enabling ion conduction. Imidazolium salts such as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ([BMIM]Br) or 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([EMIM]BF4) can be used as cathode and anode electrolyte salts in organic electrolytes. These salts dissociate into an imidazolium cation and corresponding anion, facilitating electrochemical reactions at the electrodes. Pyridinium salts such as N-butylpyridinium bromide or N-butylpyridinium tetrafluoroborate can be used as cathode and anode electrolyte salts in flow reactor type electrolytic cells. These salts dissociate into a pyridinium cation and corresponding anion, thereby enabling the necessary ion transport at the cathode. Phosphonium salts such as trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium chloride or tributyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium tetrafluoroborate can be used as cathode and anode electrolyte salts in flow reactor type electrolytic cells. These salts dissociate into phosphonium cations and corresponding anions, thereby enabling the necessary ion transport at the cathode.

[0038] Ionic liquids are molten salts that are liquid at or near room temperature. Because of their low volatility and wide electrochemical stability window, molten salts can be used as cathode and anode electrolytes in flow-through electrolytic cells. Examples of ionic liquids used as electrolytes include imidazolium or pyridinium salts. For example, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([EMIM][TFSI]) is one of the most commonly used ionic liquids in electrochemical applications. [EMIM][TFSI] exhibits a wide electrochemical stability window, good ionic conductivity, and thermal stability. 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide is suitable for a variety of electrochemical processes, including batteries, capacitors, and electrochemical synthesis. N-methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([MPPYR][TFSI]) is another ionic liquid that can be used in electrochemical systems. [MPPYR][TFSI] offers good electrochemical stability, low volatility, and high ionic conductivity. N-methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide is used in batteries, supercapacitors, and other electrochemical devices. 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIM][BF4]) is a widely studied ionic liquid with good electrochemical stability, a low melting point, and relatively high conductivity. [BMIM][BF4] is used in a variety of electrochemical applications, including fuel cells, solar cells, and electroplating. 1-Octyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([OMIM][PF6]) is an ionic liquid known for its high thermal stability and low volatility. [OMIM][PF6] exhibits good ionic conductivity and is used in batteries, supercapacitors, and electrochemical systems such as catalytics. Choline-based ionic liquids, such as choline chloride ([Ch][Cl]) or choline dihydrogen phosphate ([Ch][DHP]), have relatively low toxicity and relatively low cost compared to other ionic liquids.Choline-based ionic liquids possess desirable properties for various electrochemical applications, including electrolytes in batteries, supercapacitors, and electrochemical sensors. Various imidazolium-based ionic liquids, such as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM][Cl]) or 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIM][OAc]), can be used as electrolytes in different electrochemical systems. These ionic liquids exhibit good electrochemical stability and ionic conductivity.

[0039] Redox pairs such as ferrocyanide / ferricyanide or bromide / bromine can be used as cathode and anode electrolytes in flow reactor electrolytic cells. These redox pairs undergo reversible redox reactions at the electrodes, thereby enabling the storage or conversion of electrical energy.

[0040] The membranes used in the reaction vessel of an electrocatalytic system may include proton exchange membranes, anion exchange membranes, solid oxide electrolyte membranes, bipolar membranes, ceramic membranes, or other types of membranes that can contribute to facilitating the reaction in the reaction vessel of the electrocatalytic system.

[0041] Proton exchange membranes, also known as polymer electrolyte membranes, are widely used in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells. These membranes are typically made from perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) materials such as Nafion®, which exhibit high proton conductivity and excellent chemical stability. Nafion®, in particular, is one of the most widely known and commonly used proton exchange membranes. Nafion® is a perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) polymer developed by DuPont®. Nafion® membranes exhibit high proton conductivity, excellent chemical stability, and good mechanical properties, making them suitable for applications such as fuel cells, electrolytic cells, and redox flow batteries. Aquivion® is a PFSA-based proton exchange membrane developed by Solvay®. Similar to Nafion®, Aquivion® membranes offer high proton conductivity and chemical stability. Aquivion® membranes are used in a variety of electrochemical devices, including fuel cells, electrolytic cells, and electrochemical sensors. Fumatech® and Fumapem® are a series of PFSA-based proton exchange membranes. These membranes offer high proton conductivity, good chemical resistance, and mechanical strength. Fumatech® and Fumapem® are used in applications such as fuel cells, electrolytic cells, and electrochemical reactors. Flemion® is a perfluorocarbon sulfonic acid polymer developed by Asahi Glass Co., Ltd. Flemion® is a PFSA-based proton exchange membrane exhibiting high proton conductivity and good chemical stability. Flemion® membranes are used in fuel cells, water electrolysis, and other electrochemical systems. Xtreme® is a series of PFSA-based proton exchange membranes developed by Dow DuPont®. These membranes offer high proton conductivity, good chemical resistance, and thermal stability. Xtreme® membranes are used in a variety of applications, including fuel cells and electrolytic cells. Gore-Select® membranes are PFSA-based proton exchange membranes manufactured by WLGore & Associates®. These membranes offer high proton conductivity and chemical durability.Gore-Select® membranes are used in fuel cells, electrolytic cells, and other electrochemical systems.

[0042] Anion exchange membranes are used in anion exchange membrane electrolytic cells. These membranes facilitate the transport of hydroxide ions (OH-) from the cathode to the anode compartment. Anion exchange membranes are often made from quaternary ammonium functionalized polymers such as quaternary poly(vinyl benzyl chloride) or quaternary poly(phenylene oxide). For example, Tokuyama A201™ is a commercially available anion exchange membrane widely used in alkaline fuel cells and alkaline water electrolysis. It is made from quaternary poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) and provides good hydroxide ion conductivity and chemical stability. FAA-3™ is an anion exchange membrane developed by FuMA-Tech GmbH™. FAA-3™ is a quaternary ammonium functionalized poly(phenylene oxide) membrane used in a variety of electrochemical devices, including alkaline fuel cells and water electrolytic cells. IonPower A201® is an anion exchange membrane manufactured by Tianjin Shengquan New Technology Co., Ltd®. IonPower A201® is a quaternary ammonium-functionalized poly(phenylene oxide) membrane suitable for applications in alkaline fuel cells, electrolytic cells, and redox flow batteries. FAP-450® is an anion exchange membrane manufactured by FuMA-Tech GmbH®. FAP-450® is a poly(arylene ether) membrane functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups. FAP-450® is used in various electrochemical systems, including alkaline fuel cells and electrolytic cells. Umem® is an anion exchange membrane developed by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) in Japan. Umem® consists of a poly(arylene ether) matrix functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups. Umem® is used in alkaline fuel cells, alkaline water electrolyzers, and other electrochemical devices. AMX® is a series of anion exchange membranes developed by Dow DuPont®.These membranes are made from quaternary ammonium-functionalized poly(phenylene oxide) or poly(arylene ether) materials. AMX® membranes are used in alkaline fuel cells, water electrolysis, and other electrochemical systems.

[0043] Solid oxide electrolyte membranes are used in solid oxide electrolytic cells. Solid oxide electrolyte membranes are typically made from oxygen ion-conducting ceramics such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) doped ceria or doped ceria materials. The solid oxide electrolyte membrane conducts oxygen ions (O) from the cathode to the anode. 2- ) enables the transport of . Yttria-stabilized zirconia is one of the most widely used solid oxide electrolytes and is composed of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) doped with yttrium oxide (Y2O3). Yttria-stabilized zirconia typically exhibits high oxygen ion conductivity at high temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius. Yttria-stabilized zirconia is used in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), SOEs, and other high-temperature electrochemical devices. Gadolinium-doped ceria is a cerium dioxide (CeO2)-based solid oxide electrolyte doped with gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3). Gadolinium-doped ceria exhibits high oxygen ion conductivity even at lower temperatures, and therefore it is suitable for intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs) and other electrochemical devices. Scandia-stabilized zirconia is similar to yttria-stabilized zirconia, but is doped with scandium oxide (Sc2O3) instead of yttrium oxide. Scandia-stabilized zirconia exhibits improved oxygen ion conductivity and mechanical stability at high temperatures. Scandia-stabilized zirconia is used in high-temperature electrochemical devices such as SOFCs and oxygen separation membranes. Lanthanum gallate has the chemical formula La 0.9 Sr 0.1 Ga 0.8 Mg 0.2 O 3-δThese are solid oxide electrolyte materials with (LSGM) properties. Lanthanum gallate provides high oxide ion conductivity at intermediate temperatures and is used in medium-temperature solid oxide fuel cells, oxygen separation membranes, and other electrochemical applications. Various perovskite oxides exhibit solid oxide electrolyte properties such as strontium-doped lanthanum manganite (LSM) and strontium-doped lanthanum cobaltite (LSC). These materials have mixed ion-electron conductivity, and therefore they are suitable as solid oxide electrolytes in certain electrochemical systems. Cerium oxide-based electrolytes, cerium oxide (CeO2), and its doped derivatives (such as samaria-doped ceria (SDC) or gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC)) are used as solid oxide electrolytes in several electrochemical applications. These materials provide oxygen ion conductivity and are used in SOFCs and other high-temperature devices.

[0044] A bipolar membrane consists of an anion exchange layer and a cation exchange layer. Bipolar membranes are used in water electrolytic cells, such as alkaline electrolytic cells, to separate the anode compartment from the cathode compartment. Bipolar membranes are designed to exchange hydroxide ions (OH) toward the anode. - ) and hydrogen ions (H) heading toward the cathode + This enables selective transport of cations and anions. For example, Zirfon® bipolar membranes are commercially available bipolar membranes designed for applications such as water splitting, electrochemical synthesis, and electrodialysis. Zirfon® bipolar membranes consist of a cation exchange layer, an anion exchange layer, and a selective barrier layer located between them. FAB-BC® bipolar membranes are bipolar membranes developed by FuMA-Tech GmbH®. They are used in a variety of electrochemical processes, including water splitting, electrodialysis, and electrosynthesis. FAB-BC® bipolar membranes are characterized by a combination of cation exchange and anion exchange functions.

[0045] Ceramic films, such as porous ceramic materials or ion-electron mixed conductors, can be used in high-temperature electrolytic cells. These films offer high stability and enable the transport of specific ions based on their conductivity. For example, perovskite ceramic films include perovskite materials such as strontium-doped lanthanum manganite (LSM) or lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (LSCF). Perovskite materials are used as ceramic films in high-temperature electrolytic cells, exhibiting ion-electron mixed conductivity, thereby enabling the transport of oxygen ions during the electrolytic process. Stabilized zirconia films, particularly yttria-stabilized zirconia or scandia-stabilized zirconia, are commonly used in high-temperature electrolytic cells. These materials provide high oxygen ion conductivity at high temperatures, thereby enabling efficient electrolytic operation. Silica-based films, such as mesoporous silica films or silica-based mixed matrix films, offer high selectivity and can be adapted to specific separation requirements in the electrolytic process. Ion-electron mixed conductive films, possessing both ionic and electronic conductivity, are used in certain electrolytic cell configurations. Examples of ion-electron mixed conductive films include perovskite materials such as lanthanum strontium cobaltite (LSC), which conduct electrons while enabling oxygen ion transport. Permeable ceramic supports include ceramic materials such as alumina (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC). Permeable ceramic supports are often used as porous supports for ceramic films in electrolytic cells. These permeable ceramic supports provide structural integrity and mechanical stability while enabling gas diffusion and electrolyte transport.

[0046] In the following description, various aspects of the exemplary implementations are described using terminology commonly used by those skilled in the art to convey the essence of the study to others skilled in the art. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the invention may be carried out using only some of the embodiments described herein. For explanatory purposes, certain numbers, materials, and configurations are described to provide a complete understanding of the exemplary implementations. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the embodiments disclosed herein may be carried out without certain details. In other examples, well-known features are omitted or simplified so as not to obscure the exemplary implementations.

[0047] In the following detailed description, references are made to the accompanying drawings that form part of this specification, similar figures indicate similar parts throughout, and possible embodiments are shown exemplarily. It should be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical modifications may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description should not be construed as restrictive. For the purposes of this disclosure, the phrase “A and / or B” means (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of this disclosure, the phrase “A, B, and / or C” means (A), (B), (C), (A and B), (A and C), (B and C), or (A, B, and C). Any reference in this disclosure to “one embodiment” or “embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in relation to that embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Every occurrence of the phrase “in one embodiment” or “in one embodiment” does not necessarily refer to the same embodiment. Every occurrence of the phrase “for example,” “in one example,” or “in some examples” does not necessarily refer to the same example. The term "approximately" includes a variation of plus or minus 20 percent (±20%). For example, approximately 1 millimeter (mm) includes 1 mm and ±0.2 mm from 1 mm. Similarly, terms indicating the orientation of various elements, such as "coplanar," "perpendicular," "orthogonal," "parallel," or any other angle between elements, generally refer to being within plus or minus 5 to 20 percent (±5 to ±20%) of a target value based on the context of a particular value, as described herein or as known in the art.

[0048] As used herein, the term “when” may be used to indicate the temporal nature of an event. For example, the phrase “Event 'A' occurs when Event 'B' occurs” is interpreted to mean that Event A may occur before, during, or after Event B, but is still associated with the occurrence of Event B. For example, Event A occurs when Event B occurs if it occurs in response to the occurrence of Event B, or in response to a signal indicating that Event B has occurred, is occurring, or will occur. Any reference to “example” or “example” in this disclosure means that certain features, structures, or characteristics described in relation to an embodiment are included in at least one example or embodiment. The occurrence of the phrase “in one example” or “in one example” does not necessarily refer to the same example or embodiment.

[0049] Figure 1A is a simplified block diagram of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a synthetic fuel production system 100 according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the synthetic fuel production system 100a may include a gas production station 102a, a crude oil production station 104a, and a crude oil refining station 106a. A power generation station 108a may contribute to supplying power to the gas production station 102a. In some examples, the power generation station 108a is a renewable energy power generation station. For example, the power generation station 108a may be one or more solar cells (e.g., a solar cell array), one or more wind turbines or windmills (e.g., a wind farm), or other types of renewable energy power generation stations. In some examples, the power generation station 108a is part of a PV-integrated electrocatalytic system.

[0050] The gas generation station 102a can produce synthesis gas, or syngas. In one example, the gas generation station 102a can use pressurized carbon dioxide (CO2) to help control the pH of the system. In a specific example, conductivity and hydrogen reduction (2H + +2e- A CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix for →H2 can be used as a catalyst in an electrolytic cell for forming syngas. In some examples, hydrogen reduction can be performed at very low concentrations (e.g., about 0.0024 mg / cm³). 2 The process is further accelerated by adding Pt. The syngas produced from gas production station 102a can be sent to crude oil production station 104a using a mobile transport 110a, a direct pipeline 112a, or other means. Mobile transport 110a may be a tank truck, a tanker train, or other mobile transport.

[0051] Crude oil production station 104a can produce heavy synclude. The heavy synclude produced from crude oil production station 104a can be sent to crude oil refining station 106a using a mobile transport 110b, a direct pipeline 112b, or other means. The mobile transport 110b may be a tank truck, a tanker train, or other mobile transport.

[0052] Crude oil refinery station 106a can convert heavy synclude into one or more synthetic fuels. Synthetic fuels produced from crude oil refinery station 106a can be used as a substitute for fossil-based fuels.

[0053] Referring to Figure 1B, which is a simplified block diagram of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a synthetic fuel production system 100b according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the synthetic fuel production system 100b may include a gas / crude oil production station 114 and a crude oil refining station 106b. The gas / crude oil production station 114 may include a gas production station 102b and a crude oil production station 104b. A power generation station 108b may contribute to supplying power to the gas / crude oil production station 114. In some examples, the power generation station 108b is a renewable energy power generation station. For example, the power generation station 108b may be one or more solar cells (e.g., a solar cell array), one or more wind turbines or windmills (e.g., a wind farm), or other types of renewable energy power generation stations. In some examples, the power generation station 108b is part of a PV integrated electrocatalytic system.

[0054] Gas generation station 102b can produce synthesis gas, or syngas. In one example, gas generation station 102a can use pressurized CO2 to help control the pH of the system. In a specific example, conductivity and hydrogen reduction (2H + +2e - A CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix for →H2 can be used as a catalyst in an electrolytic cell for forming syngas. In some examples, hydrogen reduction can be performed at very low concentrations (e.g., about 0.0024 mg / cm³). 2The process is further accelerated by adding Pt. The syngas produced from gas production station 102b can be sent to crude oil production station 104b. Crude oil production station 104b can produce heavy synclude. The heavy synclude produced from crude oil production station 104b can be sent to crude oil refining station 106b using a mobile transport 110b, a direct pipeline 112b, or other means. The mobile transport 110b may be a tank truck, a tanker train, or other mobile transport. Crude oil refining station 106b can convert the heavy synclude into one or more synthetic fuels. The synthetic fuels produced from crude oil refining station 106b can be used as substitutes for fossil-based fuels.

[0055] Referring to Figure 1C, Figure 1C is a simplified block diagram of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a synthetic fuel production system 100c according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the synthetic fuel production system 100c may include a synthetic fuel production station 116. The synthetic fuel production station 116 may include a gas production station 102c, a crude oil production station 104c, and a crude oil refining station 106c. A power generation station 108c may contribute to supplying power to the synthetic fuel production station 116. In some examples, the power generation station 108c is a renewable energy power generation station. For example, the power generation station 108c may be one or more solar cells (e.g., a solar cell array), one or more wind turbines or windmills (e.g., a wind farm), or other types of renewable energy power generation stations. In some examples, the power generation station 108c is part of a PV-integrated electrocatalytic system.

[0056] Gas generation station 102c can produce synthesis gas, or syngas. In one example, gas generation station 102a can use pressurized CO2 to help control the pH of the system. In a specific example, conductivity and hydrogen reduction (2H + +2e -A CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix for →H2 can be used as a catalyst in an electrolytic cell for forming syngas. In some examples, hydrogen reduction can be performed at very low concentrations (e.g., about 0.0024 mg / cm³). 2 The process is further accelerated by adding Pt. The syngas produced from gas production station 102c can be sent to crude oil production station 104c. Crude oil production station 104c can produce heavy synclude. The heavy synclude produced from crude oil production station 104c can be sent to crude oil refining station 106c. Crude oil refining station 106c can convert the heavy synclude into one or more synthetic fuels. The synthetic fuels produced from crude oil refining station 106c can be used as substitutes for fossil-based fuels.

[0057] Referring to Figures 1A to 1C, in some examples, syngas can be formed using a co-electrolytic catalyst.

[0058] H2O + CO2 → H2 + CO + O2 In other examples, hydrogen and CO can be formed separately and then combined later: CH4 → 2H2 + C(s) and CO2 → CO + 1 / 2O2.

[0059] Energy for syngas production can be supplied by power generation station 108. The produced syngas can be sent to crude oil production station 104. Crude oil production station 104 can use syngas to produce heavy synclude or methanol (e.g., as fuel, simple methylamine, methyl halide, and precursors of methyl ether). In one example, syngas can be converted to heavy synclude using the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction. In some specific examples, one or more of the following can be used as catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction: iron, cobalt, ruthenium, thorium, nickel, copper, manganese, chromium, vanadium, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, zirconium, and other similar catalysts, including but not limited to carbides, nitrides, oxides, phosphides, sulfides, arsenides, selenides, and tellurides of these metals.

[0060] The Fischer-Tropsch process is a catalytic chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) in syngas are converted into hydrocarbons of various molecular weights according to the following equation: (2n+1)H2+nCO→C n H (2n+2) +nH2O In the equation, n is an integer. Therefore, when n=1, this reaction represents the formation of methane, which is considered an undesirable byproduct in most CTL or GTL applications. The conditions of the Fischer-Tropsch process are usually chosen to maximize the formation of higher molecular weight hydrocarbon liquid fuels, which are higher value products. There are other by-reactions that occur in the process, among which the water-gas shift reaction (CO + H2O → H2 + CO2) is dominant.

[0061] Depending on the catalyst used, temperature, and type of process, hydrocarbons ranging from methane to paraffins and olefins with higher molecular weights can be obtained. Small amounts of low molecular weight oxygenates (e.g., alcohols and organic acids) are also formed. The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis is a condensation polymerization reaction of CO, and the products of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis follow a clearly defined molecular weight distribution according to a relationship known as the Anderson-Schultz-Flory distribution.

[0062] The Anderson-Schultz-Florey distribution is W n / n=(1-α) 2 α n-1 It can be expressed as, in the formula, W n α is the weight fraction of a hydrocarbon containing n carbon atoms, and α is the chain growth probability, or the probability that the molecule continues the reaction to form a longer chain. Generally, α is determined primarily by the catalyst and specific process conditions. This formula reveals that when α is less than 0.5, methane is always the largest single product, but by bringing α closer to 1, the total amount of methane formed can be minimized compared to the sum of all the various long-chain products. Increasing α increases the formation of long-chain hydrocarbons.

[0063] The heavy synclude produced at the crude oil production station 104 can be sent to the crude oil refining station 106. The crude oil refining station 106 can use the heavy synclude to produce synthetic fuels. In some examples, distillation is used to separate the synclude into different fractions (e.g., diesel, kerosene, gasoline, etc., as shown in Figure 5). Those heavier than diesel can then be broken down into lighter fuels. The heavier components (e.g., diesel) can be broken down into lighter fuels, such as kerosene, if desired. More specifically, the crude oil refining station 106 can use a catalytic cracking process to convert the heavy synclude into synthetic fuels. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of a solid acid catalyst. Solid acid catalysts may include silica alumina, zeolite, ZSM-5, NiMo, MCM-41, NiMo / MCM-41, NiMo / ASA, NiMo / USY, metals (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, or combinations of molybdenum and tungsten), or other types of catalysts that can help facilitate the formation of carbocations through the process of rearrangement and cleavage of CC bonds, thereby converting heavy syncludes into synthetic fuels.

[0064] More specifically, the cracking at crude oil refining station 106 is carried out using an activated solid acid catalyst in a short-contact, vertical or upward-inclined pipe called a riser. Preheated feedstock is sprayed into the riser base via a feed nozzle and comes into contact with a very hot fluidizing catalyst at approximately 1,230–1,400°F (approximately 666–760°C). The hot catalyst vaporizes the feedstock and catalyzes a cracking reaction that breaks down high molecular weight synthetic crude oil into lighter components, including synthetic propane, synthetic gasoline, synthetic diesel, and synthetic jet fuel. The catalyst-hydrocarbon mixture flows upward through the riser for a few seconds, after which this mixture is separated via a cyclone. The hydrocarbons without catalyst are sent to the main fractionator for separation into light cycle oils used for fuel gas, LPG, gasoline, naphtha, diesel, and jet fuel, as well as heavy fuel oils.

[0065] As it rises up the riser, the decomposition catalyst becomes "spent" through a reaction that precipitates coke on the catalyst, significantly reducing its activity and selectivity. The "spent" catalyst is separated from the decomposed hydrocarbon vapor and sent to a stripper, where it comes into contact with the vapor to remove any remaining hydrocarbons in the catalyst pores. The "spent" catalyst then flows to a fluidized bed regenerator, where air (or possibly air and oxygen) is used to burn off the coke and restore catalytic activity, and also to supply the heat needed for the next reaction cycle, as decomposition is an endothermic reaction. The "regenerated" catalyst then flows back to the riser base, where the cycle repeats.

[0066] The catalyst has four main components: a solid acid catalyst, a matrix, a binder, and fillers. The solid acid catalyst may include ZSM-5, NiMo, MCM-41, NiMo / MCM-41, NiMo / ASA, NiMo / USY, metals (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, or a combination of molybdenum and tungsten), or other types of catalysts that can help promote the formation of carbocations and convert heavy syncludes into synthetic fuels. The solid acid catalyst is the active component of the catalyst and can constitute about 15% to about 50% by weight of the catalyst. The solid acid catalyst can be a strong solid acid (corresponding to about 90% sulfuric acid). The matrix component can be an alumina matrix, which also contributes to the catalytic active sites. The matrix component may include silica, MgO, CaO, scandium oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, zirconia, niobium oxide, molybdenum oxide, hafnium oxide, titanate, zirconate, leadate, niobate, carbon, graphite, graphene, metal-organic structures, covalent organic structures, and / or other chemicals or compounds that can be used as matrix components. The binder and filler components provide the physical strength and integrity of the catalyst. The binder may include silica sol, silica, MgO, CaO, scandium oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, zirconia, niobium oxide, molybdenum oxide, hafnium oxide, titanate, zirconate, leadate, niobate, carbon, graphite, graphene, metal-organic structures, and covalent organic structures for other chemicals and / or compounds that can be used to provide physical strength and integrity to the catalyst.Fillers may include clay (e.g., kaolin), zinc oxide, titanium oxide, carbon black, silicates, MgO, CaO, scandium oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, zirconia, niobium oxide, molybdenum oxide, hafnium oxide, titanates, zirconates, leadates, niobates, carbon, graphite, graphene, metal-organic structures, covalent organic structures, and / or other chemicals or compounds that can be used as fillers.

[0067] It should be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural modifications may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Substantial flexibility is provided by this synthetic fuel production system in that any preferred arrangement and configuration may be provided without departing from the teachings of this disclosure.

[0068] Basic Information For the purpose of illustrating the technology of a specific example of a synthetic fuel production system 100, the following background information may be considered a basis for adequately explaining this disclosure. Several notable technological trends are currently underway that are changing the landscape of power supply. Increasing energy demand and growing environmental concerns are driving a shift in power generation from primarily fossil fuel and nuclear sources to exclusively renewable energy sources, and the search for efficient energy management systems (conversion, storage, and transport) to achieve a safe, reliable, and sustainable energy supply. One possible type of energy supply is synthetic fuel. Synthetic fuel, or e-fuel, is a liquid fuel, just like fossil fuel. The key difference is that synthetic fuel does not originate from fossil energy sources, but instead is obtained from chemical processes based on hydrogen (i.e., hydrogen carriers), and the energy used in its production is renewable.

[0069] The process of producing synthetic fuels typically involves the production of renewable synthesis gas, or syngas. Syngas is produced using hydrogen. Hydrogen can be obtained from almost any source that can be used to supply hydrogen for syngas production. For example, hydrogen can be obtained from water by separating hydrogen atoms from oxygen atoms using electrolysis techniques. In other examples, hydrogen can be obtained using blue hydrogen (an industry term for hydrogen produced from natural gas), turquoise hydrogen (made using a process called methane pyrolysis for producing hydrogen and solid carbon), or other means (e.g., water-gas shift reaction, steam methane reforming as a byproduct of industrial chemical reactions). The hydrogen is then combined with the greenhouse gas CO2. CO2 can be obtained by recycling CO2 from industrial processes or by recovering CO2 from the air using special filters. Once hydrogen and CO2 are combined, syngas can be obtained via the reverse water-gas shift reaction.

[0070] Currently, there are common methods for producing renewable synthetic fuels, including biofuels made from biomass and electric fuels, or e-fuels, produced from renewable electricity. All methods primarily use syngas, which is converted into liquid fuel through an industrial gas-to-liquid process.

[0071] Several processes exist for converting biomass into liquid fuels, but the most scalable and versatile in terms of feedstock is biomass gasification. More specifically, biomass is converted into syngas at high temperatures. The heat input required to drive the process is usually generated by burning a portion of the biomass itself. The feedstock can be specially cultivated plants (e.g., energy crops such as sugarcane or maize), waste biomass, or algae. However, cultivating biomass to produce synthetic fuels uses arable land and water that could be used in the food industry. Furthermore, the biomass methods used to produce synthetic fuels have limited scalability.

[0072] e-fuels are produced from renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, or hydroelectric power. The generated renewable energy drives an electrolytic cell that breaks down water into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is mixed with carbon dioxide and converted to syngas via a reverse water-gas shift (RWGS) reaction, a process carried out at high temperatures and driven by a combustion fuel (e.g., natural gas) or electricity. e-fuels can be produced using any type of renewable energy and, therefore, can theoretically be produced worldwide. However, currently, there are no known economically viable industrial e-fuel systems that enable the process for producing synthetic fuels. What is needed is an e-fuel system that enables an economically viable industrial process for producing synthetic fuels.

[0073] Systems, methods, apparatus, means, etc. that can assist in enabling synthetic fuel production systems may contribute to solving these problems (and other problems). For example, a synthetic fuel system (e.g., synthetic fuel production system 100) can produce electric fuel (e-fuel) using synthesis gas (syngas). In one example, a synthetic fuel production system may include a gas production station (e.g., gas production station 102), a crude oil production station (e.g., crude oil production station 104), and a crude oil cracking station (e.g., crude oil refining station 106).

[0074] A gas generation station can be configured to produce syngas. More specifically, a gas generation station uses electrocatalytic water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction reactions to form syngas (H2 + CO). Syngas can be formed using co-electrocatalytic catalysis: H2O + CO2 → H2 + CO + O2, and / or hydrogen and CO can be formed separately and then combined: CH4 → 2H2 + C(s) and CO2 → CO + 1 / 2O2. CO2 can be supplied directly from air recovery (e.g., as shown in Figures 6A and 6B) or from industrial methods such as flue gas recovery.

[0075] Syngas generation can be made at least partially possible by photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, plasma modification, or other means. PVIE can make one or more photovoltaic (PV) cells directly available in the electrolytic reactor, and the PV cell electrodes can function as electrolytic cell electrodes. Heat recovered from one or more photovoltaic cells irradiated with light can be used in the reaction to help reduce overvoltage. During electrocatalysis, electrolysis is performed using separately generated clean energy (e.g., solar, wind, hydro) at relatively high currents (e.g., 150 mA / cm²). 2 It can be driven using a super(H)(H). During plasma reforming, CH4 can be reformed into H2 and solid carbon (C) within the plasma reactor. The solid carbon can be converted into products such as graphite and graphene.

[0076] After syngas is produced, syngas may be sent to a crude oil production station. For example, syngas may be transported to a crude oil production station using a mobile transport vehicle (e.g., mobile transport vehicle 110a), such as a tank truck, tanker train, or other mobile transport vehicle. Alternatively, syngas may be transported to a crude oil production station using a pipeline (e.g., direct pipeline 112a). In some examples, the gas production station and the crude oil production station are physically separate facilities and may be several miles apart. In other examples, the gas production station and the crude oil production station are in the same building, equipment, or on the same site boundary and may be less than approximately 10,000 feet or less than approximately 1 mile apart. In yet another example, the gas production station and the crude oil production station are relatively close to each other, less than approximately 1,000 feet or less than approximately 100 feet apart.

[0077] Crude oil production stations can be configured to convert syngas into heavy synclude. More specifically, a crude oil production station can be configured to use syngas in the Fischer-Tropsch process to produce heavy synclude. The Fischer-Tropsch process is a series of chemical reactions that convert syngas, a mixture of CO and hydrogen, into liquid hydrocarbons. These reactions occur in the presence of a metal catalyst, typically at temperatures of 150–300°C (302–572°F), and pressures of 1 to tens of atmospheres. Various synthesis gas compositions can be used.

[0078] More specifically, the Fischer-Tropsch process is preferably based on formula (C n H 2n+2 This includes a series of chemical reactions that produce various hydrocarbons having ). For example, this reaction can produce alkanes (acyclic saturated hydrocarbons) as follows: (2n+1)H2 + nCO → C n H 2n+2 The reaction is carried out using the formula +nH2O, where "n" is typically 10-20. The formation of methane (n=1) is undesirable. Most of the resulting alkanes tend to be linear and suitable as fuels. In addition to alkane formation, competitive reactions yield small amounts of alkenes (hydrocarbons containing one or more double bonds), alcohols, and other oxygenated hydrocarbons. This reaction is highly exothermic due to the standard reaction enthalpy (ΔH) combined with -165 kJ / mol of CO.

[0079] Converting a mixture of H2 and CO into an aliphatic product is a multi-step reaction involving several intermediate compounds. The growth of the hydrocarbon chain can be visualized as involving a repeating sequence in which hydrogen atoms are added to carbon and oxygen, CO bonds are split, and new CC bonds are formed. For one -CH2- group produced by CO + 2H2 → (CH2) + H2O, several reactions are required. These reactions include the association adsorption of CO, the splitting of the CO bond, the dissociation adsorption of 2H2, the transfer of 2H to oxygen to produce H2O, the desorption of H2O, and the transfer of 2H to carbon to produce CH2.

[0080] The conversion of CO to alkanes involves the hydrogenation of CO, the hydrogenation of the CO bond (cleavage by H2), and the formation of a CC bond. Although not fully understood, such reactions are thought to proceed via the initial formation of surface-bonded metal carbonyls. Furthermore, it is speculated that the CO ligand dissociates into oxide and carbide ligands. Other potential intermediates are various C1 fragments, including formyl (CHO), hydroxycarbene (HCOH), hydroxymethyl (CH2OH), methyl (CH3), methylene (CH2), methylidine (CH), and hydroxymethylidine (COH). In addition, reactions that form CC bonds, such as transfer insertions, are essential for the production of liquid fuels. Transfer insertions are a type of reaction in which two ligands on a metal complex bond. It is a subset of reactions closely similar to insertion reactions, the two being distinguished by the mechanism that results in the resulting stereochemistry of the product.

[0081] Generally, the Fischer-Tropsch process operates in a temperature range of approximately 150–300°C (approximately 302–572°F). Higher temperatures result in faster reactions and higher conversion rates, but also tend to favor methane formation. For this reason, temperatures are usually maintained in the lower to middle range. Increasing the pressure increases the conversion rate and favors the formation of long-chain alkanes. Typical pressures range from 1 atmosphere to several tens of atmospheres. Even higher pressures are preferable, but the benefits may not justify the additional cost of high-pressure equipment, and higher pressures may lead to catalyst deactivation due to coke formation.

[0082] The Fischer-Tropsch process is characterized by its high exothermic nature, requiring efficient heat removal from the reactor where it occurs. One type of reactor is the multitube fixed-bed reactor. A multitube fixed-bed reactor contains numerous small-diameter tubes. These tubes contain the catalyst and are surrounded by cooling water to remove the reaction heat. Multitube fixed-bed reactors are suitable for low-temperature operation. The upper temperature limit is approximately 257°C (approximately 530K), as excessive temperatures lead to carbon buildup and blockage in the multitube fixed-bed reactor. Because the large amount of product formed is in a liquid state, multitube fixed-bed reactors are sometimes called trickle-flow reactor systems. Another type of reactor is the flow-bed reactor. Flow-bed reactors have two heat exchanger banks for heat removal, with the remaining heat removed by the product and reused within the system. The formation of heavy wax can be a problem in flow-bed reactor systems, as heavy wax can condense on the catalyst, forming aggregates and causing fluidization. The risers of fluidized bed reactors are typically operated at temperatures above approximately 297°C (approximately 570K). In slurry reactors, heat removal is achieved using internal cooling coils. Synthesis gas is bubbling through a waxy product and a pulverized catalyst suspended in a liquid medium. This also provides agitation of the reactor contents. Catalyst particle size reduces the limitations of diffusion heat and mass transfer. Lower temperatures in the reactor yield more viscous products, while higher temperatures (>approximately 297°C, approximately 570K) result in undesirable product spectra. Separation of products from the catalyst is also a challenge. Fluidized bed reactors and circulating catalyst (riser) reactors can produce low molecular weight unsaturated hydrocarbons on alkalized molten iron catalysts using the high-temperature Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (approximately 340°C).

[0083] Generally, the product distribution of hydrocarbons produced by the Fischer-Tropsch process follows the Anderson-Schultz-Flory distribution, W n / n=(1-α) 2 α n-1 (In the formula, W nThe formula can be expressed as the weight fraction of a hydrocarbon containing n carbon atoms, where "α" is the chain growth probability (the probability that the molecule will continue the reaction to form a longer chain). In general, "α" is determined mainly by the catalyst and specific process conditions. This formula reveals that as long as "α" is less than 0.5, methane is always the largest single product, but by bringing "α" closer to 1, the total amount of methane formed can be minimized compared to the sum of all the various long-chain products. Thus, increasing "α" increases the formation of long-chain hydrocarbons. Long-chain hydrocarbons are waxes and are solids at room temperature.

[0084] Four metals—iron, cobalt, nickel, and ruthenium—are active catalysts in the Fischer-Tropsch process. Nickel is not typically used because it produces too much methane. Typically, such heterogeneous catalysts are obtained by precipitation from iron nitrate solutions. Such solutions can be used to deposit metal salts onto catalyst supports. The treated material is converted into an active catalyst by heating under CO, H2 or with the feedstock to be treated (e.g., the catalyst is produced in situ). Due to the multi-step nature of the Fischer-Tropsch process, analysis of catalytically active species is difficult. Furthermore, in the case of iron catalysts, many phases may coexist and be involved in various stages of the reaction. Such phases include various oxides and carbides, as well as polymorphs of the metal. Controlling these components may affect the product distribution. In addition to iron and cobalt, nickel and ruthenium are active in converting CO / H2 mixtures into hydrocarbons. Although expensive, ruthenium is the most active of the Fischer-Tropsch catalysts because it operates at the lowest reaction temperature and produces higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Ruthenium catalysts are metallic and do not contain accelerators. Therefore, they offer a relatively simple system suitable for mechanistic analysis. However, the high cost of ruthenium generally hinders industrial applications. Cobalt catalysts are more active for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis when the feedstock is natural gas. Because natural gas has a high hydrogen-to-carbon ratio, a water-gas shift is not required for cobalt catalysts. Cobalt-based catalysts are more sensitive than their iron counterparts.

[0085] In some cases, the utilization of carbon dioxide, particularly its conversion into sustainable synthetic hydrocarbon fuels for transport purposes, can be achieved by converting carbon dioxide into synthetic hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., aviation jet fuel). Jet fuel, the general name for aviation fuel used in gas turbine-powered aircraft, has a typical carbon chain length distribution of C8-C18, with an ideal carbon chain length of C8-C16, and contains straight-chain and branched alkanes, as well as cycloalkanes, as its main components. In an exemplary example of converting carbon dioxide into synthetic aviation jet fuel, an Fe-Mn-K catalyst can be prepared using an organic combustion method. The Fe-Mn-K catalyst exhibits a carbon dioxide conversion rate of 38.2% to hydrocarbons within the range of aviation jet fuel by hydrogenation, a yield of 17.2%, and a selectivity of 47.8%, showing low CO selectivity (5.6%) and low methane selectivity (10.4%). This conversion reaction also produces ethylene, propylene, and butene, light olefins that are important raw materials for the petrochemical industry and are currently obtained only from fossil crude oil, in a total yield of 8.7%.

[0086] Activating carbon dioxide can be extremely difficult. CO2 is a completely oxidized, thermodynamically stable, and chemically inert molecule. Furthermore, hydrocarbon synthesis by hydrogenation of CO2 is usually more favorable to the formation of short-chain hydrocarbons than to the desired long-chain hydrocarbons. Typically, CO2 is utilized by reduction to CO. Currently, there are two methods for converting CO2 to carbon monoxide. The first is an indirect route that converts CO2 to CO via the reverse water-gas shift (RWGS) reaction. This process requires the consumption of electrochemically derived hydrogen. The second, direct route involves the electrochemical reduction of CO2 to CO and is generally considered more economical and environmentally acceptable because it involves fewer chemical process steps and has lower total energy consumption for the entire process. This process and the required catalytic system are underdeveloped and require innovation for commercialization. Both routes require the subsequent hydrogenation of CO to long-chain hydrocarbons via the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS).

[0087] The chemical reactions involved in hydrocarbon fuel production are as follows: Hydrogenation of CO2: CO2 + 3H2 ⇔ -(CH2)- + 2H2O(ΔH 0 298 = -125kJ mole -1 ) RWGS reaction: CO2 + H2 ⇔ CO + H2O (ΔH 0 298 = +41kJ mole -1 ) FTS reaction: CO + 2H2 ⇔ -(CH2)- + 2H2O(ΔH 0 298 = -166 kJ mole -1 ) The direct conversion of CO2 into fuels through these various reactions has attracted considerable attention in recent years. However, reports of direct catalytic conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbons in the jet fuel range are currently few, if any, and are plagued by low yields or low reaction efficiencies. One key to advancing this process is identifying highly efficient and inexpensive catalysts that can preferentially synthesize the target hydrocarbon range.

[0088] Growing concerns about climate change and stringent environmental regulations aimed at reducing the use of fossil fuels are creating significant opportunities and scientific challenges in the conversion of CO2 to sustainable synthetic hydrocarbon fuels, particularly in the synthesis of renewable aviation fuels. Currently, at the heart of all progress in this field, a critical conversion process is closely linked to the development of high-performance, advanced catalysts for converting CO2 and H2 to hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The utilization of novel catalyst preparation methods is a crucial strategy for producing advanced catalyst formulations with high performance levels.

[0089] Review of drawings Referring to Figure 2, Figure 2 illustrates illustrative details of a particular non-limiting implementation of a gas production station 102d according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 2, the gas production station 102d can produce synthesis gas, or syngas. In some examples, the gas production station 102d includes a reactor having a hydrogen / CO electrode as the cathode electrode and an oxygen electrode as the anode electrode. The syngas produced from the gas production station 102d can be stored in a syngas storage container 202. The stored syngas can then be delivered to a crude oil production station 104a (Figure 1A) by a mobile transporter 110a (Figure 1A), a direct pipeline 112a (Figure 1A), or other means.

[0090] The power generation station 108 may contribute to supplying power to the gas generation station 102. In some examples, the power generation station 108 is a renewable energy power generation station. For example, as shown in Figure 2, the power generation station 108d may include one or more solar cells or arrays of solar cells, and the power generation station 108e may include one or more wind turbines or windmills (e.g., a wind farm), or other types of renewable energy power generation stations.

[0091] In some examples, the gas generation station 102d can extract CO2 from the surrounding environment (for example, using a direct air recovery (DAC) system 602 illustrated in Figures 6A and 6B or other systems for extracting CO2 from ambient air) to produce synthesis gas, or syngas. More specifically, the gas generation station 102d can produce syngas using a photocatalytic process, an electrocatalytic process, a plasma reforming process, or other types of processes. The PVIE may allow the power generation station 108d to be directly utilized within the reactor, with the reactor acting as an electrode surface. The heat recovered from one or more photocatalytic cells irradiated by the power generation station 108d can be used in the reaction to help reduce overvoltage.

[0092] In the electrocatalytic process, electrolysis uses clean energy separately produced from power generation station 108d, power generation station 108e, or other energy generation stations, with a relatively high current (e.g., 150 mA / cm²). 2 It can be driven by a super-high (H2) plasma. During the plasma reforming process, CH4 can be reformed into H2 and solid carbon (C) within the plasma reactor. The solid carbon can be converted into products such as graphite and graphene.

[0093] Referring to Figure 3A, Figure 3A illustrates illustrative details of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of a gas generation station 102e that assists in the generation of syngas using a PV-driven electrocatalyst system 300a according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 3A, the PV-driven electrocatalyst system 300a may include a PVIE 302. The PVIE 302 may include a two-terminal (2T) tandem PV device 304, an anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, a first electrolyte 310, a membrane 312, a second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and a cathode 318. The first electrolyte 310 and the second electrolyte 314 may each be a liquid, aqueous solution, solid, gel, or other type of solution. In some examples, only one electrolyte (e.g., either only the first electrolyte 310 or only the second electrolyte 314) may be present in combination with a proton membrane, a hydroxide conductive membrane, or other similar types of membranes (e.g., a zero-gap configuration as shown in Figure 10).

[0094] It should be noted that the 2T tandem PV device 304 functions as a power generation station 108 for the PV-driven electrocatalytic catalyst system 300a. One or more OER catalysts 308 carry out the oxygen evolution reaction (2H2O → O2 + 4H) as described above. + ) may contribute to the promotion of the reaction. Membrane 312 is a reaction separation membrane. One or more HCER catalysts 316 may contribute to the promotion of co-electrolysis (H2O + CO2 → H2 + CO + O2) as described above. In some examples, the first electrolyte 310 and the second electrolyte 314 are the same.

[0095] In one example, the gas generation station 102e can use pressurized CO2 to help control the system's pH. In a specific example, the HCER catalyst 316 is conductive and hydrogen-reducing (2H + +2e - The CoPc catalyst is embedded in a CNT matrix for →H2 reduction. In some examples, hydrogen reduction is further promoted by the addition of platinumic acid (H2PtCl6) as a Pt source. Pt is used at very low concentrations (e.g., 0.0024 mg / cm³). 2 ) can exist and are likely to form very small (monatomic or small nanoparticle) active sites within the matrix for H2 formation. CoPc catalysts embedded in a Pt-doped CNT matrix may contribute to the production of syngas with a desired H2 / CO ratio of 2:1 for Fischer-Tropsch synthetic fuel production.

[0096] In PVIE302, a specific order of the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 is shown in Figure 3A, where each of the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 is shown separately from each other. However, the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 may be integrated. Furthermore, for PVIE302, a specific order of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 is shown in Figure 3A, where each of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 is shown separately from each other. However, the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 may be integrated.

[0097] For example, in some embodiments of PVIE302, a first electrolyte 310 may be located between the anode 306 and one or more OER catalysts 308, and / or a second electrolyte 314 may be located between the cathode 318 and one or more HCER catalysts 316. In some embodiments, one or more HCER catalysts 316 and / or one or more OER catalysts 308 may be porous, and the first electrolyte 310 may coexist as a single layer within one or more OER catalysts 308, and / or the second electrolyte 314 may coexist as a single layer within one or more HCER catalysts 316. In addition, while a second electrolyte 314 is generally absent in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells, a second electrolyte 314 may be present in a proton exchange membrane electrolytic cell. Similarly, while a first electrolyte 310 is generally absent in anion exchange membrane electrolytic cells, a first electrolyte 310 may be present in an anion exchange membrane electrolytic cell.

[0098] A typical proton exchange membrane electrolytic cell operates under acidic conditions with pH < 7, and the electrolyte circulates through a first electrolyte 310. The water splitting reaction occurs using one or more OER catalysts 308, producing oxygen and protons. The protons move through the proton exchange membrane and are reduced to H2, and a second electrolyte 314 is optional. A typical anion exchange membrane electrolytic cell operates under alkaline conditions with pH > 7, and the electrolyte circulates through a second electrolyte 314. The water splitting reaction occurs using one or more HCER catalysts 316, producing H2 and OH - It generates anions. OH - The anions move through the anion exchange membrane and are oxidized to water and oxygen, and the first electrolyte 310 is optional.

[0099] Referring to Figure 3B, Figure 3B illustrates illustrative details of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of a gas generation station 102e that assists in the generation of syngas using a PV-driven electrocatalyst system 300b according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 3B, the PV-driven electrocatalyst system 300b may include a power generation station 108a and a PV-EC320. The power generation station 108a may include one or more solar cells or arrays of solar cells. Although not shown in Figure 3B, in some examples the power generation station 108a may be similar to the power generation station 108e (shown in Figure 2) and may include one or more wind turbines or windmills (e.g., a wind farm) or other types of renewable energy power generation stations. The PV-EC320 may include an anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, a first electrolyte 310, a membrane 312, a second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and a cathode 318.

[0100] For PV-EC320, a specific order of anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 is shown in Figure 3B, where each of the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 is shown separately from each other. However, the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the anode 306, one or more OER catalysts 308, and first electrolyte 310 may be integrated. Furthermore, for PV-EC320, a specific order of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 is shown in Figure 3B, where each of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 is shown separately from each other. However, the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and cathode 318 may be integrated.

[0101] For example, in some embodiments of PV-EC320, a first electrolyte 310 may be located between the anode 306 and one or more OER catalysts 308, and / or a second electrolyte 314 may be located between the cathode 318 and one or more HCER catalysts 316. In some embodiments, one or more HCER catalysts 316 and / or one or more OER catalysts 308 may be porous, and the first electrolyte 310 may coexist as a single layer within one or more OER catalysts 308, and / or the second electrolyte 314 may coexist as a single layer within one or more HCER catalysts 316. In addition, while a second electrolyte 314 is generally absent in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells, a second electrolyte 314 can be present in proton exchange membrane electrolytic cells, and in anion exchange membrane electrolytic cells, the first electrolyte 310 may not be present, or it may be present in anion exchange membrane electrolytic cells.

[0102] Referring to Figure 4, Figure 4 illustrates illustrative details of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of a crude oil production station 104d according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 4, the crude oil production station 104d may include a reaction chamber 402, a syngas inlet 404, a cooling water inlet 406, a catalyst inlet 408, a gaseous product and syngas outlet 410, a liquid product and catalyst outlet 412, and a steam outlet 414. The liquid product and catalyst outlet 412 may contribute to the transfer of the liquid product and catalyst from the reaction chamber 402 to a liquid product and catalyst separator 416. The liquid product and catalyst separator 416 can separate the liquid product and catalyst from the reaction chamber 402 into liquid product and catalyst. The catalyst may be reintroduced into the reaction chamber 402 using the catalyst inlet 408. The liquid product may be heavy synclude. The heavy synclude may be stored in a heavy synclude storage container (not shown). The stored heavy synclude can then be sent to the crude oil refining station 106 by mobile transport 110b (Figure 1A), direct pipeline 112b (Figure 1A), or other means.

[0103] Referring to Figure 5, Figure 5 illustrates illustrative details of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of a crude oil refining station 106d according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 5, the crude oil refining station 106d may include a regenerator 502, a reaction chamber 504, a fractionator 506, and a heavy crude oil inlet 508. The regenerator 502 may include a spent catalyst inlet 512, a reactivation catalyst outlet 514, a heat and gaseous impurities outlet 516, and an air inlet (not indicated). The spent catalyst inlet 512 may receive spent catalyst from the spent catalyst outlet 518 of the reaction chamber 504. The reaction chamber 504 may include a spent catalyst outlet 518, a cracked fraction outlet 520, and an inlet 522 for mixed heavy crude oil, reactivation catalyst, and cycle oil. The fractionator 506 may include a cracked fraction inlet 524, a cycle oil outlet 526, and one or more synthetic fuel outlets 528. The heavy crude oil from the heavy crude oil inlet 508, the reactivating catalyst from the reactivating catalyst outlet 514 of the regenerator 502, and the cycle oil from the cycle oil outlet 526 of the fractionator 506 can be mixed and introduced into the reaction chamber 504 using the inlet 522 for the mixed heavy crude oil, reactivating catalyst, and cycle oil.

[0104] Crude oil refining station 106d may be configured to carry out a refining process designed to produce synthetic gasoline from heavy synclude produced by crude oil generating station 104. In an exemplary example, straight-run heavy gas oil and flasher tops are pumped into reaction chamber 504 along with a catalyst. Reaction chamber 504 may be a high-temperature, medium-pressure reaction chamber in which conversion from heavy crude oil to cracked fractions occurs. During the conversion process, coke (carbon) coats the catalyst in reaction chamber 504, rendering it ineffective (spent). To remove the coke, the spent catalyst is sent to regenerator 502, where it is combined with hot air to reactivate the catalyst. The reactivated catalyst is then sent back to reaction chamber 504.

[0105] The cracked fraction from reaction chamber 504 is pumped into fractionator 506, where it is separated into synthetic gasoline, synthetic light gas oil (e.g., kerosene), and synthetic heavy gas oil (e.g., diesel). In some examples, natural gas may be extracted from fractionator 506 along with the cycle oil. The cycle oil may be sent into reaction chamber 504.

[0106] Referring to Figures 6A and 6B, Figures 6A and 6B illustrate exemplary details of a particular non-limiting implementation of a direct air recovery (DAC) system 602 for recovering CO2 from air according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The direct air recovery system 602 may be part of a gas production station 102 shown in Figures 1A–1C. Direct air recovery is the use of a chemical or physical process to directly extract carbon dioxide from ambient air. As shown in Figure 6A, a fan 604 may draw in ambient air containing CO2. The ambient air is passed through a filter 606 that recovers CO2 from the ambient air. As shown in Figure 6B, the filter 606 with the recovered CO2 may be treated (e.g., by heating) to release the CO2. The released CO2 can be recovered and stored in a CO2 storage container 608 or used for syngas production.

[0107] In one example, CO2 removal from ambient air can be achieved when the ambient air comes into contact with a chemical medium, typically an aqueous alkaline solvent or adsorbent. These chemical mediums then regenerate for reuse, while simultaneously providing a CO2 stream that can be stripped of CO2 by the application of energy (i.e., heat), resulting in dewatering and compression. This is in contrast to another method of CO2 capture called carbon capture and storage (CCS), which recovers CO2 from point sources such as cement plants or bioenergy plants.

[0108] In an exemplary example, a direct air recovery system 602 can recover air by drawing in or sucking in air from the atmosphere using one or more fans 604 or other means. The recovered air passes through a filter 606 that captures and concentrates the CO2 present in the recovered air. The filter 606 can attract CO2 using an adsorbent (typically small solid material structured in a layered or honeycomb shape), a liquid solvent, or other means that attract CO2. The filter 606, having recovered the CO2, may be heated to release the recovered CO2. The amount of heat required for this process affects how the facility is energy-supplied. Adsorbents require lower levels of heat to extract CO2, so these facilities can use renewable energy sources such as geothermal or waste heat. Solvents, on the other hand, require heat at a level of about 900 degrees Celsius, and often natural gas is used to generate the required heat. The released CO2 can be recovered and stored in one or more CO2 storage containers 608 for later use, or it can be used to generate syngas by a gas generation station 102 (shown in Figures 1A to 1C). In other embodiments, the filter 606 can filter CO2 directly from the air by size exclusion or other means.

[0109] Referring to Figure 7, Figure 7 is an exploded view of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of the reaction vessel 718a of an electrocatalytic system 300c in a gas generation station 102 for assisting the generation of syngas, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrocatalytic system 300c is just one example of an aqueous flow reactor for assisting the generation of syngas. As shown in Figure 7, the electrocatalytic system 300c may include a power generation station 108, an anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, a first electrolyte 310 (not shown), a membrane 312a, a second electrolyte 314 (not shown), one or more HCER catalysts 316a, a cathode 318a, pressurized CO2 702, a second electrolyte reservoir 712, and a first electrolyte reservoir 714. In some examples, the electrocatalytic system 300c may further include one or more supports 704, an OER catalyst membrane 706, an HCER catalyst membrane 708, and / or a quality control engine 710.

[0110] The first electrolyte 310 can be an anode electrolyte, and the second electrolyte 314 can be a cathode electrolyte. In some examples, the first electrolyte 310 is different from the second electrolyte 314. In other examples, the first electrolyte 310 and the second electrolyte 314 are the same electrolyte. In yet another example, only the first electrolyte 310 is present in the electrocatalytic system 300c, and the second electrolyte 341 is absent. In yet another example, only the second electrolyte 314 is present in the electrocatalytic system 300c, and the first electrolyte 310 is absent. For example, in an electrolytic cell having an anion exchange membrane (Figure 11) or a proton exchange membrane (Figure 10), in many cases one side is zero gap (no fluid flow) and only the other side has fluid flow.

[0111] Pressurized CO2702 can be recovered and pressurized CO2. CO2 can originate from any CO2 source. In some examples, the system may be pressurized with CO2 in water, and the dissolved CO2 lowers the pH of the second electrolyte 314 (cathode electrolyte), generating ions that function as an electrolyte. In another example, pressurized CO2 in water lowers the pH of the second electrolyte 314 (cathode electrolyte), and the electrolyte (either the first electrolyte 310 or the second electrolyte 314) is still used. In yet another example, an acid and an electrolyte are still added, with pressurized CO2 complementing one or both. While water is the primary solvent, any protic solvent (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, higher alcohols, and their isomers) may be used. In some examples, an additional second electrolyte 314 (cathode electrolyte) can be added from a second electrolyte reservoir 712, and / or an additional first electrolyte 310 (anode electrolyte) can be added from a first electrolyte reservoir 714.

[0112] One or more supports 704 may be support plates or other materials or structures that help support the anode 306a and / or cathode 318a (for example, as shown in Figure 8, supports 704a and 704b may sandwich the cathode 318a to help support the cathode 318a, and support 704c may help support the anode 306a). Since the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c is a pressurized system, one or more supports 704 may help accommodate the first electrolyte and the second electrolyte. Supports 704a and 704b may include one or more cavities or holes to allow the pressurized CO2 and the first electrolyte 310 to flow through the cathode side of the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c and circulate throughout the cathode side. Support 704c may include one or more cavities or holes to allow the second electrolyte 314 to flow through the anode side of the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c and circulate throughout the anode side. In some examples, cathode 318a is a gas-permeable electrode. More specifically, cathode 318a can be a graphite electrode, foam, or porous carbon electrode, or other CO2 gas-permeable electrode, depending on the HCER catalyst 316a, enabling the reduction of CO2 and H2. Cathode 318a can be C-Au-500 NW, Au-Cb NP, Au_CeOx / C, OD-Ag, Ag-SCN, Ag-IO, 5nm-Ag / C, Pd / C, NaHCO3, Au NP-8nm, as-deposited Au / CNT, nanoporous Ag, triangular Ag nanoplate, CdS-CNT, C-Cu / In2O 3-0.8 , C-Cu / SnO2-0.8, h-Zn, Zn 0.4 CD 0.6 S-amine, Vo-rich ZnO, Zn-3, CoNi-NC, Co@CoNC-900, Fe 3+ -NC / DGE, A-Ni-NSG, CdS 0.75 Se 0.25 , MoSeS, AgCu-50, AuCu2 / CNT, Au3Cu, Cu-In, CuIn, Cu 0.75 In 0.25 Ni 0.25 In 0.75, NG-800, OA-PCN, S,N-doped carbon, NCNT, CN-H-CNT, CCG / CoPc-A, Ni-N3-V SAC, Ni-NG / CFP, FC, or other materials that can function as the cathode 318a described herein. The HCER catalyst 316a can include Au, Ag, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ni, the aforementioned six species as nanoparticles on carbon, hexagonal Zn, alloys (e.g., CuNi, CuSn, CuPb, CuZn, CuCd, CuAg, AuCu, Ag8Cu2, ZnCu, Cu 11 In9), carbon nitride, carbon nitride having Au, ([NiII(tris(N-methylbenzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)amine)(CH3CN)2](BF4)2), an iron porphyrin-based metal organic structure having carbon black (PCN-222(Fe)), ([RuII(tpy)-(Mebim-py)(H2O)]2+(tpy = 2,20:60,200-terpyridine; Mebim-py = 3-methyl 1-pyridylbenzimidazol-2-ylidene), or other materials that can function as the HCER catalyst 316a described herein. In certain examples, the HER catalyst 316a is a CoPc catalyst. In another specific example, the HCER catalyst 316a is a CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix. In yet another example, the HCER catalyst 316a is a CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix with chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6) added as a platinum (Pt) source. In some examples, the HER catalyst 316a includes or is suspended in an isopropanol (IPA) solvent. The anode 306a can also be a nickel foam or, depending on the OER catalyst 308a, other types of materials that enable the oxidation of H2O. The OER catalyst 308a can be IrO2, Ru:IrO2, Ni, nickel foam, NiO, Ni X O y , doped nickel oxide, Ru, Ru:NiO, poly-metal oxides and hydroxides (MnCo2O4, NiCo2O4), FeNi double hydroxides, poly-metal sulfides and chalcogens (Fe-Ni3S2), and poly-metal phosphides and nitrides (O-Ni (1-x) Fe xP2) may include other materials that can function as the OER catalyst 308a described herein.

[0113] The active portion of anode 306a is where the OER catalyst 308a is located, and the active portion of cathode 318a is where the HCER catalyst 316a is located. In some examples, since the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c is a pressurized system, the OER catalyst film 706 can help protect the OER catalyst 308a, and the HCER catalyst film 708 can help protect the HCER catalyst 316a.

[0114] Referring to Figure 8, Figure 8 is a block diagram of a portion of the reaction vessel 718b of an electrocatalytic system 300c in a gas generation station 102 for assisting syngas generation according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrocatalytic system 300c is just one example of an aqueous flow reactor for assisting syngas generation. As shown in Figure 8, the electrocatalytic system 300c may include an anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, a first electrolyte 310, a membrane 312a, a second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316a, a cathode 318a, pressurized CO2 702, and one or more supports 704. The membrane 312a may be a proton exchange membrane.

[0115] A specific order of anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, and the first electrolyte 310 is shown in Figure 8, where each of the anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, and the first electrolyte 310 is shown separately from each other. However, the anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, and the first electrolyte 310 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the anode 306a, one or more OER catalysts 308a, and the first electrolyte 310 may be integrated. Furthermore, a specific order of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316a, and cathodes 318a is shown in Figure 8, where each of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316a, and cathodes 318a is shown separately from each other. However, the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316a, and cathodes 318a may have different orders, and / or one or more of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316a, and cathodes 318a may be integrated.

[0116] Pressurized CO2702 can be recovered and pressurized CO2. The CO2 can originate from any CO2 source. The system can be pressurized with CO2 in water, and the dissolved CO2 lowers the pH of the second electrolyte 314 (cathode electrolyte), generating ions that function as an electrolyte. In another example, pressurized CO2 in water lowers the pH of the second electrolyte 314 (cathode electrolyte), and the electrolyte (either the first electrolyte 310 or the second electrolyte 314) is still used. In yet another example, an acid and an electrolyte are still added, and pressurized CO2 complements one or both. Water is the primary solvent, but any protic solvent (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, higher alcohols, isomers, etc.) may be used.

[0117] One or more supports 704 may be support plates, or other materials or structures, that help support the anode 306a and / or cathode 318a. For example, as shown in Figure 8, supports 704a and 704b may sandwich the cathode 318a to help support the cathode 318a, and support 704c may help support the anode 306a. Supports 704a and 704b may include one or more cavities or holes (not shown) to allow CO2 (in some examples, CO2 is pressurized CO2) and a first electrolyte to flow through the cathode side of the electrocatalytic system 300c and circulate throughout the cathode side. Support 704c may include one or more cavities or holes to allow a second electrolyte to flow through the anode side of the electrocatalytic system 300c and circulate throughout the anode side.

[0118] The desired reaction in the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c is as follows: XH2O + CO2 → YH2 + CO + ZO2 X, Y, and Z can have values ​​between approximately 0.1 and approximately 3.5, and within that range. X, Y, and Z may be identical, but do not need to be identical or nearly identical. For example, X, Y, and Z may all be equal to 1, or X and Y may be equal to 2 and Z may be equal to 1.5, or X and Y may be equal to 3 and Z may be equal to 2.

[0119] In some cases, to help achieve the desired reaction (XH2O + CO2 → YH2 + CO + ZO2) in the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300c, the reaction vessel 718b may be pressurized using pressurized CO2. For example, by using pressurized CO2 in the reaction vessel 718b, a pH of less than 5 can be achieved. More specifically, the following reactions may occur inside the reaction vessel 718b: CO2(aq)+H2O(l)⇔H2CO3(aq)⇔HCO3 - (aq)+H + (aq) The pKa on the left is approximately equal to 6.36, and the equilibrium constant K his approximately 1.70×10 -3 is equal, the right pKa1 is approximately equal to 3.60, and the right pKa2 is approximately equal to 10.25. The partial pressure of CO2 in H2O (P CO2 ) is about 10 -2 atm or more, carbonic acid begins to dominate the equilibrium, and the pH of the solution drops below a pH of about 5. At a CO2 pressure (P CO2 ) equal to about 10 atm, the solution is CO2 saturated and the left reaction equilibrium is overcome. In contrast, in some current systems, the acidic conditions required for the reaction have to be created by adding other acids (e.g., HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4) to the electrolyte.

[0120] In some examples, the cathode 318a is a gas-permeable electrode. More specifically, the cathode 318a can be a graphite electrode, a foam, or a porous carbon electrode that enables the reduction of CO2 and H2, depending on the HCER catalyst 316a, or other CO2 gas-permeable electrodes. The anode 306a can also be a nickel foam or other types of materials that enable the oxidation of H2O depending on the OER catalyst 308a.

[0121] The active part of the anode 306a is where the OER catalyst 308a is disposed, and the active part of the cathode 318a is where the HCER catalyst 316a is disposed. When the electrolytic catalyst system 300c is a pressurized system, the OER catalyst membrane 706 can help protect the OER catalyst 308a, and the HCER catalyst membrane 708 can help protect the HCER catalyst 316a. In one example, the HCER catalyst 316a includes CoPc embedded in a CNT matrix containing an IPA solvent. In a specific example, the HCER catalyst 316a includes CoPc and Pt embedded in a CNT matrix.

[0122] Referring to Figure 9, Figure 9 is a block diagram of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of the reaction vessel 718c of an electrocatalytic catalyst system 300d in a gas generation station 102 for assisting syngas generation, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrocatalytic catalyst system 300d is just one example of an aqueous flow reactor for assisting syngas generation. As shown in Figure 9, the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300d may include an anode 306b, one or more OER catalysts 308b, a first electrolyte 310, a membrane 312b, a second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316b, a cathode 318b, pressurized CO2 702, and one or more supports 704. The membrane 312b may be an anion exchange membrane.

[0123] A specific order of anode 306b, one or more OER catalysts 308b, and the first electrolyte 310 is shown in Figure 9, where each of the anode 306b, one or more OER catalysts 308b, and the first electrolyte 310 is shown separately from each other. However, the anode 306b, one or more OER catalysts 308b, and the first electrolyte 310 may have different orders, and / or one or more of the anode 306b, one or more OER catalysts 308b, and the first electrolyte 310 may be integrated. Furthermore, a specific order of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316b, and cathodes 318b is shown in Figure 9, where each of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316b, and cathodes 318b is shown separately from each other. However, the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316b, and cathodes 318b may have different orders, and / or one or more of the second electrolyte 314, one or more HCER catalysts 316b, and cathodes 318b may be integrated.

[0124] One or more supports 704 may be support plates, or other materials or structures, that help support the anode 306b and / or cathode 318b. For example, as shown in Figure 9, supports 704a and 704b may sandwich the cathode 318b to help support it, and support 704c may help support the anode 306b. Supports 704a and 704b may include one or more cavities or holes (not shown) to allow CO2 (in some examples, CO2 is pressurized CO2) and a first electrolyte to flow through the cathode side of the electrocatalytic system 300d and circulate throughout the cathode side. Support 704c may include one or more cavities or holes to allow a second electrolyte to flow through the anode side of the electrocatalytic system 300d and circulate throughout the anode side.

[0125] The desired reaction in the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300d is as follows: XH2O + CO2 → YH2 + CO + ZO2 X, Y, and Z may have values ​​between approximately 0.1 and approximately 3.5, and within that range. X, Y, and Z may be identical, but do not need to be identical or nearly identical. For example, X, Y, and Z may all be equal to 1, or X and Y may be equal to 2 and Z may be equal to 1.5, or X and Y may be equal to 3 and Z may be equal to 2. In some current systems, the alkaline conditions required for the reaction can be created by adding one or more bases (e.g., KOH, NaOH, NH3, NH4OH, etc.) to the electrolyte.

[0126] In some examples, cathode 318b is a gas-permeable electrode. More specifically, cathode 318b can be a graphite electrode, foam, porous carbon electrode, or other CO2 gas-permeable electrode, depending on the HCER catalyst 316b, which allows for the reduction of CO2 and H2. Anode 306b can be nickel foam or other types of material, depending on the OER catalyst 308a, which allows for the oxidation of H2O.

[0127] The active portion of anode 306b is where the OER catalyst 308b is located, and the active portion of cathode 318b is where the HCER catalyst 316b is located. If the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300d is a pressurized system, the OER catalyst film 706 can help protect the OER catalyst 308b, and the HCER catalyst film 708 can help protect the HCER catalyst 316b. In one example, the HCER catalyst 316a contains CoPc embedded in a CNT matrix containing IPA solvent. In a specific example, the HCER catalyst 316a contains CoPc and Pt embedded in a CNT matrix.

[0128] Referring to Figure 10, Figure 10 is a block diagram of a specific, non-limiting implementation of a portion of a reaction vessel 718d that may be used in an electrocatalytic system 300e within a gas generation station 102 to assist in the generation of syngas according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The reaction vessel 718d is merely one example of an aqueous flow reactor to assist in the generation of syngas.

[0129] The reaction vessel 718d may include electrodes 1002a and 1002b (monopolar / bipolar plates), a proton exchange membrane 1004, a catalyst 1006 (catalyst layer), and an electrolyte 1008 (diffusion layer). The anode side 1010 of the reaction vessel 718d may include a water inlet 1012 and a water and oxygen outlet 1014. The cathode side 1016 of the reaction vessel 718d may include an optional carbon dioxide and water inlet 1018 and a water and hydrogen outlet 1020. If carbon dioxide is added via the optional carbon dioxide and water inlet 1018, the water and hydrogen outlet 1020 may also be a CO outlet.

[0130] One side of the reaction vessel 718d is typically (but not always) operated with a "zero gap." This means that the electrolyte 1008 is typically circulated only on one side of the proton exchange membrane 1004, while on the other side, the catalyst 1006 is pressed directly against the proton exchange membrane 1004 without any gaps or space. The electrolyte 1008 then circulates on one side of the proton exchange membrane 1004, exchanging ions through the proton exchange membrane 1004, while only ions react on the opposite side. The electrolyte 1008 may further include porous materials such as a gas diffusion electrode, carbon paper, a mesoporous oxide layer, or a combination thereof. The catalyst 1006 is porous to allow gas flow, and flow fields 1022a and 1022b are located behind the catalyst 1006. In some examples, the catalyst 1006 may further include porous materials such as a gas diffusion electrode, carbon paper, a mesoporous oxide layer, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the flow fields 1022a and 1022b are embedded in the electrodes. In other examples, electrodes 1002a and 1002b are separate plates adjacent to and in contact with the flow fields 1022a and 1022b. Industrially, individual reaction vessels 718d may be stacked in series with a large (e.g., megawatt-class) electrolytic cell, in which case electrodes 1002a and 1002b are referred to as bipolar plates.

[0131] In the exemplary example, the electrodes 1002a and 1002b (plates) of the reaction vessel 718d are either unipolar or bipolar plates. A unipolar plate is used in a single-cell electrolytic cell and functions as either a cathode or anode on its own. A bipolar plate is used in an electrolytic cell stack (e.g., a commercially available electrolytic cell) and can, for example, function as a cathode in one cell and then as an anode in a subsequent cell, or function as an anode in one cell and then as a cathode in a subsequent cell. This alternating arrangement allows multiple cells to be stacked together and function simultaneously in series.

[0132] Referring to Figure 11, Figure 11 is a block diagram of a portion of the reaction vessel 718e of an electrocatalytic catalyst system 300f for assisting syngas production according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. The reaction vessel 718e is just one example of an aqueous flow reactor for assisting syngas production.

[0133] The reaction vessel 718e may include electrodes 1102a and 1102b (monopolar / bipolar plates), an anion exchange membrane 1104, a catalyst 1106 (catalyst layer), and an electrolyte 1108 (diffusion layer). The anode side 1110 of the reaction vessel 718e may include a water inlet 1112 and a water and oxygen outlet 1114. The cathode side 1116 of the reaction vessel 718e may include an optional carbon dioxide and water inlet 1118 and a water and hydrogen outlet 1120. If carbon dioxide is added via the optional carbon dioxide and water inlet 1118, the water and hydrogen outlet 1120 may also be a CO outlet.

[0134] On one side of the reaction vessel 718e, typically (but not always), the electrolytes 1108 and 1108 are circulated only on one side of the anion exchange membrane 1104, while on the other side, the catalyst 1106 operates in a "zero gap" manner, pressed directly against the anion exchange membrane 1104 without any gaps or space. The electrolytes 1108 and 1108 then circulate on one side of the anion exchange membrane 1104, exchanging ions through the anion exchange membrane 1104, while only ions react on the opposite side. The electrolyte 1108 may further include porous materials such as a gas diffusion electrode, carbon paper, a mesoporous oxide layer, or a combination thereof. The catalyst 1106 is porous to allow gas flow, and the flow fields 1112a and 1112b are located behind the catalyst 1106. In some examples, catalyst 1006 may further include porous materials such as gas diffusion electrodes, carbon paper, mesoporous oxide layers, or combinations thereof. In some examples, flow fields 1112a and 1112b are embedded in electrodes 1102a and 1102b. In other examples, electrodes 1102a and 1102b are separate plates adjacent to and in contact with flow fields 1112a and 1112b. Industrially, individual reaction vessels 718e may be stacked in series with a large (e.g., megawatt-class) electrolytic cell, in which case electrodes 1102a and 1102b are referred to as bipolar plates.

[0135] In the exemplary example, the electrodes 1102a and 1102b (plates) of the reaction vessel 718e are either unipolar or bipolar plates. A unipolar plate is used in a single-cell electrolytic cell and functions as either a cathode or anode on its own. A bipolar plate is used in an electrolytic cell stack (e.g., a commercially available electrolytic cell) and can, for example, function as a cathode in one cell and then as an anode in a subsequent cell, or function as an anode in one cell and then as a cathode in a subsequent cell. This alternating arrangement allows multiple cells to be stacked together and function simultaneously in series.

[0136] Referring to Figure 12, Figure 12 is a simplified table 1200 illustrating exemplary details of the reaction in the reaction vessel 718 of the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300 in the gas generation station 102 for assisting the generation of syngas according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. As shown in Figure 12, the table 1200 may include an equilibrium breakover point 1202. The equilibrium breakover point 1202 is approximately 10 -2 ATM, or about 10 -2 This represents the CO2 pressure slightly above atm. When the CO2 pressure in the reaction vessel 718 of the electrocatalytic catalyst system 300 exceeds the equilibrium breakover point 1202, the formula CO 2(aq) The left-hand side of the equation +H2O→H2CO3 becomes saturated. This means that the carbonic acid is in equilibrium with the proton and bicarbonate, creating a pH low enough to allow the reaction for syngas production to proceed without the addition of an external additional cathode electrolyte and / or an additional anode electrolyte, or any external electrolyte or acid.

[0137] Referring to Figure 13, Figure 13 is a specific non-limiting scanning electron microscope image 1300 showing exemplary details of a CoPc+CNT catalyst in a pH 2 solution. In one example, the solvent may include isopropanol. As shown in Figure 13, the CoPc+CNT catalyst is present at 0.5 mg / cm³. -2 This can indicate the amount of support. In a specific example, a 1:5 weight ratio of CNT / CoPc may be used, spray-coated on GDE with 80 percent (80%) isopropanol, 15 percent (15%) deionized water, and 5 percent (5%) Nafion® ink.

[0138] Referring to Figure 14, which is a simplified graph showing specific non-limiting exemplary details of using only CNTs as a catalyst. Using only CNTs as a catalyst in a hydrogen evolution reaction may be useful for the production of H2. For example, in Figure 14, graph 1402 shows that if only CNTs are used in the system and no other catalysts are used, hydrogen may be produced and no CO is produced. CO is required for syngas production, and CoPc may be added as a catalyst to aid in the production of CO.

[0139] Referring to Figure 15, Figure 15 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc as a catalyst in an electrolyte at pH 14. In Figure 15, graphs 1502a and 1502b show that under alkaline conditions, CoPc reduces CO2 to CO, but the reaction is unstable, the yield is relatively low, and the current density is below the desired range (e.g., about 150 milliamperes or about 200 milliamperes). As shown in Figure 15, graphs 1504a and 1504b show that even with the addition of carbon black in an attempt to increase conductivity, the reaction remains unstable, the yield is still relatively low, and the current density is still below the desired range (e.g., about 150 milliamperes or about 200 milliamperes). To further aid in CO production, the pH of the electrolyte may be reduced to pH 2, as shown in the graph in Figure 16.

[0140] Referring to Figure 16, Figure 16 is a simplified graph showing specific non-limiting exemplary details of using CoPc as a catalyst in an electrolyte at pH 2. In Figure 16, graphs 1602a and 1602b show that, using an electrolyte at pH 2, CoPc reduces CO2 to CO, but formic acid is produced as a byproduct, the yield is relatively low, and the H2 to Co ratio is not the desired 2:1 ratio (2 H2 to 1 CO). As shown in Figure 16, graphs 1604a and 1604b show that even with the addition of carbon black in an attempt to improve conductivity, the yield remains relatively low, and the H2 to Co ratio still does not improve. To further help the desired 2:1 H2 to Co ratio, CNTs can be added to CoPc in a 1:5 weight ratio (e.g., 5 milligrams of CoPc for every 1 milligram of carbon nanotubes).

[0141] Referring to Figure 17, Figure 17 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc+CNT as a catalyst in an electrolyte at pH 2. In Figure 17, graph 1702 shows the use of 0.25 mg / cm³ of CoPc+CNT as a catalyst in an electrolyte at pH 2. 2 When used with this loading amount, formic acid was produced as a byproduct, the yield was relatively low, and the H2 to CO ratio was not the desired 2:1 ratio because insufficient H2 was produced. Also, Graph 1704 shows that when CoPc+CNT was used as a catalyst at 0.5 mg / cm³ in an electrolyte at pH 2. 2 When used with this loading amount, formic acid is produced as a byproduct, the yield is relatively low, and the H2-to-CO ratio is not the desired 2:1 ratio because insufficient H2 was produced. As used herein, the term “loading amount” includes the amount of catalyst per unit amount of reactant.

[0142] Referring to Figure 18, Figure 18 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using IPA as the catalyst deposition solvent and CoPc+CNT as the catalyst. In Figure 18, graph 1802 shows the case where IPA is used as the solvent and CoPc+CNT is used as the catalyst at 1 mg / cm³. 2 When used with this loading amount, no formic acid was produced as a byproduct, but the yield was relatively low, indicating that the H2-to-Co ratio was not the desired 2:1 ratio because insufficient H2 was produced.

[0143] Referring to Figure 19, Figure 19 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc+CNT as a catalyst in an electrolyte at pH 2. In Figure 19, graph 1902 shows 1 mg / cm³ of CoPc+CNT as a catalyst in a solution at pH 2, with IPA as the solvent. 2When used with this loading amount, although no formic acid was produced as a byproduct, the yield was relatively low, the H2-to-Co ratio was not the desired 2:1 ratio due to insufficient H2 production, the solution was relatively unstable, and the current density was also relatively low (e.g., below the desired range of approximately 150 milliamperes or 200 milliamperes).

[0144] Referring to Figure 20, Figure 20 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc+CNT with Pt added as a catalyst. In Figure 20, graphs 2002 and 2004 show CoPc+CNT at 1 mg / cm³ as a catalyst. 2 With this loading amount, Pt is 0.0005 mg / cm³ 2 When used with this loading amount, the H2 to CO ratio was not the desired 2:1 ratio due to insufficient hydrogen. Additional Pt may be added to increase the amount of hydrogen produced.

[0145] Referring to Figure 21, Figure 21 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc+CNT with Pt added as a catalyst. In Figure 21, graphs 2102 and 2104 show CoPc+CNT at 1 mg / cm³ as a catalyst. 2 With this loading amount, Pt is 0.0024 mg / cm³ 2 When used with this loading amount, it shows that the H2 to Co ratio is approximately the desired ratio of 2:1. Furthermore, 200 mA / cm² 2 This allows us to achieve the desired 2:1 ratio with a relatively high current density.

[0146] Referring to Figure 22, Figure 22 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using Pt-added CoPc+CNT as a catalyst with different solvents (Graph 2202 shows the results using 2-methoxyethanol as the solvent, and Graph 2204 shows the results using IPA as the solvent). In Figure 22, CoPc+CNT is used as the catalyst at 1 mg / cm³. 2 With this loading amount, Pt is 0.0024 mg / cm³ 2When used with this loading amount, the H2 to CO ratio is approximately the desired ratio of 2:1. Furthermore, as shown in Graph 2202, when 2-methoxyethanol is the configuration solvent, the reaction is somewhat less stable compared to when IPA is used as the configuration solvent, as shown in Graph 2204. In some examples, isopropanol has been found to provide acceptable wettability to carbon mesh electrodes and can be used as an acceptable configuration auxiliary solvent with CNTs.

[0147] Referring to Figure 23, Figure 23 is a simplified graph showing specific, non-limiting, exemplary details of using CoPc+CNT with Pt added as a catalyst. In Figure 23, graphs 2302, 2304, and 2306 show CoPc+CNT at 1 mg / cm³ as a catalyst. 2 With a loading amount of 0.0024 mg / cm³, and Pt at 0.0024 mg / cm³ 2 When used with this loading amount, the H2 to Co ratio is approximately 2:1, which is the desired ratio. Furthermore, the stability of the mixture shows relatively good durability.

[0148] Referring to Figure 24, Figure 24 is an example flowchart showing possible operation of flow 2400, which may be associated with enabling the production of synthetic fuel according to one embodiment. In 2402, carbon dioxide is extracted from the atmosphere and converted to syngas. For example, a gas production station 102 can extract CO2 from the atmosphere and convert the extracted CO2 to syngas. In some examples, a power generation station 108 may contribute to supplying power to the gas production station 102. In 2404, the syngas is used to produce heavy synclude. For example, the produced syngas may be sent to a crude oil production station 104. The crude oil production station 104 can use the syngas to produce heavy synclude. In 2406, the heavy synclude is broken down to produce synthetic fuel. For example, the heavy synclude may be sent to a crude oil refining station 106. The crude oil refining station 106 can convert the heavy synclude into synthetic fuel.

[0149] Referring to Figure 25, Figure 25 is an example flowchart showing possible operation of flow 2500, which may be associated with enabling the production of synthetic fuel according to one embodiment. In 2502, carbon dioxide is extracted from the atmosphere and converted to syngas using co-catalytic action. For example, a gas production station 102 can extract CO2 from the atmosphere and convert the extracted CO2 to syngas using co-catalytic action. In some examples, a power generation station 108 is a renewable energy power generation station and may contribute to supplying power to the gas production station 102. In 2504, the syngas is used in a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction to produce heavy synclude. For example, the produced syngas may be sent to a crude oil production station 104. The crude oil production station 104 can use the syngas in a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction to produce heavy synclude. In 2506, the heavy synclude is decomposed to produce synthetic fuel. For example, the heavy synclude may be sent to a crude oil refining station 106. Crude oil refinery station 106 can convert heavy synclude into synthetic fuel.

[0150] Referring to Figure 26, Figure 26 is an example flowchart showing six possible operations of flow 2600 that may be associated with enabling the production of syngas according to one embodiment. In 2602, carbon dioxide is extracted from the atmosphere and converted to carbon monoxide. For example, a gas production station 102 can extract CO2 from the atmosphere and convert the extracted CO2 to CO. In 2604, a hydrogen and carbon monoxide evolution electrode and an oxygen evolution electrode are used in a reaction involving carbon monoxide and pressurized carbon dioxide to produce syngas. For example, an anode 306 (functioning as an oxygen evolution electrode), one or more OER catalysts 308, one or more HCER catalysts 316, and a cathode 318 (functioning as a hydrogen and carbon monoxide evolution electrode) may be used in a reaction involving CO and pressurized CO2 to produce syngas.

[0151] It should be noted that the examples provided herein may describe interactions with one, two, three, or more elements. However, this is for clarification and illustrative purposes only. In some cases, it may be easier to describe one or more functions by referring to only a limited number of elements. It should be understood that the synthetic fuel production system 100 and its teachings are readily extensible and can accommodate numerous components, as well as more complex / elaborate arrangements and configurations. Therefore, the examples provided do not limit the scope of the synthetic fuel production system 100 or hinder its broad teachings, which are potentially applicable to countless other architectures.

[0152] It is important to note that the operations in the aforementioned flowcharts (i.e., Figures 24-26) represent only a portion of the possible correlated scenarios and patterns that may be performed, and that some of these operations may be deleted or removed as appropriate, or substantially modified or changed without departing from the scope of this disclosure. In addition, the timing of these operations may be substantially changed. The aforementioned operation flows are provided for illustrative and consideration purposes. Substantial flexibility is provided in that any preferred arrangement, time series, configuration, and timing mechanism may be provided without departing from the teachings of this disclosure.

[0153] While this disclosure has been described in detail with reference to specific arrangements and configurations, these exemplary configurations and arrangements can be substantially modified without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Furthermore, specific components can be combined, separated, excluded, or added based on specific needs and implementation forms. In addition, while the synthetic fuel production system 100 is shown with reference to specific elements and operations, these elements and operations can be replaced by any suitable architecture, protocol, and / or process that achieves the intended function of the synthetic fuel production system 100.

[0154] Numerous other changes, substitutions, modifications, alterations, and modifications may be apparent to those skilled in the art, but this disclosure is intended to encompass all such changes, substitutions, modifications, alterations, and modifications as being within the scope of the appended claims. For example, a CoPc catalyst embedded in a CNT matrix may be used in other applications other than those discussed herein, and may be used in other electrolytic cell reactor types and / or other reactions other than those discussed herein. To assist the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and, additionally, any reader of any patent issued in connection with this application in interpreting the appended claims herein, the applicant wishes to deem that (a) unless the terms “means to do” or “process to do” are specifically used in a particular claim, none of the appended claims are intended to apply to § 112(6) of the United States Patent Act as of the filing date of this application, and (b) nothing in this disclosure is intended to limit this disclosure in any way not otherwise reflected in the appended claims.

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