Super critical water oxidation reactor

Abstract

Described herein are techniques that may be performed in an Integrated Energy System (IES). The IES may include a clean water production plant, a supercritical water source, a waste source, a Sodium Hydroxide source, and a reaction chamber. The reaction chamber may be configured to receive supercritical water from the supercritical water source, waste from the waste source, and Sodium Hydroxide from the Sodium Hydroxide source to an interior of the reaction chamber. The reaction chamber may be configured to maintain a supercritical temperature and pressure within the interior of the reaction chamber and to convert the waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water in a Super Critical Water Oxidation (SCWO) reaction.

Description

N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 543,227, filed October 09, 2023, and titled "SUPER CRITICAL WATER OXIDATION REACTOR" which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] The present technology is directed to nuclear reactor integrated energy systems (IESs) for energy production and green industrial applications, such as hazardous waste disposal and associated devices and methods. BACKGROUND

[0003] The growing public concern of hazardous waste disposal began with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976. Although recycling became an increasingly popular way to handle hazardous waste, it is not always viable and practical. Many industrial hazardous wastes, such as complex organic and sludges, organic and inorganic compounds, halogenated and sulfur-bearing organic and inorganic substances, as well as retired military energetic materials are extremely difficult to treat and dispose. Currently, there are two acceptable industrial practices to treat hazardous waste. First are chemical treatments such as neutralization, precipitation, ion exchange, reduction, or oxidation. Second method is thermal treatment such as incineration. Both practices, however, can generate unnecessary by-products and carcinogen chemicals if released into the environment. Therefore, existing practices can cause great harm.

[0004] Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) is a high-efficiency, thermal oxidation process that is capable of treating a wide variety of hazardous wastes at elevated temperatures and pressures. However, despite its benefits, there are a number of limitations to SCWO that presently limit its economic viability and industrial implementation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0005] The detailed description is set forth with reference to the accompanying figures. In the figures, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the figure in which theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT reference number first appears. The use of the same reference numbers in different figures indicates similar or identical items or features.

[0006] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an integrated energy system for supercritical water oxidation (SCWO), in accordance with at least some embodiments.

[0007] FIG. 2 depicts a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a supercritical water oxidation reactor in an integrated energy system, in accordance with at least some embodiments.

[0008] FIG. 3 depicts a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a supercritical water oxidation reactor in an integrated energy system, in accordance with at least some embodiments.

[0009] FIG. 4 depicts a block diagram illustrating a Super Critical Water Oxidation reactor with capacitor plates, in accordance with at least some embodiments.

[0010] FIG. 5 depicts a block diagram illustrating a chlor-alkali membrane process in accordance with at least some embodiments.

[0011] FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a nuclear power plant system including multiple nuclear reactors in accordance with embodiments of the present technology.

[0012] FIG. 7 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectional view of a nuclear reactor system configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technology.

[0013] FIG. 8 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectional view of a nuclear reactor system configured in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology.

[0014] FIG. 9 illustrates an example process for treating waste, in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0015] The present technology provides devices and methods for the enhancement of a supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) process. SCWO is a specific type of supercritical water treatment (SCWT) that uses supercritical water (SCW) as a reaction medium to oxidize and mineralize organic compounds, typically in the presence of an oxidant. In SCWO, the oxidizing agent is usually oxygen (O2), air, or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which are added to the supercritical water (SCW) to facilitate the oxidation of organicN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT compounds to Carbon Dioxide (CO2)and Water (H2O). SCWO aims for complete mineralization of organic contaminants and is often used for waste treatment and disposal, pollution control, energy production, chemical synthesis, and the remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. Also, the SCWO processing systems can be fully enclosed and do not produce hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) or NOx.

[0016] In a typical SCWO process, waste materials are mixed with water to create a feedstock. The feedstock is heated and pressurized to reach supercritical conditions with high temperatures (e.g., T > 374°C) and high pressures (e.g., P > 221 bar). Under these conditions, water becomes a fluid with unique properties that can be used in the destruction of recalcitrant and dangerous chemicals. In the supercritical state, the density of water is lower than that of normal water (about one third of the density). Its viscosity is also lower by one to two orders of magnitude compared to normal water with the thermal conductivity decreased slightly. Some of the most important aspects of supercritical water include the decrease of the dielectric constant as the ionic characteristic is increased between ten to one hundred times of normal water. The dielectric constant of supercritical water substantially drives its ability to dissolve the materials being treated. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules are significantly weakened. As a result, the diffusion coefficient is also increased by about two orders of magnitude compared with normal temperature water.

[0017] The supercritical water mixture is then introduced into a reactor, where an oxidant is added. When aqueous waste is combined with an oxidizer, at elevated temperature and pressure in a SCWO reactor, the mixture will facilitate chemical (oxidation) reactions. With the prescribed elevated temperature and pressure conditions in a SCWO reactor, organic compounds may achieve 99.99% destruction and are oxidized to the primary products carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), with optional production of heat or energy. The reaction mixture is then cooled and expanded, allowing for separation of the oxidation products. The effluents are treated to remove any remaining contaminants or by-products. Below are examples of SCWO reactions with various types of compounds.

[0018] Organic Compounds: Phenol (C6H5OH): C6H5OH + (excess) 7O2(SCW) → 6CO2+ 3H2ON132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT Acetic acid (CH3COOH): CH3COOH + (excess) 2O2 (SCW) → 2CO2 + 2H2O Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): C10H8(naphthalene) + (excess) 12O2(SCW) → 10CO2+ 4H2O

[0019] PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances): Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): C8HF15O2+ (excess) O2(SCW) → 8CO2+ 15HF Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS): C8F17HSO3 + (excess) XO2 (in SCW) → 8CO2 + 17HF + (SO4)-2+ (X-1)H2O

[0020] Inorganic Compounds: Metal nitrates (e.g., Cu(NO3)2): Cu(NO3)2 + (excess) H2O (SCW) → CuO + 2HNO3 Sulfates (e.g., Na2SO4): Na2SO4+ (excess) 2H2O (SCW) → 2NaOH + H2SO4Phosphates (e.g., Ca3(PO4)2): Ca3(PO4)2 + (excess) 6H2O (SCW) → 3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3(PO4)

[0021] Chlorinated Compounds: Chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl): C6H5Cl + (excess) 2H2O (SCW) → 6CO2 + H++ Cl- + 5H2O (Cl- is a chloride ion) Trichloroethylene (C2H3Cl3): C2H3Cl3+ (excess) H2O (SCW) → 2CO2+ 3H++ 3Cl- + XH2O (X from SCW) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): C12H6Cl6 (PCB) + (excess) O2 (SCW) → 12CO2 + 6HCl + XH2O (X from SCW)

[0022] The notation (excess) is used to indicate that a reactant is present in a non- limiting amount, allowing the reaction to proceed to completion, without being the limiting reagent.

[0023] There are a number of limitations to SCWO that presently limit its economic viability and industrial implementation. Once the supercritical water and the waste or recycling material is placed in the SCWO container, the decomposition process starts, and the pressure and temperature conditions are maintained for sufficient time to ensure the process is achieved. The process time may vary depending on the properties of theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT materials being decomposed, the amount of the degree of purity required for the material produced, as well as pressure and temperature. Theoretical calculations and estimates can be used to determine the necessary SCWO reaction time, or a conservative time interval can be used to ensure the process is completed. This process, however, relies in an “open loop” estimate and may be subject to longer SCWO time exposure.

[0024] SCWO also generates byproducts like volatile organofluorine compounds, perfluorocarboxylic acids, hydrofluoric acid, and sulfuric acid. These by-products can be toxic and persistent, and acid byproducts can lead to corrosion of the treatment system and the SCWO reactor, resulting in increased equipment and maintenance requirements, increased process downtime to clean and / or replace equipment, and increased cost. Additionally, salt deposits may form within the treatment system and reactor, which also result in increased cost due to, process downtime to clean and / or replace equipment. SCWO is also a highly energy intensive process that requires a large amount of heat and energy to bring the oxidant and the waste undergoing treatment to the critical point of water. To save energy and reduce costs, SCWO systems may operate at lower pressures and temps, but this results in concessions of lower reaction rate and low efficiency. This limits the scalability of SCWO and makes it less suitable for large scale industrial applications. Safety is also a concern, requiring considerations for the safe handling of hazardous materials, such as the pure O2 and H2O2 oxidants. Therefore, there is a need to address the challenges of hazardous waste disposal for the good of the environment, and to develop methods of improving SCWO to be safer, more efficient, economically viable, and scalable.

[0025] Embodiments of the present disclosure provide improvements to traditional SCWO. Improvements include the use of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to enhance the oxidation process as well as to improve efficiencies.

[0026] Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is not used as an oxidizing agent in the SCWO process. It is a base and can be used as a catalyst in the SCWO processes to enhance the solubility of organic compounds, neutralize acidic byproducts, and improve the overall reaction kinetics. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) has been explored as a catalyst in SCWO processes to treat Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). For example, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was added to SCWO reactions to increase the degradation of PFASN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT compounds, such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). The Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) helped to increase the reaction rate and extent of degradation. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was also used as a catalyst in SCWO to enhance the defluorination of PFAS compounds, resulting in higher removal efficiencies and lower toxicity of the treated water. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was added to SCWO reactions to increase the oxidation efficiency of PFAS compounds, resulting in higher conversions to carbon dioxide and water. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used as a catalyst in SCWO may also reduce the reaction temperature required for PFAS degradation, making the process more energy-efficient.

[0027] NaOH offers advantages in the SCWO process making it an attractive option for various industrial and environmental applications. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) be used as a catalyst to enhance and accelerate the SCWO process, enhance high destruction efficiency of organic compounds, enhance the break-up of PFAS and other harmful wastes, and reduce reaction temperature requirements. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can also react with the toxic by-products and neutralize acidic by-products. Higher destruction efficiencies of organic compounds and hazardous waste result in reducing effluent waste product and downstream waste treatment requirements and eliminating the release of toxic materials to the environment. Higher efficiency may allow for reduced reaction times and lower reaction temperatures, which can improve energy efficiency, cost effectiveness, and safety. Lower reaction temperature requirements, and reduction and / or elimination of corrosive byproducts, provide the advantage of reducing design requirements and cost of SCWO process equipment and reactors because they will not need to withstand such high temperatures, pressures, and corrosion conditions.

[0028] NaOH offer advantages, however it is hard to produce high concentration Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and it is often in the form of rock salt. Process integration with Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) production can accelerate the rate of the treatment process, improve process efficiency, cost effectiveness, and energy efficiency at commercial scales. In implementations of the present disclosure, process integration includes the production of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and clean water from saline water for the integration with a SCWO process. Produced Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and clean water may be used within an integrated SCWO process as the oxidizing agent, and / or the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT may be sold. In embodiments, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) may be produced by a chlor- alkali membrane process. The chlor-alkali process is an electrolysis process that has been demonstrated to treat brine and to produce Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution, Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas from the Sodium Chloride (NaCl) brine solution and clean water. Brine may be received from a water purification plant, such as a desalination plant. Desalination of seawater produces large quantities of brine as a by-product. Brine is denser than seawater and therefore sinks to the bottom of the ocean and if released directly, can damage ecosystems. The desalination of seawater through RO on average produces about 1.4 liters of brine for every liter of clean water that requires proper environmental disposal. Therefore, utilizing brine from a desalination process for the production of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) provides advantageous integration by using an otherwise difficult to dispose waste product.

[0029] The clean water used in the chlor-alkali process may also be supplied from the water purification plant. The produced Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be fed to the SCWO process or removed and stored. The produced Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas may be removed as a product or used in further resource production, such as combining the Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas to form Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) gas which can be converted to Hydrochloric Acid (HCl).

[0030] In embodiments, the water purification plant may be a desalination plant. Desalination is a resource and energy intensive process, with the most commonly used desalination process, Reverse Osmosis (RO), requiring between 3.44 – 22.36 kWh / m3of freshwater produced. In the United States, electricity produces about 0.86 pounds of CO2 emissions per kWh, mostly due to the use of coal, natural gas, and petroleum fuel sources. Therefore, the net carbon emissions for the production of water using fossil fuels are about 2.96 – 19.23 pounds of CO2 / m3of freshwater produced. In order to comply with tightening global emissions regulations and to mitigate global warming, there is a need to develop integrated energy systems that generate power with few or no carbon emissions.

[0031] In implementations, energy integration may include the production of electricity and steam with low and / or no carbon emissions and utilizing the electricity and / or steam in the production of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and in the operation of a SCWO process. Energy integration according to embodiments of the present disclosureN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT provides significant advantages over traditional SCWO. SCWO is a highly energy intensive process that requires a large amount of heat and energy to bring the oxidant and the waste undergoing treatment to the critical point of water. Although a portion of this energy can be recovered in heat exchangers, compensating for heat losses limits prior SCWO processes to the treatment of concentrated wastes with sufficient organic content for the exothermic oxidation reaction to provide the necessary heat. Typically, a minimum calorific content of around 2 MJ / kg in the organic matter is needed for autothermal operation. For more dilute streams, external heating or supplementation of fuel with diesel, alcohol, waste oil, etc. can be implemented, but it can rapidly become cost prohibitive. Thus, SCWO is currently not economical for very large volumes (>50,000 gallon / day) or very dilute waste streams. A second limitation is related to the pumping of the waste. Because the process is conducted at high pressure (> 221 bar), positive displacement pumps are required. This limits SCWO to liquids and slurries that can be pumped. Waste streams that contain excessive grit or abrasive materials, and soils cannot currently be processed using SCWO.

[0032] In embodiments, the present disclosure is directed to techniques that may be performed in relation to Integrated Energy Systems (IESs), such as for use in green industrial processes that produce few or no carbon emissions for hazardous waste treatment, resource production, and associated devices and methods. IESs of the present technology may include a power plant (e.g., a primary power plant) that is integrated with one or more industrial processes and resource production plants to provide power with few or no carbon emissions and to treat hazardous waste.

[0033] Industrial processes in accordance with embodiments of the present technology may include Super Critical Water Treatment (SCWT), water purification, sewage treatment, chemical production, agriculture, municipal waste processing, hazardous waste processing, fracking, military applications, chemical plants, natural-gas or coal-fired power generation plants, petroleum and oil refining, municipal recycling, bulk plastic waste recycling and gasification, cement production, ore processing plants, steel and primary metal manufacturing, transportation, food processing, pharmaceutical production, pulp and paper, materials manufacturing, and / or other industrial plants. Such an IES may be capable of providing electricity and steam, or a combination of both, from the power plant to theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT industrial processes for operation, resource production, waste treatment, or any combination thereof. The IES of the present disclosure can also assist industries to reduce emissions and dispose of hazardous waste efficiently and effectively, such as to meet national and global environmental regulations. In embodiments, the IES may be modular and therefore may be retrofit to existing industrial processes for waste treatment and resource production.

[0034] Because of the drive toward cleaner and more efficient forms of power production, nuclear power will be increasingly important in the coming years. In operation, nuclear power plants use the nuclear fission process to generate heat, which is then used to produce steam to turn turbines and generate electricity. This process can result in the production of electrical power that reduces the need for coal and natural gas to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants provide reliable baseload power without emitting greenhouse gases such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2) during operation, making them attractive for countries that are seeking to reduce carbon emissions and enhance energy security. Due to the advantages of nuclear energy for providing electricity, the present disclosure presents novel methods of using nuclear power in integrated energy systems for hazardous waste disposal and “green” resource production, such as the production of “green” chemical products.

[0035] In some embodiments, an IES includes a power plant system having multiple small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs) specifically configured to operate in unison to support one or more of the industrial processes. SMRs are nuclear reactors that are smaller in terms of size (e.g., dimensions) and power compared to large, conventional nuclear reactors. Moreover, they are modular in that some or all of their systems and components can be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation. In some aspects of the present technology, the multiple SMRs of the integrated energy system can flexibly and dynamically provide electricity, steam, or a combination of both electricity and steam to the industrial processes due to the modularity and flexibility of the SMRs. That is, a configuration of the SMRs can be switched during operation to provide varying levels of steam and electricity output depending on the operational states and / or demands of the industrial processes.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0036] In embodiments, a power plant of the present disclosure can be a permanent or temporary installation built at or near (e.g., roughly 1 km from) the location of an industrial process facility or can be a mobile or partially mobile system that is moved to and assembled at or near the location of the industrial process facility. More generally, the power plant can be local (e.g., positioned at or near) to the industrial processes / operations it supports. For example, the power plant can be located within 0.4 km (0.25 mile), within 0.8 km (0.5 mile), within 3.22 km (2 miles), within 4.82 km (3 miles), or within 8.1 km (5 miles) of the industrial processes / operations it supports. In embodiments, the power plant is configured to supply a portion of electricity to a power grid.

[0037] Typically, in a SCWO process, water is injected into the SCWO reactor, and the pressure is raised to the super critical pressure while the temperature of entire SCWO chamber is increased to above the critical temperature of water. In implementations of the present disclosure, energy from a power plant system having one or more SMRs may be used to super-heat water to the critical temperature of water prior to injection into the SCWO reactor. In other embodiments, process steam from the power plant system may be superheated to the critical temperature of water and injection into the SCWO reactor. Combining super-heated steam with Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as a catalyst can further enhance the SCWO process. Super-heated steam can increase the reaction rate by providing more energy and a higher temperature, which can enhance the oxidation of organic compounds. Super-heated steam can also improve the solubility of organic compounds, making it easier for the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) catalyst to interact with them and facilitate the oxidation reaction. The high temperature and pressure of super-heated steam can enhance the activity of the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) catalyst, allowing it to facilitate the oxidation reaction more effectively. Combining super-heated steam with Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can increase the overall efficiency of the SCWO process, allowing for higher destruction efficiencies of organic compounds, lower reaction temperatures and pressures, reduced reaction times, and improved energy efficiency.

[0038] The present disclosure includes systems and methods that may address many problems associated with conventional SCWO, making it more scalable and more suitable for various industrial and environmental applications. Improvements include the use of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as a catalyst, process integration, and energy integration. InN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT embodiments, the combination of super-heated steam and Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can also create a synergistic effect, enhancing the SCWO process and improving its effectiveness in treating PFAS and other organic compounds. As described herein, these improvements increase process efficiency, increase reaction rate, and reduce the reaction temperature and pressure, thereby improving economic viability by lowering operating costs of electricity, equipment, and maintenance. The improvements of the present disclosure also provide improved safety by, for example, eliminating and / or reducing hazardous materials within the process, neutralization of toxic by-products, and reducing reaction temperatures. Finally, embodiments may also provide reduced environment impact by producing lower waste volume and providing energy and heat integration with a carbon free power plant.

[0039] Certain details are set forth in the following description and in Figures 1-10 to provide a thorough understanding of various embodiments of the present technology. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, operations, and / or systems often associated with nuclear reactors, power plant systems, integrated energy systems, chemical production plants, industrial process plants, electrolysis systems, Hydrogen and Oxygen production plants, direct air capture (DAC) plants, oil refineries, and the like, are not shown or described in detail in the following disclosure to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the description of the various embodiments of the technology. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize, however, that the present technology can be practiced without one or more of the details set forth herein, and / or with other structures, methods, components, and so forth. The terminology used below is to be interpreted in its broadest reasonable manner, even though it is being used in conjunction with a detailed description of certain examples of embodiments of the technology.

[0040] The accompanying Figures depict embodiments of the present technology and are not intended to limit its scope unless expressly indicated. The sizes of various depicted elements are not necessarily drawn to scale, and these various elements may be enlarged to improve legibility. Component details may be abstracted in the Figures to exclude details such as position of components and certain precise connections between such components when such details are unnecessary for a complete understanding of how to make and use the present technology. Many of the details, dimensions, angles and other features shownN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT in the Figures are merely illustrative of particular embodiments of the disclosure. Accordingly, other embodiments can have other details, dimensions, angles and features without departing from the present technology. In addition, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that further embodiments of the present technology can be practiced without several of the details described below.

[0041] FIG.1 is a schematic diagram of an Integrated Energy System (IES) 100 of the present disclosure. In embodiments, the IES 100 includes a power plant 102, a water source 104, one or more resource production plants 106, and a Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108. In embodiments, the IES 100 is operably coupled to the power plant 102 and the power plant 102 is configured to supply power to the IES 100. In embodiments the power plant 102 may include the power plant power plant system 650 of FIG. 6, in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology. The power plant 102 may include a nuclear power module (NPM) including one or more light water nuclear reactor (LWR), one or more small modular nuclear reactor (SMR), and any reactor 600 of FIG. 6, reactor system 700 of FIG. 7, and reactor system 800 of FIG. 8.

[0042] In embodiments, the IES 100 is operably coupled to the water source 104. In embodiments, the water source 104 may include for example, at least one of a natural body of water, such as an ocean, a sea, or a lake, a storage tank, an industrial process, or a water treatment facility. In embodiments, the water source 104 provides saline water, such as sea water, brackish water, and brine, to the IES 100. In embodiments, the power plant 102 may be configured to provide power, for example, to pumps for the transport of water from the water source 104 to downstream processes. In embodiments, the saline water may have a dissolved salt concentration of 0.05% to 50%. For example, sea water from the world’s oceans has a salt concentration of about 3.5%, and saltwater lakes and seas around the world have salt concentrations from 0.59% to 50%. In embodiments, the saline water includes salts such as Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

[0043] In embodiments, the one or more resource production plants 106 may receive as input electricity and steam from the power plant 102, and saline water from the water source 104. The one or more resource production plants 106 may be configured to convert the inputs into useful and saleable products. For example, the one or more resource production plants 106 may output clean water, Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), andN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) as resources. In embodiments, the one or more resource production plants 106 may include a water purification plant, such as a Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination plant, configured to produce clean water and brine. In embodiments, the one or more resource production plants 106 may include a chlor-alkali membrane process configured to produce Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) from clean water and brine. In embodiments, clean water from the one or more resource production plants 106 may be fed to the power plant 102 for example, for the production of steam. In some cases, a portion of any one of the outputs from the resource production plant 106 may be recycled within the IES 100, stored, and / or sold to consumers.

[0044] The Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 may receive as input electricity and steam from the power plant 102, clean water and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) from the resource production plants 106, and waste. Waste may include municipal waste, recycling, or sewage, hazardous waste, agricultural waste, hydraulic fracturing wastewater, retired military energetic materials, and / or effluent / waste products from chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, steel processing plants, and / or other industrial plants. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 may be configured to convert the inputs into harmless effluents, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The effluents may be treated to remove any remaining contaminants or by-products. For example, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) may be captured and stored or converted into useful products. In embodiments, the IES 100 produces minimal emissions, waste, and byproducts. In embodiments, the IES 100 generates no carbon emissions and results in net- negative carbon emissions through the capture and use of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) from the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 and / or other emission sources. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 may be configured to produce heat or energy.

[0045] In embodiments, the power plant 102 may operate off-grid and can be a permanent or temporary installation built at or near (e.g., roughly 1 km from) the location of at least one of the water source 104, one or more resource production plants 106, or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108, or can be a mobile or partially mobile system that is moved to and assembled at or near the location of the water source 104, one or more resource production plants 106, or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108. MoreN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT generally, the power plant 102 can be local (e.g., positioned at or near) to the industrial processes / operations it supports. For example, the power plant can be located within 0.4 km (0.25 mile), within 0.8 km (0.5 mile), within 3.22 km (2 miles), within 4.82 km (3 miles), or within 8.1 km (5 miles) of the industrial processes / operations it supports. In embodiments, the power plant 102 is configured to supply a portion of electricity to a power grid.

[0046] The IES 100 of FIG. 1 should not be limited to only the components described above. The IES 100 may, for example, include a portion or all of the embodiments of IES 200 and IES 300 described below.

[0047] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an Integrated Energy System (IES) 200 of the present disclosure. In embodiments, the IES 200 is operably coupled to a power plant 202. In embodiments, the power plant 202 is configured to supply power to the IES 200. In embodiments the power plant 202 may include the power plant power plant system 650 of FIG. 6, in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology. The power plant 202 may include a nuclear power module (NPM) including one or more light water nuclear reactor (LWR), one or more small modular nuclear reactor (SMR), and any reactor 600 of FIG. 6, reactor system 700 of FIG. 7, and reactor system 800 of FIG. 8.

[0048] In embodiments, the IES 200 includes a water treatment plant 204. The water treatment plant 204 may include one or more water treatment processes, such as Reverse Osmosis (RO), distillation, and filtration. The water treatment plant 204 may receive water from a water source. In embodiments, the water source includes a natural body of water, such as an ocean, a sea, or a lake, a storage tank, an industrial process, and a separate water treatment facility. In embodiments, the water source provides saline water, such as sea water, brackish water, and brine, to the water treatment plant 204. In embodiments, the saline water may have a dissolved salt concentration of 0.05% to 50%. For example, sea water from the world’s oceans has a salt concentration of about 3.5%, and saltwater lakes and seas around the world have salt concentrations from 0.59% to 50%. In embodiments, the saline water includes salts such as Sodium Chloride (NaCl). In embodiments, the water treatment plant 204 is configured to receive power from the power plant 202.

[0049] In embodiments, the water treatment plant 204 produces clean water and brine. In the illustrated example, saline water, such as sea water with a salt concentration of 3.5%N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT Sodium Chloride (NaCl), is fed to the water treatment plant 204. The water treatment plant 204 converts the saline water into clean water (e.g., <0.05% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration) and brine (e.g., 7.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration). In embodiments, the power plant 202 may receive clean water from the water treatment plant 204.

[0050] In embodiments, brine (e.g., 7.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration) from the water treatment plant 204 is fed to a chlor-alkali membrane process 206 such as the chlor-alkali membrane process 500 in FIG.5. In embodiments, a portion of the clean water from the water treatment plant 204 may be fed to chlor-alkali membrane process 206.

[0051] In embodiments, the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may include an ion- selective membrane configured to allow Sodium ions (Na+) to flow freely across the membrane, while Chloride ions (Cl-) and Hydroxide ions (OH-) are prevented from migrating across the membrane. The chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may include an anode and a cathode. At the anode, Chloride ions (Cl-) from the brine solution are oxidized to form Chlorine (Cl2) gas. At the cathode, water (H2O) is reduced to Hydroxide ions (OH- ) and Hydrogen (H2) gas, releasing Hydroxide ions (OH-) into the solution. Sodium ions (Na+) from the brine solution flow across the membrane toward the cathode and combine with Hydroxide ions (OH-) to produce a Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. In embodiments, the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 can reduce the Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration of brine. The outlet stream from the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may, for example, be reduced to a benign sea water concentrations of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) (e.g., 3.5%) and may be further processed in a downstream chlor-alkali membrane cell or fed back to the water treatment plant 204.

[0052] In embodiments, the Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas generated in the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may be removed as a product to be stored, sold, or used in further resource production, such as in a Hydrochloric Acid production plant 208 to produce Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) may be stored, used in downstream processes and / or sold to consumers. The Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution generated in the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may be removed as a product to be stored, sold, or used in further resource production.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0053] In some embodiments, steam and electricity from the power plant 202, clean water from the water treatment plant 204 and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution from the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 may be fed to a Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210. The Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210 may include embodiments of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 described above. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210 may be configured to use super-heated steam from the power plant 202 to maintain the temperature of the process.

[0054] In embodiments, clean water from the water treatment plant 204 may be pretreated prior to injection into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212. Pretreatment of the water may include increasing its temperature and pressure. Increasing the temperature and pressure of water, for example to a critical temperature and / or a critical pressure, may include the use of specialized equipment such as pumps, compressors, heaters, and heat exchangers. In embodiments, pump 218 transports the water into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212.

[0055] In some embodiments, the IES 200 is operably coupled to one or more waste sources (not shown) that supply liquid waste and / or solid waste to one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212. It is noted that the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 are not limited to the processing and disposal of organic compounds and complex organic wastes. Many inorganic wastes, such as nitrates or ammonia, can be destroyed with addition of suitable reducing or oxidizing agents. Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 may also oxidize high-moisture organic materials with high combustion efficiency. Plants wastes and lignin slurries can also be treated efficiently. In embodiments, the waste sources may include municipal waste facilities, agriculture, landfills, hazardous waste, hydraulic fracturing, retired military energetic materials, chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, steel processing plants, and / or other industrial plants. Advantages of the proposed process is that concentrated and / or solid wastes can be diluted with water prior to injection into the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212, and solid wastes may be treated in bulk without sorting.

[0056] In embodiments, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be fed from the chlor-alkali membrane process 206 to the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be pretreated prior to entering aN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 212. Pretreatment of the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may include increasing its temperature and pressure and may include the use of specialized equipment such as pumps, compressors, heaters, and heat exchangers. In embodiments, pump 220 transports the NaOH into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strong base which can remove electrons easily in many molecules. These features provide many advantages to the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210, such as enhancing high destruction efficiency of organic compounds, enhance the break-up of PFAS and other harmful wastes, and reduce reaction temperature requirements. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can also react with the toxic by-products and neutralize acidic by-products, for example, Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) produced during the SCWO of PFOA and PFOS, see para.

[0019] above. In embodiments, the supply of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) may be continuous, and several Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 may be operating simultaneously to maximize the treatment of many different types of wastes. In embodiments, additives may be added to the waste prior to injection into a Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 212 and / or additives may be added to the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 directly. Additives may include oxidants, water soluble chemical such as methanol or ethanol can be added to the waste to support the oxidation reactions.

[0057] Once the reactions inside the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 have achieved the desired destruction and removal efficiencies of the waste, the resulting reactants are removed from the reactor, cooled in at least one heat exchanger 222, and then separated into gaseous and liquid streams in one or more separators 214. In embodiments, the liquid stream may include inert salts and / or minerals, which may be separated for storage, further use in downstream processes, for sale and / or for safe disposal. In embodiments, the gaseous stream may be further processed, for example, in a Pressure Swing Absorption (PSA) tower 216. In embodiments, harmless gaseous and liquid effluents are removed from the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210 operates in a closed loop, wherein the system is enclosed up to the point of final environmental discharges of harmless effluents. This feature is extremely useful when treating highly toxic waste that is difficult to handle and process in most industrial treatment facilities.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0058] In embodiments, exothermic reactions take place within the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212, and the heat can be recuperated for reuse within the process or for external purposes. Heat exchanger 222 may be operably coupled to any one of the other heat exchangers and / or heaters within the IES 200 for heat integration and heat recovery. Any number of additional heat exchangers and / or heaters may also be included within the IES 200 to optimize heat recovery and energy efficiency. For example, steam from the power plant 202 may be operably coupled to any heat exchanger and / or heater within the IES 200 for heat integration. In embodiments, the water treatment plant 204, the chlor-alkali membrane process 206, the Hydrochloric acid production plant 208, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210, including heat exchangers, pumps, the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212, and post treatment devices such as separator 214 and PSA tower 216, are configured to receive power, steam, and / or thermal energy from the power plant 202.

[0059] In embodiments, the IES 200 may include a control system, such as the system described below in reference to FIG. 4. The IES 200 may have a steady source of electric power from the power plant 202 and saline water, available all the time at the desired quantity. The source and composition of waste fed to any one of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 may vary over time depending on the waste source(s). A closed loop control system can be implemented to optimize the efficiency of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210 and to save power depending on the composition and quantity of waste.

[0060] In embodiments, the power plant 202 can be a permanent or temporary installation built at or near (e.g., roughly 1 km from) the location of the water treatment plant 204, chlor-alkali membrane process 206, Hydrochloric Acid production plant 208, and / or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210. In embodiments, the power plant 202 may operate off-grid and can be a mobile or partially mobile system that is moved to and assembled at or near the location of the water treatment plant 204, chlor-alkali membrane process 206, Hydrochloric Acid production plant 208, and / or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 210. More generally, the power plant 202 can be local (e.g., positioned at or near) to the industrial processes / operations it supports. For example, the power plant can be located within 0.4 km (0.25 mile), within 0.8 km (0.5 mile), within 3.22N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT km (2 miles), within 4.82 km (3 miles), or within 8.1 km (5 miles) of the industrial processes / operations it supports. In embodiments, the power plant 202 is configured to supply a portion of electricity to a power grid.

[0061] FIG.3 is a schematic diagram of an Integrated Energy System (IES) 300 of the present disclosure. In embodiments, the IES 300 is operably coupled to a power plant 302. In embodiments, the power plant 302 is configured to supply power to the IES 300. In embodiments the power plant 302 may include the power plant power plant system 650 of FIG. 6, in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology. The power plant 302 may include a nuclear power module (NPM) including one or more light water nuclear reactor (LWR), one or more small modular nuclear reactor (SMR), and any reactor 600 of FIG. 6, reactor system 700 of FIG. 7, and reactor system 800 of FIG. 8.

[0062] In embodiments, the IES 300 includes a water treatment plant 304. The water treatment plant 304 may include one or more water treatment processes, such as Reverse Osmosis (RO), distillation, and filtration. The water treatment plant 304 may receive water from a water source. In embodiments, the water source includes a natural body of water, such as an ocean, a sea, or a lake, a storage tank, an industrial process, and a separate water treatment facility. In embodiments, the water source provides saline water, such as sea water, brackish water, and brine, to the water treatment plant 304. In embodiments, the saline water may have a dissolved salt concentration of 0.05% to 50%. For example, sea water from the world’s oceans has a salt concentration of about 3.5%, and saltwater lakes and seas around the world have salt concentrations from 0.59% to 50%. In embodiments, the saline water includes salts such as Sodium Chloride (NaCl). In embodiments, the water treatment plant 304 is configured to receive power from the power plant 302.

[0063] In embodiments, the water treatment plant 304 produces clean water and brine. In the illustrated example, saline water, such as sea water with a salt concentration of 3.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl), is fed to the water treatment plant 304. The water treatment plant 304 converts the saline water into clean water (e.g., <0.05% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration) and brine (e.g., 7.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration). In embodiments, the power plant 302 may receive clean water from the water treatment plant 304.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0064] In embodiments, brine (e.g., 7.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration) from the water treatment plant 304 is fed to a chlor-alkali membrane process 306 such as the chlor-alkali membrane process 500 in FIG.5. In embodiments, a portion of the clean water from the water treatment plant 304 may be fed to chlor-alkali membrane process 306.

[0065] In embodiments, the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may include an ion- selective membrane configured to allow Sodium ions (Na+) to flow freely across the membrane, while Chloride ions (Cl-) and Hydroxide ions (OH-) are prevented from migrating across the membrane. The chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may include an anode and a cathode. At the anode, Chloride ions (Cl-) from the brine solution are oxidized to form Chlorine (Cl2) gas. At the cathode, water (H2O) is reduced to Hydroxide ions (OH- ) and Hydrogen (H2) gas, releasing Hydroxide ions (OH-) into the solution. Sodium ions (Na+) from the brine solution flow across the membrane toward the cathode and combine with Hydroxide ions (OH-) to produce a Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. In embodiments, the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 can reduce the Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration of brine. The outlet stream from the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may, for example, be reduced to a benign sea water concentrations of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) (e.g., 3.5%) and may be further processed in a downstream chlor-alkali membrane cell or fed back to the water treatment plant 304.

[0066] In embodiments, the Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas generated in the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may be removed as a product to be stored, sold, or used in further resource production, such as in a Hydrochloric Acid production plant 308 to produce Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) may be stored, used in downstream processes and / or sold to consumers. The Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution generated in the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may be removed as a product to be stored, sold, or used in further resource production.

[0067] In some embodiments, steam and electricity from the power plant 302, clean water from the water treatment plant 304 and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution from the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 may be fed to a Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310. The Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310 may include embodiments of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108 or 210 described above. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310 may be configured to useN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT super-heated steam from the power plant 302 to maintain the temperature of the process. In embodiments, steam generated by the power plant 302 can undergo compression and heating, for example in a heating system 324, to raise the temperature and pressure of the steam significantly above the critical point to generate supercritical water in a cost effective and carbon-free manner. Heating system 324 may include specialized equipment such as pumps, compressors, heaters and heat exchangers. In embodiments, the multi-module design of the power plant 302 and the large thermal power per module (250 MWt) overcomes the energy demand obstacle to treating very large volumes of wastes (e.g., 50,000 gal / d of certain dilute wastes). The proposed cycle provides a faster and highly efficient reduction process to treat extremely difficult, complex wastes.

[0068] In embodiments, clean water from the water treatment plant 304 may be pretreated prior to injection into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312. Pretreatment of the water may include increasing its temperature and pressure. Increasing the temperature and pressure of water, for example to a critical temperature and / or a critical pressure, may include the use of specialized equipment such as pumps, compressors, heaters, and heat exchangers. In embodiments, pump 318 transports the water into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312.

[0069] In some embodiments, the IES 300 is operably coupled to one or more waste sources (not shown) that supply liquid waste and / or solid waste to one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312. It is noted that the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 are not limited to the processing and disposal of organic compounds and complex organic wastes. Many inorganic wastes, such as nitrates or ammonia, can be destroyed with addition of suitable reducing or oxidizing agents. Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 may also oxidize high-moisture organic materials with high combustion efficiency. Plants wastes and lignin slurries can also be treated efficiently. In embodiments, the waste sources may include municipal waste facilities, agriculture, landfills, hazardous waste, hydraulic fracturing, retired military energetic materials, chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, steel processing plants, and / or other industrial plants. Advantages of the proposed process is that concentrated and / or solid wastes can be diluted with water prior to injection into the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0070] In embodiments, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be fed from the chlor-alkali membrane process 306 to the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be pretreated prior to entering a Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 312. Pretreatment of the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution may include increasing its temperature and pressure and may include the use of specialized equipment such as pumps, compressors, heaters, and heat exchangers. In embodiments, pump 320 transports the NaOH into the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strong base which can remove electrons easily in many molecules. These features provide many advantages to the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310, such as enhancing high destruction efficiency of organic compounds, enhance the break-up of PFAS and other harmful wastes, and reduce reaction temperature requirements. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can also react with the toxic by-products and neutralize acidic by-products. In embodiments, the supply of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) may be continuous, and several Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 may be operating simultaneously to maximize the treatment of many different types of wastes. In embodiments, additives may be added to the waste prior to injection into a Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 312 and / or additives may be added to the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 directly. Additives may include oxidants, water soluble chemical such as methanol or ethanol can be added to the waste to support the oxidation reactions.

[0071] Once the reactions inside the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 have achieved the desired destruction and removal efficiencies of the waste, the resulting reactants are removed from the reactor, cooled in at least one heat exchanger 322, and then separated into gaseous and liquid streams in one or more separators 314. In embodiments, the liquid stream may include inert salts and / or minerals, which may be separated for storage, further use in downstream processes, for sale and / or for safe disposal. In embodiments, the gaseous stream may be further processed, for example, in a Pressure Swing Absorption (PSA) tower 316. In embodiments, harmless gaseous and liquid effluents are removed from the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310 operates in a closed loop, wherein the system is enclosed up to the point of final environmental discharges ofN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT harmless effluents. This feature is extremely useful when treating highly toxic waste that is difficult to handle and process in most industrial treatment facilities.

[0072] In embodiments, exothermic reactions take place within the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312, and the heat can be recuperated for reuse within the process or for external purposes. Heat exchangers 318, 320, and 322 may be operably coupled to any one of the other heat exchangers and / or heaters for heat integration and heat recovery. Any number of additional heat exchangers and / or heaters may also be included within the IES 300 to optimize heat recovery and energy efficiency. For example, steam from the power plant 302 may be operably coupled to any heat exchanger and / or heater within the IES 300 for heat integration. In embodiments, the water treatment plant 304, the chlor- alkali membrane process 306, the Hydrochloric acid production plant 308, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310, including heat exchangers, pumps, the one or more Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312, and post treatment devices such as separator 314 and PSA tower 316, are configured to receive power, steam, and / or thermal energy from the power plant 302.

[0073] In embodiments, the IES 300 may include a control system, such as the control system described below in reference to FIG. 4. The IES 300 may have a steady source of electric power from the power plant 302 and saline water, available all the time at the desired quantity. The source and composition of waste fed to any one of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 312 may vary over time depending on the waste source(s). A closed loop control system can be implemented to optimize the efficiency of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310 and to save power depending on the composition and quantity of waste.

[0074] In embodiments, the power plant 302 can be a permanent or temporary installation built at or near (e.g., roughly 1 km from) the location of the water treatment plant 304, chlor-alkali membrane process 306, Hydrochloric Acid production plant 308, and / or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310. In embodiments, the power plant 302 may operate off-grid and can be a mobile or partially mobile system that is moved to and assembled at or near the location of the water treatment plant 304, chlor-alkali membrane process 306, Hydrochloric Acid production plant 308, and / or the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 310. More generally, the power plant 302 can be local (e.g.,N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT positioned at or near) to the industrial processes / operations it supports. For example, the power plant can be located within 0.4 km (0.25 mile), within 0.8 km (0.5 mile), within 3.22 km (2 miles), within 4.82 km (3 miles), or within 8.1 km (5 miles) of the industrial processes / operations it supports. In embodiments, the power plant 302 is configured to supply a portion of electricity to a power grid.

[0075] FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary embodiment of a Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 with capacitor plates. In embodiments, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 may be implemented in any embodiment described herein. For example, Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 may be used as the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 and 312. To measure the dielectric constant of water and the waste product being decomposed, the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 in embodiments may include a built-in capacitive sensor, i.e., an SCWO sensing device 402, inside the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 walls. Capacitance is the ability of a material to store electric charge. An exemplary capacitor 404 is built by placing two conductive electrodes separated by a fixed distance 406 with a dielectric placed in between the electrodes. In embodiments, the electrodes may be made of a conductive material such as such as ceramic, semiconductor, graphite, conductive polymer, or metal. In embodiments, a conductive electrode affixed to the metallic container wall of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 can be used as a first plate 408 and a second plate 410 can be made of a conductive material placed at a fixed distance to the interior of the container wall. In embodiments, the first capacitor plate 408 and the second capacitor plate 410 are electrically isolated.

[0076] In embodiments, during operation of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400, the space between the first capacitor plate 408 and the second capacitor plate 410 will be filled with supercritical water and the waste material being decomposed. In embodiments, the capacitance between the first capacitor plate 408 and the second capacitor plate 410 may change as a function of the dielectric constant of the material placed between them. For example, the capacitance measured with water at a broad range of temperature and pressure will be reduced close to 80 times from ambient temperature when it reaches the supercritical state. Measuring the capacitance with the SCWO sensingN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT device 402 may provide a direct indication of the status of the ongoing SCWO process within the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 in real-time.

[0077] In embodiments, the dielectric constant during the SCWO process may include a combination of supercritical water, waste material being, additives, and reaction byproducts. The dielectric constant may change dynamically as the composition of supercritical water, additives, waste materials, and byproducts change while the SCWO reactions take place. In embodiments, monitoring the dielectric constant enables monitoring of the process in order to minimize the time the waste material needs to be in the reactor. The dielectric measurement may also reflect the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration and will help optimize the amount of the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for the process. Real time monitoring of SCWO reactions within a Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400, may in turn enable process optimization, for example through improvement of reaction efficiency and energy efficiency.

[0078] Capacitance measurements can be made by a number of methods, one of them consists of sweeping a frequency across the capacitor to measure the impedance. Measuring the dielectric constant as a function of frequency enables the use of dielectric spectroscopy. For most materials, the dielectric is constant only for a limited frequency range. In embodiments, a plot of the dielectric constant versus the frequency during the SCWO process will be a function of the materials that are being treated and may therefore enable fingerprinting or detecting of certain materials within the process. For example, supercritical water is a poor solvent of salts and salt build-up can occur in the SCWO reactor. Therefore, the SCWO sensing device 402 may be used to measure the conductivity of the fluid in the reactor and enable an estimation of the concentration of dissolved salts.

[0079] In some embodiments, the SCWO sensing device 402 can be self-powered in order to avoid the need to place a wire that passes through the SCWO reactor enclosure. In embodiments, power to the electronics that measure the capacitance can be provided from outside the vessel. For example, a vibration in the vessel can be provided externally and the mechanical force converted to electric power inside the vessel to power the electronics. In embodiments, the measurements from the SCWO sensing device 402 can be transmitted externally with a sonic or magnetic transducer attached to the reactor wall.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0080] In embodiments, the IES 100, 200 and 300 may include a control system. The IES 100, 200 and / or 300 may have a steady source of electric power from the power plant 102, 202, or 302 and saline water. The source and composition of waste fed to any one of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108, 210, or 310 may vary over time depending on the waste source(s). Any one of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactors 212 or 312 may be the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 and may include a SCWO sensing device 402. A closed loop control system can be implemented to monitor and optimize resource utilization, energy efficiency, and reaction efficiency of the Super Critical Water Oxidation Process 108, 210, or 310.

[0081] In embodiments, a closed loop control system may include a microcontroller or computer that measures the dielectric constant of the material within the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 via the SCWO sensing device 402. The closed loop control system may then adjust the addition of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) to the Super Critical Water Oxidation Reactor 400 accordingly in order to optimize reaction efficiency, waste conversion, and by-product mitigation. In embodiments, the closed loop control system may also adjust the heating, flowrate, waste conversion, etc. to optimize process and energy efficiency by adjusting the power applied from the power plant 202 to any one or a combination of processes within the IES 100, 200 and or 300.

[0082] FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a chlor-alkali membrane process 500, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. The chlor-alkali membrane process 500 may use a membrane cell 504 to partition a brine solution in a first chamber 506 from a water (H2O) solution in a second chamber 508. In embodiments, saline water is fed to a water treatment plant 502. The water treatment plant 502 may include the water treatment plant 204 or 304. In embodiments, the water treatment plant 502 produces clean water and brine. In the illustrated example, saline water, such as sea water with a salt concentration of 3.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl), is fed to the water treatment plant 502. The water treatment plant 502 converts the saline water into clean water (e.g., <0.05% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration) and brine (e.g., 7.5% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration).

[0083] In embodiments, brine from the water treatment plant 502 is fed to the first chamber 506 of the chlor-alkali membrane cell 504. In embodiments, a portion of the cleanN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT water from the water treatment plant 502 may be fed to the second chamber 508 of the chlor-alkali membrane cell 504. A typical chlor-alkali membrane process can process brine concentration up to 26% Sodium Chloride (NaCl). In embodiments, brine from the water treatment plant 502 may include a Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration up to 26%. In embodiments, the chlor-alkali membrane process 500 may include one or more chlor-alkali membrane cells 504, for example configured to operate in series, in parallel, or a combination, therefore.

[0084] The chlor-alkali membrane cell 504 may be an ion-selective membrane configured to allow Sodium ions (Na+) to flow freely across the membrane between the first chamber 506 and the second chamber 508, while Chloride ions (Cl-) and Hydroxide ions (OH-) are prevented from migrating across the chlor-alkali membrane cell 504. An anode is in the first chamber 506, and a cathode is in the second chamber 508. At the anode, Chloride ions (Cl-) from the brine solution are oxidized to form Chlorine (Cl2) gas. At the cathode, water (H2O) is reduced to Hydroxide ions (OH-) and Hydrogen (H2) gas, releasing Hydroxide ions (OH-) into the solution.

[0085] Sodium ions (Na+) from the brine solution in the first chamber 506 flow across the membrane toward the cathode in the second chamber 508 and combine with Hydroxide ions (OH-) to produce a Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution may be removed as a product from the second chamber 508. The equation for the overall reaction for the electrolysis of brine is shown below: 2^^^^ + 2^^^ → ^^^+ ^^+ 2^^^^

[0086] In embodiments, the chlor-alkali process 500 can reduce the Sodium Chloride (NaCl) concentration of brine entering the first chamber 506. The outlet stream from the first chamber 506 may, for example be reduced to a benign sea water concentrations of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) (e.g., 3.5%). Output from the first chamber 506 may be further processed in a downstream chlor-alkali membrane cell 504, fed back to the water treatment plant 502 process, or safely released back into the environment, such as into an ocean, sea, or lake comprising the same or higher concentration of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) as the output stream.

[0087] In embodiments, the Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas generated in the chlor-alkaline membrane process 500 may be removed as a product to be stored, sold, orN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT used in further resource production, such as in a Hydrochloric Acid production plant 510. For example, Chlorine (Cl2) gas and Hydrogen (H2) gas can be used to produce hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas for the conversion into Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). The reaction equation is shown below: ^^+ ^^^→ 2^^^

[0088] The chlor-alkali membrane process 500 may be energy intensive, on the order of 40 times the energy required in a Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination process. In embodiments, the water treatment plant 502, the chlor-alkali membrane cell 504, and the Hydrochloric acid production plant 510 are configured to receive power from a power plant such as power plant 102, 202, 302, or power plant system 650.

[0089] FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a nuclear power plant system 650 (“power plant system 650”) including multiple nuclear reactors 600 (individually identified as first through twelfth nuclear reactors 600A-L, respectively) in accordance with embodiments of the present technology. The power plant system 650 can be a permanent or temporary installation built at or near (e.g., roughly 1 km from) the location of an industrial process facility or can be a mobile or partially mobile system that is moved to and assembled at or near the location of the industrial process facility. More generally, the power plant can be local (e.g., positioned at or near) to the industrial processes / operations it supports. For example, the power plant can be located within 0.4 km (0.25 mile), within 0.8 km (0.5 mile), within 3.22 km (2 miles), within 4.82 km (3 miles), or within 8.1 km (5 miles) of the industrial processes / operations it supports. In embodiments, the power plant system 650 is configured to supply a portion of electricity to a power grid.

[0090] Each of the nuclear reactors 600 can be similar to, or identical to, the nuclear reactor system 700 and / or the nuclear reactor system 800 described in detail below with reference to FIG.7 and FIG. 8. The power plant system 650 can be “modular” in that each of the nuclear reactors 600 can be operated separately to provide an output, such as electricity or steam. In embodiments, the power plant system may include Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), a microreactor, or other types of advanced reactors. In one embodiment, the nuclear reactor module may be a light pressurized water reactor (PWR) but may be different types of reactors utilizing a variety of fuels and located on terrestrial, maritime, and extraterrestrial sites. The power plant system 650 can include fewer than twelve of theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT nuclear reactors 600 (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or eleven of the nuclear reactors 600), or more than twelve of the nuclear reactors 600. The power plant system 650 can be a permanent installation or can be mobile (e.g., mounted on a truck, tractor, mobile platform, and / or the like). In the illustrated embodiment, each of the nuclear reactors 600 can be positioned within a common housing 651, such as a reactor plant building, and controlled and / or monitored via a control room 652.

[0091] Each of the nuclear reactors 600 can be coupled to a corresponding electrical power conversion system 640 (individually identified as first through twelfth electrical power conversion systems 640A-L, respectively). The electrical power conversion systems 640 can include one or more devices that generate electrical power or some other form of usable power from steam generated by the nuclear reactors 600. For example, the electrical power conversion systems 640 can include features that are similar or identical to the power conversion system 740 described in detail below with reference to FIG. 7. In some embodiments, multiple ones of the nuclear reactors 600 can be coupled to the same one of the electrical power conversion systems 640 and / or one or more of the nuclear reactors 600 can be coupled to multiple ones of the electrical power conversion systems 640 such that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the nuclear reactors 600 and the electrical power conversion systems 640.

[0092] The electrical power conversion systems 640 can be further coupled to an electrical power transmission system 654 via, for example, an electrical power bus 653. The electrical power transmission system 654 and / or the electrical power bus 653 can include one or more transmission lines, transformers, and / or the like for regulating the current, voltage, and / or other characteristic(s) of the electricity generated by the electrical power conversion systems 640. The electrical power transmission system 654 can route electricity via a plurality of electrical output paths 655 (individually identified as electrical output paths 655A-N) to one or more end users and / or end uses, such as different electrical loads of an integrated energy system as described in greater detail herein.

[0093] The power plant system 650 can be configured in a first operating state to provide electricity to a water treatment plant, such as water treatment plant 204 or 304 (e.g., via one or more of the electrical output paths 655 from the electrical power transmission system 654). The water treatment plant can route the produced high-quality water to theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT power plant system 650, and the power plant system 650 can use the water to produce high- quality steam. For example, the produced water can be used as a secondary coolant in a steam generator of one or more of the nuclear reactors 600. In some embodiments, the water treatment plant can be omitted and the power plant system 650 can utilize water from other sources to generate steam.

[0094] Each of the nuclear reactors 600 can further be coupled to a steam transmission system 656 via, for example, a steam bus 657. The steam bus 657 can route steam generated from the nuclear reactors 600 to the steam transmission system 656 which in turn can route the steam via a plurality of steam output paths 658 (individually identified as steam output paths 658A-N) to one or more end users and / or end uses, such as different steam inputs of an integrated energy system as described in greater detail below.

[0095] In some embodiments, the nuclear reactors 600 can be individually controlled (e.g., via the control room 652) to provide steam to the steam transmission system 656 and / or steam to the corresponding one of the electrical power conversion systems 640 to provide electricity to the electrical power transmission system 654. In some embodiments, the nuclear reactors 600 are configured to provide steam either to the steam bus 657 or to the corresponding one of the electrical power conversion systems 640 and can be rapidly and efficiently switched between providing steam to either. Accordingly, in some aspects of the present technology the nuclear reactors 600 can be modularly and flexibly controlled such that the power plant system 650 can provide differing levels / amounts of electricity via the electrical power transmission system 654 and / or steam via the steam transmission system 656. For example, where the power plant system 650 is used to provide electricity and steam to one or more industrial process—such as various components of the integrated energy systems described in the detail below—the nuclear reactors 600 can be controlled to meet the differing electricity and steam requirements of the industrial processes.

[0096] As one example, during a first operational state of an integrated energy system employing the power plant system 650, a first subset of the nuclear reactors 600 (e.g., the first through sixth nuclear reactors 600A-F) can be configured to provide steam to the steam transmission system 656 for use in the first operational state of the integrated energy system, while a second subset of the nuclear reactors 600 (e.g., the seventh through twelfth nuclear reactors 600G-L) can be configured to provide steam to the corresponding ones ofN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT the electrical power conversion systems 640 (e.g., the seventh through twelfth electrical power conversion systems 640G-L) to generate electricity for the first operational state of the integrated energy system. Then, during a second operational state of the integrated energy system when a different (e.g., greater or lesser) amount of steam and / or electricity is required, some or all the first subset of the nuclear reactors 600 can be switched to provide steam to the corresponding ones of the electrical power conversion systems 640 (e.g., the seventh through twelfth electrical power conversion systems 640G-L) and / or some or all of the second subset of the nuclear reactors 600 can be switched to provide steam to the steam transmission system 656 to vary the amount of steam and electricity produced to match the requirements / demands of the second operational state. Other variations of steam and electricity generation are possible based on the needs of the integrated energy system. That is, the nuclear reactors 600 can be dynamically / flexibly controlled during other operational states of an integrated energy system to meet the steam and electricity requirements of the operational state.

[0097] In contrast, some conventional nuclear power plant systems can typically generate a fixed amount of either steam or electricity for output, and cannot be modularly controlled to provide varying levels of steam and electricity for output. Moreover, it is typically difficult (e.g., expensive, time consuming, etc.) to switch between steam generation and electricity generation in conventional nuclear power plant systems. Specifically, for example, it is typically extremely time consuming to switch between steam generation and electricity generation in prototypical large nuclear power plant systems.

[0098] The nuclear reactors 600 can be individually controlled via one or more operators and / or via a computer system. Accordingly, many embodiments of the technology described herein may take the form of computer- or machine- or controller- executable instructions, including routines executed by a programmable computer or controller. Those skilled in the relevant art will appreciate that the technology can be practiced on computer / controller systems other than those shown and described herein. The technology can be embodied in a special-purpose computer, controller or data processor that is specifically programmed, configured or constructed to perform one or more of the computer-executable instructions described below. Accordingly, the terms “computer” andN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT “controller” as generally used herein refer to any data processor and can include Internet appliances and hand-held devices (including palm-top computers, wearable computers, cellular or mobile phones, multi-processor systems, processor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network computers, micro-computers and the like). Information handled by these computers can be presented at any suitable display medium, including a liquid crystal display (LCD).

[0099] The technology can also be practiced in distributed environments, where tasks or modules are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules or subroutines may be located in local and remote memory storage devices. Aspects of the technology described herein may be stored or distributed on computer-readable media, including magnetic or optically readable or removable computer disks, as well as distributed electronically over networks. Data structures and transmissions of data particular to aspects of the technology are also encompassed within the scope of the embodiments of the technology.

[0100] FIG.7 and FIG.8 illustrate representative nuclear reactors that may be included in embodiments of the present technology. The nuclear reactor module of FIG.7 or FIG.8 may be a small modular reactor (SMR), a microreactor, or other types of advanced reactors. In one embodiment, the nuclear reactor module may be a light pressurized water reactor (PWR) but may be different types of reactors utilizing a variety of fuels and located on terrestrial, maritime, and extraterrestrial sites. FIG. 7 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectional view of a nuclear reactor system 700 configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technology. The system 700 can include a power module 702 having a reactor core 704 in which a controlled nuclear reaction takes place. Accordingly, the reactor core 704 can include one or more fuel assemblies 701. The fuel assemblies 701 can include fissile and / or other suitable materials. Heat from the reaction generates steam at a steam generator 730, which directs the steam to a power conversion system 740. The power conversion system 740 generates electrical power, and / or provides other useful outputs, such as super-heated steam. A sensor system 750 is used to monitor the operation of the power module 702 and / or other system components. The data obtained from theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT sensor system 750 can be used in real time to control the power module 702, and / or can be used to update the design of the power module 702 and / or other system components.

[0101] The power module 702 includes a containment vessel 710 (e.g., a radiation shield vessel, or a radiation shield container) that houses / encloses a reactor vessel 720 (e.g., a reactor pressure vessel, or a reactor pressure container), which in turn houses the reactor core 704. The containment vessel 710 can be housed in a power module bay 756. The power module bay 756 can contain a cooling pool 703 filled with water and / or another suitable cooling liquid. The bulk of the power module 702 can be positioned below a surface 705 of the cooling pool 703. Accordingly, the cooling pool 703 can operate as a thermal sink, for example, in the event of a system malfunction.

[0102] A volume between the reactor vessel 720 and the containment vessel 710 can be partially or completely evacuated to reduce heat transfer from the reactor vessel 720 to the surrounding environment (e.g., to the cooling pool 703). However, in other embodiments the volume between the reactor vessel 720 and the containment vessel 710 can be at least partially filled with a gas and / or a liquid that increases heat transfer between the reactor vessel 720 and the containment vessel 710. For example, the volume between the reactor vessel 720 and the containment vessel 710 can be at least partially filled (e.g., flooded with the primary coolant 707) during an emergency operation.

[0103] Within the reactor vessel 720, a primary coolant 707 conveys heat from the reactor core 704 to the steam generator 730. For example, as illustrated by arrows located within the reactor vessel 720, the primary coolant 707 is heated at the reactor core 704 toward the bottom of the reactor vessel 720. The heated primary coolant 707 (e.g., water with or without additives) rises from the reactor core 704 through a core shroud 706 and to a riser tube 708. The hot, buoyant primary coolant 707 continues to rise through the riser tube 708, then exits the riser tube 708 and passes downwardly through the steam generator 730. The steam generator 730 includes a multitude of conduits 732 that are arranged circumferentially around the riser tube 708, for example, in a helical pattern, as is shown schematically in FIG.7. The descending primary coolant 707 transfers heat to a secondary coolant (e.g., water) within the conduits 732, and descends to the bottom of the reactor vessel 720 where the cycle begins again. The cycle can be driven by the changes in theN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT buoyancy of the primary coolant 707, thus reducing or eliminating the need for pumps to move the primary coolant 707.

[0104] The steam generator 730 can include a feedwater header 731 at which the incoming secondary coolant enters the steam generator conduits 732. The secondary coolant rises through the conduits 732, converts to vapor (e.g., steam), and is collected at a steam header 733. The steam exits the steam header 733 and is directed to the power conversion system 740.

[0105] The power conversion system 740 can include one or more steam valves 742 that regulate the passage of high pressure, high temperature steam from the steam generator 730 to a steam turbine 743. The steam turbine 743 converts the thermal energy of the steam to electricity via a generator 744. The low-pressure steam exiting the turbine 743 is condensed at a condenser 745, and then directed (e.g., via a pump 746) to one or more feedwater valves 741. The feedwater valves 741 control the rate at which the feedwater re- enters the steam generator 730 via the feedwater header 731. In other embodiments, the steam from the steam generator 730 can be routed for direct use in an industrial process, such as a hydrogen and oxygen production plant, a chemical production plant, and / or the like, as described in detail in this application. Accordingly, steam exiting the steam generator 730 can bypass the power conversion system 740.

[0106] The power module 702 includes multiple control systems and associated sensors. For example, the power module 702 can include a hollow cylindrical reflector 709 that directs neutrons back into the reactor core 704 to further the nuclear reaction taking place therein. Control rods 713 are used to modulate the nuclear reaction and are driven via fuel rod drivers 715. The pressure within the reactor vessel 720 can be controlled via a pressurizer plate 717 (which can also serve to direct the primary coolant 707 downwardly through the steam generator 730) by controlling the pressure in a pressurizing volume 719 positioned above the pressurizer plate 717.

[0107] The sensor system 750 can include one or more sensors 751 positioned at a variety of locations within the power module 702 and / or elsewhere, for example, to identify operating parameter values and / or changes in parameter values. The data collected by the sensor system 750 can then be used to control the operation of the system 700, and / or to generate design changes for the system 700. For sensors positioned within the containmentN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT vessel 710, a sensor link 752 directs data from the sensors to a flange 753 (at which the sensor link 752 exits the containment vessel 710) and directs data to a sensor junction box 754. From there, the sensor data can be routed to one or more controllers and / or other data systems via a data bus 755.

[0108] FIG. 8 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectional view of a nuclear reactor system 800 (“system 800”) configured in accordance with additional embodiments of the present technology. In some embodiments, the system 800 can include some features that are at least generally similar in structure and function, or identical in structure and function, to the corresponding features of the system 700 described in detail above with reference to FIG.7 and can operate in a generally similar or identical manner to the system 700.

[0109] In the illustrated embodiment, the system 800 includes a reactor vessel 820 and a containment vessel 810 surrounding / enclosing the reactor vessel 820. In some embodiments, the reactor vessel 820 and the containment vessel 810 can be roughly cylinder-shaped or capsule-shaped. The system 800 further includes a plurality of heat pipe layers 811 within the reactor vessel 820. In the illustrated embodiment, the heat pipe layers 811 are spaced apart from and stacked over one another. In some embodiments, the heat pipe layers 811 can be mounted / secured to a common frame 812, a portion of the reactor vessel 820 (e.g., a wall thereof), and / or other suitable structures within the reactor vessel 820. In other embodiments, the heat pipe layers 811 can be directly stacked on top of one another such that each of the heat pipe layers 811 supports and / or is supported by one or more of the other ones of the heat pipe layers 811.

[0110] In the illustrated embodiment, the system 800 further includes a shield or reflector region 814 at least partially surrounding a core region 816. The heat pipes layers 811 can be circular, rectilinear, polygonal, and / or can have other shapes, such that the core region 816 has a corresponding three-dimensional shape (e.g., cylindrical, spherical). In some embodiments, the core region 816 is separated from the reflector region 814 by a core barrier 815, such as a metal wall. The core region 816 can include one or more fuel sources, such as fissile material, for heating the heat pipes layers 811. The reflector region 814 can include one or more materials configured to contain / reflect products generated by burning the fuel in the core region 816 during operation of the system 800. For example,N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT the reflector region 814 can include a liquid or solid material configured to reflect neutrons and / or other fission products radially inward toward the core region 816. In some embodiments, the reflector region 814 can entirely surround the core region 816. In other embodiments, the reflector region 814 may partially surround the core region 816. In some embodiments, the core region 816 can include a control material 817, such as a moderator and / or coolant. The control material 817 can at least partially surround the heat pipe layers 811 in the core region 816 and can transfer heat therebetween.

[0111] In the illustrated embodiment, the system 800 further includes at least one heat exchanger 830 (e.g., a steam generator) positioned around the heat pipe layers 811. The heat pipe layers 811 can extend from the core region 816 and at least partially into the reflector region 814 and are thermally coupled to the heat exchanger 830. In some embodiments, the heat exchanger 830 can be positioned outside of or partially within the reflector region 814. The heat pipe layers 811 provide a heat transfer path from the core region 816 to the heat exchanger 830. For example, the heat pipe layers 811 can each include an array of heat pipes that provide a heat transfer path from the core region 816 to the heat exchanger 830. When the system 800 operates, the fuel in the core region 816 can heat and vaporize a fluid within the heat pipes in the heat pipe layers 811, and the fluid can carry the heat to the heat exchanger 830. The heat pipes in the heat pipe layers 811 can then return the fluid toward the core region 816 via wicking, gravity, and / or other means to be heated and vaporized once again.

[0112] In some embodiments, the heat exchanger 830 can be similar to the steam generator 730 of FIG. 7 and, for example, can include one or more helically-coiled tubes that wrap around the heat pipe layers 811. The tubes of the heat exchanger 830 can include or carry a working fluid (e.g., a coolant such as water or another fluid) that carries the heat from the heat pipe layers 811 out of the reactor vessel 820 and the containment vessel 810 for use in generating electricity, steam, and / or the like. For example, in the illustrated embodiment the heat exchanger 830 is operably coupled to a turbine 843, a generator 844, a condenser 845, and a pump 846. As the working fluid within the heat exchanger 830 increases in temperature, the working fluid may begin to boil and vaporize. The working fluid (e.g., steam) may be used to drive the turbine 843 to convert the thermal potential energy of the working fluid into electrical energy via the generator 844. The condenser 845N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT can condense the working fluid after it passes through the turbine 843, and the pump 846 can direct the working fluid back to the heat exchanger 830 where it can begin another thermal cycle. In other embodiments, steam from the heat exchanger 830 can be routed for direct use in an industrial process, such as a resource production plant, described in detail above. Accordingly, steam exiting the heat exchanger 830 can bypass the turbine 843, the generator 844, the condenser 845, the pump 846, etc.

[0113] FIG. 9 illustrates and example process 900 for treating waste. In various examples, the process 900 can be performed by an Integrated Energy System (IES), such as the IES 100200, and 300. The IES may include a power plant, such as the power plant 102, 202, 302 and the power plant system 650. In embodiments, the power plant comprises a nuclear power module, such as those described in reference to FIGs. 6-8. The IES may also include a resource production plant, such as the resource production plant 106. In embodiments, the resource production plant may include the one or more chemical production plants or sub-plants. The resource production plant may include: a water treatment plant, such as water treatment plant 204 or 304, a chlor-alkali membrane process, such as chlor-alkali membrane process 206, 306, or 500, a Hydrochloric Acid production plant, such as Hydrochloric Acid production plant 208 or 308. In embodiments, the resource production plants and / or chemical production plants and sub-plants of the process 900 configured to receive electricity from the power plant. In embodiments, the power plant may be configured to provide power to the water treatment plant, a chlor-alkali membrane cell process, a compressor and / or heater, and a reaction chamber. In embodiments, the nuclear power module is local to any one of the water treatment plant, the chlor-alkali membrane cell process, the compressor and / or heater, or the reaction chamber.

[0114] At 902, salt water is received to a clean water production plant and clean water and brine are produced from the salt water. Salt water may include saline water, for example from a natural water source such as an ocean, a sea, or a lake, or from an industrial process. In embodiments, the water treatment plant includes a Reverse Osmosis (RO) process. In embodiments, the salt water is passed through an RO membrane to produce the clean water and the brine. The clean water may be suitable for sale to consumers for consumption, for use in industrial processes, or for harmless release into the environment.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT The brine may be further treated. In embodiments, power from a power plant is used to power the chlor-alkali membrane cell process. In embodiments, the power plant may include a nuclear power module.

[0115] At 904, Sodium Hydroxide is produced from the brine. In embodiments, the brine is fed to a chlor-alkali membrane cell process to produce the Sodium Hydroxide. In embodiments, power from the power plant is used to power the chlor-alkali membrane cell process.

[0116] At 906, supercritical water is produced. In embodiments, liquid water and / or steam may be fed to a compressor and / or heater. The liquid water and / or steam may undergo compression and / or heating until it achieves a critical temperature and pressure, thereby producing supercritical water. In embodiments, power, thermal energy, and / or steam from the power plant is used to produce the supercritical water. For example: power from the power plant may be used to power the compressor and / or heater; thermal energy from the power plant may be used to heat the liquid water and / or steam; and steam from the power plant may be converted into supercritical water.

[0117] At 908, waste, the Sodium Hydroxide, and the supercritical water are received into an interior of a reaction chamber. In embodiments, the waste may be from a municipal waste facility, agriculture, a landfill, hydraulic fracturing, retired military energetic materials, chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, or a steel processing plant. In embodiments, the waste comprises hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

[0118] At 910, a supercritical temperature and pressure are maintained within the interior of the reaction chamber. In embodiments, power and / or thermal energy from the power plant may be used to power and / or heat the reaction chamber. In embodiments, the power plant may be in close proximity, i.e. local, to at least one of the water treatment plant, the chlor-alkali membrane cell process, the compressor, heater, or the reaction chamber.

[0119] At 912 the waste and the Sodium Hydroxide are dissolved into the supercritical water within the interior of the reaction chamber. In embodiments, a Super Critical Water Oxidation (SCWO) reaction takes place within the reaction chamber, such that, at 914, the waste is converted into harmless components, such as Carbon Dioxide and Water. In embodiments, power and / or thermal energy from the power plant may be used within anyN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT stage of the process for converting waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water. In embodiments, a dielectric constant of the supercritical water may be detected within the reaction chamber. In embodiments, a sensor detects the dielectric constant. In embodiments, the sensor includes a first plate and a second plate. In embodiments, the first plate comprises a conductive electrode affixed onto the metallic portion of a wall of the reaction chamber and the second plate comprises a conductive electrode placed at a fixed distance from the first plate and to an interior of the reaction chamber. In embodiments, a control system may be used to optimize the above process, such as the conditions of the reaction chamber, reaction efficiency, and energy efficiency. In embodiments, the control system adjusts the amount and / or flow rate of Sodium Hydroxide, supercritical water, and waste that is fed to the reaction chamber. In embodiments, the control system adjusts the amount of power and / or steam received from the power plant. In embodiments, the control system adjusts parameters of the process based upon the dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber. CONCLUSION

[0120] While the foregoing invention is described with respect to the specific examples, it is to be understood that the scope of the invention is not limited to these specific examples. Since other modifications and changes varied to fit particular operating requirements and environments will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the invention is not considered limited to the example chosen for purposes of disclosure and covers all changes and modifications which do not constitute departures from the true spirit and scope of this invention.

[0121] Although the application describes embodiments having specific structural features and / or methodological acts, it is to be understood that the claims are not necessarily limited to the specific features or acts described. Rather, the specific features and acts are merely illustrative some embodiments that fall within the scope of the claims.

[0122] Each of the references cited herein is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. However, to the extent any materials incorporated herein by reference conflict with the present disclosure, the present disclosure controls. The headings provided hereinN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT are for convenience only and should not be construed as limiting the subject matter disclosed. EXAMPLE CLAUSES

[0123] A. An Integrated Energy System (IES) including a supercritical water source, a waste source, a Sodium Hydroxide source, and a reaction chamber configured to receive supercritical water from the supercritical water source, waste from the waste source, and Sodium Hydroxide from the Sodium Hydroxide source to an interior of the reaction chamber, wherein the reaction chamber is configured to maintain a supercritical temperature and pressure within the interior of the reaction chamber, and wherein dissolving the waste and the Sodium Hydroxide into the supercritical water within the interior of the reaction chamber converts the waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water.

[0124] B. The IES of clause A, wherein a power plant is configured to provide power to at least one of the supercritical water source, the Sodium Hydroxide source, and the reaction chamber.

[0125] C. The IES of clause B, wherein liquid water is fed to at least one compressor and / or heater powered by the power plant, to bring the liquid water to a critical point and produce the supercritical water.

[0126] D. The IES of clause C, wherein the liquid water is provided by a water source.

[0127] E. The IES of any one of clauses B-D, wherein steam is fed to at least one compressor and / or heater powered by the power plant, to bring the steam to a critical point and produce the supercritical water.

[0128] F. The IES of clause E, wherein the steam is provided by the power plant.

[0129] G. The IES of any one of clauses B-F, wherein the power plant includes a nuclear power module.

[0130] H. The IES of clause G, wherein the nuclear power module is local to the waste source, the supercritical water source, the Sodium Hydroxide source, or the reaction chamber.

[0131] I. The IES of any one of clauses A-H, wherein the waste source includes a municipal waste facility, agriculture, a landfill, hydraulic fracturing, retired militaryN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT energetic materials, chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, or a steel processing plant.

[0132] J. The IES of any one of clauses A-I, wherein the waste includes hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

[0133] K. A method including receiving salt water to a clean water production plant, producing brine from the salt water, producing Sodium Hydroxide from the brine, producing supercritical water, receiving waste, the Sodium Hydroxide, and the supercritical water in an interior of a reaction chamber, maintaining a supercritical temperature and pressure within the interior of the reaction chamber, dissolving the waste and the Sodium Hydroxide into the supercritical water within the interior of the reaction chamber, and converting the waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water.

[0134] L. The method of clause K, wherein producing the brine includes passing the salt water through a Reverse Osmosis membrane.

[0135] M. The method of clause K or L, wherein producing the Sodium Hydroxide includes a chlor-alkali membrane cell process.

[0136] N. The method of any one of clauses K-M, wherein producing the supercritical water includes receiving liquid water and / or steam to a compressor and / or heater, receiving power from a power plant to the compressor and / or heater, and compressing and / or heating the liquid water and / or steam to a critical point.

[0137] O. The method of clause N, wherein the power plant includes a nuclear power module and wherein the power plant is local to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber and provides power and / or steam to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber.

[0138] P. The method of any one of clauses K-O, wherein the waste includes hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

[0139] Q. The method of any one of clauses K-P, further including detecting, by a sensor, a dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.

[0140] R. The method of clause Q, wherein the sensor includes a first plate and a second plate.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0141] S. The method of clause R, wherein the first plate includes a metallic portion of a wall of the reaction chamber and the second plate includes a metallic material placed at a fixed distance from the first plate and to an interior of the reaction chamber.

[0142] T. The method of any one of clauses Q-S, further including a control system wherein the receiving of the Sodium Hydroxide, the supercritical water, and the waste to the reaction chamber is adjusted based upon the dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT

[0137] 0. The method of clause N, wherein the power plant includes a nuclear power module and wherein the power plant is local to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber and provides power and / or steam to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber.

[0138] P. The method of any one of clauses K-O, wherein the waste includes hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

[0139] Q. The method of any one of clauses K-P, further including detecting, by a sensor, a dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.

[0140] R. The method of clause Q, wherein the sensor includes a first plate and a second plate.

[0141] S. The method of clause R, wherein the first plate includes a metallic portion of a wall of the reaction chamber and the second plate includes a metallic material placed at a fixed distance from the first plate and to an interior of the reaction chamber.

[0142] T. The method of any one of clauses Q-S, further including a control system wherein the receiving of the Sodium Hydroxide, the supercritical water, and the waste to the reaction chamber is adjusted based upon the dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.43SUBSTITUTE SHEET (RULE 26)

Claims

N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. An Integrated Energy System (IES) comprising: a supercritical water source, a waste source, a Sodium Hydroxide source, and a reaction chamber configured to receive supercritical water from the supercritical water source, waste from the waste source, and Sodium Hydroxide from the Sodium Hydroxide source to an interior of the reaction chamber, wherein the reaction chamber is configured to maintain a supercritical temperature and pressure within the interior of the reaction chamber, and wherein dissolving the waste and the Sodium Hydroxide into the supercritical water within the interior of the reaction chamber converts the waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water.

2. The IES of claim 1, wherein a power plant is configured to provide power to at least one of the supercritical water source, the Sodium Hydroxide source, and the reaction chamber.

3. The IES of claim 2, wherein liquid water is fed to at least one compressor and / or heater powered by the power plant, to bring the liquid water to a critical point and produce the supercritical water.

4. The IES of claim 3, wherein the liquid water is provided by a water source.

5. The IES of claim 2, wherein steam is fed to at least one compressor and / or heater powered by the power plant, to bring the steam to a critical point and produce the supercritical water.

6. The IES of claim 5, wherein the steam is provided by the power plant.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT 7. The IES of claim 2, wherein the power plant comprises a nuclear power module.

8. The IES of claim 7, wherein the nuclear power module is local to the waste source, the supercritical water source, the Sodium Hydroxide source, or the reaction chamber.

9. The IES of claim 1, wherein the waste source comprises a municipal waste facility, agriculture, a landfill, hydraulic fracturing, retired military energetic materials, chemical plants, oil refineries, ore processing plants, or a steel processing plant.

10. The IES of claim 1, wherein the waste comprises hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

11. A method comprising: receiving salt water to a clean water production plant, producing brine from the salt water, producing Sodium Hydroxide from the brine, producing supercritical water, receiving waste, the Sodium Hydroxide, and the supercritical water in an interior of a reaction chamber, maintaining a supercritical temperature and pressure within the interior of the reaction chamber, dissolving the waste and the Sodium Hydroxide into the supercritical water within the interior of the reaction chamber, and converting the waste into Carbon Dioxide and Water.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein producing the brine comprises passing the salt water through a Reverse Osmosis membrane.N132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT 13. The method of claim 11, wherein producing the Sodium Hydroxide comprises a chlor-alkali membrane cell process.

14. The method of claim 11, wherein producing the supercritical water comprises: receiving liquid water and / or steam to a compressor and / or heater, receiving power from a power plant to the compressor and / or heater, and compressing and / or heating the liquid water and / or steam to a critical point.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the power plant comprises a nuclear power module and wherein the power plant: is local to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber, and provides power and / or steam to the clean water production plant and / or the reaction chamber.

16. The method of claim 11, wherein the waste comprises hazardous waste and / or chemical waste.

17. The method of claim 11, further comprising detecting, by a sensor, a dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the sensor comprises a first plate and a second plate.

19. The method of claim 18, wherein the first plate comprises a metallic portion of a wall of the reaction chamber and the second plate comprises a metallic material placed at a fixed distance from the first plate and to an interior of the reaction chamber.

20. The method of claim 17, further comprising a control system wherein the receiving of the Sodium Hydroxide, the supercritical water, and the waste to the reactionN132-6085PCT / NP23010.PCT chamber is adjusted based upon the dielectric constant of the supercritical water within the reaction chamber.

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