Cementitious materials and additives containing aluminum and / or siliceous materials and methods of making thereof

Abstract

The present disclosure includes methods and systems of producing pozzolanic supplementary cementitious materials and / or aluminum compounds / additives and cementitious compositions with the pozzolanic supplementary cementitious materials and / or aluminum compounds / additives. These methods can include leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, wherein the feedstock material comprises aluminum, silicon, and at least one of iron, calcium, and magnesium; separating the leachate comprising dissolved metal cations and the corresponding anions from the residual solid comprising the silicate and / or aluminosilicate; drying the residual solid to create pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material comprising the residual solid; adding a precipitating agent to the leachate solution to form an aqueous solution and a solid precipitate comprising an aluminum compound / additive; and separating the aluminum compound / additive precipitate from the aqueous solution.

Description

CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND ADDITIVES CONTAINING ALUMINUM AND / OR SILICEOUS MATERIALS AND METHODS OF MAKING THEREOF CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 609,762 filed December 13, 2023, and U.S. Provisional Application No.63 / 614,296, filed December 22, 2023, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to cementitious materials and methods of making cementitious materials, and more specifically to cementitious materials and additives containing aluminum and / or siliceous materials. BACKGROUND

[0003] Hydraulic cements are the binder used in concrete that causes the concrete to harden over time after the addition of water to the dry mix of cement powder, aggregate, and other additives. Most cement used today is known as ordinary portland cement (OPC) and is specified in the ASTM C150 standard, or other portland cement standards used around the world. Less common are blended cements, such as those specified by ASTM C595, which may contain a mixture of OPC and limestone, ashes, pozzolans, and / or slag. Both OPC and blended cements typically have a large global warming potential (GWP) around 800 to 1,000 kg CO2equivalent per tonne of cement. The large GWP is due to a combination of the emissions from fossil-fuel heated kilns and from the decomposition of limestone feedstock that released CO2. A range of options are available for producing low-carbon cements, but they generally suffer from one or more significant drawbacks including lack of scalability, lack of performance, and / or untenable cost.

[0004] One common performance problem of many low-carbon cement formulations that rely on replacement of OPC with other cementitious materials such as ashes or slags is low early-age strength, such as low strength at 1, 3, and / or 7 days after casting the cement or concrete. Presently, materials or phases containing aluminum are often used to contribute early strength in cementitious binders. In OPC, hydration of the C3A phase often contributes to early strength development through the rapid formation of ettringite or other aluminum-containing hydrated phases, but pure OPC suffers from high GWP and various durability challenges. In limestone calcined clay (LC3) blended cement systems, the aluminum present in the calcined clay component may contribute to early strength formation, but these binders typically still have high GWPs in the range of 400 to 800 kg CO2 equivalent per tonne, may not be practical to produce in all applications, and may also have challenges related to performance, scalability, and / or cost. Aluminum-based cements or cement additives such as calcium aluminate cement (CAC) or calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement are sometimes used in place of or in combination with OPC to boost early strength. These CAC and CSA materials may offer very rapid strength development and high strengths at 1, 3, and / or 7 days. However, CAC and CSA are typically produced from expensive and rare feedstocks like bauxite with stringent purity requirements. They are typically produced in high-temperature, fossil fuel-fired kilns, and typically use limestone as a feedstock, so they typically still have high GWPs around 500 to 900 kg CO2equivalent per tonne. These materials may also stiffen and set very rapidly, leaving insufficient time to place concrete made with these components. Other additives comprising amorphous aluminum hydroxide may be used as accelerators to provide setting times typically less than 10 minutes for applications such as shotcrete, but again this extremely rapid setting is not compatible with the time typically required to place ready-mixed concrete.

[0005] Siliceous materials are a common form of supplementary cementitious material (SCM) that can be added to ordinary portland cement (OPC), other cements such as calcium sulfoaluminate cement, or calcium aluminate cement to form a blended cement product. A blended cement containing SCM may have significant advantages including increased strength, increased durability, reduced global warming potential compared to OPC, and reduced cost. Siliceous materials can also be combined with hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide or portlandite) or quicklime (calcium oxide) to make a lime-pozzolan cement.

[0006] Siliceous SCMs are commonly derived from the fly ash generated at coal-fired power plants. Other examples can include silica fume generated from electric arc furnaces, natural pozzolans, or calcined clays. However, the availability and / or performance of such materials may be insufficient for the current needs of the cement industry. Further, the quality of fly ashes may vary significantly making their use challenging for cement and concrete mix designers. In addition, current commercial pozzolans may be insufficientlyreactive to generate sufficient early strength in cement and concrete mixes when used at high replacement.

[0007] Typically, conventional SCMs contain a high amorphous content and small amounts of crystalline material. In fly ash, natural pozzolans, and other conventional SCMs, high amorphous content is associated with higher reactivity, because amorphous phases are able to more readily dissolve in alkaline aqueous solutions like cement pore solutions, and / or more readily react with sources of calcium to create calcium silicate hydrate phases. Furthermore, crystalline phases such as quartz (crystalline SiO2) do not react readily, and therefore are considered to have poor performance as SCMs or pozzolans.

[0008] The concrete industry currently relies on fly ash and natural pozzolans for improving the durability of concrete through ASR mitigation, cost reduction, and GWP reduction. Use of silica fume, metakaolin, or other highly reactive silicates are limited and cannot be added at high concentration due to their poor flow characteristics and the risk of over-consumption of lime leading to low pH and corrosion of rebar. In addition, the supply of fly ash is decreasing with the retirement of coal-fired power plants and other coal-fired equipment leading to a reduction in available fly ash. BRIEF SUMMARY

[0009] Disclosed herein are low carbon cement formulations with better early age strength performance, scalability, and / or cost. In addition, disclosed herein are low cost and / or low CO2additives for existing low carbon cement formulations to enhance early age strength.

[0010] The compositions, methods and systems described herein can provide an aluminum-based compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide-based and / or oxyhydroxide- based compound / additive) that can be formulated to boost early age strength of a range of low carbon cement formulations. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive also comprises iron hydroxide and / or oxides or oxyhydroxides. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive has different crystallinity and amorphous contents. In some embodiments, the compound / additive also comprises calcium carbonate with various polymorphs such as calcite, vaterite and / or aragonite. In some embodiments, the compound / additive is intermixed with calcium. In some embodiments, the compound / additive is intermixed with calcium and sulfate. In some embodiments, theconcentration of iron oxyhydroxides exceeds that of aluminum hydroxide. Further described herein are formulations using the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide- based compound / additive). In addition, methods for blending aluminum compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide and / or oxyhydroxide) cements are also described.

[0011] In addition, provided herein are processed siliceous materials and methods of processing siliceous material to improve their properties and improve their utility, either alone or as a component of other products. The methods disclosed herein can replace fly ash through other scalable, low-cost, and / or low-carbon production means. These higher performing pozzolans can enable greater replacement of OPC and therefore offer additional environmental benefits and economic value. As disclosed herein, siliceous material, supplementary cementitious material (SCM), pozzolanic silicate, pozzolanic aluminosilicate, and pozzolan are used interchangeably to refer to any silicate-bearing material that is capable of reacting with lime to set and harden in the presence of water to form a hardened cement or concrete. In some embodiments, this can be through the formation of phases comprising calcium silicate hydrates including calcium aluminate silicate hydrates.

[0012] Throughout this specification, the terms “aluminum compound,” “aluminum additive,” “aluminum-containing compound,” “aluminate compound,” “aluminum material,” “aluminum-containing material,” “aluminate material”, “aluminum hydroxide-based additive”, “aluminum hydroxide compound,” and “aluminate” may all be used to refer to the aluminum-containing compound or composition as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the aluminum-containing compound (e.g., aluminum additive) can be a composition of various components.

[0013] In some embodiments, provided are aluminum compounds / additives with different degrees of crystallinity and amorphosity. In some embodiments, one or more of the aluminum-containing compounds / additives comprises aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In some embodiments, provided is an aluminum compound / additive comprising: at least 50% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide; and wherein the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in at least an amorphous phase and a crystalline phase. In some embodiments, the amorphous phase and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide are present in about equal amounts. In some embodiments, the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in a greater amount than the amorphousphase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In some embodiments, the amorphous phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in a greater amount than the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In some embodiments, the amorphous phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 20% by mass or volume of the aluminum compound / additive, and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 40% by mass or volume of the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the amorphous phase and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide are present in a ratio between about 1:3 and about 2:1 (amorphous:crystalline) by mass or volume.

[0014] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive has one or more of the following properties: at least 50% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide; an amorphous phase and a crystalline phase, wherein an amorphous content of the aluminum compound / additive is at least 20% and a crystalline content of the aluminum compound / additive is at least 40%; wherein at least 10% of the aluminum compound / additive dissolves in 0.5 M NaOH at standard temperature and pressure (STP) over 24 hours; a filter cake moisture content of about 30% to about 80% by weight; a dry cake moisture content of about 0% to about 10% by weight; an aluminum concentration of about 10% to about 100% by weight; an iron concentration of about 0% to about 90% by weight; a % mass loss of about 4% to about 20% by weight from about 100 °C to 200 °C, as measured by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA); a % mass loss of about 8% to about 30% by weight from about 200 °C to 400 °C, as measured by TGA; a % mass loss of about 2% to about 10% by weight from about 400 °C to 600 °C, as measured by TGA; a % mass loss of about 0% to about 10% by weight from about 600 °C to 800 °C, as measured by TGA; a % mass loss of about 0% to about 10% by weight from about 800 °C to 1000 °C, as measured by TGA; less than about 50% of the total mass loss below about 1000 °C occurs below about 300°C, as measured by TGA; an average particle diameter of about 4 µm to about 200 µm; an amorphous to crystalline ratio of about 1 to about 99; an amorphous content of about 20% to about 80%; an isothermal calorimetry reactivity of about 50 J / g to about 1000 J / g in 48 hours at about 23 °C in a composition comprising about 26% lime, about 60% gypsum, and about 14% of the aluminum compound / additive; 1-50% by mass calcium carbonate; a dominant crystalline domain size of less than 20 nm; a lime (CaO) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio from about 1 to about 5; a sulfate (SO4) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 5; an aluminumoxide concentration of at least about 25% by weight when the aluminum compound / additive is heated to at least about 500 °C; a loss on ignition of between about 10% and about 50% by weight; a solids density of greater than about 2 g / cm3 as measured according to ASTM C188, “Standard Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement”; and a bulk density of greater than about 1 g / cm3.

[0015] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive includes boehmite, gibbsite, bayerite, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive further comprises aluminum iron hydroxide, aluminum iron oxyhydroxide, iron hydroxide, iron oxyhydroxide, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the aluminum hydroxide in crystalline phase is gibbsite, and the aluminum oxyhydroxide in crystalline phase is boehmite. In some embodiments, the gibbsite is at least 20 wt.% of the aluminum additive; and / or the boehmite is at least 20 wt.% of the aluminum additive. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive includes calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate is less than 50 wt.% of the aluminum additive. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive has a plurality of crystalline phases including a dominant crystalline phase, wherein the dominant crystalline phase has a size of less than 20 nm. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive comprises at least 20% crystalline boehmite, at least 20% crystalline gibbsite, or a combination thereof by mass or volume. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive includes C3AH6, C2AH8, C4AH14, or CAH10, or any combination thereof.

[0016] In some embodiments, a cementitious additive or composition can include an aluminum compound / additive described herein; CaSO4; and Ca(OH)2. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of Ca(OH)2 to CaSO4 to aluminum in any form is about 3 moles of Ca(OH)2 to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of CaSO4 to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of aluminum in any form. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of Ca(OH)2to CaSO4 to Al in any form is about 3 moles of Ca(OH)2 to about 0.5 moles to about 3 moles of CaSO4 to about 0.5 moles to about 3 moles of Al in any form. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of Ca(OH)2to CaSO4to Al in any form is about 4 moles of Ca(OH)2to from about 0.5 moles to about 3 moles of CaSO4to from about 0.5 moles to about 3 moles of Al in any form.

[0017] In some embodiments, a method includes dissolving an aluminum salt to form an aqueous solution; adding a precipitating agent to the aqueous solution to form an aluminum- containing precipitate; separating the aluminum-containing precipitate from the aqueous solution; washing the aluminum-containing precipitate; and drying the aluminum-containing precipitate to produce the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the pH of the aqueous solution is between about 4 and about 8. In some embodiments, the aluminum salt is 0.1 to 5 molar in concentration in the aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the aluminum salt is aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, aluminum nitrate, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a temperature of the aqueous solution is between 30°C and 110°C. In some embodiments, the precipitating agent is a base. In some embodiments, the base comprises calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes blending the aluminum compound / additive with Ca(OH)2and CaSO4 to produce a cement additive.

[0018] In some embodiments, a method includes blending a calcium source, a sulfate source, and the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein to form a cementitious composition; hydrating the cementitious composition; and hardening the cementitious composition to form a hardened cement comprising ettringite. In some embodiments, the calcium source comprises Ca(OH)2and the sulfate source comprises CaSO4. In some embodiments, the calcium source has a calcium carbonate content of at least 50%.

[0019] In some embodiments, a cementitious composition includes the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein, a calcium source, and a sulfate source, wherein the cementitious composition, when hydrated, form a composition comprising at least 10% ettringite by weight. In some embodiments, a cementitious composition or additive includes the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein; CaSO4; and Ca(OH)2, wherein the molar ratio of Ca(OH)2to CaSO4to aluminum in any form is about 3 moles of Ca(OH)2to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of CaSO4 to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of aluminum in any form. In some embodiments, a cementitious composition includes about 5 wt.% to about 100 wt.% of the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the composition includes about 10-40 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; about 0-50 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; about 0-10 wt.% limestone; and about 0-5 wt.% NaOH. In some embodiments, the composition includes less than 35 wt.% portland cement or portland cementclinker; more than 15 wt.% lime; and more than 45 wt.% pozzolanic SCM. In some embodiments, the composition includes less than 20 wt.% Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 10 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 10 wt.% the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein; more than 20 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime. In some embodiments, the composition includes less than 10 wt.% Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 15 wt.% the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein; more than 15 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime. In some embodiments, the composition includes no Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 15 wt.% the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein; more than 15 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime. In some embodiments, the composition includes 1-15 wt.% magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the composition includes one or more retarders, accelerators, or water reducers. In some embodiments, the retarder comprises potassium citrate; sodium citrate; potassium gluconate; sodium gluconate; sodium sulfate; potassium sulfate; sodium borate; boric acid; citric acid; sucrose; glucose; fructose; tartaric acid; lignosulfonate; sodium potassium phosphate; sodium–potassium tartrate; ascorbic acid; or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the accelerator is sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 0.1 wt.% polycarboxylate superplasticizer.

[0020] In some embodiments, the pozzolanic SCM includes at least 65 wt.% silica; less than 8 wt.% alumina; at least 8 wt.% a sum of CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3; and an amorphous content of less than 50%. In some embodiments, the pozzolanic SCM has at least one of the following properties: an R3 reactivity of >60 J / g pozzolanic SCM at 12 hours; an R3 reactivity where more than 75% of the total reaction after 168 hours occurs in 24 hours; an R3 lime consumption of >90 grams lime per 100 grams pozzolanic SCM; a BET specific surface area greater than about 10 m2 / g; a true density of greater than 2.4 g / mL; a silicon solubility of > 500 mg / L when soaked in 0.25M NaOH at a 2:1 liquid to solid ratio for 4 hours; a29Si NMR peak more negative than -100, -105, or -110 ppm; a 7-day compressive strength of greater than 13 MPa as measured per ASTM C1437; and an ability to react with portlandite to convert a portion of its crystalline silicates to amorphous C-S-H gel in cementitious mixes comprising portland cement or portlandite.

[0021] In some embodiments, a cementitious composition includes about 10-60 wt.% pozzolanic SCM disclosed herein; about 0-50 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; about 0-6 wt% calcium sulfate; about 0-10 wt.% limestone; and about 0-5 wt.% NaOH. In some embodiments, the composition includes less than 35 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% lime; and more than 40 wt.% pozzolanic SCM. In some embodiments, the composition includes 1-15 wt.% magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the composition includes one or more retarders, accelerators, or water reducers. In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 0.1 wt.% polycarboxylate superplasticizer. In some embodiments, the retarder comprises potassium citrate; sodium citrate; potassium gluconate; sodium gluconate; sodium sulfate; potassium sulfate; sodium borate; boric acid; citric acid; sucrose; glucose; fructose; tartaric acid; lignosulfonate; sodium potassium phosphate; sodium–potassium tartrate; ascorbic acid; or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the accelerator is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.

[0022] In some embodiments, a method of producing the pozzolanic SCM includes: leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, wherein the feedstock material comprises: a silicate and / or aluminosilicate, and one or more metal cations and one or more anions corresponding to the metal cations, wherein the metal cations comprise iron, calcium, magnesium, and / or aluminum and wherein the metal cations and the corresponding anions are soluble in the acid; separating the leachate comprising dissolved metal cations and the corresponding anions from the residual solid comprising the silicate and / or aluminosilicate; washing the residual solid; and drying the residual solid to produce a dried residual solid. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid is the pozzolanic SCM disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the method includes forming a cement or concrete comprising the dried residual solid and a second material. In some embodiments, the method includes mixing the dried residual solid with a second material having a lower reactivity than the dried residual solid, wherein the reactivity of the dried residual solid and the second material is measured by at least one of SAI as measured in ASTM C618 and heat release as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20. In some embodiments, the method includes prior to the leaching, mixing the feedstock material with a second material having a lower reactivity than the dried residual solid, wherein the reactivity of the dried residual solid and the second material is measured by at least one of SAI as measured in ASTM C618 and heat release as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises two ormore separate materials each of which comprise a different concentration of the metal cations. In some embodiments, the acid leaching occurs in one or more reactors and each of the separate materials of the feedstock are added at at least one of separate times during the leaching, separate locations in a reactor, or different pH regions in the reactor. In some embodiments, a material with a higher concentration of soluble metal cations is added at a later time, or at a later position in the reactor, or in a lower pH region in the reactor than the material with a lower concentration of soluble metal cations. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at least about 10 wt.% of the metal cations and their corresponding anions. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at most about 80 wt.% of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at least about 35 wt.% of the metal cations and the corresponding anions and at most about 65 wt.% of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has at least 10% less mass than the feedstock material. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has at least 35% less mass than the feedstock material. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has about 25% less to about 100% less of the metal cations and their corresponding anions by mass than the feedstock material. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has about 0% to about 35% of the metal cations and their corresponding anions by mass relative to the feedstock material. In some embodiments, the method includes prior to leaching, roasting the feedstock material in a base. In some embodiments, the base comprises sodium hydroxide and / or potassium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the roasting is performed at a temperature of about 70 °C to about 150 °C for at least about 30 minutes. In some embodiments, the method includes reducing the particle size of the dried residual solid. In some embodiments, the washing comprises performed serial washes. In some embodiments, the drying is performed using an oven, band dryer, spray dryer, flash dryer, steam-tube, and / or rotary dryer. In some embodiments, the separating is performed using a filter press, rotary filter, vacuum filter, and / or belt filter. In some embodiments, the acid comprises a strong acid. In some embodiments, the strong acid comprises hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and / or nitric acid. In some embodiments, the acid comprises a weak acid. In some embodiments, the weak acid comprises acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, bisulfate, and / or oxalic acid. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises natural minerals, ashes, kiln dusts, and / or recycled concrete fines. In some embodiments, the method includes reducing a particle size of the feedstock material prior to acid leaching.

[0023] In some embodiments, a method of producing a pozzolanic SCM and an aluminum compound / additive include: leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, wherein the feedstock material comprises aluminum, silicon, and at least one of iron, calcium, and magnesium; separating the leachate comprising dissolved metal cations and the corresponding anions from the residual solid comprising the silicate and / or aluminosilicate; washing the residual solid; drying the residual solid to create the pozzolanic SCM; adding a precipitating agent to the leachate to form an aqueous solution and a solid precipitate comprising an aluminum compound / additive; separating the aluminum compound / additive precipitate from the aqueous solution; washing the aluminum compound / additive precipitate; and drying the aluminum compound / additive precipitate to form the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive is the aluminum compound / additive disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the pozzolanic SCM is the pozzolanic SCM disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the method includes combining the pozzolanic SCM and the aluminum compound / additive to form a cement or cementitious material. In some embodiments, the method includes combining the SCM and the aluminum compound / additive with lime and calcium sulfate to form the cement or cementitious material. In some embodiments, the method includes adding at least one of portland cement clinker or limestone to form the cement or cementitious material. In some embodiments, individual dry powder components of the pozzolanic SCM, aluminum compound / additive, lime, calcium sulfate, Portland cement clinker, and / or limestone are blended together to form the cement or cementitious material. In some embodiments, individual dry powder components of the pozzolanic SCM, aluminum compound / additive, lime, calcium sulfate, Portland cement clinker, and / or limestone are inter- ground to form the cement or cementitious material.

[0024] The embodiments disclosed above are only examples, and the scope of this disclosure is not limited to them. Particular embodiments may include all, some, or none of the components, elements, features, functions, operations, or steps of the embodiments disclosed above. Embodiments according to the disclosure herein are in particular disclosed in the attached claims directed to a methods and systems, wherein any feature mentioned in one claim category, e.g., method, can be claimed in another claim category, e.g., system, as well. The dependencies or references back in the attached claims are chosen for formal reasons only. However, any subject matter resulting from a deliberate reference back to any previous claims (in particular multiple dependencies) can be claimed as well, so that any combination of claimsand the features thereof are disclosed and can be claimed regardless of the dependencies chosen in the attached claims. The subject-matter which can be claimed comprises not only the combinations of features as set out in the attached claims but also any other combination of features in the claims, wherein each feature mentioned in the claims can be combined with any other feature or combination of other features in the claims. Furthermore, any of the embodiments and features described or depicted herein can be claimed in a separate claim and / or in any combination with any embodiment or feature described or depicted herein or with any of the features of the attached claims.

[0025] Additional advantages will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description. The examples and descriptions herein are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive.

[0026] All publications, including patent documents, scientific articles and databases, referred to in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication were individually incorporated by reference. If a definition set forth herein is contrary to or otherwise inconsistent with a definition set forth in the patents, applications, published applications and other publications that are herein incorporated by reference, the definition set forth herein prevails over the definition that is incorporated herein by reference. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0027] The present application can be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures.

[0028] FIG.1 depicts a diagram of an exemplary Al(OH)3 mortar process in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0029] FIG.2 depicts an XRD scan of an exemplary Al(OH)3 reactor product after washing, drying, and milling in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0030] FIG.3 depicts a diagram of an exemplary diagram of Al(OH)3 / FeOx mortar process in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0031] FIG.4 depicts thermodynamic modeling simulations on systems including Ca(OH)2, Al(OH)3, and CaSO4 with the relative percent mass of each component varied between 0% and 100% in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0032] FIG.5 depicts a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a hydrated sample comprising Al(OH)3, Ca(OH)3, and CaSO4 in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0033] FIG.6A depicts isothermal calorimetry test results for accumulated heat output of various examples compared with other materials in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0034] FIG.6B depicts isothermal calorimetry test results for hydration heat output rate of various examples compared with other materials in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0035] FIG.7 shows a schematic illustrating a process for synthesizing a blended cement mortar in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0036] FIG.8 shows a second schematic illustrating a process for synthesizing a blended cement mortar in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0037] FIG.9 shows X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of a Connecticut, USA basalt feedstock prior to leaching (top spectrum) and the resulting leached dry cake (bottom spectrum), as compared to diffraction angles calculated for corundum (vertical lines) in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0038] FIG.10A shows XRD spectra of Example 11 in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0039] FIG.10B shows the phase compositions determined from XRD data of Example 11 in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0040] FIG.11 shows a third schematic illustrating a process for synthesizing a blended cement mortar in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0041] FIG.12 shows a fourth schematic illustrating a process for synthesizing a blended cement mortar in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0042] FIG.13 shows a schematic illustrating a process for synthesizing a blended cement mortar using an in-situ leaching process in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0043] FIG.14A shows a ternary phase diagram depicting SiO2, CaO, and Al2O3 for a variety of synthesized basalt SCMs, calcined clays (CC), natural pozzolans (NP), fluidized bed combustion ashes (FBC), ground bottom ashes (GBA), and fly ashes (FA) in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0044] FIG.14B shows a ternary phase diagram depicting SiO2, CaO+MgO+Fe2O3, and Al2O3for a variety of synthesized basalt SCMs, calcined clays (CC), natural pozzolans (NP), fluidized bed combustion ashes (FBC), ground bottom ashes (GBA), and fly ashes (FA) in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0045] FIG.15 shows a plot depicting the flow of synthesized and commercial natural pozzolans according to ASTM C618 as a function of the BET specific surface area in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0046] FIG.16 shows the amount of soluble silica detected in the filtrate via ICP-OES after a sodium hydroxide treatment in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0047] FIG.17 shows the normalized weight percent of different phases in synthesized basalt SCMs and commercial pozzolans, as measured by X-ray diffraction in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0048] FIG.18 shows the29Si NMR spectra of leached basalt SCMs, unleached basalt, Class F fly ash (FA-F), and a commercial natural pozzolan in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0049] FIG.19 shows the isothermal calorimetry curves measured in accordance with ASTM C1897 in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0050] FIG.20 shows the cumulative heat release measured in accordance with ASTM C1897 as a function of the TGA lime consumption of lime-pozzolan paste samples after completing 7-day isothermal calorimetry in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0051] FIG.21 shows the unreacted lime remaining in the binder of an 80% OPC+20% SCM paste sample as determined by TGA after 3, 7, and 28 days in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0052] FIG.22 shows the 7-day compressive strength of SCMs used in lime-pozzolan mortars measured according to ASTM C593 standards in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0053] FIG.23 shows the 7 and 28 compressive strengths of mortars prepared according to ASTM C618 with reference to ASTM C311 standards in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0054] FIG.24A shows the measured 3 and 7 day compressive strengths, and predicted 28 day strengths of decarbonized cement blends using >20% leached basalt synthetic SCM, >10% hydrated lime, and 34% and 25% OPC in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein.

[0055] FIG.24B shows the measured 3 and 7 day compressive strengths, and predicted 28 day strength of decarbonized cement blends using >20% leached basalt synthetic SCM, >10% hydrated lime, and 36% OPC in accordance with some embodiments disclosed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0056] The following description sets forth exemplary compositions, methods, systems, parameters and the like. It should be recognized, however, that such description is not intended as a limitation on the scope of the present disclosure but is instead provided as a description of exemplary embodiments.

[0057] In some embodiments, provided is a cementitious material that has low embodied carbon. The cementitious material may have less CO2emitted to the atmosphere as a result of its production, as compared to conventional cementitious materials such as portland cement. In some embodiments, provided is a material, structure, or object made entirely or partially from such cement, including concrete, mortar, grout, stucco, plaster, pre-cast forms, shotcrete / gunite, housing foundations, sidewalks, roads, bridges, dams, etc. In some embodiments, provided are methods used for producing the low-embodied carbon cementitious material or any methods for using the low-embodied carbon cementitious material to produce other products.

[0058] In some embodiments, provided is a low-embodied-carbon cement composition comprising aluminum compounds / additives. In some embodiments, provided is a low- embodied-carbon cement composition comprising at least one aluminum compound / additive, at least one lime, at least one pozzolan, at least one source of sulfate ions, and / or optionally additional components. In some embodiments, the cement may comprise aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, lime, pozzolan, and sulfate compound(s) that are produced using a process with reduced CO2emissions to the atmosphere due to the consumption of fossil fuels compared to conventional cement manufacturing processes.

[0059] In some embodiments, the presence of aluminum, calcium, and sulfate in the cement may contribute to the formation of ettringite; calcium aluminate hydrates such as C3AH6, C2AH8, C4AH14, and / or CAH10 phases (as designated by cement chemist notation); calcium-alumina-silicate hydrate phases such as Strätlingite (C2ASH8), one or more alumina ferric oxide monosubstituted (AFm) phases such as AFm-monohydrate, AFm- monosulfate, AFm-monocarbonate, AFm-hemicarbonate, AFm-nitrate, or AFm-nitrite phases; or a combination of one or more of these phases, giving the hardened cement high early strength. The presence of lime and pozzolan in the cement may contribute to the pozzolanic reaction to form hydrated phases such as calcium silicate hydrate, giving the hardened cement high late-age and ultimate strength and excellent durability. In some embodiments, the combination of the specified components with specified characteristics results in cement with excellent performance characteristics suitable for use in many types of concrete and in other applications, while having low embodied carbon dioxide compared to conventional cement materials.

[0060] In some embodiments, provided is a method to manufacture the cements described herein. In some embodiments, provided is a cement composition. In some embodiments, provided is a cement with certain properties or performance characteristics.

[0061] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive comprises at least 50% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, in which the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is / are present in at least an amorphous phase and a crystalline phase. In some embodiments, the amorphous phase and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide are present in about equal amounts. In other embodiments, the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in a greater amount than the amorphous phase of the aluminumhydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In yet other embodiments, the amorphous phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in a greater amount than the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide.

[0062] In some variations, the amorphous phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 20% by mass or volume of the aluminum compound / additive, and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 40% by mass or volume of the aluminum compound / additive. In other variations, the amorphous phase and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide are present in a ratio between about 1:3 and about 2:1 (amorphous:crystalline) by mass or volume.

[0063] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive comprises or is an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In some embodiments, the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide concentration in the cement blend may range from 1-20% by mass. In some embodiments, the cement may contain a quantity of calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum, anhydrite, and / or hemihydrate at mass ratios ranging from 1:4 calcium sulfate to aluminum hydroxide up to 4:1 calcium sulfate to aluminum hydroxide. In some embodiments, non-calcium sulfate sources are added such as sodium sulfate or potassium sulfate. In some embodiments, a non-sulfated calcium source is also added along with the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. The non-sulfated calcium source could be in the form of quicklime, hydrated lime, calcium carbonate, calcium aluminate, calcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, and / or tricalcium silicate. In some embodiments, the amount of non-sulfated calcium additive may be added in a mass ratio ranging from 4:1 Ca(OH)2equivalent to aluminum hydroxide to 1:10 Ca(OH)2equivalent to aluminum hydroxide.

[0064] In some embodiments, the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide may comprise crystalline, microcrystalline, nanocrystalline, and / or amorphous phases. The crystalline, microcrystalline, nanocrystalline, and / or amorphous phases may contain boehmite, bayerite, and / or gibbsite. In some embodiments, the aluminum hydroxide may be an oxyhydroxide (AlOOH) or a hydrate of aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3*(H2O)x). The iron oxyhydroxides may comprise ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3), ferric oxide-hydroxide (FeOOH), and / or ferric oxide (Fe2O3). In some embodiments, the iron oxyhydroxide comprises ferrihydrite. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain calciumcarbonate or silicates, calcium or other elements such as sulfur, boron, or phosphorous. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain calcium such as C3AH6, C2AH8, C4AH14, and / or CAH10 (in cement chemist notation) phases with different crystallinity and amorphous contents. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain calcium and gypsum with different crystallinity and amorphous contents. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain calcium carbonate polymorphs such as calcite, vaterite, and aragonite or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain residual untreated industrial waste materials such as lime, lime kiln dust, limestone fines, steel slag such as electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace slag, or other materials used as pH control agent in manufacturing the aluminum compound / additive.

[0065] In some embodiments, a pozzolanic silicate or pozzolanic aluminosilicate or silicate containing species may be added along with or instead of the aluminum compound / additive. In other embodiments, limestone may be added along with aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the limestone may react with the aluminum hydroxide to form monosubstituted carbonates of alumina and ferric oxides (AFm).

[0066] In some embodiments, cement formulations using the aluminum additive may contain reduced quantities of Portland cement or ordinary Portland cement (OPC). In some embodiments, the amount of OPC may be less than 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, or 5% by mass of the total cementitious binder. In some embodiments, the components of the cementitious binder other than the portland cement or OPC may comprise other cementitious materials including slag, ashes, natural pozzolans, limestone, calcined clays, silica fume, belite, and / or the like. In some embodiments, cement formulations using the aluminum additive may have a 3-day compressive strength of greater than 13 MPa and a 7-day compressive strength greater than 20 MPa. Blended cement or cementitious binder

[0067] In some embodiments, provided is a blended cement. The cement may be blended at a factory and packaged into bags or supersacks, or loaded onto barges, railcars, trucks, or other vehicles for transportation to distribution centers or customers. In some embodiments,certain individual components of a cementitious binder may be stored and transported separately, then blended directly into concrete by a concrete producer.

[0068] In some embodiments, provided is one or more aluminum compounds / additives and / or one more siliceous materials (i.e., pozzolan, SCM, etc.) as described below, and one or more additional ingredients as described below. Aluminum compounds / additives for cement and concrete

[0069] In some embodiments, provided is an aluminum compound / additive which may be used as an additive to cement, concrete, and / or related construction and building materials. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may have one or more of the characteristics described below.

[0070] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise aluminum hydroxide, aluminum oxyhydroxide, aluminum oxide, aluminum oxide hydroxide, aluminum sulfate, aluminum carbonate, calcium aluminate, sodium aluminate, potassium aluminate, sodium aluminum carbonate, and / or potassium aluminum carbonate. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive consists of or consists essentially of aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise a crystalline or semicrystalline aluminum hydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, oxychloride, or oxide hydroxide, such as gibbsite, hydrargillite, bayerite, doyleite, nordstrandite, diaspore, corundum, boehmite, delta alumina, gamma alumina, eta alumina, or theta alumina. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be partially or entirely amorphous. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive as described herein may be or may comprise an aluminum hydroxide, aluminum oxyhydroxide, or an aluminum iron hydroxide.

[0071] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminosilicate compound. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may not be a silicate. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain little or no silicon, less than 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 8%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, or 0.2% silica on a silicon dioxide mass basis.

[0072] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminocalcite compound. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be a calcium aluminate compound.

[0073] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be in the form of solids or a liquids or gel-like phases. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise aluminate ions in a solid compound or dissolved in a solution such as an aqueous solution.

[0074] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain elements other than aluminum, oxygen, and hydrogen. In some cases, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum iron oxide, aluminum iron hydroxide, or aluminum iron oxide hydride. In some embodiments, the oxidation state of the iron present in the aluminum compound / additive may be greater than zero. In some embodiments, the oxidation state of the iron present in the aluminum compound / additive may be 2+ or 3+. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain other trace impurities, such as compounds of calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, sodium, potassium, chlorine, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and / or other elements. These impurities may include chloride ions, sulfate ions, and / or nitrate ions. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may contain less than 0.1%wt, 0.2%wt, 0.3%wt, 0.4%wt, 0.5%wt, 0.6%wt, 0.7%wt, 0.8%wt, 0.9%wt, 1%wt, 5%wt, 10%wt, or 25%wt of any elements other than aluminum, iron, oxygen, and / or hydrogen.

[0075] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound may be in the form of solid particles (e.g., a powder) with major diameters between 1 nm and 1 mm. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive particle major diameter range may be 500 nm – 30 micron. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be a dry, free flowing powder. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may also contain some moisture as adsorbed, absorbed, or liquid water. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be a suspension of particles in water or an aqueous solution such as a sodium hydroxide solution. In some embodiments, the low-embodied-carbon cement blend can contain at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 15%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass of the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the low-embodied-carbon cement blend can contain less than 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 15%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50%by mass of the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the cement blend can contain between 3% to 15%, 5% to 20%, 8% to 25%, 3% to 10%, 5% to 15%, 8% to 15%, or 10% to 25% by mass of the aluminum compound / additive.

[0076] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide with an amorphous content greater than about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or 99.9%. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide with a crystalline content greater than about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or 99.9%. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide with a crystalline content from about 5% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide prepared through base addition and precipitation of aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide from low pH aluminum salt solutions. In some embodiments, aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide prepared through acid addition of aluminate containing high pH salt solutions. In some embodiments, aluminum compound / additive may be an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide that is crystalline and produced through crystallization from cooling hot aluminate solutions.

[0077] Throughout this specification, unless otherwise stated, particle sizes refer to measurements performed using laser diffraction in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) solvent for aluminum compounds / additives, lime, and cement, and laser diffraction in water for pozzolans. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound (e.g., aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide additive) is prepared such that the D50, D90, or D99 particle size is less than 100 micrometers in diameter as measured by laser diffraction in IPA solvent. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive purity is greater than 90%. In some embodiments, the aluminum additive is precipitated along with other species including iron oxides, limestone, calcium, silica, silicates, and / or carbonates.

[0078] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide additive) may be freely soluble in water above pH10, to concentrations higher than 10 ppm aluminum trihydroxide, which represents the equilibrium solubility and saturation of the solution. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be increasingly soluble in higher pH, where the pH is about 11, about 12, or about 13, and the equilibrium concentration increases with the increasing pH level. The relationship may be exponential, where the equilibrium concentration is about 40, about 180, or about 1300 ppm respectively. The higher equilibrium concentration increases the rate and amount of dissolution in the aluminate.

[0079] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide, aluminum oxyhydroxide, etc.) dissolves quickly and reaches equilibrium within an hour. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive dissolves much slower than equilibrium, remaining at about 1, about 10 or about 100 ppm or about 500 ppm or about 1000 ppm for the first hour. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive is insoluble for the first about 1, about 2 or about 3 hours, after which its solubility rapidly increases to dissolve 100 ppm by about 2, about 3, or about 4 hours and reaches equilibrium concentration after about 12 or about 24 hours. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive solubility is decreasing with time, where the mass dissolved in the first hour is about 10% of the starting mass, the mass dissolved in the second hour is about 5% of the starting mass, the mass dissolved in the third hour is about 3% of the starting mass, and the mass dissolved in the fourth hour is about 1% of the starting mass.

[0080] In some embodiments, some of the properties of the aluminum compound / additive may improve its performance in cement. In particular, aluminum compounds / additives with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, moderate to high crystalline content, and / or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand. These properties may mean less water may be added to cement containing such aluminum compound / additive in order to achieve sufficiently high flow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles with large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, have smaller surface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, and / or for other related reasons. Cements and / or concretes with lower water demand may perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump, and / or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured to meet the requirements of a particular application, while having less water added to the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in higher compressive strength and / or shortersetting times. This may be because adding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set, and / or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume can be correlated with increased compressive strength.

[0081] In some embodiments, aluminum compound / additive particles with certain diameters or diameter distributions may enable higher packing efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles or aggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material with higher compressive strength and / or improved durability. Cements, mortars, or concretes made with lower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due to lower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed and isolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides, sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead to degradation of building materials or structures.

[0082] Aluminum compounds / additives with small primary particle diameters, large specific surface areas, and / or large micropore volumes may be highly reactive. Aluminum compounds / additives comprising substantially amorphous solids may be highly reactive. Such aluminum compounds / additives may dissolve in aqueous solution quickly to form aluminum-containing ions such as aluminate ions. These ions may react with other dissolved species and / or solids present in the cement and / or cement pore solution to precipitate hydrated or hardened phases. The high reactivity of these aluminum compounds / additives may contribute to cement with high early strength, rapid strength development, rapid setting, and / or rapid hardening.

[0083] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may react with other elements of the cement to create hydrated or hardened phases which provide compressive strength, durability, and / or other properties to hardened cement, concrete, or other building materials. The aluminum atoms or ions in the aluminum compound / additive may react with calcium ions, sulfate ions, hydroxide ions, and / or water to create ettringite, AFm phases, and / or other calcium aluminate hydrates. The aluminum may also undergo reactions to create stratlingite or other hydrated phases containing calcium, aluminum, and / or iron hydrates, hydroxides, sulfates, carbonates, nitrates, nitrites, and / or chlorides.

[0084] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive as described herein may react more slowly and / or have longer setting times than known aluminum compounds / additives. While some aluminum compounds known in the art may react to setand harden within seconds or minutes, some aluminum compounds / additives as described herein may react over tens of minutes, hours, or days. This may allow the aluminum compounds / additives as described herein to be used in a concrete, mortar, and / or related material that remains workable for a period of tens of minutes, hours, or days. In some embodiments, the physical or chemical properties of the aluminum compound / additive may cause it to have low reactivity or slow reaction kinetics. In some embodiments, the small specific surface area, large particle size, low porosity, partial to full crystallinity, or composition of the aluminum compound / additive may limit the kinetics of reactions involving the aluminum compound / additive.

[0085] In some embodiments, where the aluminum compound / additive comprises an aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, the physical or chemical properties of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide may cause it to dissolve in water relatively slowly. Said physical or chemical properties may include low specific surface area, large particle size, low porosity, low amorphous content or moderate to high crystalline phase content, and / or presence of impurities such as iron hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and / or calcium hydroxide. Because the aluminum compound / additive may dissolve in water relatively slowly, it may react with other solid, liquid, or dissolved aqueous chemical species at a moderate rate, creating hydrated or hardened phases such as ettringite at a speed that increases the early strength of a cement mortar, concrete, or related material, without causing undesired rapid setting.

[0086] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive(s) may be produced using a method that produces small or zero emission of CO2into the atmosphere. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an “electrochemical” aluminum compound / additive, meaning that the production of the aluminum compound / additive comprises the use of an electrochemical process or an electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise an “electrochemical aluminum hydroxide” or “electrochemical aluminum iron hydroxide.” In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be an “electrolytic” aluminum compound / additive, meaning it is produced in a process that uses an electrolyzer.

[0087] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be produced using electrochemical methods. The term “electrochemical methods” may be here understood to mean any process wherein electricity is used to power a device with a positive electrode, anegative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein said electrolyte or a product of the electrochemical reaction of the electrolyte is used to carry out a chemical or electrochemical reaction. In some embodiments, said electricity may be produced at least in part using a non- fossil-fuel source of energy. In some embodiments, an electrochemical reactor may be used to produce acid and / or base from an aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyzer may be powered by renewable, non-fossil-fuel sources of electricity such as solar or wind energy. The electrolyzer may produce an acid that may be used to leach aluminum ions from an aluminum-bearing mineral input or source material. In some embodiments, aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is precipitated from the resulting solution of aluminum-containing ions upon mixing said solution with a base. In some embodiments, the base may also be produced by an electrolyzer (e.g., the same electrolyzer as the acid or different electrolyzer). In some embodiments, said acid may be obtained from a non- electrolytic source, and said base may be obtained from an electrolytic source, or vice versa. In some embodiments, the base may be a Brønsted base or a Brønsted-Lowry base. In some embodiments, the base may be a Lewis base. In some embodiments, the base may be a hydroxide compound such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the base may be a calcium compound or a calcium-containing material, such as calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, lime kiln dust, cement kiln dust, wollastonite, or another calcium-containing rock, mineral, or industrial waste material. In some embodiments, both the acid and the base may be provided from a non-electrolytic source. Nonetheless, by using the afore-mentioned dissolution and / or precipitation processes to produce the aluminum compound / additive, the use of fossil fuels as a source of heat may be reduced or avoided entirely.

[0088] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be a “precipitated” aluminum compound / additive, meaning it is produced via a precipitation reaction. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise a “precipitated aluminum hydroxide” or “precipitated aluminum iron hydroxide.” In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be produced through a process comprising dissolving aluminum from a feedstock or source material, then adding a precipitating agent to create a solid aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be produced through a process comprising dissolving aluminum from a feedstock in an aqueous acid solution, then adding a base to precipitate a solid aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, said acid and base may be produced in an electrochemical reactor orin an electrolyzer. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be produced through a process comprising dissolving aluminum from a feedstock in an aqueous acid, then adding a base to precipitate a solid aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, recovering the brine, and recycling the brine to an electrochemical reactor to regenerate acid and base. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be precipitated through the addition of a calcium-containing material, such as calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, lime kiln dust, cement kiln dust, wollastonite, or another calcium-containing rock, mineral, or industrial waste material.

[0089] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be made in a process comprising dissolving aluminum and at least one additional elemental component of a feedstock material in a solvent such as an aqueous acid, then precipitating the aluminum and the at least one additional elemental component using at least two sequential precipitation steps. For example, in some embodiments the feedstock material or materials may comprise Al, Fe, Mg, and / or Ca. An aqueous acid may dissolve some or all of the Al, Fe, Mg, and / or Ca from a feedstock material. A series of two, three, or four precipitations steps may be used to separately precipitate certain elements. In some embodiments, an aqueous base may be used to precipitate Al(OH)3and Fe(OH)3at about pH 5, then in a second compartment or reactor additional aqueous base may be used to precipitate Mg(OH)2 and Fe(OH)2 at about pH 9.5, and finally in a third compartment or reactor additional aqueous base may be used to precipitate Ca(OH)2at about pH 12.5. In some embodiments, a set of precipitation reactions may occur in a single compartment or reactor by gradually increasing the pH to about 5 to precipitate Al(OH)3and Fe(OH)3, increasing the pH to about 9.5 to precipitate Mg(OH)2and Fe(OH)2, and finally increasing the pH to about 12.5 to precipitate Ca(OH)2. In some embodiments, the dissolved Fe2+ions may be oxidized to create Fe3+ions through the use of an oxidizing agent such as by sparging gases comprising molecular oxygen (e.g. air) through the liquid solution or through hydrogen evolution. In some embodiments, the Al may be precipitated separately from any Fe, Mg, Ca, and / or other elements to create a high-purity aluminum hydroxide or other aluminum compound / additive.

[0090] In some embodiments, the feedstock material used as the source of aluminum to produce the aluminum compound / additive may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copperslag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be produced using an integrated process from the same feedstock used to other components of the additive or cementitious binder, such as the lime and / or pozzolan.

[0091] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copper slag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may comprise at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of residual unreacted feedstock material.

[0092] In some embodiments the aluminum compound / additive will be “decarbonized” or “carbon-neutral” aluminum compound / additive, meaning it is produced via a process with small or zero carbon dioxide emissions at near atmospheric pressure (less than 3, 2.5, 2, 1.5, or 1.1 atmospheres) and low temperatures (less than 200, 180, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, or 50 °C). In some embodiments, the aqueous solution to precipitate aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide ranges from 20 °C to about 200 °C. In some embodiments, the embodied carbon dioxide of the aluminum compound / additive will be less than 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.25, 0.20, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05, 0.03, 0.02, or 0.01 kg CO2 / kg aluminum compound / additive.Such technologies may include the production of aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide from non-carbonate feedstock materials such as natural rocks or minerals, or industrial waste materials.

[0093] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may have one or more of the following attributes, including combinations and variations of the following:

[0094] Specific surface area of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0095] Specific surface area of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0096] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0097] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0098] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0099] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0100] Average roughness factor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughness factor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual specific surface area as measured using a using a Brunauer- Emmett-Teller (BET) technique to the specific surface area for dense spherical particles with the measured particle size distribution from laser diffraction;

[0101] Average primary particle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0102] Average primary particle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0103] Narrow particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0104] Wide particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0105] A primary crystal morphology with hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of a hexagonal prism;

[0106] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0107] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0108] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0109] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0110] Amorphous content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0111] Amorphous content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0112] Amorphous content between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0113] Amorphous content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0114] Amorphous content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0115] Amorphous content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0116] Crystalline content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0117] Crystalline content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0118] Crystalline content between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0119] Crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0120] Crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0121] Crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0122] Ratio of amorphous content to crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of at least 1:10, 1:8, 1:6, 1:5, 1:4, 1:3, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 8:1, 10:1, 2:3, or 3:2;

[0123] Ratio of amorphous content to crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of less than 1:10, 1:8, 1:6, 1:5, 1:4, 1:3, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 8:1, 10:1, 2:3, or 3:2;

[0124] Ratio of amorphous content to crystalline content of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide phases of between 1:10 and 10:1, 1:8 and 8:1, 1:6 and 6:1, 1:4 and 4:1, 1:3 and 3:1, 1:2 and 2:1, 1:5 and 1:1, 1:4 and 1:1, 1:3 and 1:1, 1:2 and 1:1, 2:1 and 1:1, 3:1 and 1:1, 4:1 and 1:1, 5:1 and 1:1;

[0125] Crystalline boehmite content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0126] Crystalline boehmite content of more than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0127] Crystalline boehmite between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0128] Crystalline gibbsite content less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0129] Crystalline gibbsite content more than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0130] Crystalline gibbsite between 1% to 100%, 5% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 20% to 60%, 30% to 60%, or 40% to 55%, by mass or volume;

[0131] Crystalline calcite content less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, by mass or volume;

[0132] Crystalline allotropes of aluminum trihydroxide and alumnium oxyhydroxide may include bayerite, doylerite, nordstrandite, and diaspore;

[0133] Crystal domain sizes of less than 0.5 nm, 1 nm, 5 nm, 6, nm, 8 nm, 10 nm, 12, nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm;

[0134] Crystal domain sizes of greater than 0.5 nm, 1 nm, 5 nm, 6, nm, 8 nm, 10 nm, 12, nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm;

[0135] Crystal domain sizes between 1 to 100 nm, 2 to 80 nm, 1 to 30 nm, 1 to 20 nm, 2 to 15 nm, or 3 to 30 nm;

[0136] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0137] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0138] Purity of at least 10%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide;

[0139] Purity of less than 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide;

[0140] Purity of between 1% to 100%, 3% to 80%, 5% to 75%, 10 to 70%, 20 to 90%, 30% to 60%, 30 to 95%, 40% to 100%, 60% to 100%, or 80% to 100% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide;

[0141] Silica content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0142] Silica content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0143] Calcium carbonate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0144] Calcium carbonate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0145] Iron oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0146] Iron oxide content of greater than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0147] Iron hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0148] Iron hydroxide content of greater than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0149] Molar Fe / (Fe+Al) ratio of greater than 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.95, or 0.99;

[0150] Molar Fe / (Fe+Al) ratio of less than 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.95, or 0.99;

[0151] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0152] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0153] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0154] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0155] Calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0156] Calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0157] Chloride content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0158] Chloride content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0159] Nitrate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0160] Nitrate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0161] Nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0162] Nitrite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0163] Sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0164] Sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0165] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0166] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0167] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0168] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0169] Residual moisture or water content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0170] Residual moisture or water content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0171] The aluminum compound / additive dissolves at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% by mass in 0.5 M NaOH at STP over 24 hours;

[0172] The aluminum compound / additive dissolves no more than 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% by mass in 0.5 M NaOH at STP over 24 hours;

[0173] The aluminum compound / additive dissolves at least 10% and no more than 40% by mass in 0.5 M at STP over 24 hours;

[0174] An aluminum oxide concentration of at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 100% by weight when the aluminum compound / additive is heated to at least about 500oC;

[0175] A loss on ignition between 10% and 50% by weight as measured by ASTM C114- 18, Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement;

[0176] A solids density of greater than about 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, or 3.0 g / cm3as measured according to ASTM C188, Standard Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement;

[0177] A bulk density of about 0.6-2.4 g / cm3, 1-1.5 g / cm3, or greater than about 1 g / cm3;

[0178] A lime (CaO) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio from about 1 to about 5, or from about 2 to about 4;

[0179] A sulfate (SO4) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 5, or from about 1 to about 3;

[0180] Water demand of an aluminum compound / additive paste less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowable colloidal suspension (The water demand may be determined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of aluminum compound / additive and water compared to a reference solution. According to one method, the reference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150: Specification for Portland Cement, and water as definedby ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. For example, the amounts used may be 100g of ordinary portland cement and 40g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration, preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The test colloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100g of dry powdered aluminum compound / additive to a mixing container, and adding 10g of water. This mixture may be mixed well by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity of the colloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. If the viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may be added in 5g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process may be repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as the reference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry powdered aluminum compound / additive used);

[0181] Water demand of an aluminum compound / additive paste less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowable colloidal suspension (The water demand may be determined by the method of centrifuging a water-powder mixture to determine the amount of water trapped within the settled solids. The centrifuge water demand test may be prepared by adding 7g of sample powder and 21g of water. This mixture is homogenized and centrifuged for 2 minutes at 7,000 rcf. The free liquid at the end of the 2 minutes is collected and weighted. Using the difference in weight of the initial water added and free liquid remaining, divided by the mass of sample powder added, the centrifuge water demand of the aluminum compound / additive can be determined);

[0182] Flow table spread of an aluminum compound / additive mortar of at least 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%, 160%, 170%, 180%, 190%, or 200% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 aluminum compound / additive to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109 (The mortar may be prepared using a water to dry powdered aluminum compound / additive ratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where said water is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic CementConcrete. The mortar may be mixed in accordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2- in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens)).

[0183] In some embodiments, reactivity of the aluminum compound / additive may be tested using a mixture of calcium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, and calcium sulfate. In certain embodiments the calcium sulfate may be gypsum. In other embodiments, the calcium sulfate may be anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrite) or calcium sulfate hemihydrate (plaster), or a mix of multiple types of calcium sulfate. These components may be mixed in a molar ratio of 3 moles calcium hydroxide, between 1.5 to 5 moles aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide, and 3 moles calcium sulfate. This mixture may then be combined with water and allowed to cure at a temperature of 23 °C. In some embodiments, this mixture may be allowed to cure in an isothermal calorimeter which maintains constant temperature and measures heat evolved in the sample. The cumulative heat evolution may be proportional to the extent of reaction, and therefore may predict the strength development. In some embodiments, this mixture may be allowed to cure at a fixed temperature and may be periodically removed and tested in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) to measure the remaining content of calcium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide, or aluminum compound / additive. The consumption of calcium hydroxide or an aluminum compound / additive may be used to determine the extent of reaction, which may correlate with the development of strength or other properties. In some embodiments, the mass loss event associated with Ca(OH)2 decomposition into Ca(OH)2 (s) → CaO (s) + H2O (g), occurs at 425-525 °C. In some embodiments, the TGA may heat at a rate of 5, 10, 15, 20 K / min. In some embodiments, the amount of initial Ca(OH)2in the sample is calculated based on the amount of gaseous H2O that is evolved from the sample at this temperature. In some embodiments, cumulative heat released within 24 hours after mixing may be greater than 800 J / g aluminum compound / additive. Alternatively, the cumulative heat release at 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, or 72 hours produced by an aluminum compound / additive based mixture to target early-age ettringite formation may be greater than 0.001 J / g aluminum compound, 0.1 J / g aluminum compound, 1 J / g aluminum compound, 2 J / g aluminum compound, 3 J / g aluminum compound, 4 J / g aluminum compound, 5 J / g aluminum compound, 6 J / g aluminum compound, 7 J / g aluminum compound, 8 J / g aluminum compound, 9 J / g aluminum compound, 10 J / g aluminum compound, 20 J / g aluminum compound, 30 J / g aluminum compound, 40 J / g aluminum compound, 50 J / galuminum compound, 100 J / g aluminum compound, 150 J / g aluminum compound, 200 J / g aluminum compound, 300 J / g aluminum compound, 400 J / g aluminum compound, 500 J / g aluminum compound, 600 J / g aluminum compound, 700 J / g aluminum compound, 800 J / g aluminum compound, 900 Jg aluminum compound, or 1000 J / g aluminum compound as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry. In some embodiments, cumulative heat at the time of 48 hours after mixing produced by an aluminum compound / additive based mixture to target early-age ettringite formation may be less than 0.001 J / g aluminum compound, 0.1 J / g aluminum compound, 1 J / g aluminum compound, 2 J / g aluminum compound, 3 J / g aluminum compound, 4 J / g aluminum compound, 5 J / g aluminum compound, 6 J / g aluminum compound, 7 J / g aluminum compound, 8 J / g aluminum compound, 9 J / g aluminum compound, 10 J / g aluminum compound, 20 J / g aluminum compound, 30 J / g aluminum compound, 40 J / g aluminum compound, 50 J / g aluminum compound, 100 J / g aluminum compound, 150 J / g aluminum compound, 200 J / g aluminum compound, 300 J / g aluminum compound, 400 J / g aluminum compound, 500 J / g aluminum compound, 600 J / g aluminum compound, 700 J / g aluminum compound, 800 J / g aluminum compound, 900 J / g aluminum compound, or 1000 J / g aluminum compound as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry. In some embodiments, cumulative heat at the time of 48 hours after mixing produced by an aluminum compound / additive-based cement mixture may be greater than 0.001 J / g aluminum compound, 0.1 J / g aluminum compound, 1 J / g aluminum compound, 2 J / g aluminum compound, 3 J / g aluminum compound, 4 J / g aluminum compound, 5 J / g aluminum compound, 6 J / g aluminum compound, 7 J / g aluminum compound, 8 J / g aluminum compound, 9 J / g aluminum compound, 10 J / g aluminum compound, 20 J / g aluminum compound, 30 J / g aluminum compound, 40 J / g aluminum compound, 50 J / g aluminum compound, 100 J / g aluminum compound, 150 J / g aluminum compound, 200 J / g aluminum compound, 300 J / g aluminum compound, 400 J / g aluminum compound, 500 J / g aluminum compound, 600 J / g aluminum compound, 700 J / g aluminum compound, 800 J / g aluminum compound, 900 J / g aluminum compound, 1000 J / g aluminum compound, 1500 J / g aluminum compound, 2000 J / g aluminum compound, 2500 J / g aluminum compound, 3000 J / g aluminum compound, 4500 J / g aluminum compound, 5000 J / g aluminum compound, 6000 J / g aluminum compound, 7000 J / g aluminum compound, 8000 J / g aluminum compound, 9000 J / g aluminum compound, or 10000 J / g aluminum compound as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry. In some embodiments, cumulative heat at the time of 48 hours after mixing produced by an aluminum compound / additive-based cement mixture may be less than 0.001 J / g aluminum compound,0.1 J / g aluminum compound, 1 J / g aluminum compound, 2 J / g aluminum compound, 3 J / g aluminum compound, 4 J / g aluminum compound, 5 J / g aluminum compound, 6 J / g aluminum compound, 7 J / g aluminum compound, 8 J / g aluminum compound, 9 J / g aluminum compound, 10 J / g aluminum compound, 20 J / g aluminum compound, 30 J / g aluminum compound, 40 J / g aluminum compound, 50 J / g aluminum compound, 100 J / g aluminum compound, 150 J / g aluminum compound, 200 J / g aluminum compound, 300 J / g aluminum compound, 400 J / g aluminum compound, 500 J / g aluminum compound, 600 J / g aluminum compound, 700 J / g aluminum compound, 800 J / g aluminum compound, 900 J / g aluminum compound, 1000 J / g aluminum compound, 1500 J / g aluminum compound, 2000 J / g aluminum compound, 2500 J / g aluminum compound, 3000 J / g aluminum compound, 4500 J / g aluminum compound, 5000 J / g aluminum compound, 6000 J / g aluminum compound, 7000 J / g aluminum compound, 8000 J / g aluminum compound, 9000 J / g aluminum compound, or 10000 J / g aluminum compound as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry. In some embodiments, cumulative heat at the time of 48 hours after mixing produced by an aluminum-based cement mixture may be greater than 0.001 J / g cementitious material, 0.1 J / g cementitious material, 1 J / g cementitious material, 2 J / g cementitious material, 3 J / g cementitious material, 4 J / g cementitious material, 5 J / g cementitious material, 6 J / g cementitious material, 7 J / g cementitious material, 8 J / g cementitious material, 9 J / g cementitious material, 10 J / g cementitious material, 20 J / g cementitious material, 30 J / g cementitious material, 40 J / g cementitious material, 50 J / g cementitious material, 100 J / g cementitious material, 150 J / g cementitious material, 200 J / g cementitious material, 300 J / g cementitious material, 400 J / g cementitious material, 500 J / g cementitious material, 600 J / g cementitious material, 700 J / g cementitious material, 800 J / g cementitious material, 900 J / g cementitious material, or 1000 J / g cementitious material as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry. In some embodiments, cumulative heat at the time of 48 hours after mixing produced by an aluminum-based cement mixture may be less than 0.001 J / g cementitious material, 0.1 J / g cementitious material, 1 J / g cementitious material, 2 J / g cementitious material, 3 J / g cementitious material, 4 J / g cementitious material, 5 J / g cementitious material, 6 J / g cementitious material, 7 J / g cementitious material, 8 J / g cementitious material, 9 J / g cementitious material, 10 J / g cementitious material, 20 J / g cementitious material, 30 J / g cementitious material, 40 J / g cementitious material, 50 J / g cementitious material, 100 J / g cementitious material, 150 J / g cementitious material, 200 J / g cementitious material, 300 J / g cementitious material, 400 J / g cementitious material, 500 J / g cementitious material, 600 J / g cementitious material, 700 J / g cementitious material, 800 J / gcementitious material, 900 J / g cementitious material, or 1000 J / g cementitious material as measured by the method of isothermal calorimetry.

[0184] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be tested for purity by utilizing thermogravimetric analysis. In some embodiments, this involves placing the pure sample of the aluminum compound / additive into a thermogravimetric analysis unit (TGA) and increasing the sample temperature to about 1000 K, 800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C, 1100 °C, or 1200 °C at a heating rate of 5, 10, 15, 20 K / min. In some embodiments, the mass loss in a specific range may be used to estimate the purity of the starting materials. In some embodiments, total mass loss from the aluminum compound / additive from the temperature range of about 100 °C to 200 °C, about 100 °C to about 400 °C, about 200 °C to 400 °C, about 400 °C to 600 °C, about 600 °C to 800 °C, and / or about 800 °C to 1000 °C may be greater than 0.001%, 0.1%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60% or 70% total mass as measured by the method of Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). This measurement serves as an indicator of the total amorphous content of the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, total mass loss from the aluminum compound / additive from the temperature range of about 100 °C to 200 °C, about 100 °C to about 400 °C, about 200 °C to 400 °C, about 400 °C to 600 °C, about 600 °C to 800 °C, and / or about 800 °C to 1000 °C may be less than 0.001%, 0.1%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60% or 70% total mass as measured by the method of Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). This measurement serves as an indicator of the total amorphous content of the aluminum compound / additive.

[0185] In some embodiments, total mass of ettringite formed per mass of aluminum compound / additive added to an aluminum-based mixture to target ettringite formation can be determined, in which the total amount of ettringite formed is measured by the method of X- Ray Diffraction (XRD). The mass of ettringite produced per mass of aluminum compound / additive added to the mixture can be determined by dividing the percent ettringite as measured by XRD by the percent-mass of aluminum initially added to the mixture. In some embodiments, the resulting mixture may produce less than 0.001 g ettringite / g aluminum, 0.1 g ettringite / g aluminum, 1 g ettringite / g aluminum, 2 g ettringite / g aluminum, 3 g ettringite / g aluminum, 4 g ettringite / g aluminum, 5 g ettringite / g aluminum, 6 g ettringite / g aluminum, 7 g ettringite / g aluminum, 8 g ettringite / g aluminum, 9 g ettringite / g aluminum, 10 g ettringite / g aluminum, 15 g ettringite / g aluminum, 20 gettringite / g aluminum, 25 g ettringite / g aluminum, 30 g ettringite / g aluminum, 35 g ettringite / g aluminum, 40 g ettringite / g aluminum, 45 g ettringite / g aluminum, 50 g ettringite / g aluminum, 60 g ettringite / g aluminum, 70 g ettringite / g aluminum, 80 g ettringite / g aluminum, 90 g ettringite / g aluminum, or 100 g ettringite / g aluminum. In some embodiments, total mass of ettringite formed per mass of aluminum compound / additive added to an aluminum-based mixture to target ettringite formation can be determined, in which the total amount of ettringite formed is measured by the method of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). The mass of ettringite produced per mass of aluminum compound / additive added to the mixture can be determined by dividing the percent ettringite as measured by XRD by the percent-mass of aluminum initially added to the mixture. In some embodiments, the resulting mixture may produce greater than 0.001 g ettringite / g aluminum, 0.1 g ettringite / g aluminum, 1 g ettringite / g aluminum, 2 g ettringite / g aluminum, 3 g ettringite / g aluminum, 4 g ettringite / g aluminum, 5 g ettringite / g aluminum, 6 g ettringite / g aluminum, 7 g ettringite / g aluminum, 8 g ettringite / g aluminum, 9 g ettringite / g aluminum, 10 g ettringite / g aluminum, 15 g ettringite / g aluminum, 20 g ettringite / g aluminum, 25 g ettringite / g aluminum, 30 g ettringite / g aluminum, 35 g ettringite / g aluminum, 40 g ettringite / g aluminum, 45 g ettringite / g aluminum, 50 g ettringite / g aluminum, 60 g ettringite / g aluminum, 70 g ettringite / g aluminum, 80 g ettringite / g aluminum, 90 g ettringite / g aluminum, or 100 g ettringite / g aluminum.

[0186] In some embodiments, total bound water content of an aluminum-based cement mixture as determined by Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) may be greater than 0.001%, 0.1%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10% to serve as an indicator of the total amount of ettringite after the time of 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 hours after mixing as a result of the hydration of the aluminum-based cement mixture.

[0187] In some embodiments, water demand of an aluminum compound / additive mortar may be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining a flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of an aluminum compound / additive mortar may be determined by preparing a mortar mix that includes dry powdered aluminum compound / additive and Graded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2- in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined by ASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actual amount of drypowdered aluminum compound / additive used may be 250g and the actual amount of sand used may be 687.5g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, may be added initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25g, and the mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare the mortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow using the method and apparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, a weight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5g, may be added to the mortar. The mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again, following which the flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 may be conducted. This process may be repeated until the sample suspension has a mortar flow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry powdered aluminum compound / additive used. The sand is not included in the weight determination.

[0188] Impact of Precipitation Conditions: In order to achieve desired properties, the operating conditions of the precipitation reaction to form the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3species) may be tuned. Operation of the aluminum precipitation can occur in standard reactor configurations including stirred tank reactors, plug flow reactors, and / or crystallizers. Operation can occur at pH ranging from 2 to 12. Operation at low pH (<5) may promote the formation of gel-like amorphous AlOOH that becomes more crystalline around pH 5. Conversely, higher pH operation (>5) may favors Al(OH)3formation that reacts more slowly. The use of higher pH (>4) may also be advantageous for processability of the material as amorphous gel products tend to be difficult to filter and wash. In addition to pH, temperature and residence time can also be increased to improve processability of the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3). Temperature can be operated from as low as 0°C to as high as 200°C. Residence times can range from 10 minutes to 8 hours. In some embodiments, the temperatures can be in excess of 40 °C and the residence times can be greater than 30 minutes. Use of different precipitating agents (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, lime, magnesium oxide / hydroxide, limestone, dolomitic limestone, dolomite, recycled concrete fines or sludge, slags, ashes, kiln dusts, etc.) can also have significant impacts on the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3) properties. These impacts can be due both to the differences in morphologies of the precipitated aluminum compound / additive and the incorporation of the insoluble portions of the precipitating agents into the solid aluminum compound / additive product. Use of materials such as lime kiln dustthat possess insoluble silicates, can increase the enthalpy of the product when mixed with lime and gypsum, for example. Additionally, the composition of the initial solubilized aluminum solution can impact the solid product properties. Inclusion of dissolved iron in both the divalent and trivalent forms can lead to some iron incorporation with the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3) product. Increasing the dissolved iron content in the feed may improve processibility and allow for operation at pH below 5 while still being filterable and washable in typical water-based vacuum or positive-pressure filtration equipment. Total dissolved iron concentrations can range from 10 mM to 2 M with typical concentrations between 0.1M and 1M. Inclusion of iron has been found to modify the reactivity of the gel leading to faster heat release compared to solutions without soluble iron. The ionic strength can range from 0.1M to 20M. The concentration of dissolved aluminum can range from 10mM to 4M with concentration preferred to be between 0.2 and 2M. The choice of anion (e.g., chloride, sulfate, sulfite, bromide, iodide, acetate, lactate, formate, perchlorate, nitrate, citrate, etc.) can also impact the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3) gel properties.

[0189] In some embodiments, this highly reactive initial fraction is dissolved in a separate acidic reactor at pH about 1, about pH 2 or about pH 3. In some embodiments, the highly reactive initial fraction is dissolved in a separate basic reactor at pH about 11, pH about 12, or pH about 13 to leave the less soluble material behind. The residence time in either acidic or basic reactors could be about 30 min, 45 min, 60 min, 75 min, 90 min, 105 min, 120 min, 135 min, 150 min, 165 min, or 180 min. In some embodiments, the solids that remain undissolved after the residence time elapses may be collected and used as the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, these insoluble aluminum compounds / additives may be preferred lower solubility or lower rate of dissolution.

[0190] In some embodiments, an aluminum material / compound / additive with advantageous properties as a cement additive may be generated by drying the product at lower than 90 °C, 100 °C,110 °C, 120 °C, 130 °C, 140 °C, 150 °C, 160 °C, 170 °C, 180 °C, 190 °C, or 200 °C. In some embodiments, the aluminum material may be dried using vacuum techniques. In some embodiments, the aluminum material with advantageous properties as a cement additive may be dried using ambient air and a temperature of lower than 90 °C, 100 °C,110 °C, 120 °C, 130 °C, 140 °C, 150 °C, 160 °C, 170 °C, 180 °C, 190 °C, or 200 °C.

[0191] In some embodiments, the aluminum compounds / materials / additives may be subjected to grinding and fractionation in the presence of other materials, such as calcium-containing or sulfate-containing materials in dry and / or moist case to generate commingled calcium aluminate or calcium aluminate sulfate to be used as a cement additive. In some embodiments, this co-grinding or inter-grinding may increase the reactivity of the resulting aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, such comminution may generate materials that are less reactive when used as a cement additive. In some embodiments, water is added to the comminution at greater than 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10% by mass. In some embodiments, water is added as less than 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10% by mass.

[0192] In some embodiments, the aluminum compounds / additives / materials may be densified.

[0193] In some embodiments, the aluminum compounds / additives / materials may be coated or treated with an organic polymer. In some embodiments, this coating may take the form of aqueous solution dried on the aluminum compound / additive. In some embodiments, the dry polymer is subjected to comminution with the aluminum compound / additive.

[0194] In some embodiments, the aluminum compounds / additives / materials may be coated or treated with inorganic materials such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, or silica via sol gel or other methods.

[0195] In some embodiments, the aluminum compounds / additives / materials may be treated by holding an aqueous slurry or suspension of the material at a high temperature, such as more than 50°C, more than 100°C, more than 120°C or more than 150°C, before filtering and collecting the material for drying. This process may change the morphology, composition, or crystallinity of the aluminum compound / additive. For example, in some embodiments, this treatment process may produce a larger particle size, higher aluminum mass percent, and / or higher crystalline fraction in the aluminum compound / additive.

[0196] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be treated by washing, re-suspending, heating, and / or cooling in an acidic or basic solution. In some embodiments, the aluminum may become more soluble at higher or lower pH conditions. This could occur before, during, or after the aluminum solids are separated from the slurry. In some embodiments, this may involve a washing step during filtration where the washing solution is alkaline with a pH > 10, pH >11, or pH > 12, or where the washing solution is acidic where the pH < 4, pH <3, or pH <2. This process may change the morphology, composition, and / or crystallinity of the aluminum compound / additive. For example, in someembodiments, this treatment process may produce a larger particle size, higher aluminum mass percent, and / or higher crystalline fraction in the aluminum compound / additive.

[0197] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be treated by adding materials, such as retarders or accelerators as listed in this document, to the filter press, before or after filtration.

[0198] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive is treated with aqueous solutions of calcium, sulfate, silicate, and / or other species either in the original stirred tank reactor or after filtration as a separate step, to generate useful materials such as hydrocalumite aluminosilicates, or related species.

[0199] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive is treated with aqueous solutions of calcium, sulfate, silicate or other species either in the original synthesis reactor or after filtration as a separate step at temperature, such as 25°C, more than 50°C, more than 100°C, more than 120°C or more than 150°C, to generate calcium aluminate hydrates or calcium aluminate sulfate hydrates and then hydrates are dried at temperature such as 60°C, 100°C, 200°C, more than 300°C or more than 500°C and subsequently are cooled at air and ground to form powder calcium aluminate and calcium sulfoaluminate compounds with different degrees of crystallin and amorphous contents. In some embodiments, the lime / alumina molar ratio ranges from 1 to 5 and sulfate / alumina molar ratio ranges from 0.5 to 5.

[0200] In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be calcined after isolation by filtration and drying or other techniques. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be calcined on its own with no additional ingredients. This calcination treatment may result in larger particle size, larger crystalline domains, a larger crystalline fraction, a smaller amorphous fraction, a smaller specific surface area, and / or a different set of phases, such as more of a crystalline gibbsite phase. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be mixed with lime, limestone, or another source of calcium and then calcined to produce C3A (tricalcium aluminate, a cement phase) and related species. In some embodiments, the aluminum compound / additive may be mixed with lime, limestone, or another source of calcium and gypsum, plaster, anhydrite, or another source of sulfate, then calcined to generate ye’elimite and / or related calcium sulfoaluminate species.

[0201] Typical properties of the aluminum compound / additive (e.g., aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide) product are shown in Table 1 below. Table 1.Calcium oxide or hydroxide, and / or magnesium oxide or hydroxide

[0202] In some embodiments, calcium oxide or hydroxide and / or magnesium oxide or hydroxide may be used as an additive or component to cement, concrete, and / or related construction and building materials. This ingredient or component may comprise lime(calcium oxide or hydroxide), quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO), milk of magnesium (magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2), or a mixture thereof. Most typically the lime or magnesium compound as described herein may be hydrated lime. The lime or magnesium compound may contain impurities of elements other than calcium, magnesium, oxygen, and hydrogen. In some embodiments, it might contain as much as 50% by mass magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, this component may be a mixed metal calcium / magnesium hydroxide, where each solid particle contains both calcium and magnesium. In some embodiments, this component may be a dry powder mixture containing a fraction of relatively pure (>60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 98% by mass) Ca(OH)2particles and another fraction of relatively pure (>60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 98% by mass) Mg(OH)2 particles. The lime or magnesium compound may also contain other trace impurities, such as compounds of aluminum, silicon, iron, sodium, potassium, chlorine, nitrogen, sulfur, or other elements. These impurities may include chloride ions, sulfate ions, or nitrate ions. The lime or magnesium compound may be in the form of solid particles with major diameters between 1 nm and 1 mm. The most typical lime or magnesium compound particle major diameter range may be 500 nm – 30 microns. The lime or magnesium compound may be a dry, free flowing powder. The lime may also contain some moisture as adsorbed, absorbed, or liquid water. The lime or magnesium compound may be a suspension of particles in water or an aqueous solution such as a sodium hydroxide solution. In some embodiments, the low- embodied-carbon cement blend can contain at least 1% by mass of the lime or magnesium compound. In some embodiments, the cement blend can contain 5 – 50% by mass of hydrated lime.

[0203] In some embodiments, the lime (e.g., calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide) may have one or more of the following attributes, including combinations and variations of the following:

[0204] Specific surface area of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0205] Specific surface area of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0206] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0207] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0208] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0209] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0210] Hexagonal prism and / or hexagonal antiprism morphology;

[0211] Average roughness factor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughness factor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area to volume ratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a sphere having the same volume as the actual particle;

[0212] Average primary particle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0213] Average primary particle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0214] Narrow particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0215] Wide particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0216] A primary crystal morphology with hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of a hexagonal prism;

[0217] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0218] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0219] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0220] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0221] Amorphous content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0222] Amorphous content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0223] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0224] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0225] Purity of at least 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide;

[0226] Purity of less than 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide;

[0227] Silica content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0228] Silica content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0229] Calcium carbonate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0230] Calcium carbonate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0231] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0232] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0233] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0234] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0235] Calcium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0236] Calcium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0237] Chloride content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0238] Chloride content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0239] Nitrate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0240] Nitrate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0241] Nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0242] Nitrite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0243] Sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0244] Sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0245] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0246] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0247] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass; and / or

[0248] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

[0249] In some embodiments, the water demand of a lime or magnesium compound paste can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand is determined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of lime and water compared to a reference solution. According to one method, the reference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150: Specification for Portland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. For example, the amounts used may be 100g of ordinary portland cement and 40g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration, preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The test colloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100g of dry powdered lime to a mixing container, and adding 10g of water. This mixture may be mixed well by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity of the colloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. If the viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may be added in 5g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process may be repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as the reference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry powdered lime used.

[0250] In some embodiments, the flow table spread of a lime or magnesium compound mortar can be at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, or 150% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 lime to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109. The mortar may be prepared using a water to dry powdered lime ratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where said water is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortar may be mixed in accordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens).

[0251] In some embodiments, the water demand of a lime or magnesium compound mortar can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining a flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of alime mortar may be determined by preparing a mortar mix that includes dry powdered lime and Graded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined by ASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actual amount of dry powdered lime used may be 250g and the actual amount of sand used may be 687.5g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, may be added initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25g, and the mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare the mortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow using the method and apparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, a weight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5g, may be added to the mortar. The mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again, following which the flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 may be conducted. This process may be repeated until the sample suspension has a mortar flow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry powdered lime used. The sand is not included in the weight determination.

[0252] In some embodiments, some of these properties of the lime or magnesium compound may improve its performance in cement. In some embodiments, a lime or magnesium compound with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand. That is to say, these properties may mean less water may be added to cement containing such lime in order to achieve sufficiently high flow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles with large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, have smaller surface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, and / or for other related reasons. Cements and / or concretes with lower water demand may perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump, and / or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured to meet a particular application, while having less water added to the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in higher compressive strength and / or shorter setting times. This may be because adding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set, and / or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume is correlated with increased compressive strength. In some embodiments, particles with certain diameters or diameter distributions may enablehigher packing efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles or aggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material with higher compressive strength. Cements, mortars, or concretes made with lower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due to lower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed and isolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides, sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead to degradation of building materials or structures.

[0253] In some embodiments, using magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) in place of or in combination with calcium hydroxide may allow the cement to form magnesium silicate hydrates or other magnesium-containing hydrated phases. The magnesium hydroxide may speed up or slow down the hydration reactions to control the rate of setting, hardening, and / or strength development. The magnesium hydroxide and magnesium-containing hydrated phases may improve the ultimate strength, durability, and / or permeability of the cement. In some embodiments, using components with little or no magnesium oxide content may prevent durability issues caused by delayed expansion from MgO hydration to form Mg(OH)2. The use of Mg(OH)2 may enable the production of a larger mass of cement by supplementing the Ca(OH)2available from certain feedstocks or in certain manufacturing process configurations.

[0254] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced using a method that reduces or eliminates entirely the emission of CO2into the atmosphere due to the consumption of fossil fuels during the production of the lime or magnesium compound. Conventional quicklime (calcium oxide) may be produced by calcining limestone at high temperatures by burning fossil fuels such as coal. Likewise, conventional MgO may be produce by calcining MgCO3 at high temperatures by burning fossil fuels. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced by alternate means that reduce or eliminate the emission of CO2 from the consumption of fossil fuels.

[0255] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be “electrochemical” lime or “electrochemical” magnesium hydroxide, meaning that the production of the lime or magnesium compound comprises the use of an electrochemical process or an electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the lime may be “electrolytic” lime or “electrolytic” magnesium hydroxide, meaning the lime or magnesium compound is produced in a process that uses an electrolyzer. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be “precipitated” lime or “precipitated” magnesium hydroxide, meaning it isproduced via a precipitation reaction. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound will be a “decarbonized” lime or magnesium compound or “carbon-neutral” lime or magnesium compound, meaning it is produced via a process with reduced or zero carbon dioxide emissions. In some embodiments, the embodied carbon dioxide of the lime or magnesium compound will be at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% lower than lime or magnesium oxide or hydroxide manufactured using incumbent carbon-intensive technologies. Such technologies may include the production of lime from carbonates such as limestone and in which the CO2emissions are not captured and sequestered or utilized, or where process emissions are incurred by heating said lime or its precursors by the combustion of fossil fuels.

[0256] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced using electrochemical methods, for example, as described in WO2020186178A1 and WO2020150449, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. In some embodiments, “electrochemical methods” may include any process wherein electricity is used to power a device with a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein said electrolyte or a product of the electrochemical reaction of the electrolyte is used to carry out a chemical or electrochemical reaction with a source of calcium. In some embodiments, said electricity may be produced at least in part using a non-fossil-fuel source of energy. In some embodiments, an electrochemical reactor may be used to produce acid and / or base from an aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyzer may be powered by renewable, non-fossil-fuel sources of electricity such as solar or wind energy. The electrolyzer may produce an acid that may be used to leach calcium ions from a calcium-bearing mineral input (e.g., limestone, waste concrete / cement, fly ash, bottom ash, incinerator ash, steel slag, iron slag, wollastonite, basalt or other similar sources). In some embodiments, calcium hydroxide is precipitated from the resulting solution of Ca2+ions upon mixing said solution with a base. In some embodiments, the base may also be produced by an electrolyzer. In some embodiments, said acid may be obtained from a non-electrolytic source, and said base may be obtained from an electrolytic source, or vice versa.

[0257] In some embodiments, both the acid and the base are provided from a non- electrolytic source. Nonetheless, by using the afore-mentioned dissolution and / or precipitation processes to produce lime, the use of fossil fuels as a source of heat may be reduced or avoided entirely.

[0258] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced from a feedstock material comprising calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, said feedstock comprises limestone, dolomite, or magnesium carbonate. In some embodiments, said lime or magnesium compound may be produced using one or more of the aforementioned electrochemical or chemical processes. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the CO2 released upon decomposition of said carbonate feedstock is captured and used, or sequestered, so the CO2is not emitted to the atmosphere. Thus, the methods provided herein may also diminish or eliminate the chemical source of CO2 emissions associated with the use of a calcium feedstock comprising calcium carbonate and / or magnesium carbonate.

[0259] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced from a calcium or magnesium-containing source material that is already substantially decarbonated. This material may comprise construction and demolition waste; recycled or waste concrete, cement, mortar; a calcium-containing and / or magnesium-containing naturally occurring mineral such as a basaltic mineral or wollastonite; ash resulting from combustion, including but not limited to coal ash, fly ash, bottom ash, and incinerator ash, or other similar materials. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced from these decarbonized or waste materials using the methods described above. In some embodiments, the dissolution of these feedstock materials substantially or completely avoids the release of CO2molecules.

[0260] In some embodiments, the feedstock material used to produce the lime or magnesium compound may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copper slag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced using an integrated process from the same feedstockused to other components of the additive or cementitious binder, such as the aluminum compound / additive and / or siliceous material / pozzolan.

[0261] In some embodiments, waste materials from the process of manufacturing lime or cement may be used as the source of calcium. These may include lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, these materials may be lime in the form of quicklime (CaO), and may be used directly in producing a cement blend. In some embodiments, the lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust may be used as a feedstock material for a process to produce lime, including by the methods described above. In some embodiments, the use of lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust comprises the use of a decarbonized source of lime even if the process originally used to produce said lime uses fossil fuels or emits chemical CO2from the decomposition of calcium carbonate or limestone, because the use of said waste material displaces the use of a calcium source or process that does release CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. In some embodiments, the lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust may be produced in a process that does not result in CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, due to the use of an electric kiln or calciner and / or by capturing and sequestering CO2 emissions, or beneficially using such CO2emissions in other products or applications.

[0262] In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced in the form of quicklime, CaO, or magnesia, MgO, by calcining hydrated lime, magnesium hydroxide, or limestone in an electric kiln powered by renewable electricity sources, and without burning fossil fuels. In some embodiments, the lime or magnesium compound may be produced in the form of quicklime, CaO, or magnesia, MgO, by calcining the limestone in a kiln which does burn fossil fuels and creates CO2, but where a substantial amount of said CO2is captured and stored or sequestered or used so it is not emitted to the atmosphere. Siliceous Materials, SCMs, or Pozzolan

[0263] Siliceous materials may constitute an important component in many materials, including cementitious construction materials such as cements, cement mortars, and concretes. In these applications, the properties of the siliceous materials used, especially their reactivity and flowability, can be critical to the functionality of the resulting products. In some embodiments, provided are siliceous materials, SCMs, or pozzolan that may be used as an additive or component to cement, concrete, and / or related construction and building materials.

[0264] For example, in the manufacture of portland cement, the reactivity of lime and silica during high temperature firing can be important to the energy-efficient production of clinker with desired properties. For pozzolanic cements, the reactivity of the pozzolan, which is the primary siliceous phase of matter used, can be critical to the development of properties during hydration and reaction. For supplemental cementitious materials (SCM) such as ashes and slags, the reactivity of the SCM in the cementitious mixture can be a key selection criterion. In mortars and in concrete, the reactivity of the non-cement paste materials, such as sand, gravel, and aggregate, can affect the bonding between the cement paste and the aggregate. Many siliceous materials have not found widespread use in cement and concrete due to their insufficient reactivity, despite their low cost and abundance. For example, while fly ash from coal-fired power plants is widely used as an SCM, bottom ash is not, largely due to its limited reactivity. As another example, clays can typically be calcined in order to increase their reactivity for use in cements.

[0265] Likewise, the flowability of a siliceous material can also be important because minimizing the amount of added water in the final product can be critical for ensuring high strength and fast reactivity of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) formation. In some embodiments and applications, different siliceous materials may require variable amounts of water to achieve the appropriate flowability.

[0266] A pozzolan is typically a silicate or aluminosilicate material (e.g., mineral), either naturally occurring or synthesized (man-made). It may be any silicate-bearing material that is capable of reacting with lime to set and harden, with or without the presence of water, to form a cement or concrete. In some embodiments, lime as described in any preceding embodiment may react with said pozzolan and water in a “pozzolanic reaction” that creates calcium silicate hydrate as a hydration product. Said reaction may also create other hydrated phases including but not limited to calcium aluminum silicate hydrate and / or sodium aluminum silicate hydrate phases.

[0267] One or more types of pozzolan may be used in the cement composition. Specific natural or artificial pozzolans that may be used in this cement composition include: Slag (blast furnace slag, steel slag, basic oxygen furnace slag), coal ash (fly ash Class C and F, bottom ash, economizer ash, ponded ash), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, silica fume, raw clay, calcined clay, calcined shale, metakaolin, volcanic tuffs, moler, gaize, ground pumice, diatomaceous earths, biomass ash (rice husk ash, sugar cane ash), ground glass, andhalloysite. The pozzolan may be in the form of solid particles with major diameters between 1 nm and 1 mm. In some embodiments, the pozzolan particle's major diameter range may be 500 nm – 30 micron. The pozzolan may comprise a dry powder, or a suspension of pozzolan particles in water or in an aqueous solution such as in a sodium hydroxide solution. In some embodiments, the cement blend can contain at least 1% by mass of the pozzolan. In some embodiments, the cement blend may contain 10 – 80% by mass of pozzolan.

[0268] In some embodiments, pozzolans may also be in the form of materials generated through acid digestion or leaching. The feedstock material used to produce the pozzolan may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copper slag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced using an integrated process from the same feedstock used to other components of the additive or cementitious binder, such as the aluminum compound / additive and / or lime.

[0269] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be a naturally occurring material that does not incur additional CO2emissions in creating its chemical form. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be a byproduct or waste product of an industrial process carried out primarily for a purpose other than the production of cement or concrete. Accordingly, the supply of such byproduct or waste product for use in the compositions and methods provided herein may not result in the emission of substantial additional CO2to the atmosphere associated with the synthesis of such byproduct or waste product. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced using a process that does not result in substantial CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, such as by calcining clay in an electric calciner or kiln powered by renewable electricity sources.

[0270] In some embodiments, the pozzolan is a synthetic, artificial, or human-made pozzolan. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving or leachingcertain soluble elements out of a feedstock material, leaving behind a disordered, reactive silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving soluble metals in an aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving soluble metals in an aqueous acid, such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid, phosphoric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, or citric acid. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the calcium out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the magnesium out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the iron out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the nickel out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the aluminum out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the lithium out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the boron out of a feedstock material. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by leaching a combination of any of the preceding elements out of a feedstock material.

[0271] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving and reprecipitating silica and / or an aluminosilicates. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving at least part of a silicon-containing feedstock material in a solvent, then adding a precipitating agent to produce a solid silica-containing compound as a precipitate. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving at least part of a silicon-containing feedstock material in a solvent, then changing the temperature or pressure of the solvent to produce a solid silica-containing compound as a precipitate. Insome embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced by dissolving at least part of a silicon- containing feedstock material in a solvent comprising ammonium fluoride, ammonium bifluoride, acid ammonium fluoride, disodium fluorophosphate, or mixtures, solutions, and derivatives thereof.

[0272] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be mined and ground. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be generated as a byproduct of an industrial process.

[0273] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be created and / or recovered using a method that produces small or zero emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be an “electrochemical” pozzolan, meaning that the production of the pozzolan comprises the use of an electrochemical process or an electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be an “electrolytic” pozzolan, meaning it is produced in a process that uses an electrolyzer.

[0274] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced using electrochemical methods. In some embodiments, “electrochemical methods” include any process wherein electricity is used to power a device with a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein said electrolyte or a product of the electrochemical reaction of the electrolyte is used to carry out a chemical or electrochemical reaction. In some embodiments, said electricity may be produced at least in part using a non-fossil-fuel source of energy. In some embodiments, an electrochemical reactor may be used to produce acid and / or base from an aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyzer may be powered by renewable, non-fossil-fuel sources of electricity such as solar or wind energy. The electrolyzer may produce an acid that may be used to leach soluble elements from a silicon-containing input material. In some embodiments, pozzolan is left over as a residual solid after leaching some or all of the soluble elements out of the input material with an aqueous acid solution. In some embodiments, the acid may be produced by an electrolyzer. In other embodiments, said acid may be obtained from a non-electrolytic source. In some embodiments, the acid may be a Brønsted acid or a Brønsted-Lowry acid. In some embodiments, the acid may be a Lewis acid. In some embodiments, both the acid and the base may be provided from a non-electrolytic source. Nonetheless, by using the afore-mentioned dissolution and / or precipitation processes to produce pozzolan, the use of fossil fuels as a source of heat may be reduced or avoided entirely.

[0275] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be a “precipitated” pozzolan, meaning it is produced via a precipitation reaction. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be produced through a process comprising dissolving silica from a feedstock material, then adding a precipitating agent to create a solid precipitated silica. In some embodiments, the silica may be produced through a process comprising dissolving silica from a feedstock in a liquid comprising ammonium fluoride, ammonium bifluoride, acid ammonium fluoride, disodium fluorophosphate, or mixtures, solutions, and derivatives thereof, then reprecipitating a new silicate material (the “precipitated pozzolan”).

[0276] In some embodiments, the feedstock material used as the source of silica to produce the pozzolan may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copper slag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust.

[0277] In some embodiments, the pozzolan may comprise one or more of the following materials: mine tailings (e.g., tailing from boron extraction from ulexite), metallurgical slags (blast furnace slag, ladle slag, electric arc furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, copper slag, etc.), coal ash (bottom ash, fly ash, ponded ash, economizer ash, etc.), municipal solid waste incinerator ash, recycled or waste construction materials (e.g., crushed concrete), limestone, dolomite, rocks (mafic or ultramafic rocks, olivine, serpentine, basalt, wollastonite, gabbro, anorthosite, traprock, granite, sandstone, garnet, mullite, pumice, etc.), waste from aluminum anodization processes (e.g. spent pot liners), sludge from water treatment processes, clay, bauxite, waste from aluminum production or refining processes (e.g. red mud, red sludge, alumina refinery residue), lime kiln dust, and / or cement kiln dust.

[0278] In some embodiments the pozzolan can be a “decarbonized” or “carbon-neutral” pozzolan, meaning it is produced via a process with small or zero carbon dioxide emissions. In some embodiments, the embodied carbon dioxide of the pozzolan can be less than 2.0, 1.9,1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.25, 0.20, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05, 0.03, 0.02, or 0.01 kg CO2 / kg pozzolan. In some embodiments, the production of pozzolan can be from non-carbonate feedstock materials such as natural rocks or minerals, or industrial waste materials.

[0279] In some embodiments, provided herein are high performance pozzolanic SCMs of two types. In some embodiments, provided herein are blends of highly reactive silicates generated from dissolving of silicate materials where over 35% of the solid is leached in the digestion can be mixed with less reactive but better flowing pozzolans to make a blend with suitable reactivity and flow. Digesting certain highly soluble silicates and aluminosilicates in acid is known to create silica or alumina gels that rapidly absorb water and resist flow. Avoiding or mitigating such gel formation can be important for producing a siliceous material with sufficient flowability. In some embodiments, natural minerals, ashes, and other feedstocks where between 10% and 35% of the material is removed via acid digestion can be transformed into high performing cation-depleted crystalline SCMs with advantageous performance.

[0280] Many residues from acid digestion of silicon-bearing materials such as natural minerals, ashes, slags, tailings, kiln dusts, and ashes can produce highly reactive materials, especially when over 35% of the solid mass is lost during the digestion. These materials, however, can be unsuitable for use as SCMs due to their poor flow characteristics and / or low processibility with conventional filtration and drying equipment. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods in which these highly reactive residues can be paired with lower reactivity materials to make a pozzolan blend suitable for use as a drop-in replacement for fly ash or natural pozzolans.

[0281] In some embodiments, two feedstocks can be digested (i.e., leached) in the same step or in sequential steps of a reactor train. In some embodiments, the two feedstocks can be digested together. In some embodiments, the two feedstocks can be digested separately and then combined prior to filtration, washing, and drying. In some embodiments, one material can be digested and then the second material can be added to the mixture to digest together. In some embodiments, the feedstock with a greater solubility in acid is digested at a later time or a later position. In some embodiments, the feedstock with greater solubility is digested in a region of the reactor with higher pH than the less soluble feedstock to maximize the acid concentration in the region with the less soluble feedstock to accelerate its digestion. In someembodiments, only the higher reactivity material can be digested, and it can be blended with a lower reactivity material that was not digested. In some embodiments, the two materials can be ground together. In some embodiments, the two materials can be ground separately and then combined.

[0282] In some embodiments, provided herein is a method for producing a novel cation- depleted crystalline (CDC) SCM with advantageous flow and reactivity properties comparable to or exceeding those of existing fly ash SCMs. These materials can be characterized by a combination of high crystallinity via XRD but low acid soluble cation concentrations. Those trained in the art would not expect a crystalline material to be as performant as CDC SCMs as other highly crystalline materials are not effective SCMs. The CDC SCM can be produced through a combination of base roasting and acid leaching or just acid leaching. To make an effective SCM, at least 10% mass loss can occur with between 20% and 35% preferred. Certain mineral feedstocks can be used for digestion to produce CDC SCM including feedstocks with higher concentrations of diopsides, garnets, plagioclase feldspar, anorsite, olivine, wollastonite, and pyroxene. In some embodiments, feedstocks with at least 40 wt% soluble ions (e.g., cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al) and corresponding anions) as measured by XRF may be preferable. In some embodiments, feedstocks including tailings, ashes, slags, kiln dusts, and concrete debris can also be used. The amount of soluble cations can be determined through the amount removed when digesting solids in 10-12 molar hydrochloric acid at a ratio of 40 mols acid per kg solids for 24 hours at 100°C.

[0283] Without being bound to any particular theory, it is believed that the CDC SCM materials may work via an accelerated weathering mechanism. When cation-containing minerals such as plagioclase feldspar or pyroxene are leached in acid they produce cation- depleted versions of the minerals where many of the acid soluble cations are leached while leaving much of the aluminosilicate backbone intact. This may leave lattice defects or vacancies where silicon, aluminum, or oxygen atoms are undercoordinated, causing them to be more reactive than these atoms with full coordination. In cases where silicon, aluminum, or oxygen atoms are at or near the surface of the CDC SCM, they may be able to react with water or an alkaline aqueous solution typical of cement pore solution, readily dissolving to create aqueous phase silicate and / or aluminate ionic species, which can subsequently react with calcium ions to create calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) or calcium aluminosilicate hydrates (C-A-S-H), which lead to strength and durability in hardened cement, concrete, andrelated materials. In some embodiments, these reactive, undercoordinated silicon or aluminum atoms may directly react with calcium ions to create calcium silicate hydrates (C- S-H) or calcium aluminosilicate hydrates (C-A-S-H) without first dissolving. The Al and Si from the CDC SCM may also react with other species to form other hydrated phases as well.

[0284] In some embodiments, in the CDC SCM, the remaining backbone silica and alumina tetrahedron may be forced to adjust their bonding leading to an increase in the degree silica coordination (the average number of silicon molecules bonded to other silicon molecules via oxygen bonds). This rearranged structure may be stressed due to the tension created by the opposition of the rigid crystalline backbone and the need to rearrange after the cation depletion. When introduced into an alkaline environment with available calcium ions, these stressed species may readily react and / or hydrate to form amorphous calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) or calcium aluminosilicate hydrates (C-A-S-H). The gain in strength enabled by these materials in cementitious and concrete systems may result from a combination of the greater volume expansion of the dense crystalline SCM to an amorphous material, the increase in volume due to hydration, and / or the increase in volume due to the incorporation of calcium back into the aluminosilicate structure.

[0285] CDC SCMs can possess advantageous low heats of reaction relative to their early and / or late age strength gain making them particularly useful for large use applications such as large concrete footings for wind turbines, dams, and other structures as well as for oil and gas applications.

[0286] When appropriately ground, CDC SCMs can possess low tapped bulk density below (1500 kg / m3). These can provide approximately equivalent flow to OPC and approximately 80-100% compressive strength at 20% replacement of OPC when measured at 7-days. The true density of CDC SCMs remains higher than other commercial pozzolans due to their retention of a dense crystalline structure. This is advantageous as it allows for a greater extent of expansion upon reacting with lime.

[0287] The SCMs described above may be produced from abundant and low-cost feedstocks including natural minerals, slags, tailings, recycled concrete fines, and ashes. Natural minerals can include, but are not limited to, mafic rocks, ultra mafic rocks, basalt, gabbro, diabase, olivine, amphibolite, feldspar, and pyroxene. Slags can be from a number of different processes including iron production (such as blast furnace slag), steel production(such as desulfurization slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, electric arc furnace slag, or ladle slag), magnesium production (calcium silicate slag), copper production (iron silicate slag), or other similar processes. Recycled concrete fines (RCF) can be generated in the crushing of concrete that can be from a demolition of a concrete structure, the crushing of returned concrete at a ready-mix facility, or wherever else concrete is crushed. RCF typically can include a mix of sand and hardened mortar. Ashes can be the residual portion resulting from combustion in a furnace. Common ash types can include coal ashes, biomass-derived ashes, and municipal solid waste (MSW) ashes. Ashes can include fly ash that is removed from the flue gas or gas treatment system, bottom ashes removed from the bottom of the furnace, ponded ashes that are taken from an ash pond, and landfilled ashes taken from a landfill. Tailings can come from a number of different mining operations including grinding, beneficiation, acid leaching, base leaching, or roasting. In some embodiments, a method for processing these abundant materials can include crushing the material. In the case of RCF, screening may be performed after the crushing to remove a portion of the aggregate sand. Materials that are resistant to crushing, such as large iron oxides or pyrites may be separated out in the crusher or after crushing through steps including air or liquid-based beneficiation. After crushing and beneficiation, materials can be ground to a target particle size such as between 5 micrometers and 1 mm depending on the reactivity of the feedstock.

[0288] In some embodiments, after grinding, acid leaching can be performed with a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, or a weak acid including acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, bisulfate, bisulfite, monobasic phosphate, oxalic acid or a combination of multiple acids. The quantity of acid can be sufficient to dissolve at least 50% of the iron, calcium, magnesium, and 25% of the aluminum measured to be present in the feedstock as determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) or similar methods. If using a weak acid, only the divalent cations may be considered. For most feedstocks, the amount of acid can range between 5 and 20 moles of acid per kg of feedstock. For highly reactive feedstocks, this can reach up to 40 moles of acid per kg.

[0289] In some embodiments, the operating temperature of the reactor when using a strong acid can be greater than 30°C for materials where acid consumption exceeds 14 mole acid / kg. For materials with acid consumptions less than 14 mole acid / kg, the temperature can be greater than 50°C. When using a weak acid, the temperature for all materials can be greater than 80°C.

[0290] In some embodiments, the leaching reaction may occur inside a compartment of an electrochemical reactor used to generate an acid solution used for leaching. In some embodiments, a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR), series of CSTRs, a plug flow reactor (PFR), a series of PFRs, or a combination of CSTRs and PFRs can be used for the leaching. For weak acid systems or feedstocks where the acid consumption is less than 14 mole acid / kg, a series of CSTRs or plug flow reactor can be used to achieve greater acid concentrations and accelerate the dissolution. In some embodiments, a residence time of under 1 hour can be used for materials where the acid consumption is less than 14 mole acid / kg. For other materials, a residence time of greater than 1 hour can be used. Batch or semi-batch reactors such as batch stirred reactors can also be used.

[0291] After acid leaching, the material can be filtered and washed. In some embodiments, filtering can be performed in a filter press, rotary filter, vacuum filter, or belt filter press. In some embodiments, washing can be performed with serial washes to reduce water consumption and yield a residual salt concentration within the filter cake (i.e., residual solid) of less than 1% on a dry cake basis.

[0292] In some embodiments, once washed and blown with air or vacuumed, the filter cake (i.e., residual solid) can have a moisture content of less than 60%, preferably less than 40%, and most preferably less than 30%. In some embodiments, after drying, the solid moisture content can be less than 5%. In some embodiments, drying can be performed in an oven, band dryer, spray dryer, flash dryer, steam-tube, or rotary dryer.

[0293] In some embodiments, after drying the material can be ground in a ball mill, attrition mill, or other mill until the median particle size on a weight% basis can be less than 20 micrometers or less than 10 micrometers.

[0294] In some embodiments, a cementitious material can include any of the above processed siliceous materials. In some embodiments, the cementitious material is a pozzolanic cement or a lime-pozzolan cement.

[0295] In some embodiments, provided herein is a method of producing a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material comprising leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, separating the leachate from the residual solid, washing the residual solid; and drying the residual solid to produce a dried residual solid; wherein the feedstock material comprises a silicate and / or aluminosilicate, and one or moremetal cations and one or more anions corresponding to the metal cations, wherein the metal cations are selected from the group consisting of iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum; and wherein the metal cations and the corresponding anions are soluble in the acid; wherein the leachate comprises the metal cations and the corresponding anions in dissolved form; and wherein the residual solid comprises the pozzolanic silicate and / or aluminosilicate.

[0296] In some embodiments, provided is a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material comprising silicate and / or aluminosilicate, wherein the pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material has one or more of the following properties: a requirement of no more than 15% more water than the OPC control to achieve flow within 5% of the OPC control when tested for Strength Activity Index (SAI) in accordance with ASTM C618; a SAI of greater than 80% at 7-days when tested for SAI in accordance with ASTM C618; a SAI of greater than 85% at 28-days when tested for SAI in accordance with ASTM C618; a heat release of less than 350 J / g as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20; a water-soluble chloride content of less than 2% as measured by ASTM C1218; and an amorphous content of less than 50%.

[0297] Feedstocks: In some embodiments, the feedstock material includes one or more metal cations and one or more anions corresponding to the metal cations and silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises a material that comprises an acid soluble metal cation including iron(II), iron(III), aluminum(III), magnesium(II), manganese (II,III, or IV), chromium(II, III, or VI), nickel(II), copper(II) and / or calcium(II) and insoluble silicate and / or aluminosilicate material. When these materials are leached in acid, a portion of the acid soluble cations (and their corresponding anions) can be removed while the insoluble portion remains. This insoluble portion may be a leached pozzolan depending on the conditions of the leaching. In some embodiments, materials where the oxides, hydroxides, or other formed compounds of acid-soluble cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al), as measured by XRF, are greater than about 10%, greater than about 20%, greater than about 30%, greater than about 40%, or greater than about 50% of the feedstock by mass can be preferred as higher acid-soluble contents may produce more reactive leached pozzolans. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, or at least about 50% by mass of metal cations and corresponding anions that are soluble in the leaching acid. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at leastabout 40%, or at least about 50% by mass of an oxide, hydroxide, or other formed compound of Ca, Mg, Fe, or Al, or a combination thereof, as measured by XRF. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at most about 90%, at most about 80%, at most about 70%, or at most about 60% by weight of silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at most about 65% by weight of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at most about 65%, at most about 70%, at most about 75%, or at most about 80% by weight of silicate and / or aluminosilicate. In some embodiments, the feedstock material comprises at least about 35% by weight of the metal cations and the corresponding anions and at most about 65% by weight of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate. Natural minerals, some slags, ashes, recycled concrete, and tailings are examples of materials that may exhibit a mass loss between about 10% and about 35% when digested in acid. Typically, these materials can consume less than about 12 mole acid / kg feedstock when digested. When digested, these materials may form a pozzolanic material that retains significant crystallinity but is depleted of cations forming a cation depleted crystalline SCM (CDC SCM). In some embodiments, the feedstock can be selected from the group consisting of natural minerals, ashes, recycled concrete, and / or tailings. In some embodiments, the feedstock can exhibit a mass loss of between about 10% and about 35% when digested in acid. In some embodiments, the feedstock exhibits a mass loss of at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, or at least about 30% when digested in acid. In some embodiments, the feedstock exhibits a mass loss of less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, or less than about 15% when digested in acid. In some embodiments, the feedstock consumes less than about 12 mole acid / kg feedstock when digested. Materials such as slags, kiln dusts, fly ashes from municipal solid wastes, recycled ore returned concrete materials, tailings, wollastonite, and olivine can be examples of materials that may require greater than about 14 mol and / or lose more than about 35% of their mass upon acid digestion. In some embodiments, the feedstock can be selected from the group consisting of slags, kiln dusts, fly ashes from municipal solid wastes, recycled ore returned concrete materials, tailings, wollastonite, and / or olivine. In some embodiments, these highly reactive silicates, however, may have relatively poor strength at 7 days or require more water than desirable to achieve sufficient flow. Digesting such materials in a weak acid such as bisulfate or acetic acid or pairing the feedstock with a less soluble feedstock may improve their flow.

[0298] Preprocessing: In some embodiments, a method comprises one or more preprocessing steps to grind the feedstock material to a desired particle size for reaction. In some embodiments, the grinding occurs via dry or wet means and may include multiple steps starting with coarse crushing and finishing with fine milling depending on the size and hardness of the initial feedstock and desired final particle size for leaching. The ability to use wet milling can be an advantage as traditional kiln-based processes would avoid adding water to the system as that would increase the energy requirement for the kiln. In some embodiments, sieves and other separation technologies may be used to separate out undesirable components of the feedstock (e.g., dense iron containing species). In some embodiments, this can be performed by wet or dry means, for example using elutriation tubes, cyclones or hyrdocyclones, centrifugation, filters, screens, or air or water-based beneficiation processes. In some embodiments, magnetic separation can be employed to remove certain magnetic species. In some embodiments, preprocessing feedstocks to generate a median particle size on a weight% basis of less than 3 millimeters, and preferably less than 1 mm, is advantageous for producing a more reactive material while reducing the required residence time in the reactor.

[0299] Leaching Acid: In some embodiments, the acid used for leaching may be an inorganic acid, an organic acid, a strong acid, and / or a weak acid. In some embodiments, the acid is hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid, acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, formic acid, carbonic acid, bisulfate solution, and / or bisulfite solutions. In some embodiments, the concentration of the acid can be at least about 0.1 normal, at least about 0.5 normal, at least about 1 normal, at least about 2 normal, at least about 3 normal, at least about 4 normal, at least about 5 normal, at least about 6 normal, at least about 8 normal, at least about 10 normal, or at least about 12 normal. In some embodiments, the concentration of the acid can be greater than about 1 normal or greater than about 5 normal to minimize pumping and liquid transportation. In some embodiments, the acid solution can include other ions, such as sodium salts, calcium salts, magnesium salts, iron salts, aluminum salts, or some combination to maintain a high ionic strength. In some cases, maintaining a high ionic strength can help with the filtration and cake properties of the separated solids after exiting the reactor. In some embodiments, the acid can be sourced from a regenerable source such as an electrochemical device that can split spent brine into an acid and base stream. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reactor can be a chlor-alkali plant that produces hydrochloric acid and a hydroxide solution. In other embodiments, theelectrochemical device can be an electrodialysis system or a salt splitting electrolyzer. In some embodiments, hydrogen or oxygen gas can be transported to and / or from some of the electrodes. In some embodiments, thermochemical means can be used to regenerate the acid. In some embodiments, the spent acid salts (for example the calcium, iron, magnesium, or aluminum salts of the acid’s anion) can be heated until the acid is regenerated as an acid gas such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and / or a nitrogen oxide. In some embodiments, the heating can be performed in the presence of steam. In some embodiments the heating can release a basic gas such as ammonia leaving behind a regenerated acidic salt or solution. In some embodiments, the acid can be available as a product, byproduct, or waste stream from another process. For example, sulfuric acid may be produced via an acid plant where the sulfur is sourced from a sulfur removal system at an oil refinery, gas plant, and / or coal-fired boiler. In some embodiments, more than one acid can be used. For example, in some embodiments, acetic acid may be used first to remove calcium, for which it preferentially dissolves, and then be followed by a stronger acid to remove magnesium, iron, and / or aluminum. In some embodiments, two organic acids, two inorganic acids, or one of each may be used. In some embodiments, two strong acids, two weak acids, or one of each may be used. In some embodiments, the addition of the second acid can serve to regenerate, completely or partially, the first acid. For example, adding sulfuric acid to systems that have dissolved calcium can produce calcium sulfate and regenerate the original acid.

[0300] Leaching Reactor(s): In some embodiments, the leaching can be performed in a reactor. In some embodiments, the leaching can be performed in a compartment of an electrochemical reactor used to make an acid solution used for the leaching. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reactor compartment may be the anode compartment. In some embodiments, the reactor design can be a batch, semi-batch, or continuous reactor. In some embodiments, acid can be contacted with the solid stream in a co-current, cross-current, or counter-current with a single or multiple injection locations along the length of the reaction system. In some embodiments, the reactor types can include one or more plug flow style reactors or one or more continuous stirred tank reactors. In some embodiments, the reactor can be agitated through fluid motion. In some embodiments, the reactor is agitated through flow. In some embodiments, minimal agitation can be used in the reactor. In some embodiments, the solid can be immobilized and leached in a semi-batch mode where the acid is flowed through a bed of the solid feedstock particles until sufficient leaching is achieved.Such a process can be performed with the leaching of a single bed or multiple beds configured in a counter-current or co-current configuration. Beds may be immobilized between two fine pore filters, with a single filter, or with no filters and the use of gravity. Filtering equipment including filter presses, rotary presses, belt presses, reactors with false filter bottoms and the like may be used.

[0301] Leaching Conditions: Dissolution conditions that impact the leaching efficiency and pozzolan properties include the chemical composition of the acid solution, the temperature, residence time, mixing (agitation and / or turbulence), and / or solid particle size. For feedstocks with lesser amounts of soluble cations and / or when using a weaker acid, longer residence times, smaller particles, and / or higher temperatures may be preferred. Conversely, feedstocks with higher fractions of soluble cations and / or when using strong acids, larger particles, shorter residence times, and / or lower temperatures may be preferred. For feedstocks with less than 50% by mass soluble cations (Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO as measured by XRF), residence times greater than one hour and preferably greater than four hours may be used. For feedstocks with more than 50% by mass soluble cations, residence times of less than four hours are preferred. In some embodiments, where a weak acid such as acetic is used, temperatures more than about 80 °C may be desired. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to operate at elevated pressure to reach temperatures more than about 100 °C to improve leaching efficiency. In some embodiments, the leaching is performed at a temperature from about 80 °C to about 120 °C. In some embodiments, the leaching is performed at a temperature of at least about 80 °C, at least about 90 °C, at least about 100 °C, at least about 110 °C, or at least about 120 °C.

[0302] Solid Separation: After leaching, the residual solids can be separated from the liquid stream or leachate. In some embodiments, the separating can be accomplished through settling, centrifugation, elutriation, pressure filtering, cyclonic separation, and / or vacuum filtration. In some embodiments, the separation process is part of the reactor. In some embodiments, the separation process is a downstream unit operation. In some embodiments, the separation is performed continuously. In some embodiments, the separation is performed in batches. In some embodiments, after the liquid is separated from the residual solids, some portion of the liquid may still be retained in the solid stream. In some embodiments, the solids can be washed to recover the salts dissolved in the retained liquid. In some embodiments, the solids can be washed within the separation equipment. In someembodiments, the solids can be washed in separate equipment from the separation equipment. In some embodiments, a variety of water sources may be used for washing, such as deionized water, freshwater, filtered water, municipal water, brackish water, saltwater or brine solutions, or process water streams containing dissolved ions. In some embodiments, deionized water can be used to produce high purity solids. In some embodiments, brackish water can be used to reduce freshwater consumption. In some embodiments, serial washes of increasing cleanliness can be performed. In some embodiments, a volatile component, such as ethanol or isopropanol, can be used in the washing to improve the ease of drying. In some embodiments, the separating and washing can produce a solid cake product. In some embodiments, the solid cake product comprises between about 0% and about 60% moisture. In some embodiments, the solid cake product comprises at least about 0%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, or at least about 50% moisture. In some embodiments, the solid cake product comprises at most about 60%, at most about 50%, at most about 40%, at most about 30%, at most about 20%, or at most about 10% moisture.

[0303] Recycle: In some embodiments, the separated liquid or leachate that is extracted from the solid can be recycled into the reactor. In some embodiments, the recycled liquid includes a portion or all of the washing fluid used to remove the retained liquid from the solid. In some embodiments, water may recovered via condensing water vapor generated upon drying the solid may be recycled. In some embodiments, the separated liquid and washing fluid can be used to adjust the acid concentration and ionic strength in the reactor. In some embodiments, the liquid can be used to convey solid particles as a slurry. In some embodiments, it may also be desirable to recycle a fraction of the solids recovered into the reactor for further leaching, for example solids with greater than average particle size that may require longer leaching times. In some embodiments, a portion of solids can be collected in such a way to return solids of greater than average particle size to the reactor. In some embodiments, the recycled particles can be milled or ground via a wet or solid grinding method such as a ball mill, bowl mill, attrition mill, jet mill, pin mill, or bead mill.

[0304] Control: In some embodiments, the leaching process can be controlled or modulated in response to various measurements, including measurement of the pH, conductivity, ion-selective electrode (ISE) potential, density, spectrophotometric absorbance (or transmittance), solution composition (such as by ICP), solid composition (such as XRF orXRD), titration (potentiometric, colorimetric, or thermometric) and / or temperature of either the product slurry streams or separated liquid streams. In some embodiments, the measured stream can be diluted, filtered, cooled, and / or heated prior to measurement. In some embodiments, the measurement of pH may indicate the concentration of remaining acid, the density may indicate the extent of dissolution of salts into the solution, and / or the spectrophotometric absorbance or transmittance may indicate the presence of particular species such as iron cations that absorb certain wavelengths. In some embodiments, it can be desirable to add additives to assist with these measurements, such as complexing agents that bind to particular cations like aluminum or iron. In some embodiments, inlet reactant flow rates, acid / solid ratio, temperature, residence time, product flow rates, heating, and / or cooling systems may be adjusted based on the measurements discussed above in order to achieve a particular parameter such as an outlet pH, outlet filtrate density, and / or outlet concentration. In some embodiments, these parameters may be measured by, for example, spectrophotometry. In some embodiments, where two solids are being digested, the ratio of the two solids may be adjusted in response to one or more measurements.

[0305] Post-Processing: In some embodiments, after the residual solid is separated and washed, the residual solid may be dried prior to use to prepare a dried residual solid that meets a desired moisture requirement. In some embodiments, the drying can be accomplished by piling the residual solid outdoors and allowing it to dry. In some embodiments, the drying can be performed using heat, vacuum, compressed air, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the drying can be performed using equipment such as spray dryers, band dryers, flash dryers, rotary evaporative dryers, ovens, furnaces, belt dryers, and / or other similar equipment. In some embodiments, the residual solid or dried residual solid can be further ground or milled after washing and / or drying. In some embodiments, the grinding or milling can be performed after washing, and the grinding can be performed using wet or dry means. In some embodiments, the grinding or milling can be performed after drying, and the grinding can be performed using dry means. In some embodiments, such grinding may further break particles embrittled by the leaching process and / or break up agglomerates formed during the reaction, washing, and / or drying steps. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a mean particle size (D50) of less than about 20 micrometers as measured by laser diffraction in water and an apparent packed density of less than about 1.5 grams per mL as measured by the method in ASTM C110 or a similar method. In some embodiments, it is preferred to mix the solids with other ingredients in the mill including flow enhancers,cement clinkers (portland, calcium aluminate, or calcium sulfoaluminate), calcium sulfate (gypsum, anhydrite, or bassanite), limestone (high calcium or dolomitic), lime (hydrated or quicklime), one or more aluminum compound / additives, and / or grinding aids (diethylene glycol, triethanolamine, or other amines).

[0306] In some embodiments, the siliceous material, supplementary cementitious material (SCM), or pozzolan may have one or more of the following attributes, including combinations and variations of the following:

[0307] Specific surface area of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0308] Specific surface area of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0309] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0310] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0311] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, 800 m2 / g, 900 m2 / g, 1000 m2 / g, 1100 m2 / g, 1200 m2 / g, 1400 m2 / g, 1600 m2 / g, 1800 m2 / g, or 2000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0312] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, 800 m2 / g, 900 m2 / g, 1000 m2 / g, 1100 m2 / g, 1200 m2 / g, 1400 m2 / g, 1600 m2 / g, 1800 m2 / g, or 2000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0313] Average roughness factor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughness factor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area to volume ratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a sphere having the same volume as the actual particle;

[0314] Average primary particle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0315] Average primary particle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0316] Narrow particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0317] Wide particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0318] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0319] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0320] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0321] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0322] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0323] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0324] An apparent packed density of less than about 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, or 2.5 grams per mL as measured by the method in ASTM C110 or a similar method;

[0325] An apparent packed density of at least 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, or 2.5 grams per mL as measured by the method in ASTM C110 or a similar method;

[0326] A true density or skeletal density of less than about 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, or 4.0 grams per mL;

[0327] A true density or skeletal density of at least 11.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, or 4.0 grams per mL;

[0328] Purity of at least 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass on the basis of silica or alumina and silica;

[0329] Purity of less than 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass on the basis of silica or alumina and silica;

[0330] Amorphous content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0331] Amorphous content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0332] Silica or SiO2 content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0333] Silica or SiO2 content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0334] Alumina or Al2O3content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0335] Alumina or Al2O3content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0336] Iron oxide or Fe2O3 content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0337] Iron oxide or Fe2O3content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0338] Sodium oxide or Na2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0339] Sodium oxide or Na2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0340] Potassium oxide or K2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0341] Potassium oxide or K2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0342] Sum of Sodium and potassium oxide or Na2O + K2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0343] Sum of Sodium and potassium oxide or Na2O + K2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%,7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0344] Sum of calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and iron oxide or CaO+MgO+Fe2O3content of at least 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, or 20%;

[0345] Sum of calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and iron oxide or CaO+MgO+Fe2O3 content of at most 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, or 20%;

[0346] Calcium carbonate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0347] Calcium carbonate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0348] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0349] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0350] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0351] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0352] Calcium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0353] Calcium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0354] Chloride content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0355] Chloride content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0356] Nitrate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0357] Nitrate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0358] Nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%,20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0359] Nitrite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0360] Sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0361] Sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0362] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0363] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0364] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass; and / or

[0365] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%,18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass.

[0366] In some embodiments, the water demand of a pozzolan paste can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand is determined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of pozzolan and water compared to a reference solution. According to one method, the reference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150: Specification for Portland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. For example, the amounts used may be 100g of ordinary portland cement and 40g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration, preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The test colloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100g of dry pozzolan to a mixing container, and adding 10g of water. This mixture may be mixed well by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity of the colloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. If the viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may be added in 5g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process may be repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as the reference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry pozzolan used.

[0367] In some embodiments, flow table spread of a pozzolan mortar can be at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, 105%, 110%, 115%, 120%, 130%, 140%, or 150% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 pozzolan to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109. The mortar may be prepared using a water to dry pozzolan ratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where said water is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortar may be mixed in accordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens).

[0368] In some embodiments, the water demand of a pozzolan mortar can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basiswhile obtaining a flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of a pozzolan mortar may be determined by preparing a mortar mix that includes dry pozzolan and Graded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined by ASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actual amount of dry pozzolan used may be 250g and the actual amount of sand used may be 687.5g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, may be added initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25g, and the mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare the mortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow using the method and apparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, a weight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5g, may be added to the mortar. The mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again, following which the flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 may be conducted. This process may be repeated until the sample suspension has a mortar flow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry pozzolan used. The sand is not included in the weight determination.

[0369] In some embodiments, some of these properties of the pozzolan may improve its performance in cement. In some embodiments, pozzolans with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand. That is to say, these properties may mean less water must be added to cement containing such pozzolan or pozzolans in order to achieve sufficiently high flow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles with large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, have smaller surface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, or for other related reasons. Cements and / or concretes with lower water demand may perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump, or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured as needed to meet the requirements of a particular application, while having less water added to the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in higher compressive strength and / or shorter setting times. This may be because adding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set, and / or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume is correlated with increased compressive strength. In some embodiments, particles with certaindiameters or diameter distributions may enable higher packing efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles or aggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material with higher compressive strength. Cements, mortars, or concretes made with lower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due to lower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed and isolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides, sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead to degradation of building materials or structures.

[0370] In some embodiments, the dried residual solid (i.e., the siliceous material, supplementary cementitious material (SCM), or pozzolan) has a requirement of no more than about 15% more water than the OPC control to achieve flow within about 5% of the OPC control when tested for Strength Activity Index (SAI) in accordance with ASTM C618. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a SAI of greater than about 80% at 7-days when tested for SAI in accordance with ASTM C618. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a SAI of greater than about 85% at 28-days when tested for SAI in accordance with ASTM C618. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat release of less than about 350 J / g as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a water-soluble or acid-soluble chloride content of less than about 2% as measured by ASTM C1218. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has an amorphous content of less than about 50%. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has an apparent packed density of less than 1.5 grams per mL as measured by the method in ASTM C110 or a similar method. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid is capable of reacting with portlandite to convert a portion of its crystalline silicates to amorphous CSH gel in cementitious mixes comprising portland cement or portlandite.

[0371] In some embodiments, the dried residual solid (i.e., the siliceous material, supplementary cementitious material (SCM), or pozzolan) is a leached pozzolan. The leached pozzolan reactivity can be measured in multiple ways including the strength activity index test as described in ASTM C311-18, “Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-Cement Concrete,” pozzolan reactivity test (PRT) or R3 tests as described in ASTM C1897-20: Standard Test Methods for Measuring the Reactivity of Supplementary Cementitious Materials by Isothermal Calorimetry and Bound Water Measurements, the Lime-Pozzolan Strength Development mortar test as described in ASTM C593-19, “Specification for Fly Ash and Other Pozzolans for Use WithLime for Soil Stabilization,” or others. Increased reactivity can be correlated to various parameters including increased amorphous content measured by XRD, increased surface area measured by BET, increased mortar strength, increased heat release by isothermal calorimetry, and / or increased bound water per ASTM C1897-20. In some embodiments, at least 10% of the silicate is converted to an amorphous phase during a 7-day PRT or R3 test at 50°C or 40°C, respectively. In some embodiments, at least 20% of the silicate is converted or over 30% of the silicate is converted into an amorphous phase. In some embodiments, at least 40 grams of portlandite per 100 grams of silicate are consumed during the 7-day PRT test at 50°C. In some embodiments, over 60 grams of portlandite per 100 grams of silicate or over 75 grams of portlandite per 100 grams of silicate.

[0372] One of the most widely deployed pozzolans is fly ash derived from combustion furnaces. Fly ash has high amorphous content but still relatively low reactivity during the first week of cement or concrete curing. As a result, the total amount of fly ash that can be added to a mix is around 20% before significant performance deterioration is observed in short-term strength and set times increase significantly. While results vary depending on the fly ash, a fly ash added at 20% may reduce the 7-day compressive strength of an OPC mortar by 10-20% despite increasing compressive strength at longer times (such as 90 days).

[0373] Pozzolans capable maintaining mortar strength at 7 days to within 20% of an OPC control when blended at greater than or equal to 20%, can be desirable as they would allow greater displacement of energy and carbon intensive OPC with less intensive pozzolans. In some embodiments, the leached pozzolan or leached pozzolan blend can maintain compressive strength at 7 days within about 20%, within about 15%, within about 10%, within about 5%, match the OPC control, or exceed the OPC control by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50%. In some embodiments, the leached pozzolan or leached pozzolan blend can maintain compressive strength at 7 days within about 20% or maintain compressive strength within about 5%.

[0374] Similarly, an effective pozzolan can also be expected to maintain the mortar strength to within about 20% of the OPC control at 28 days. In some embodiments, the leached pozzolan (i.e., residual solids disclosed herein) or leached pozzolan blend can maintain compressive strength at 28 days within about 20%, within about 15%, within about 10%, or within about 5% of the OPC control, meets the compressive strength at 28 days of the OPC control, and / or exceeds the compressive strength at 28 days of the OPC control. Insome embodiments, the leached pozzolan or leached pozzolan blend can maintain compressive strength at 28 days within about 10% and / or meets or exceeds the compressive strength of the OPC control. In some embodiments, the mortar can exceed the compressive strength of the OPC control at 28 days by 10%, 25%, 50%, or even up to 60%.

[0375] In the C618 requirements, the ASTM requires the appropriate quantity of water to be added to maintain the same flow as the OPC control. The water required should not exceed more than about 15% of the water required for the OPC. Therefore, it can be desirable for pozzolans to achieve equivalent flow to OPC with less than about 15% additional water. In some embodiments, the leached pozzolans disclosed herein achieve equivalent flow to OPC with less than about 15%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% additional water. In some embodiments, the pozzolans can achieve within 5% of the flow of OPC with the same amount of water used.

[0376] In some embodiments, for CDC SCMs, feedstocks where the mass loss from digestion is equal to or less than about 35% of the dry feedstock mass can be preferred, as greater leaching can lead to a greater consumption of acid and correspondingly greater processing costs. In some embodiments, however, material with mass losses greater than about 50% can still form effective pozzolans with good flow. Leaching with weaker acids, such as acetic acid or bisulfate, can tend to maintain desirable flow properties even at high leaching fraction. In some embodiments, the leaching can result in a mass loss from the feedstock to the dried residual solid of between about 10% and about 35%. In some embodiments, the leaching can result in a mass loss from the feedstock to the dried residual solid of between about 10% and about 50%. In some embodiments, the leaching can result in a mass loss from the feedstock to the dried residual solid of at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, or at least about 45%. In some embodiments, the leaching can result in a mass loss from the feedstock to the dried residual solid of less than about 50%, less than about 45%, less than about 40%, less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, or less than about 15%.

[0377] In some embodiments, for CDC SCMs, lower heats of reaction with lime have been observed compared to traditional pozzolans such as natural pozzolan and fly ash. These lower heats are likely resultant from the more stable crystalline initial state of the pozzolan.Lower heats can be preferrable in many instances such as construction of large structures including dams, wind turbine bases, etc.

[0378] In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 7 days of between about 75 J / g and about 200 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 7 days of at least about 75 J / g, at least about 80 J / g, at least about 90 J / g, at least about 100 J / g, at least about 110 J / g, at least about 120 J / g, at least about 130 J / g, at least about 140 J / g, at least about 150 J / g, at least about 160 J / g, at least about 170 J / g, at least about 180 J / g, or at least about 190 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 7 days of less than about 200 J / g, less than about 190 J / g, less than about 180 J / g, less than about 170 J / g, less than about 160 J / g, less than about 150 J / g, less than about 140 J / g, less than about 130 J / g, less than about 120 J / g, less than about 110 J / g, less than about 100 J / g, less than about 90 J / g, or less than about 80 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 10 days of between about 75 J / g and about 200 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 7 days of at least about 75 J / g, at least about 80 J / g, at least about 90 J / g, at least about 100 J / g, at least about 110 J / g, at least about 120 J / g, at least about 130 J / g, at least about 140 J / g, at least about 150 J / g, at least about 160 J / g, at least about 170 J / g, at least about 180 J / g, or at least about 190 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid has a heat of reaction with lime measured at 10 days of less than about 200 J / g, less than about 190 J / g, less than about 180 J / g, less than about 170 J / g, less than about 160 J / g, less than about 150 J / g, less than about 140 J / g, less than about 130 J / g, less than about 120 J / g, less than about 110 J / g, less than about 100 J / g, less than about 90 J / g, or less than about 80 J / g. Isothermal calorimetry heats measured at 7 or 10 days between about 75 J / g and about 150 J / g can be preferred but more reactive materials can range between up to about 200 J / g or exceed about 200 J / g.

[0379] The reactivity of a pozzolan can also be inferred through the increase in strength from 7 days to 28 days when tested in the Strength Activity Index test as described in ASTM C311 and referenced in ASTM C618. In this test, dry leached silicate would be used in a blend of about 20% silicate and about 80% OPC and tested for compressive strength. Whereas an OPC control would only be expected to gain around 5 MPa in compressive strength from 7 to 28 days, highly reactive silicates may increase the compressive strength from 7 to 28 days by about 10 MPa or more. In some embodiments, the dried residual solidcan gain at least about 5 MPa, at least about 6 MPa, at least about 7 MPa, at least about 8 MPa, at least about 9 MPa, or at least about 10 MPa in compressive strength from 7 to 28 days.

[0380] Feedstocks where the leaching of acid soluble cations causes a reduction in mass of greater than about 35% on a dry weight basis may produce highly reactive silicates. In some embodiments, the reactivity of these silicates can be quantified through isothermal calorimetry using PRT method where a mixture of lime, the pozzolan, water, and potassium hydroxide can be mixed and tested in an isothermal calorimeter at 50°C. Highly reactive leached materials can release heats of >150 J / g and preferrable >200 J / g. In some embodiments, the dried residual solid can release a heat of at least about 150 J / g, at least about 160 J / g, at least about 170 J / g, at least about 180 J / g, at least about 190 J / g, or at least about 200 J / g according to the PRT method discussed above.

[0381] Highly reactive silicates may be blended with less reactive silicates having either a lesser reactivity in isothermal calorimetry, lower increase in compressive strength gain from 7 to 28 days, or both. This may be achieved by mixing or blending feedstocks with different properties before acid digestion (i.e., leaching), during the acid digestion simultaneously or sequentially, or by mixing different pozzolans resulting from separate leaching steps after the digestion is complete, or a combination of these approaches. The blended material would preferably have a good mix of flow, 7-day, and 28-day strength. In some embodiments, the reactivity of the dried residual solid and the second material is measured by at least one of: SAI as measured in ASTM C618; or heat release as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20.

[0382] In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises two or more separate materials each of which comprise a different concentration of the metal cations. In some embodiments, the second material may have a lower concentration of metal cations than the first feedstock material that forms the dried residual solid. In some embodiments, the material with a higher concentration of soluble metal cations can be added at a later time, or at a later position in the reactor than the material with a lower concentration of soluble metal cations (i.e., material that will have a lower reactivity). Sulfate compounds

[0383] In some embodiments, sulfate compounds may be used as an additive to or a component of cement, concrete, and / or related construction and building materials. The cement as described herein may contain a source of sulfate, or a sulfate-containing compound. This material may comprise a calcium sulfate such as gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate), plaster (calcium sulfate hemihydrate), or anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulfate), or a combination thereof. This material may comprise an aluminum sulfate, iron sulfate, sodium sulfate, or potassium sulfate. This material may comprise a phosphogypsum, or gypsum derived from phosophogypsum. This material may comprise a langbeinite, such as calcium langbeinite.

[0384] In some embodiments, blends of sulfate may include 25-75% gypsum blended with 75%-25% plaster, or 40-60% gypsum blended with 60-40% plaster, or blends of gypsum, plaster, and anhydrite in any ratio.

[0385] In some embodiments, sodium or potassium sulfate may be added at 0%-5% weight based on total cementitious binder.

[0386] In some embodiments, the sulfate compound may serve multiple purposes in the cement blend. Sulfate compounds may slow down the hydration reactions of the aluminum- and iron-containing components of portland cement to prevent “flash setting” and / or otherwise delay the time of setting. Sulfate compounds may be added to the cement described herein for a similar purpose. Sulfate compounds may also be added to aid in the formation of sulfate-containing hardened phases such as ettringite, therefore contributing to the strength of hardened cement. Sulfate compounds may be added or to otherwise modify the fresh or hardened properties of the cement. Sulfate may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 90% by mass of the cement blend. In some embodiments, the sulfate compound content may range from 5% to 50% by mass of the cement blend.

[0387] In some embodiments, the calcium sulfate may have a median particle diameter (D50) between gypsum is 0.1 – 500 micron, 0.5-200 micron, or 1-100 micron. The calcium sulfate may have a particle size distribution such that >90% is below 90 micron, >80% is below 90 micron, >60% is below 90 micron. The calcium sulfate may have a particle size distribution such that <80% is below 10 micron, <70% is below 10 micron, <50% is below 10 micron. Portland cement or portland cement clinker

[0388] In some embodiments, portland cement or portland cement clinker may be a component of the cement. This portland cement itself is hydraulic and sets and hardens over time. The portland cement may be added to the blend to serve as an alkali activator (portland cement contains some sodium oxide and potassium oxide, causing it to reach pH values of 13-13.5 when mixed with water). The portland cement may be added to speed up the setting and hardening of the cement. The portland cement may be added to otherwise modify the fresh (unhardened) and / or hardened properties of the cement. Portland cement may be used in quantities of 0% - 98% by mass of the blend. Most typically, the portland cement content may be between 0 – 40%. Set accelerating additives

[0389] Chemical components may be added to the cement blend for the purpose of accelerating the setting time and strength development during hardening. These may include, without limitation, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium chloride, calcium bromide, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodium metasilicate, sodium thiocyanate, sodium lactate, sodium formate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, diethanolisopropanolamine, diethylene glycol, nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime. These additives may be used to affect the speed and extent of the hydration reactions, and therefore affect the fresh and hardened properties of the cement. In some embodiments such additives may be used to shorten the setting time, or to increase the compressive strength, of the cement or concrete. These set accelerating admixtures may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 25% by mass of the cement blend. Calcium carbonate

[0390] Limestone is a mineral primarily composed of calcium carbonate. Limestone, dolomite, or other sources of calcium carbonate may be added to act as an inexpensive, carbon-free inert filler that saves cost without decreasing the performance of the cement. Calcium carbonate may also be added to react with other components of the cements described herein. In some cases, the calcium carbonate may react with the aluminum- containing materials to produce carboaluminate hardened phases which improve or contribute to the strength and other performance characteristics of the hardened cement. The calciumcarbonate may also be added to otherwise modify the fresh or hardened properties of the cement. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may be a ground or milled limestone. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may be a precipitated calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, precipitated calcium carbonate may be smoother, less angular, have smaller surface area / volume ratio, or have other physical or chemical differences compared to ground limestone. In some embodiments, precipitated calcium carbonate may have lower water demand (amount of water required to generate cement paste, cement mortar, concrete, or similar products with sufficient flow) compared to ground limestone. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may comprise calcite, aragonite, and vaterite polymorph or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate comprising vaterite may be considered “reactive” calcium carbonate, because it may be able to react and form other polymorphs such as aragonite or calcite, contributing to setting, hardening, and strength development of the cement. Calcium carbonate may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 60% by mass of the cement blend.

[0391] In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have one or more of the following attributes, including combinations and variations of the following:

[0392] Specific surface area of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0393] Specific surface area of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0394] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0395] A micropore volume and / or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL / g, 0.02 mL / g, 0.03 mL / g, 0.04 mL / g, 0.05 mL / g, 0.06 mL / g, 0.07 mL / g, 0.08 mL / g, 0.09 mL / g, 0.10 mL / g, 0.11 mL / g, 0.12 mL / g, 0.13 mL / g, 0.14 mL / g, 0.15 mL / g, 0.16 mL / g, 0.17 mL / g, 0.18 mL / g, 0.19 mL / g, 0.20 mL / g, 0.25 mL / g, 0.30 mL / g, 0.40 mL / g, 0.50 mL / g, 0.60 mL / g, 0.70 mL / g, 0.80 mL / g, 0.90 mL / g, 1.00 mL / g, 1.2 mL / g, 1.4 mL / g, 1.6 mL / g, 1.8 mL / g, 2 mL / g, 3 mL / g, 4 mL / g, 5 mL / g, 6 mL / g, 7 mL / g, 8 mL / g, 9 mL / g, 10 mL / g, 20 mL / g, 30 mL / g, 40 mL / g, or 50 mL / g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique;

[0396] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0397] Blaine fineness (air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m2 / g, 0.05 m2 / g, 0.1 m2 / g, 0.3 m2 / g, 0.5 m2 / g, 0.7 m2 / g, 1 m2 / g, 2 m2 / g, 3 m2 / g, 4 m2 / g, 5 m2 / g, 6 m2 / g, 7 m2 / g, 8 m2 / g, 9 m2 / g, 10 m2 / g, 12 m2 / g, 15 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 25 m2 / g, 30 m2 / g, 35 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 45 m2 / g, 50 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 70 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 90 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 120 m2 / g, 150 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 300 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 500 m2 / g, 700 m2 / g, or 1000 m2 / g as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus;

[0398] Average roughness factor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughness factor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area to volume ratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a sphere having the same volume as the actual particle;

[0399] Average primary particle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0400] Average primary particle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0401] Narrow particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0402] Wide particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter range having a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm;

[0403] A primary crystal morphology with hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of a hexagonal prism;

[0404] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0405] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0406] Minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0407] Average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50;

[0408] Amorphous content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0409] Amorphous content of less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume;

[0410] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3 (m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0411] Specific surface area to major diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.2 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.3 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.5 (m2 / g) / micron, 0.7 (m2 / g) / micron, 1 (m2 / g) / micron, 3(m2 / g) / micron, 5 (m2 / g) / micron, 7 (m2 / g) / micron, 10 (m2 / g) / micron, 20 (m2 / g) / micron, 30 (m2 / g) / micron, 40 (m2 / g) / micron, 50 (m2 / g) / micron, 70 (m2 / g) / micron, or 100 (m2 / g) / micron;

[0412] Purity of at least 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium carbonate;

[0413] Purity of less than 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium carbonate;

[0414] Silica content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0415] Silica content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0416] Calcium carbonate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0417] Calcium carbonate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0418] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0419] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0420] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0421] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0422] Calcium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0423] Calcium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0424] Chloride content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0425] Chloride content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0426] Nitrate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0427] Nitrate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0428] Nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0429] Nitrite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0430] Sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0431] Sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0432] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0433] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass;

[0434] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass; and / or

[0435] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

[0436] In some embodiments, the water demand of a limestone paste can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand is determined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of limestone and water compared to a reference solution. According to one method, the reference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150: Specification for Portland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. For example, the amounts used may be 100g of ordinary portland cement and 40g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration, preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The test colloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100g of dry limestone to a mixing container, and adding 10g of water. This mixture may be mixed well by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity ofthe colloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. If the viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may be added in 5g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process may be repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as the reference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry limestone used.

[0437] In some embodiments, flow table spread of a limestone mortar can be at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, or 150% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 limestone to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109. The mortar may be prepared using a water to dry limestone ratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where said water is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortar may be mixed in accordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens).

[0438] In some embodiments, the water demand of a limestone mortar can be less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining a flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of a limestone mortar may be determined by preparing a mortar mix that includes dry limestone and Graded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined by ASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actual amount of dry limestone used may be 250g and the actual amount of sand used may be 687.5g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, may be added initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25g, and the mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare the mortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow using the method and apparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, a weight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5g, may be added to the mortar. The mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again, following which the flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 may be conducted. This process maybe repeated until the sample suspension has a mortar flow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry limestone used. The sand is not included in the weight determination.

[0439] In some embodiments, some of these properties of the calcium carbonate may improve its performance in cement. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand. In some embodiments, these properties may mean less water must be added to cement containing such limestone in order to achieve sufficiently high flow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles with large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and / or small micropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, have smaller surface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, or for other related reasons. Cements and / or concretes with lower water demand may perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump, or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured as needed to meet the requirements of a particular application, while having less water added to the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in higher compressive strength and / or shorter setting times. This may be because adding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set, and / or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume is correlated with increased compressive strength. Cements, mortars, or concretes made with lower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due to lower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed and isolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides, sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead to degradation of building materials or structures.

[0440] Calcium carbonate particles with certain diameters or diameter distributions may enable higher packing efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles or aggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material with higher compressive strength. Small or fine particles of calcium carbonate may fill voids in the cement, improving strength and durability. Small or fine particles of calcium carbonate may act as nucleation points or seeds for the precipitation of hydrated or hardened phases, increasing the speed and / or extent of the cement hydration reactions and therefore improving the cement’s performance. Water reducing additives

[0441] Water reducing admixtures may be added to reduce the amount of water that can be mixed into the cement, mortar, or concrete as described herein to achieve sufficient flow. These may include without limitation Type A, Water-reducing admixtures, Type D-water reducing and retarding admixtures, Type E-water reducing and accelerating admixtures, Type F-water-reducing, high range admixtures, Type G-water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures, as defined in ASTM C494, “Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.” These may include superplasticizers such as polycarboxylate and / or naphthalene- based superplasticizers. These water reducing additives may be blended into the cement, mortar, or concrete as a dry powder, or they may be added to the cement, mortar, or concrete as solution in water or another solvent. These additives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. In some embodiments, the additives can be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass of the cement blend. Flocculants or dispersants

[0442] Flocculants or dispersants may be added to change the colloidal behavior of the cement, mortar, or concrete as described herein to achieve certain flow characteristics. If the suspension is determined to have excessive flocculation which may cause issues with mixing, segregation of cementitious phases, or other deleterious effects, a dispersant may be added to promote the breakup of these flocs and homogenize the colloidal suspension. If instead the suspension is determined to be too dispersed, a flocculant may be added to induce formation of flocs. This can be desired to increase the volume of water in between solids, or cause settling of the suspended solids for a larger degree of compaction. These additives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. In some embodiments, the additives can be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass of the cement blend. Defoamers

[0443] A defoamer may be added to modify the surface tension of the cement, mortar, or concrete as described herein to achieve mixing characteristics. The air content of a cement, mortar, or concrete may be linked to other performance characteristics such as compressive strength, freeze-thaw resistance, and permeability. Certain other additives which may be added to the cement, mortar, or concrete as described herein may reduce the surface tension of the liquid fraction of the solution which may lead to an undesirable foaming during mixingand transportation. This foaming behavior can add excessive air to the cement, mortar, or concrete which can severely limit the performance. Additionally, this foaming behavior can introduce substantial voids in the cement. The surface tension can be increased with the addition of a defoamer, restoring the necessary foaming behavior to ensure that excessive air is not entrained. These additives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. In some embodiments, the additives can be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass of the cement blend. Air entraining admixtures

[0444] An air entraining admixture may be added to ensure the proper amount of air is entrained in the cement, mortar, or concrete as described herein to achieve specified freeze- thaw resistance and permeability. Depending on the amount of air entrained by the mix, the air fraction may be too low to effectively resist freeze-thaw cycling common to colder climates. An air-entraining admixture, as specified in ASTM C260: Specification for Air- Entraining Admixtures for Concrete, may be added to increase the amount of air entrained to an acceptable amount. In some embodiments, the amount of air to entrain can be 9% by volume. The air entraining admixtures can have an added benefit of well dispersing the air bubbles entrained and controlling their size. These additives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. In some embodiments, the additives can be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass of the cement blend. Alite (tricalcium silicate)

[0445] Some alite, tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5or C3S in cement chemist notation) may be used in the cement blend. Alite is a component of portland cement clinker. It may react with water to create calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate. Alite may be an important component of portland cement that contributes most significantly to portland cement’s setting time and early strength development. Therefore, adding alite may contribute to rapid setting, rapid hardening, high ultimate compressive strength, and / or other favorable properties when added to the cements as described herein. Alite may be used in quantities of 0 - 98% by mass of the cement blend. In some embodiments, the alite content may be between 0 - 30% by mass. Calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cements, and / or or constituents thereof

[0446] Calcium aluminate cements (CAC) and / or calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements may be added to the cement blends. Such cements include ye’elemite rich CSA, iron-rich belite CSA, aluminum-rich belite CSA, belite-ye'elimite ferrite (BYF) cement, and / or alite CSA. In some embodiments, these cements may exhibit very rapid setting, rapid hardening, high early strength, and high ultimate strength. In some embodiments, mixing these components into the cement blend as described herein may confer these properties (rapid setting, rapid hardening, high early strength, high ultimate strength) and / or other benefits to the cements blends as described herein. In some embodiments, individual constituents of these cements such as ye’elemite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4, or C3A4$ in cement chemist notation) may be added to the cement blends. In some embodiments, the ye’elemite may react with calcium hydroxide, water, gypsum, and / or other sources of sulfate to create ettringite and / or other hydrated phases. In some embodiments, the rapid kinetics of ettringite formation may cause the cement to exhibit rapid setting, rapid hardening, high early strength, high ultimate strength, and / or other favorable properties. Ground rocks

[0447] Ground rocks, such as basalt or limestone, may be added to promote nucleation of hardened phases such as CSH-gel or ettringite. In some embodiments, these rocks may also participate in reactions such as the formation of carboaluminate phases when carbonated rocks react with aluminum species. Ground rocks may be ground to less than 100 micrometers median particle size, less than 20 micrometers median particle size, or less than 10 micrometers median particle size. Potential rocks include limestone, high calcium limestone, dolomitic limestone, dolomite, magnesian limestone, basalt, gabbro, amphibolite, olivine, garnet, granite, and other quarried aggregate rocks. In some embodiments, the ground rocks may be the fines such as limestone fines or aggregate fines generated as a byproduct or waste during the production of coarser products. In some embodiments, ground concrete or concrete debris may be used in a similar fashion to ground rocks. Set retarding admixtures

[0448] Chemical components may be added to the cement blend, mortar, or concrete for the purpose of retarding the setting time to facilitate concrete placement and finishing, and enhance early and ultimate strength development. These may include, without limitation, a sugar, sugar acid, sugar alcohol, hydroxycarboxylic acid, phosphate salt, phosphonate salt,sodium or potassium citrate, citric acid, sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium potassium tripolyphosphate, sodium gluconate, gluconic acid, sodium tartrate, tartaric acid, sodium borate, boric acid, sucrose, glucose, molasses, corn syrup, cellulose ethers, lignosulfonates, polycarboxylate ethers, calcium or sodium sulfates, gypsum, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, and / or borogypsum. These additives may be used to affect the speed and extent of the hydration reactions, and therefore affect the fresh and hardened properties of the cement mortar or concrete. In some embodiments, such additives may be used to lengthen the setting time, or to increase the compressive strength, of the cement or concrete. These set retarding admixtures may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 25% by mass of the cement blend. Finishing aids, Humectants, Self-cure aids

[0449] Chemical components may be added to the cement blend, mortar, or concrete for the purpose of improving water retention, finishing, and curing of concrete. These may include, without limitation, polyethylene glycols such as polyethylene glycol-200, polyethylene glycol-400, polypropylene glycol super absorbent polymers (polyacrylic acid). These admixtures may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 25% by mass of the cement blend. Corrosion Inhibitors

[0450] Chemical components may be added to the cement blend, mortar, or concrete for the purpose of inhibiting corrosion of steel reinforcement. These may include, without limitation, calcium nitrite, sodium nitrite, and calcium nitrate. These corrosion inhibitors may be added in quantities ranging from 0 – 25% by mass of the cement blend. Blend compositions and potential stoichiometries

[0451] In some embodiments, certain components that make up the cement or additive as described herein may be present in specific molar ratios. Such components include the aluminum compound / additive, lime, and / or calcium sulfate, among others (e.g., pozzolans). In some embodiments, the molar ratios are 3 moles of Ca(OH)2to 2 moles of Al(OH)3(or related aluminum compound / additive) to 2.0 or 2.5 moles of calcium sulfate. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of sulfate can be lower than 2.0, which may reduce or prevent expansion.

[0452] In some embodiments, the corresponding relative mass percentages of these components are as follows: 3 mol Ca(OH)2: 2 mol Al(OH)3: 2 mol calcium sulfate à 34.2%mass Ca(OH)2, 24.0%mass Al(OH)3, 41.8%mass CaSO4; 3 mol Ca(OH)2 : 2 mol Al(OH)3 : 2.5 mol calcium sulfate à 30.9%mass Ca(OH)2, 21.7%mass Al(OH)3, 47.4%mass CaSO4.

[0453] In some embodiments, the cement or additive may contain additional components, as described above. These percentages represent the relative amounts of the lime, aluminum compound / additive, and calcium sulfate.

[0454] The molar ratios of the key components may be selected to maximize the formation of a certain hydrated phase such as ettringite, without causing undesired impacts such as expansion and cracking due to delayed ettringite formation after the cement has set. To perfectly match the stoichiometry of ettringite, the molar ratios of the components as described herein can be 3 moles Ca(OH)2 to 2 moles Al(OH)3 to 3 moles calcium sulfate. In some embodiments, using these ratios may cause mortar expansion and cracking, and decreasing the sulfate content can avoid this problem. In some embodiments, the correct ratio of Ca:Al:SO4may need to be determined empirically for the specific materials being used.

[0455] The following examples can illustrate some exemplary compositions for both blended cement and cement additive embodiments as described herein (all mass percentages).

[0456] In some embodiments, the blended cement comprises a combination of lime- pozzolan system to form calcium silicate hydrate and aluminum compound / additive-lime- calcium sulfate system to form ettringite. In some embodiments, a 3-2-2 mol ratio of Ca(OH)2-Al(OH)3-CaSO4and a CaO / (SiO2+Al2O3) ratio of 0.65 may be used. For example, the blended cement can comprise 36.8% Ca(OH)2; 30.3% Pozzolanic SCM; 12.0% Al(OH)3; and 20.9% CaSO4.

[0457] In some embodiments, the first blended cement example above further comprises limestone, which may reduce water demand and stabilize carboaluminate hydrated phases, and some NaOH, which may accelerate the rate of the lime-pozzolan reaction. For example,the blended cement can comprise 34.6% Ca(OH)2; 28.5% Pozzolanic SCM;11.3% Al(OH)3; 19.7% CaSO4; 5% Limestone; and 1% NaOH.

[0458] In some embodiments, the first blended cement example above further comprises 20% OPC, which may improve early strength. For example, the blended cement can comprises 20% OPC; 29.4% Ca(OH)2; 24.2% Pozzolanic SCM; 9.6% Al(OH)3; and 16.7% CaSO4.

[0459] In some embodiments, the first blended cement example above further comprises limestone and 20% OPC, which may improve early strength. For example, the blended cement can comprise 20% OPC; 27.2% Ca(OH)2; 22.4% Pozzolanic SCM; 8.9% Al(OH)3; 15.5% CaSO4; 5% Limestone; and 1% NaOH.

[0460] In some embodiments, provided is a cement or cement additive comprising: (i) Al(OH)3 and optionally other aluminum compounds / additives, (ii) CaSO4, and (iii) Ca(OH)2 at certain ratios that improve cement strength via the formation of an ettringite phase.

[0461] In some embodiments, provided is a blended cement comprising between 1% and 25% aluminum compound / additive, between 10% and 40% lime, between 5% and 40% calcium sulfate, between 5% and 50% pozzolan, between 0% and 50% portland cement, and between 0% and 40% calcium sulfoaluminate cement.

[0462] Thermodynamic modeling is widely used in the cement industry to understand and predict the chemistry of cement hydration. The input into these models can consist of the properties and relative mass of component materials such as lime, gypsum, and aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide. The models can simulate the reactions that occur between the materials when they are mixed with water. The output from the models can include the composition and properties of the resulting hydrated phases. Previous work has established that this modeling approach can predict the hydration behavior of real cement systems.

[0463] Thermodynamic modeling was used to validate and further refine some of the composition ranges for the cementitious compositions disclosed herein. In some embodiments, a target hydrated phase for the cementitious composition is ettringite (C6A$3H32in cement chemistry notation). Ettringite can contribute to the strength and durability of hardened cement and concrete. Thermodynamic modeling simulations wereperformed on systems including Ca(OH)2, Al(OH)3, and CaSO4 with the relative percent mass of each component varied between 0% and 100%. The results of this modeling are shown in FIG.4. The maximum amount of ettringite can be formed with between 40 to 60% CaSO4, between 20% to 40% Ca(OH)2, and between 10% to 35% Al(OH)3. These calculations therefore confirm that the blend compositions described above, among others, can be suitable to maximize the formation of ettringite.

[0464] In addition, the formation of ettringite in this system was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging on hydrated samples comprising Al(OH)3, Ca(OH)3, and CaSO4. FIG.5 illustrates images that show needle morphology, which is a characteristic signature of the ettringite phase.

[0465] In mortars, certain embodiments of this chemistry improve the compressive strength of a cement sample. Comparing cement mortars prepared with and without Al(OH)3- based compounds, the mortars without the Al(OH)3-based compound can generate significantly less strength. The composition and performance of relevant mortars are shown below in Table 2. Table 2.

[0466] The inclusion of an aluminum compound / additive (e.g., Al(OH)3) can improve strength compared to the addition of additional inert limestone filler. The “Without Al(OH)3, rebalanced stoichiometry, no limestone” cement mixture, is a more optimized 30% portland cement mixture containing no Al(OH)3 compound. Instead of replacing the Al(OH)3 with inert filler, it was replaced with reactive aluminosilicate pozzolan. The cement mixture with Al(OH)3still greatly outperforms the “Without Al(OH)3, rebalanced stoichiometry, no limestone” mixture.

[0467] In some embodiments, the overall elemental or material composition of a cement or cementitious composition disclosed herein can be measured by x-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), or other elemental composition measurement techniques, and may fall within one or more of the following ranges:

[0468] Silica or SiO2content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0469] Silica or SiO2content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0470] Alumina or Al2O3 content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0471] Alumina or Al2O3 content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0472] Iron oxide or Fe2O3content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0473] Iron oxide or Fe2O3content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0474] Sodium oxide or Na2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0475] Sodium oxide or Na2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0476] Potassium oxide or K2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0477] Potassium oxide or K2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0478] Sum of Sodium and potassium oxide or Na2O + K2O content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0479] Sum of Sodium and potassium oxide or Na2O + K2O content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0480] Calcium carbonate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0481] Calcium carbonate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0482] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0483] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0484] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0485] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0486] Calcium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0487] Calcium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0488] Chloride content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0489] Chloride content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0490] Nitrate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0491] Nitrate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0492] Nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%,20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0493] Nitrite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0494] Sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0495] Sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0496] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0497] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0498] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass; and / or

[0499] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%,18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass.

[0500] In some embodiments, the mass percent composition of the individual component materials in the blended cementitious or cement composition may fall within one or more of the following ranges:

[0501] Aluminum compound / additive content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0502] Aluminum compound / additive content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0503] Lime, quicklime, or hydrated lime content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0504] Lime, quicklime, or hydrated lime content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0505] Silicate, aluminosilicate, and / or pozzolan content (e.g., pozzolanic SCM as disclosed herein) of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0506] Silicate, aluminosilicate, and / or pozzolan content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0507] Calcium sulfate (gypsum, plaster, and / or anhydrite) content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0508] Calcium sulfate (gypsum, plaster, and / or anhydrite) content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0509] Calcium carbonate and / or limestone content of at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0510] Calcium carbonate and / or limestone content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0511] Water reducing admixture and / or polycarboxylate ether content of at least 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.12%, 0.14%, 0.15%, 0.16%, 0.18%, 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.3%, 0.35%, 0.4%, 0.45%, 0.5%, 0.55%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% by mass;

[0512] Water reducing admixture and / or polycarboxylate ether content of less than 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.12%, 0.14%, 0.15%, 0.16%, 0.18%, 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.3%, 0.35%, 0.4%, 0.45%, 0.5%, 0.55%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% by mass;

[0513] Set accelerating admixture, set retarding admixture, air entraining admixture, defoaming admixture, flocculant, dispersant, humectant, finishing aid, self-cure aid, corrosion inhibitor, and / or strength enhancing admixture content of at least 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.12%, 0.14%, 0.15%, 0.16%, 0.18%, 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.3%, 0.35%, 0.4%, 0.45%, 0.5%, 0.55%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% by mass;

[0514] Set accelerating admixture, set retarding admixture, air entraining admixture, defoaming admixture, flocculant, dispersant, humectant, finishing aid, self-cure aid, corrosion inhibitor, and / or strength enhancing admixture content of less than 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.12%, 0.14%, 0.15%, 0.16%, 0.18%, 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.3%, 0.35%, 0.4%, 0.45%, 0.5%, 0.55%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% by mass;

[0515] Magnesium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0516] Magnesium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0517] Magnesium hydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0518] Magnesium hydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0519] Calcium oxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0520] Calcium oxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0521] Portland cement and / or portland cement clinker content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0522] Portland cement and / or portland cement clinker content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0523] Alite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0524] Alite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0525] Calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement, and / or ye’elemite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0526] Calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement, and / or ye’elemite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0527] Ground rocks such as ground basalt content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0528] Ground rocks such as ground basalt content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0529] Sodium sulfate and / or potassium sulfate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0530] Sodium sulfate and / or potassium sulfate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0531] Sulfite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0532] Sulfite content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass;

[0533] Phosphate content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass; and / or

[0534] Phosphate content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% by mass.

[0535] In some embodiments, the cementitious composition (or cement) may contain less than about 35% portland cement clinker, more than 15% lime, and more than 45% reactive or pozzolanic silicate by mass. In some embodiments, the cement may contain no more than 20% portland cement clinker, more than 10% calcium sulfate, more than 10% aluminum compound / additive, more than 20% reactive or pozzolanic silicate, and more than 20% lime by mass. In some embodiments, the cement may contain no more than 10% portland cement clinker, more than 15% calcium sulfate, more than 15% aluminum compound / additive, more than 15% silicate, and more than 20% lime by mass. In some embodiments, the cement may contain 0% portland cement clinker, more than 15% calcium sulfate, more than 15% aluminum compound / additive, more than 15% silicate, and more than 20% lime by mass. In some embodiments, the cement or cementitious composition comprises about 25% OPC, 5% Ca(OH)2, 50% pozzolan, 10% aluminum compound / additive, 5% calcium sulfate, and 5% limestone by mass. In some embodiments, the cement or cementitious composition comprises about 25% OPC, 10% Ca(OH)2, 48% pozzolan, 5% aluminum compound / additive, 4% calcium sulfate, 4% limestone, and 4% Mg(OH)2 by mass.

[0536] In some embodiments, the cementitious composition (or cement) may contain from 0% to 70%, 0% to 50%, 0% to 30%, 0% to 20%, 0% to 10%, 10% to 50%, 20% to 50%, 30% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 20% to 40%, or 10% to 30% portland cement clinker. In some embodiments, the cementitious composition (or cement) may contain from 10% to 50%, 20% to 50%, 30% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 20% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 15% to 30%, or 15% to 40% lime. In some embodiments, the cementitious comp...

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. An aluminum additive comprising: at least 50% by mass aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide; and wherein the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is present in at least an amorphous phase and a crystalline phase, wherein the amorphous phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 20% by mass or volume of the aluminum additive, and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide is at least 40% by mass or volume of the aluminum additive; or wherein the amorphous phase and the crystalline phase of the aluminum hydroxide and / or aluminum oxyhydroxide are present in a ratio between about 1:3 and about 2:1 by mass or volume.

2. The aluminum additive of claim 1, wherein at least 10% of the aluminum additive dissolves in 0.5 M NaOH at standard temperature and pressure (STP) over 24 hours.

3. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the aluminum additive has one or more of the following properties: i. a filter cake moisture content of about 30% to about 80% by weight; ii. a dry cake moisture content of about 0% to about 10% by weight; iii. an aluminum concentration of about 10% to about 100% by weight; and iv. an iron concentration of about 0% to about 90% by weight.

4. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the aluminum additive has at least one or more of the following properties: i. a % mass loss of about 4% to about 20% by weight from about 100 °C to 200 °C, as measured by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA); ii. a % mass loss of about 8% to about 30% by weight from about 200 °C to 400 °C, as measured by TGA; iii. a % mass loss of about 2% to about 10% by weight from about 400 °C to 600 °C, as measured by TGA;iv. a % mass loss of about 0% to about 10% by weight from about 600 °C to 800 °C, as measured by TGA; v. a % mass loss of about 0% to about 10% by weight from about 800 °C to 1000 °C, as measured by TGA; and vi. less than about 50% of the total mass loss below about 1000 °C occurs below about 300°C, as measured by TGA.

5. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the aluminum additive has one or more of the following: i. an average particle diameter of about 4 µm to about 200 µm; ii. an amorphous to crystalline ratio of about 1 to about 99; iii. an amorphous content of about 20% to about 80%; iv. an isothermal calorimetry reactivity of about 50 J / g to about 1000 J / g in 48 hours at about 23 °C in a composition comprising about 26% lime, about 60% gypsum, and about 14% of the aluminum additive; v. 1-50% by mass calcium carbonate; and vi. a dominant crystalline domain size of less than 20 nm.

6. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the aluminum additive has one or more of the following properties: i. a lime (CaO) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio from about 1 to about 5; ii. a sulfate (SO4) to alumina (Al2O3) molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 5; iii. an aluminum oxide concentration of at least about 25% by weight when the aluminum additive is heated to at least about 500 °C; iv. a loss on ignition of between about 10% and about 50% by weight; v. a solids density of greater than about 2 g / cm3 as measured according to ASTM C188, “Standard Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement”; and vi. a bulk density of greater than about 1 g / cm3.

7. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the aluminum additive further comprises boehmite, gibbsite, bayerite, or a combination thereof.

8. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the aluminum additive further comprises aluminum iron hydroxide, aluminum iron oxyhydroxide, iron hydroxide, iron oxyhydroxide, or a combination thereof.

9. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the aluminum hydroxide in crystalline phase is gibbsite, and the aluminum oxyhydroxide in crystalline phase is boehmite; optionally, wherein: the gibbsite is at least 20 wt.% of the aluminum additive; and / or the boehmite is at least 20 wt.% of the aluminum additive.

10. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-9, further comprising calcium carbonate, optionally, wherein the calcium carbonate is less than 50% of the aluminum additive.

11. The aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the aluminum additive has a plurality of crystalline phases including a dominant crystalline phase, wherein the dominant crystalline phase has a size of less than 20 nm, and wherein the aluminum additive comprises at least 20% crystalline boehmite, at least 20% crystalline gibbsite, or a combination thereof.

12. The aluminum additive of claim 1, further comprising: C3AH6, C2AH8, C4AH14, or CAH10, or any combination thereof.

13. A method, comprising: a) dissolving an aluminum salt to form an aqueous solution; b) adding a precipitating agent to the aqueous solution to form an aluminum- containing precipitate; c) separating the aluminum-containing precipitate from the aqueous solution; d) washing the aluminum-containing precipitate; and e) drying the aluminum-containing precipitate to produce the aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-12.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the pH of the aqueous solution is between about 4 and about 8.

15. The method of any one of claims 13-14, wherein the aluminum salt is 0.1 to 5 molar in concentration in the aqueous solution.

16. The method of any one of claims 13-15, wherein the aluminum salt is aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, aluminum nitrate, or combinations thereof.

17. The method of any one of claims 13-16, wherein a temperature of the aqueous solution is between 30°C and 110°C.

18. The method of any one of claims 13-17, wherein the precipitating agent is a base.

19. The method of claim 18, wherein the base comprises calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or ammonia, or any combinations thereof.

20. The method any one of claims 13-19, further comprising blending the aluminum additive of step e) with Ca(OH)2and CaSO4to produce a cement additive.

21. A method comprising: a. blending a calcium source, a sulfate source, and the aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-12 to form a cementitious composition; b. hydrating the cementitious composition; and c. hardening the cementitious composition to form a hardened cement comprising ettringite.

22. The method of claim 21, wherein the calcium source comprises Ca(OH)2and the sulfate source comprises CaSO4.

23. The method of any one of claims 21-22, wherein the calcium source has a calcium carbonate content of at least 50%.

24. A cementitious composition comprising the aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-12, a calcium source, and a sulfate source, wherein the cementitious composition, when hydrated, form a composition comprising at least 10% ettringite by weight.

25. A cementitious additive or composition comprising the aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-12; CaSO4; and Ca(OH)2, wherein the molar ratio of Ca(OH)2 to CaSO4 toaluminum in any form is about 3 moles of Ca(OH)2 to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of CaSO4 to about 0.25 moles to about 3 moles of aluminum in any form.

26. A cementitious composition comprising about 5 wt.% to about 100 wt.% of the aluminum additive of claims 1-12.

27. The cementitious composition of claim 26, further comprising: about 10-40 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; about 0-50 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; about 0-10 wt.% limestone; and about 0-5 wt.% NaOH.

28. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-27, wherein the composition comprises: less than 35 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% lime; and more than 45 wt.% pozzolanic SCM.

29. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-28, wherein the composition comprises: less than 20 wt.% Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 10 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 10 wt.% the aluminum additive of claims 1-12; more than 20 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime.

30. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-29, wherein the composition comprises: less than 10 wt.% Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 15 wt.% the aluminum additive of claims 1-12; more than 15 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime.

31. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-30, wherein the composition comprises:no Portland cement or Portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% calcium sulfate; more than 15 wt.% the aluminum additive of claims 1-12; more than 15 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; and more than 20% lime.

32. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-31, further comprising 1-15 wt.% magnesium hydroxide.

33. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-32, further comprising one or more retarders, accelerators, or water reducers.

34. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-33, further comprising at least 0.1 wt.% polycarboxylate superplasticizer.

35. The cementitious composition of claim 34, wherein the retarder comprises potassium citrate; sodium citrate; potassium gluconate; sodium gluconate; sodium sulfate; potassium sulfate; sodium borate; boric acid; citric acid; sucrose; glucose; fructose; tartaric acid; lignosulfonate; sodium potassium phosphate; sodium–potassium tartrate; ascorbic acid; or any combinations thereof.

36. The cementitious composition of claim 33, where the accelerator comprises sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or any combination thereof.

37. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-36, wherein the pozzolanic SCM is the pozzolanic SCM from any one of claims 38-40.

38. A pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material (SCM) comprising: at least 65 wt.% silica; less than 8 wt.% alumina; at least 8 wt.% a sum of CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3; and an amorphous content of less than 50%.

39. The pozzolanic SCM of claim 38, wherein the pozzolanic SCM has at least one of the following properties: a. an R3 reactivity of >60 J / g pozzolanic SCM at 12 hours;b. an R3 reactivity where more than 75% of the total reaction after 168 hours occurs in 24 hours; and c. an R3 lime consumption of >90 grams lime per 100 grams pozzolanic SCM.

40. The pozzolanic SCM of any one of claims 38-39, wherein the pozzolanic SCM has at least one of: a. a BET specific surface area greater than about 10 m2 / g; b. a true density of greater than 2.4 g / mL; c. a silicon solubility of > 500 mg / L when soaked in 0.25M NaOH at a 2:1 liquid to solid ratio for 4 hours; d. a29Si NMR peak more negative than -100, -105, or -110 ppm; e. a 7-day compressive strength of greater than 13 MPa as measured per ASTM C1437; and f. an ability to react with portlandite to convert a portion of its crystalline silicates to amorphous C-S-H gel in cementitious mixes comprising portland cement or portlandite.

41. A method of producing a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material comprising: a. leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, wherein the feedstock material comprises: i. a silicate and / or aluminosilicate, and ii. one or more metal cations and one or more anions corresponding to the metal cations, wherein the metal cations comprise iron, calcium, magnesium, and / or aluminum and wherein the metal cations and the corresponding anions are soluble in the acid; b. separating the leachate comprising dissolved metal cations and the corresponding anions from the residual solid comprising the silicate and / or aluminosilicate; c. washing the residual solid; and d. drying the residual solid to produce a dried residual solid.

42. The method of claim 41, wherein the dried residual solid is the pozzolanic SCM from any one of claims 38-40.

43. The method of any one of claims 41-42, further comprises forming a cement or concrete comprising the dried residual solid and a second material.

44. The method of any one of claims 41-43, further comprising mixing the dried residual solid with a second material having a lower reactivity than the dried residual solid, wherein the reactivity of the dried residual solid and the second material is measured by at least one of SAI as measured in ASTM C618 and heat release as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20.

45. The method of any one of claims 41-44, further comprising, prior to the leaching, mixing the feedstock material with a second material having a lower reactivity than the dried residual solid, wherein the reactivity of the dried residual solid and the second material is measured by at least one of SAI as measured in ASTM C618 and heat release as measured by Method A of ASTM C1897-20.

46. The method of any one of claims 41-45, wherein the feedstock comprises two or more separate materials each of which comprise a different concentration of the metal cations.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein the acid leaching occurs in one or more reactors and each of the separate materials of the feedstock are added at at least one of separate times during the leaching, separate locations in a reactor, or different pH regions in the reactor.

48. The method of any one of claims 46-47, wherein a material with a higher concentration of soluble metal cations is added at a later time, or at a later position in the reactor, or in a lower pH region in the reactor than the material with a lower concentration of soluble metal cations.

49. The method of any one of claims 41-48, wherein the feedstock material comprises at least about 10 wt.% of the metal cations and their corresponding anions.

50. The method of claim 49, wherein the feedstock material comprises at most about 80 wt.% of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate;optionally, wherein the feedstock material comprises at least about 35 wt.% of the metal cations and the corresponding anions and at most about 65 wt.% of the silicate and / or aluminosilicate.

51. The method of any one of claims 41-50, wherein the dried residual solid has at least 10% less mass than the feedstock material.

52. The method of claim 51, wherein the dried residual solid has at least 35% less mass than the feedstock material.

53. The method of any one of claims 41-52, wherein the dried residual solid has about 25% less to about 100% less of the metal cations and their corresponding anions by mass than the feedstock material.

54. The method of any one of claims 41-53, wherein the dried residual solid has about 0% to about 35% of the metal cations and their corresponding anions by mass relative to the feedstock material.

55. The method of any one of claims 41-54, further comprising, prior to leaching, roasting the feedstock material in a base.

56. The method of claim 55, wherein the base comprises sodium hydroxide and / or potassium hydroxide.

57. The method of any one of claims 55-56, wherein the roasting is performed at a temperature of about 70 °C to about 150 °C for at least about 30 minutes.

58. The method of any one of claims 41-57, further comprising reducing the particle size of the dried residual solid.

59. The method of any one of claims 41-58, wherein the washing comprises performed serial washes.

60. The method of any one of claims 41-59, wherein the drying is performed using an oven, band dryer, spray dryer, flash dryer, steam-tube, and / or rotary dryer.

61. The method of any one of claims 41-60, wherein the separating is performed using a filter press, rotary filter, vacuum filter, and / or belt filter.

62. The method of any one of claims 41-61, wherein the acid comprises a strong acid.

63. The method of claim 62, wherein the strong acid comprises hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and / or nitric acid.

64. The method of any one of claims 41-63, wherein the acid comprises a weak acid.

65. The method of claim 64, wherein the weak acid comprises acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, bisulfate, and / or oxalic acid.

66. The method of any one of claims 41-65, wherein the feedstock material comprises natural minerals, ashes, kiln dusts, and / or recycled concrete fines.

67. The method of any one of claims 41-66, further comprising reducing a particle size of the feedstock material prior to acid leaching.

68. A method of producing a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material (SCM) and an aluminum additive comprising: i. leaching a feedstock material with acid to produce a leachate and a residual solid, wherein the feedstock material comprises aluminum, silicon, and at least one of iron, calcium, and magnesium; ii. separating the leachate comprising dissolved metal cations and the corresponding anions from the residual solid comprising the silicate and / or aluminosilicate; iii. washing the residual solid; iv. drying the residual solid to create the pozzolanic SCM; v. adding a precipitating agent to the leachate to form an aqueous solution and a solid precipitate comprising an aluminum additive; vi. separating the aluminum additive precipitate from the aqueous solution; vii. washing the aluminum additive precipitate; and viii. drying the aluminum additive precipitate to form the aluminum additive.

69. The method of claim 68, wherein the aluminum additive is the aluminum additive of any one of claims 1-12.

70. The method of any one of claims 68-69, wherein the pozzolanic SCM is the pozzolanic SCM of any one of claims 37-39.

71. The method of any one of claims 68-70, further comprising combining the pozzolanic SCM and the aluminum additive to form a cement or cementitious material.

72. The method of claim 71, wherein the cement or cementitious material is the cementitious composition of any one of claims 26-36.

73. The method of claim 71, further comprising combining the SCM and the aluminum additive with lime and calcium sulfate to form the cement or cementitious material.

74. The method of any one of claims 71-73, further comprising adding at least one of portland cement clinker or limestone to form the cement or cementitious material.

75. The method of any one of claims 71-74, wherein individual dry powder components of the pozzolanic SCM, aluminum additive, lime, calcium sulfate, Portland cement clinker, and / or limestone are blended together to form the cement or cementitious material.

76. The method of any one of claims 71-75, wherein individual dry powder components of the pozzolanic SCM, aluminum additive, lime, calcium sulfate, Portland cement clinker, and / or limestone are inter-ground to form the cement or cementitious material.

77. A cementitious composition comprising: about 10-60 wt.% pozzolanic SCM; about 0-50 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; about 0-6 wt% calcium sulfate; about 0-10 wt.% limestone; and about 0-5 wt.% NaOH, wherein the pozzolanic SCM is the pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material of any one of claims 38-40.

78. The cementitious composition of claim 77, wherein the composition comprises: less than 35 wt.% portland cement or portland cement clinker; more than 15 wt.% lime; and more than 40 wt.% pozzolanic SCM.

79. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 77-78, further comprising 1-15 wt.% magnesium hydroxide.

80. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 77-79, further comprising one or more retarders, accelerators, or water reducers.

81. The cementitious composition of any one of claims 77-80, further comprising at least 0.1 wt.% polycarboxylate superplasticizer.

82. The cementitious composition of claim 80, wherein the retarder comprises potassium citrate; sodium citrate; potassium gluconate; sodium gluconate; sodium sulfate; potassium sulfate; sodium borate; boric acid; citric acid; sucrose; glucose; fructose; tartaric acid; lignosulfonate; sodium potassium phosphate; sodium–potassium tartrate; ascorbic acid; or combinations thereof.

83. The cementitious composition of claim 80 or 82, where the accelerator is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.

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