TRMT61a inhibitor PGG in the treatment of colorectal cancer
By employing PGG as a TRMT61A inhibitor to reduce m1A levels and disrupt oncogenic signaling in CRC cells, the challenges of CRC treatment are addressed, achieving significant inhibition of CRC cell growth and metastasis.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2024/130052
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2023-12-22
- Filing Date
- 2024-11-06
- Publication Date
- 2025-06-26
AI Technical Summary
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer deaths, and current treatments are inadequate due to the dysregulation of RNA modifications, particularly N1-methyladenosine (m1A), which contributes to tumor growth and immune evasion.
The use of Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) as a TRMT61A inhibitor to suppress the m1A methyltransferase activity, thereby reducing m1A levels in key downstream targets such as ONECUT2 and inhibiting the SOS1-MAPK/ERK signaling pathway.
PGG effectively inhibits CRC cell growth and metastasis by decreasing m1A levels and disrupting oncogenic signaling pathways, leading to improved patient survival and reduced tumor progression.
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Figure PCTCN2024130052-FTAPPB-I100001 
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Figure PCTCN2024130052-FTAPPB-I100003
Abstract
Description
TRMT61A INHIBITOR PGG IN THE TREATMENT OF COLORECTAL CANCER
[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
[0002] The present application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial No.63 / 613,967, filed December 22, 2023, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancer types and a leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, placing a substantial burden on population health and social and economic development1. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying CRC pathogenesis provides novel insights toward identifying diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic targets for CRC patients. The development of CRC can be attributed to genetic, epigenetic, and epitranscriptomic abnormalities that accumulate over time. Among them, RNA modifications are ubiquitous across eukaryotes and prokaryotes and are crucial for post-transcriptional regulation, including RNA splicing, export, stability, and translation. Several types of RNA modifications exist, e.g., N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and N1-methyladenosine (m1A) 2. RNA m6A regulators crucially contribute to tumorigenesis and cancer progression3-8. These regulators dynamically control m6A, playing a pivotal role in cancer development. In CRC, there is an abnormal change of METTL3-regulated m6A epitranscriptome, which contributes to tumor growth and immune evasion6, 8. In addition to m6A, there is a significantly higher RNA m1A level in primary CRCs compared to adjacent normal tissues, suggesting that m1A modification is dysregulated during CRC development. Nevertheless, whether and how alterations in RNA m1A methylome may contribute to CRC is unknown.
[0004] An m1A modification refers to the addition of a methyl group at the N1 position of adenosine. It has been identified as a reversible mark in tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA9, 10. Classes of m1A methylome in the human transcriptome have been identified, most of which are within the 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) 11. The presence of m1A in mRNA could block Watson–Crick base pairing and affect mRNA structural stability12, 13. RNA m1A is regulated by the writers (TRMT6, TRMT10C, TRMT61A, and TRMT61B) , readers (YTHDC1, YTHDF1, YTHDF2, and YTHDF3) and erasers (ALKBH1 and ALKBH3) , which deposit, interpret, and remove m1A marks, respectively 13-16. Dysregulation of m1A has been reported to be closely associated with various human diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, pulmonary hypertension, and psychiatric disorders17, 18. Despite its importance, our current understanding of its functional role and molecular mechanism of action is limited. Therefore, there remains a need for novel treatments of CRC.
[0005] BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] The subject invention generally relates to the inhibition of m1A methyltransferase activity in a subject, such as, for example, m1A methyltransferase activity of TRMT61A. In certain embodiments, the inhibition of m1A methyltransferase activity can be inhibited with a TRMT61A inhibitor, such as, for example, Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) . In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor can bind to a TRMT61A protein and suppress the activity of the protein. In certain embodiments, the subject has colorectal cancer or is at risk of obtaining colorectal cancer.
[0007] The consistent elevation of the m1A methyltransferase TRMT61A expression and RNA m1A levels in primary colorectal cancer (CRC) is significantly associated with poor patient survival. Among m1A regulators, TRMT61A ranked the top essential gene by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) / Cas9 screening. Wild-type TRMT61A, but not the catalytically inactive form, enhances m1A abundance in CRC cells, promotes cell growth and metastasis both in vitro and in vivo. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor suppresses the m1A methyltransferase activity of TRMT61A, resulting in a decrease in the m1A levels of key downstream targets, such as ONECUT2. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the stabilization of the ONECUT2 mRNA transcript. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits SOS1-MAPK / ERK signaling.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0008] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing (s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
[0009] Figures 1A-1I illustrate RNA m1A modifications playing essential roles in CRC. RNA m1A modification level was upregulated in CRC (T, n=24) compared to adjacent normal tissues (N, n=24) (Figure 1A) . CRISPR-Cas9 screening in CRC cell lines (HCT116 and POP92) identifies TRMT61A as an essential gene for CRC survival (Figure 1B) . Overexpression of TRMT61A increased global m1A levels, and depleted TRMT61A decreased global m1A levels by dot blot (Figure 1C) . Correlation between TRMT61A mRNA expression and global mRNA m1A contents in CRC tissues (Figure 1D) . The left panel shows the TRMT61A and TRMT6 mRNA expression in 150 pairs of primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) from the Beijing cohort by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) . The right panel shows the TRMT61A and TRMT6 mRNA expression in 50 pairs of primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort (Figure 1E) . Western blot (WB) analysis of TRMT6 and TRMT61A from paired CRC and adjacent normal tissues (n=10) (Figure 1F) . Representative images of TRMT61A protein expression in CRC tissue arrays by IHC (Hong Kong cohort) . The staining score of TRMT61A was quantified accordingly (Figure 1G) . High TRMT61A protein expression in the Hong Kong cohort predicts poor overall survival of patients with CRC (Figure 1H) . High TRMT61A mRNA expression in cohort IV (GSE29623) predicts worse disease-specific survival (Figure 1I) . *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0010] Figures 2A-2I illustrate TRMT61A playing oncogenic roles in CRC. Knockout of TRMT61A significantly suppressed cell proliferation and colony formation, whereas overexpression of TRMT61A exerted the opposite effect (Figures 2A and 2B) . The efficiency of tumor sphere formation in CRC patient-derived organoids was calculated after 7 days of culture (Figure 2C) . Knockout of TRMT61A significantly increases cell arrest in the G2 / M phase (Figure 2D) . Overexpression of TRMT61A reverses the cell arrest at the G2 / M phase caused by nocodazole (Nocodazole: 2 μM) (Figure 2E) . Protein expressions of G2 / M checkpoints were examined by WB (Figures 2F and 2G) . Knockout of TRMT61A induces cell apoptosis in CRC cell lines, whereas overexpression of TRMT61A exerts the opposite effect (Figure 2H) . Protein expressions of apoptosis markers were examined by WB (Figure 2I) . *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0011] Figures 3A-3H illustrate depletion of TRMT61A expression inhibiting CRC growth in vivo. HCT116 (n = 10) and RKO (n = 8) xenografts expressing sgTRMT61A show significantly stunted growth compared to controls (Figures 3A and 3B) . Representative images of Ki67-positive cells and quantitative data analysis (Figure 3C) . Representative images of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL) -positive cells and quantitative data analysis (Figure 3D) . VNP-siTRMT61A treatment significantly suppresses the growth of HCT116 and RKO xenografts (Figures 3E and 3F) . Representative images of Ki67-positive cells and quantitative data analysis (Figure 3G) . Representative images of TUNEL-positive cells and quantitative data analysis (Figure 3H) . To quantify IHC staining, at least 5 fields per slide and 5 slides per animal were counted at 200 X magnification; Scale bar = 50 μm; *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0012] Figures 4A-4I illustrate TRMT61A promoting CRC metastasis both in vitro and in vivo. Representative images of the wound-healing assay and quantitative data analysis (Figure 4A) . Knockout of TRMT61A reduces cell migration (Figure. 4B) and invasion (Figure 4C) . Representative images of the wound-healing assay and quantitative data analysis (Figure 4D) . Overexpression of TRMT61A induces cell migration (Figure 4E) and invasion (Figure 4F) . Protein expressions of mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin, Snail, and vimentin) and epithelial markers (E-cadherin and Claudin-1) by WB (Figure 4G) . TRMT61A knockout inhibits lung metastasis of HCT116 cells (Figure 4H) . The left panel shows representative images of mouse lungs, while the right panel displays the quantitative evaluation of lung metastasis confirmed by H&E. TRMT61A knockout inhibits liver metastasis of HCT116 cells (Figure 4I) . The left panel shows representative images of mouse livers, while the right panel displays the quantitative evaluation of liver metastasis confirmed by H&E. *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P< .001.
[0013] Figures 5A-5P illustrate ONECUT2 is a critical downstream target of TRMT61A. Flow chart of m1A -seq, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) , and ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) (Figure 5A) . The normalized distribution of m1A peaks and identified m1A motifs in HCT116 cells (Figure 5B) . Heatmaps of m1A level of potential TRMT61A downstream targets identified by m1A -seq (Figure 5C) . The RNA level of TRMT61A target genes and other transcripts (Figure 5D) . The expression of the top 10 TRMT61A target genes was compared between primary CRCs and adjacent normal tissues using the TCGA-CRC dataset (Figure 5E) . m1A -seq reads along indicated mRNAs (Figure 5F) . Ranges of reads are indicated. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation (MeRIP) -qPCR analysis of m1A level in the select mRNAs from HCT116 and RKO cells with or without TRMT61A knockout (Figure 5G) . Protein expression of ONECUT2 was evaluated by WB (Figure 5H) . qPCR analysis of ONECUT2 mRNA expression in HCT116 and RKO cells with or without TRMT61A knockout (or TRMT61A overexpression) (Figure 5I) . Evaluation of ONECUT2 mRNA stability in HCT116 and RKO cells with or without TRMT61A knockout (Figure 5J) . Evaluation of ONECUT2 mRNA stability in HCT116 and RKO cells with or without TRMT61A overexpression (Figure 5K) . The RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) -qPCR analysis confirmed that TRMT61A binds to the ONECUT2 mRNA (Figure 5L) . The relative luciferase activity of the m1A -WT (wild type) or m1A -MUT (mutant) reporter in HCT116 and RKO cells was measured upon overexpression of TRMT61A-WT or TRMT61AD181A (Figure 5M) . Cell proliferation assays of HCT116 and RKO (Figure 5N) . ONECUT2 mRNA expression in 150 pairs of primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) from the Beijing cohort by qPCR (Figure 5O) . Correlation between TRMT61A and ONECUT2 mRNA expressions in primary CRCs (Figure 5P) . *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0014] Figures 6A-6N illustrate TRMT61A promotes m1A-ONECUT2-MAPK / ERK axis. Venn diagram showing overlaps between gene sets analyzed by RNA-seq and Ribo-seq (Figure. 6A) . Enrichment plots of MAPK / ERK signaling (Figure 6B) . WB results shows depletion of TRMT61A inactivated MAPK / ERK signaling (Figure 6C) . WB results shows that ectopic expression of TRMT61A promoted MAPK / ERK (Figure 6D) . WB was performed in HCT116 and RKO cells with indicated treatments (Figure 6E) . WB was performed in CRC xenografts treated with VNP-siTRMT61A or VNP-siCTL (Figures 6F and 6G) . Cell viability assays were performed in CRC cells with indicated treatments (Figure 6H) . Integrative analysis of RNA-seq data from HCT116 cells with or without sgTRMT61A, RNA-seq data from HCT116 cells with or without siONECUT2, and genes involved in the MAPK / ERK pathway (Figure 6I) . qPCR analysis of ITGB1 and SOS1 mRNA expressions in HCT116 and RKO cells with indicated treatments (Figure 6J) . ONECUT2 and SOS1 protein expressions were evaluated by WB (Figure 6K) . ChIP-PCR confirms the binding of ONECUT2 to the promoter region of SOS1 (Figures 6L and 6M) . PCR amplification was performed using total DNA fragments (Input) and DNA fragments immunoprecipitated by anti-ONECUT2 or anti-IgG. (Figure 6N) (SEQ ID NOs: 12-17) . The luciferase activity of the reporter containing the wild-type, or mutant SOS1 promoter region was measured in cells with or without ONECUT2 depletion. *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0015] Figures 7A-7N illustrate that PGG is a potent inhibitor of TRMT61A. Flow chart of structure-based Virtual Screening. Docking models were developed based on the TRMT61A crystal structure (Figure 7A) . Effects of top compounds (5 μM) on the viability of HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 7B) . 2D and 3D ligand interaction diagrams for Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) and TRMT61A (Figure. 7C) . Effects of PGG on CRC cell viability (5 μM, 72 h) and cell proliferation (5 μM, 96 h) (Figure 7D) . RNA m1A dot blot (Figure 7E) . Drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) of cells treated with indicated PGG (Figure 7F) . Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) of cells treated with 5 μM PGG (Figure 7G) . MST analysis was conducted to measure the dissociation kinetics of PGG towards recombinant human TRMT61A protein (residues 2-289) (Figure 7H) . Image of HCT116 and RKO xenograft mouse tumors (Figures 7I and 7J) . Representative images of colon tissues of AOM / DSS-treated mice with or without PGG administration (Figure 7K) . Colon tumor number and tumor size were calculated. H&E, Ki67, and TUNEL staining of colon tumors in AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figure 7L) . WB analysis of tumor tissues (Figure 7M) . Tumor sphere formation efficiency of CRC patient-derived organoids with or without PGG (5 or 10 μM) treatment (Figure 7N) . *P <.05, **P <.01, ***P <.001.
[0016] Figures 8A-8E. RNA illustrates that m1A modifications play essential roles in CRC. The interaction between TRMT61A and TRMT6 was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation (Figure. 8A) . Essentiality of m1A writers (TRMT6 and TRMT61A) in 54 CRC cell lines based on CRISPR-Cas9 screening data from Project Achilles (Figure 8B) . Gene essentiality across 54 CRC cell lines uncovered a significant functional correlation between TRMT6 and TRMT61A. Detection of TRMT61A and TRMT6 protein expression by WB (Figure 8C) . Knockdown of TRMT6 or TRMT61A by specific siRNA significantly suppressed CRC cell proliferation (Figure 8D) , and colony formation (Figure 8E) . *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0017] Figures 9A-9E illustrate TRMT61A and TRMT6 expressions upregulation in primary CRCs. The mRNA expressions of TRMT61A and TRMT6 in primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) (Figure 9A) . Correlation between mRNA expressions of TRMT6 and TRMT61A in primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) from the Beijing cohort (Figure 9B) . Correlation between protein expressions of TRMT6 and TRMT61A in primary CRCs (T) and adjacent normal tissues (N) in the Beijing cohort (Figure 9C) . Protein expressions of TRMT61A and TRMT6 in one normal colon epithelia cell (2CT) and 10 CRC cell lines by WB (Figure 9D) . Representative images of TRMT61A protein expression in CRC tissue arrays (n =179) by IHC (Figure 9E) .
[0018] Figures 10A-10D illustrate TRMT6 / TRMT61A playing oncogenic roles in CRC. TRMT61A protein expression in CRC cells (Figure 10A) . Knockout of TRMT61A significantly suppresses CRC cell proliferation (Figure 10B) . TRMT61A protein expression in CRC cells with or without TRMT61A overexpression (Figure 10C) . TRMT61A protein expression in CRC patient-derived organoids with TRMT61A knockout or overexpression (Figure 10D) . *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0019] Figure 11 illustrates TRMT61A regulating cell cycle in CRC. HCT116 cells were serum starved for 24h and stimulated with complete medium for 0 to 24h before cell cycle analysis. *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0020] Figures 12A-12B illustrate TRMT61A promoting CRC migration. Knockdown of TRMT61A reduced cell migration in HCT116 (Figures 12A and 12B) . *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0021] Figures 13A-13E illustrate downstream targets of TRMT61A in CRC. Heatmaps of transcript level (RNA-seq) (Figure 13A) . Heatmaps of ribosome-protected fragment (RPF) abundance (Ribo-seq) (Figure 13B) . Translational efficiency (TE) of TRMT61A-targets and other genes (Figure 13C) . Western blot analysis of VGF and TMEM158 (Figure 13D) . IP of TRMT61A in HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure. 13E) .
[0022] Figure 14 illustrates the sequence of m1A-containing region of ONECUT2 gene (m1A-WT (SEQ ID NO: 9) ; m1A-MUT (SEQ ID NO: 10) ) .
[0023] Figures 15A-15D illustrate TRMT61A activating ERK / MAPK signaling in CRC. Gene sets enriched for genes with reduced transcript level (RNA-seq) or RPF abundance (Ribo-seq) following TRMT61A knockout (Figures 15A-15B) . HCT116 and RKO cells were treated with AS-IV or FR 180204 for 24 hours (Figure 15C) . Schematic representations of the role of TRMT61A in CRC (Figure 15D) .
[0024] Figures 16A-16C illustrate ONECUT2 inducing SOS1 transcription. RNA-seq was performed in HCT116 cells with or without siONECUT2 (Figure 16A) . The binding motifs of ONECUT2 in NGFR, SOS1, and ITGB1 promoter (Figure 16B) . Protein levels of SOS1 by WB (Figure 16C) .
[0025] Figure 17 illustrates the sequence of SOS1 promoter region (SEQ ID NO: 11) .
[0026] Figure 18 illustrates the correlation between TRMT61A and SOS1 mRNA expressions in primary CRCs. *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0027] Figures 19A-19C illustrate PGG suppressing CRC growth. CRC cells were treated with PGG at different dosages for 72 h (Figure 19A) . ONECUT2 mRNA level in HCT116 and RKO cells with or without PGG treatment for 48 hours (Figure 19B) . ONECUT2 protein expression in HCT116 and RKO cells upon PGG treatment for 48 hours (Figure 19C) . *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0028] Figures 20A-20B illustrate PGG direct binding to TRMT61A protein. Plasmids expressing TRMT61AWT or TRMT61A-7A were generated and confirmed by Sanger sequencing (Figure 20A) . CETSA of cells treated with 5 μM PGG (Figure 20B) .
[0029] Figures 21A-21B illustrate MST assays confirming the direct binding of PGG to TRMT61A protein. The design of MST analysis (Figure 21A) . Recombinant human TRMT61A protein was generated in E. coli and confirmed by either WB or Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining (Figure 21B) .
[0030] Figures 22A-22B illustrate PGG suppressing CRC growth in xenograft mouse models of CRC. Representative images of Ki67-positive cells and quantitative data analysis of CRC xenografts (Figure 22A) . Representative images of TUNEL-positive cells and quantitative data analysis of CRC xenografts (Figure 22B) . At least 5 fields per slide and 5 slides per animal were counted at 200 X magnification. Scale bar = 50 μm; *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0031] Figures 23A-23G illustrate PGG displaying potent anti-CRC efficacy in spontaneous CRC models. Mice body weight of AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figure 23A) . Representative macroscopic images of colons from AOM / DSStreated mice (Figure 23B) . Colon length of AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figure 23C) . Representative macroscopic images of colons from ApcMin / + mice (Figure 23D) . Representative images of colon tumor from ApcMin / + mice (Figure. 23D) . Total tumor number (colon + small intestinal) in ApcMin / + mice under different treatments (Figure 23E) . Liver or kidney function tests using blood samples of AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figure 23F) . The pink box indicates the reference interval of each indicator. WB analysis of tumor tissues from AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figure 23G) . *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.
[0032] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCES
[0033] SEQ ID NO: 1: Human siTRMT61A-1 sense
[0034] SEQ ID NO: 2: Human siTRMT61A-1 anti-sense
[0035] SEQ ID NO: 3: Human siTRMT61A-2 sense
[0036] SEQ ID NO: 4: Human siTRMT61A-2 anti-sense
[0037] SEQ ID NO: 5: sgTRMT6-1
[0038] SEQ ID NO: 6: sgTRMT6-2
[0039] SEQ ID NO: 7: sgTRMT61A-1
[0040] SEQ ID NO: 8: sgTRMT61A-2
[0041] SEQ ID NO: 9: DNA sequence of wildtype m1A-containing region of ONECUT2 gene
[0042] SEQ ID NO: 10: DNA sequence of mutant m1A-containing region of ONECUT2 gene
[0043] SEQ ID NO: 11: DNA sequence of SOS1 promoter region
[0044] DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION
[0045] Selected Definitions
[0046] As used herein, the singular forms “a” , “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Furthermore, to the extent that the terms “including” , “includes” , “having” , “has” , “with” , or variants thereof are used in either the detailed description and / or the claims, such terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising” . The transitional terms / phrases (and any grammatical variations thereof) “comprising” , “comprises” , “comprise” , “consisting essentially of” , “consists essentially of” , “consisting” and “consists” can be used interchangeably.
[0047] The phrases “consisting essentially of” or “consists essentially of” indicate that the claim encompasses embodiments containing the specified materials or steps and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic (s) of the claim.
[0048] The term “about” means within an acceptable error range for the particular value as determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, which depends in part on how the value is measured, i.e., the limitations of the measurement system. In the context of compositions containing amounts of ingredients where the terms “about” are used, these compositions contain the stated amount of the ingredient with a variation (error range) of 0-10%around the value (X ± 10%) . In other contexts, the term “about” is providing a variation (error range) of 0-10%around a given value (X ± 10%) . As is apparent, this variation represents a range that is up to 10%above or below a given value, for example, X ± 1%, X ± 2%, X ± 3%, X ± 4%, X ± 5%, X ± 6%, X ± 7%, X ± 8%, X ± 9%, or X ± 10%.
[0049] In the present disclosure, ranges are stated in shorthand to avoid having to set out at length and describe each and every value within the range. Any appropriate value within the range can be selected, where appropriate, as the upper value, lower value, or the terminus of the range. For example, a range of 0.1-1.0 represents the terminal values of 0.1 and 1.0, as well as the intermediate values of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and all intermediate ranges encompassed within 0.1-1.0, such as 0.2-0.5, 0.2-0.8, 0.7-1.0, etc. Values having at least two significant digits within a range are envisioned, for example, a range of 5-10 indicates all the values between 5.0 and 10.0 as well as between 5.00 and 10.00 including the terminal values. When ranges are used herein, combinations and subcombinations of ranges (e.g., subranges within the disclosed range) and specific embodiments therein are explicitly included.
[0050] As used herein, “subject” , “host” or “organism” refers to any member of the phylum Chordata, more preferably any member of the subphylum vertebrata, or most preferably, any member of the class Mammalia, including, without limitation, humans and other primates, including non-human primates such as rhesus macaques, chimpanzees and other monkey and ape species; livestock, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses; domestic mammals, such as dogs and cats; laboratory animals, including rabbits, mice, rats and guinea pigs. The term does not denote a particular age or gender. Thus, adult, young, and new-born individuals are intended to be covered as well as male and female subjects. In some embodiments, a host tissue is derived from a subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a non-human subject.
[0051] As used herein, the terms “therapeutically-effective amount, ” “therapeutically-effective dose, ” “effective amount, ” and “effective dose” are used to refer to an amount or dose of a compound or composition that, when administered to a subject, is capable of treating, preventing, or improving a condition, disease, or disorder in a subject. In other words, when administered to a subject, the amount is “therapeutically effective. ” The actual amount will vary depending on a number of factors including, but not limited to, the particular condition, disease, or disorder being treated, prevented, or improved; the severity of the condition; the weight, height, age, and health of the patient; and the route of administration.
[0052] As used herein, the term “treatment” refers to eradicating; reducing; ameliorating; abatement; remission; diminishing of symptoms or delaying the onset of symptoms; slowing in the rate of degeneration or decline; making the final point of degeneration less debilitating; and / or improving a subject's physical or mental well-being or reversing a sign or symptom of a health condition, disease or disorder to any extent, and includes, but does not require, a complete cure of the condition, disease, or disorder. Treating can be curing, improving, or partially ameliorating a disorder. “Treatment” can also include improving or enhancing a condition or characteristic, for example, bringing the function of a particular system in the body to a heightened state of health or homeostasis.
[0053] As used herein, “preventing” a health condition, disease, or disorder refers to avoiding, delaying, forestalling, or minimizing the onset of a particular sign or symptom of the condition, disease, or disorder. Prevention can, but is not required, to be absolute or complete; meaning, the sign or symptom may still develop at a later time. Prevention can include reducing the severity of the onset of such a condition, disease, or disorder, and / or inhibiting the progression of the condition, disease, or disorder to a more severe condition, disease, or disorder.
[0054] In some embodiments of the invention, the method comprises administration of multiple doses of the compounds of the subject invention. The method may comprise administration of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 or more therapeutically effective doses of a composition comprising the compounds of the subject invention as described herein. In some embodiments, doses are administered over the course of 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, 10 days, 14 days, 21 days, 28 days, 30 days, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, or 1 year. The frequency and duration of administration of multiple doses of the compositions is such as prevent or treat colorectal cancer. In preferred embodiments, doses are administered 2 to 3 times per week for about 1 week to about 4 weeks. Moreover, treatment of a subject with a therapeutically effective amount of the compounds of the invention can include a single treatment or can include a series of treatments. It will also be appreciated that the effective dosage of a compound used for treatment may increase or decrease over the course of a particular treatment. Changes in dosage may result and become apparent from the results of testing for colorectal cancer, such as, for example, colonoscopy, DNA testing, CT scan, blood testing, or fecal testing. In some embodiments of the invention, the method comprises administration of the compounds at several times per day, including but not limiting to 2 times per day, 3 times per day, and 4 times per day.
[0055] As used herein, an “isolated” or “purified” compound is substantially free of other compounds. In certain embodiments, purified compounds are at least 60%by weight (dry weight) of the compound of interest. Preferably, the preparation is at least 75%, more preferably at least 90%, and most preferably at least 99%, by weight of the compound of interest. For example, a purified compound is one that is at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or 100% (w / w) of the desired compound by weight. Purity is measured by any appropriate standard method, for example, by column chromatography, thin layer chromatography, or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis.
[0056] In this disclosure, the term “isolated nucleic acid” molecule means a nucleic acid molecule that is separated from other nucleic acid molecules that are usually associated with the isolated nucleic acid molecule. Thus, an “isolated nucleic acid molecule” includes, without limitation, a nucleic acid molecule that is free of nucleotide sequences that naturally flank one or both ends of the nucleic acid in the genome of the organism from which the isolated nucleic acid is derived (e.g., a cDNA or genomic DNA fragment produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease digestion) . Such an isolated nucleic acid molecule is generally introduced into a vector (e.g., a cloning vector or an expression vector) for convenience of manipulation or to generate a fusion nucleic acid molecule. In addition, an isolated nucleic acid molecule can include an engineered nucleic acid molecule such as a recombinant or a synthetic nucleic acid molecule. A nucleic acid molecule existing among hundreds to millions of other nucleic acid molecules within, for example, a nucleic acid library (e.g., a cDNA or genomic library) or a gel (e.g., agarose, or polyacrylamide) containing restriction-digested genomic DNA, is not an “isolated nucleic acid” .
[0057] The term “nucleic acid” or “polynucleotide” refers to deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) or ribonucleic acids (RNA) and polymers thereof in either single-or double-stranded form. Unless specifically limited, the term encompasses nucleic acids containing known analogs of natural nucleotides that have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid and are metabolized in a manner similar to naturally occurring nucleotides. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses conservatively modified variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions) , alleles, orthologs, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) , and complementary sequences as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. Specifically, degenerate codon substitutions may be achieved by generating sequences in which the third position of one or more selected (or all) codons is substituted with mixed-base and / or deoxyinosine residues (Batzer et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 19:5081 (1991) ; Ohtsuka et al., J. Biol. Chem. 260: 2605-2608 (1985) ; and Rossolini et al., Mol. Cell. Probes 8: 91-98 (1994) ) . The term nucleic acid is used interchangeably with gene, cDNA, and mRNA encoded by a gene.
[0058] The term “gene” means the segment of DNA involved in producing a polypeptide chain; it includes regions preceding and following the coding region (leader and trailer) involved in the transcription / translation of the gene product and the regulation of the transcription / translation, as well as intervening sequences (introns) between individual coding segments (exons) .
[0059] As used in herein, the terms “identical” or percent “identity” , in the context of describing two or more polynucleotide or amino acid sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same (for example, a variant protein used in the method of this invention has at least 80%sequence identity, preferably 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%identity, to a reference sequence) , when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by manual alignment and visual inspection. Such sequences are then said to be “substantially identical” . With regard to polynucleotide sequences, this definition also refers to the complement of a test sequence. The comparison window, in certain embodiments, refers to the full length sequence of a given polypeptide, for example a tomato-effector interacting protein.
[0060] The subject invention provides for the use of “homologous nucleic acid sequences” or “homologs of nucleic acid sequences” . Homologs of nucleic acid sequences will be understood to mean any nucleotide sequence obtained by mutagenesis according to techniques well known to persons skilled in the art, and exhibiting modifications in relation to the parent sequences. For example, mutations in the regulatory and / or promoter sequences for the expression of a polypeptide that result in a modification of the level of expression of a polypeptide according to the invention provide for a “homolog of a nucleotide sequence” . Likewise, substitutions, deletions, or additions of nucleic acid to the polynucleotides of the invention provide for “homologs” of nucleotide sequences. In various embodiments, “homologs” of nucleic acid sequences have substantially the same biological activity as the corresponding reference nucleic acid sequence, i.e., a gene homologous to a native gene would encode for a protein having the same biological activity as the corresponding protein encoded by the naturally occurring gene. Typically, a homolog of a nucleic acid sequence shares a sequence identity with the parent nucleic acid sequence of at least about 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 66%, 67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99%. These percentages are purely statistical and differences between two nucleic acid sequences can be distributed randomly and over the entire sequence length.
[0061] In certain embodiments, treatments are administered to a subject that “significantly reduce or abolish the expression of a gene or functioning of a protein encoded by the gene. ” This phrase refers to a reduction of gene expression in an amount of at least (or at least about) 30%as compared to a non-treated subject. Thus, the treated subjects exhibit significantly reduced or abolished expression of a gene exhibit a reduction in gene expression or expression of an active protein that can range from about 30%to about 99.99%about 40%to about 99.99%, about 50%to about 99.99%, about 60%to about 99.99%, about 70%to about 99.99%, about 80%to about 99.99%, about 90%to about 99.99% or are devoid of expression (expression is abolished) of the gene or an active protein encoded by the gene.
[0062] By “reduces” is meant a negative alteration of at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100%.
[0063] By “increases” is meant as a positive alteration of at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100%.
[0064] As used herein, a “pharmaceutical” refers to a compound manufactured for use as a medicinal and / or therapeutic drug.
[0065] As used herein, the terms “determining, ” “measuring, ” and “assessing, ” and “assaying” are used interchangeably and include both quantitative and qualitative determinations.
[0066] As used herein, “colorectal cancer” refers to the disease in which cells in the colon and / or rectum grow out of control. Traditional treatments of colorectal cancer include surgery, radiofrequency ablation, cryosurgery, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy.
[0067] M1A Methyltransferase Inhibitor Composition
[0068] Provided herein are compounds and compositions for inhibiting m1A methyltransferase activity, wherein a compound or composition thereof targets a protein with m1A methyltransferase activity or an mRNA transcript that encodes a protein with m1A methyltransferase activity in a subject. In certain embodiments, the protein with m1A methyltransferase activity is TRMT61A. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises a TRMT61A inhibitor, such as, for example, a hydrolysable gallotannin, including, for example, pentagalloylglucose (PGG) .
[0069] In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor composition has a dosage of the TRMT61A inhibitor of about 1 mg / kg to about 100 mg / kg, about 5 mg / kg to about 50 mg / kg, about 10 mg / kg to about 30 mg / kg, about 15 mg / kg to about 25 mg / kg, or about 20 mg / kg.
[0070] In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor binds to the TRMT61A protein, effectively inhibiting its m1A methyltransferase activity.
[0071] In certain embodiments, the composition targets a protein with m1A methyltransferase activity and can be administered intraperitoneally, intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, intracarterially, intranasally, via inhalation, transnasally, vaginally, transdermally, intraosseously, orally, sublingually, buccally, rectally, enterally and / or parenterally.
[0072] The composition of the subject invention can also include additives commonly used in medications and other compositions to treat colorectal cancer, such as, for example, chemotherapeutic drugs (e.g., FOLFOX (5-FU, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin) or CapeOx (capecitabine and oxaliplatin) ) , Bevacizumab, Ramucirumab, Ziv-aflibercept, Cetuximab, Panitumumab, Encorafenib Trastuzumab, Pertuzumab, Tucatinib, Lapatinib, Fam-trastuzumab deruxteca, Larotrectinib, Regorafenib, a PD-1 inhibitor (e.g., Pembrolizumab or nivolumab) , a CTLA-4 inhibitor (e.g., Ipilimumab) , or any combination thereof. The composition of the subject invention can be administered during, before, or after other commonly used colorectal cancer treatments, such as, for example, surgical removal of the cancerous tissue (e.g., polyps) , ablation and embolization, colectomy, radiation, or any combination thereof.
[0073] In certain embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount of the composition of the invention can be administered through intraperitoneal administration or by sustained release systems, such as semipermeable matrices of solid hydrophobic polymers containing the compounds of the invention. Administration may be also by way of other carriers or vehicles such as patches, micelles, liposomes, vesicles, implants (e.g. microimplants) , synthetic polymers, microspheres, nanoparticles, and the like. In certain embodiments, the compositions may be administered using a nanoparticle to passage the composition through skin.
[0074] In certain embodiments, the compositions of the instant invention may be formulated for parenteral administration e.g., by injection, for example, bolus injection, intravenous administration, intraperitoneal administration, or continuous infusion. In addition, the compositions may be presented in unit dose form in ampoules, pre-filled syringes, and small volume infusion or in multi-dose containers with or without an added preservative. The compositions may be in forms of suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles. The composition may further contain formulation agents such as suspending, stabilizing and / or dispersing agents. In further embodiments, the active ingredients of the compositions according to the instant invention may be in powder form, obtained by aseptic isolation of sterile solid or by lyophilization from solution for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile, pyrogen-free water, before use.
[0075] The subject compositions can further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, and / or excipients, and can be formulated into preparations, for example, semi-solid or liquid forms, such as solutions or injections.
[0076] The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein means compatible with the other ingredients of a pharmaceutical composition and not deleterious to the recipient thereof.
[0077] Carriers and / or excipients according to the subject invention can include any and all solvents, diluents, buffers (such as, e.g., neutral buffered saline, phosphate buffered saline, or optionally Tris-HCl, acetate or phosphate buffers) , oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions, aqueous compositions with or without inclusion of organic co-solvents suitable for, e.g., IV use, solubilizers (e.g., Polysorbate 65, Polysorbate 80) , colloids, dispersion media, vehicles, fillers, chelating agents (e.g., EDTA or glutathione) , amino acids (e.g., glycine) , proteins, disintegrants, binders, lubricants, wetting agents, emulsifiers, sweeteners, colorants, flavorings, aromatizers, thickeners (e.g., carbomer, gelatin, or sodium alginate) , coatings, preservatives (e.g., Thimerosal, benzyl alcohol, polyquaterium) , antioxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulfite) , tonicity controlling agents, absorption delaying agents, adjuvants, bulking agents (e.g., lactose, mannitol) and the like. The use of carriers and / or excipients in the field of drugs and supplements is well known. Except for any conventional media or agent that is incompatible with the target health-promoting substance or with the composition, carrier or excipient use in the subject compositions may be contemplated.
[0078] In certain embodiments, the administration of at least one dose of the composition is repeated at least daily, biweekly, thrice-weekly, weekly, bimonthly, monthly, yearly or at least every about 2 weeks, about 3 weeks, about 4 weeks, about 5 weeks, about 6 weeks, about 7 weeks, about 8 weeks, about 9 weeks, about 10 weeks, about 11 weeks, about 12 weeks, about 13 weeks, about 14 weeks, about 15 weeks, about 16 weeks, about 17 weeks, about 18 weeks, about 19 weeks, about 20 weeks, about 21 weeks, about 22 weeks, about 23 weeks, about 24 weeks, about 25 weeks, about 26 weeks, or longer. In certain embodiments, the repeated administrations of at least one of dose of the composition occurs for at least about 1 week, about 2 weeks, about 3 weeks, about 4 weeks, about 5 weeks, about 6 weeks, about 7 weeks, about 8 weeks, about 9 weeks, about 10 weeks, about 11 weeks, about 12 weeks, about 13 weeks, about 14 weeks, about 15 weeks, about 16 weeks, about 17 weeks, about 18 weeks, about 19 weeks, about 20 weeks, about 21 weeks, about 22 weeks, about 23 weeks, about 24 weeks, about 25 weeks, about 26 weeks, about 52 weeks or longer. In preferred embodiments, the administration of at least one dose of the composition is repeated every about 2 days to about 5 days for about 2 weeks to about 10 weeks.
[0079] Methods of Use
[0080] In certain embodiments, the compositions according to the subject invention can be used in methods for inhibiting its m1A methyltransferase activity in a subject, wherein a compound or composition thereof targets a protein with m1A methyltransferase activity or mRNA transcript that encodes a protein with m1A methyltransferase activity in a subject. In certain embodiments, the protein with m1A methyltransferase activity is TRMT61A. In certain embodiments, the compositions according to the subject invention can be used in methods for treating colorectal cancer. The compositions can be administered intraperitoneally.
[0081] In certain embodiments, the methods comprise contacting the composition according to the subject invention with the colon and / or rectum of a subject. The composition can be administered using different routes, such as, for example, enteral, intramuscular, intravenous, oral, subcutaneous, sublingual, transdermal, or any combination thereof.
[0082] The method of the subject invention comprises inhibiting or reducing m1A methyltransferase activity with the compositions of the subject invention in order to prevent or treat colorectal cancer. In certain embodiments, the compositions of the subject invention can reduce total RNA m1A levels in CRC cells by about 53%to about 65%at a concentration of, for example, 5 μM. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the expression of the ONECUT2 mRNA transcript by about, for example, about 20%to about 40%at a concentration of, for example, about 5 μM. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits SOS1-MAPK / ERK signaling. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A inhibitor can reduce SOS1-MAPK / ERK signaling by at least about 50%in colon tumors of mice treated with Azoxymethane (AOM) / Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) .
[0083] Detecting TRMT61A Expression
[0084] The subject invention can provide methods for detecting TRMT61A expression in primary colorectal cancer samples and adjacent non-cancerous tissues. In certain embodiments, to test TRMT61A expression in a patient, a biopsy sample must be obtained from paired colorectal cancer samples and adjacent non-cancerous tissues.
[0085] In certain embodiments, TRMT61A expression can be detected by determining the mRNA level of TRMT61A in the samples, wherein the mRNA levels between paired colorectal cancer samples and adjacent non-cancerous tissues exhibit differential expression. In certain embodiments, TRMT61A mRNA expression in primary CRCs can be about 1.62 to about 1.88 times higher than that in paired adjacent normal tissues. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A expression is measured by real-time PCR.
[0086] In certain embodiments, the protein levels of TRMT61A in the colorectal cancer samples and adjacent non-cancerous tissues can be determined. In certain embodiments, the protein levels between paired colorectal cancer samples and adjacent non-cancerous tissues can exhibit differential expression. In certain embodiments, TRMT61A protein expression in primary CRCs can be about 3.22 times higher than that in paired adjacent normal tissues. In certain embodiments, the protein level is measured by western blot and immunohistochemistry.
[0087] In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A expression levels and / or protein levels can be compared among different colorectal cancer patients. In certain embodiments, a high TRMT61A expression can indicate a poor prognosis for patients with colorectal cancer. In certain embodiments, the TRMT61A levels are compared by multivariate survival analysis.
[0088] In certain embodiments, the presence of cancerous tissues can be determined before, after, and / or during the subject methods through conventional methods, including, for example, a colonoscopy.
[0089] MATERIALS AND METHODS
[0090] Human CRC Samples
[0091] Four cohorts of CRC patients were included. Cohort I from the Beijing University Cancer Hospital comprises 150 patients with surgically excised CRC tissues and surrounding nontumor tissues. Cohort II is The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) -CRC dataset consisting of TRMT61A mRNA expression data from 623 CRCs and 51 nontumor tissues. Cohort III from the Chinese University of Hong Kong contains 179 CRC patients. For cohort IV, TRMT61A mRNA expression of 65 CRC tumors and the patient information were acquired from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GSE29623, see worldwide website: ncbi. nlm. nih. gov / gds) . This study was approved by the ethics committee of the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Beijing University Cancer Hospital.
[0092] Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) for RNA m1A Quantification
[0093] RNA from paired CRC and adjacent normal tissues was extracted by TRIzol reagent and quantified. Over 100 ng RNA was dissolved in 22 μl ddH2O, heated at 85℃ for 3 min, and cooled on ice. To digest RNA, 2.5 μl of nucleoside digestion mix buffer and 0.5 μl of nucleoside digestion mix (New England Biolabs (Ipswich, Massachusetts, USA) ) were added to the RNA, and the mixture was incubated at 37℃ for 18 h. The digestion mixture was quenched by heating at 80℃ for 3 min, followed by adding 75 μl ddH2O. The samples were then injected into TSQ Altis Triple Quadrupole quantitative mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific (Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) ) provided by Li Ka Shing Translational Omics Platform, CUHK.
[0094] m1A Dot Blot
[0095] Total RNA was extracted by TRIZOL (Takara Bio (Kusatsu, Japan) ) . Purified RNA was quantified and diluted in 10 mM Tris-EDTA buffer. Equivalent amounts of RNA were denatured at 65℃ for 5 min and loaded to a positively charged nylon membrane (GE Amersham) . The membrane was UV-crosslinked twice and then probed with an anti-m1A antibody, followed by HRP-conjugated secondary antibody staining and ECL detection.
[0096] Patient-Derived CRC Organoids
[0097] Primary CRC organoids (CRC-74, CRC-816, and CRC-828) were provided by Princess Margaret Living Biobank (Canada) and cultured in DMEM / F12 supplemented with N2 and B27 (ThermoFisher) , 10 mmol / L HEPES, 1.25 mmol / L N-acetyl cysteine (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) , 10 mmol / L SB202190-monohydrochloride (Sigma-Aldrich) , R-spondin-1 (RSPO1) , Noggin, Wnt3a, 50 ng / mL EGF (ThermoFisher) , and penicillin / streptomycin (Sigma-Aldrich) . To manipulate TRMT61A expression, organoids were digested into single cells and infected with lentivirus carrying sgTRMT61A or TRMT61A gene. Infected organoids were selected with puromycin (2 μg / ml) for two weeks.
[0098] m1A-seq
[0099] Total RNAs were extracted from the cells with Trizol and fragmented into about 200 bp pieces with the NEB Magnesium RNA Fragmentation Module (NEB, #E6150S) . Then, they were purified with Ethanol precipitation, and one-tenth of the purified RNAs were aliquoted as input. The purified RNA fragments were dissolved in IP buffer (1 M Tris-HCl, pH=7.4, 10%NP-40, 5 M NaCl, and 40 U RNase inhibitor) and incubated with 5 μg anti-m1A antibody (CST, 56593) at 4℃ for 2 h. The antibody-m1A-RNA complexes were collected with DynabeadsTM Protein A (Thermo Fisher) and washed three times with 1×PBS. The clean Protein-A-antibody-m1A-RNA complexes were treated with proteinase K at 55℃ for 30 min to remove potential protein contamination. The m1A-RNAs were then purified with phenol: chloroform: isoamyl alcohol (125: 24: 1) followed by rRNA removal with Ribo-off rRNA Depletion Kit (Vazyme, N406) . The resultant m1A-RNAs and input samples were purified using RNA Clean beads (Vazyme, N412) and reverse-transcribed for library construction with NEB Ultra TM RNA Library Prep Kit for The libraries were purified by purification beads (Vazyme, N411) and analyzed on Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent) for measuring fragment size distribution. The qualified libraries were sequenced on Illumina Nova Seq 6000. Fastq files were checked with Fastqc (v. 0.11.9) for quality control. Readings are mapped to reference genomes using STAR (v. 2.7.4a) . The alignment S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) files were sorted with Samtools (v. 1.3.1) . The m1A signal distribution (peak calling) was identified by MACS2 (v. 2.1.1.20160309) , during which the input samples were used to subtract background noise. The peak annotation and motif analysis were then realized with Bedtools (v. 2.30.0) and Homer2 (v. 4.1.5) . Differential expression analysis is made using DEseq2, Data whose absolute value of log2Foldchange larger than 1 and p-value less than 0.05 is kept for subsequent analysis. Input samples are used for the removal of background noise during peak calls. The m1A-seq was performed in DIATRE Biotechnology, Shanghai, China.
[0100] Ribo-Seq
[0101] The live cell pellet was gently resuspended with culture medium containing 0.1 mg / mL Cycloheximide (Beyotime, SC0353) and washed once with 1×PBS containing 0.1 mg / mL Cycloheximide. The clean cell pellet was lysed in 1 mL lysis buffer at 41z for 10 min, followed by incubation of 10 μL RNase A (BBI, B600476) at room temperature for 30 min. The RNAs were extracted by Trizol, and rRNA was removed with SP-ribo-Pools (Forever Star, FS-R1056-04) , followed by clean-up with VAHTS RNA Clean Beads (Vazyme, N412) . The clean RNA samples were then treated with T4 polynucleotide Kinase (PNK, Vazyme, N102) to create RNA fragments with 3’ -hydroxyl and a 5’ -phosphate that are compatible with the following deep sequencing library construction. Following PNK treatment, the ribosome-protected mRNA fragments (RPFs) were purified by VAHTS RNA Clean Beads, followed by library construction with VAHTS Small RNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina (Vazyme, NR801) . The libraries were fractioned on 6%PAGE mini gel, and the bands ranging around 150bp were recovered and purified for quality control. The qualified libraries were sequenced on Illumina Nova Seq 6000. Fastq files were checked with Fastqc (v. 0.11.9) for quality control. Trim-galore (v. 0.6.6) is then used to remove sequencing adaptors and low-quality reads. QC-passed reads are then subjected to bowtie (v. 1.3.0) to remove mycoplasma contamination and mapped to human ribosome sequences to remove rRNA reads. Reads unmapped in this step are collected, subjected to STAR (v. 2.7.8a) , and mapped to the human reference genome (hg38) . Reads mapped to the transcriptome are collected for subsequent analysis. Transcriptome-aligned reads were processed with Ribowaltz (v. 1.2.0) , and differences in ribosome binding were analyzed using DESeq2 (v. 1.30.0) . Function enrichment was performed using Cluster Profiler (v. 3.18.1) . Ribo-seq was performed in DIATRE Biotechnology, Shanghai, China.
[0102] RNA-Seq
[0103] RNA sequencing was performed accordingly 6. Briefly, mRNA was purified from total RNA using poly-T oligo-attached magnetic beads. Fragmentation was performed using divalent cations under elevated temperature in NEBNext First Strand Synthesis Reaction Buffer (5X) . First-strand cDNA was synthesized using a random hexamer primer and M-MuLV Reverse Transcriptase (RNase H-) . Second-strand cDNA synthesis was subsequently performed using DNA Polymerase I and RNase H. Remaining overhangs were converted into blunt ends via exonuclease / polymerase activities. After adenylation of 3’ ends of DNA fragments, the NEBNext Adaptor with hairpin loop structure was ligated to prepare for hybridization. To select cDNA fragments of preferentially 250~300 bp in length, the library fragments were purified with the AMPure XP system (Beckman Coulter, Beverly, USA) . Then 3 μl USER Enzyme (NEB, USA) was used with size-selected, adaptor-ligated cDNA at 37℃ for 15 min followed by 5 min at 95 ℃ before PCR. Then, PCR was performed with Phusion High-Fidelity DNA polymerase, Universal PCR primers, and Index (X) Primer. At last, PCR products were purified (AMPure XP system) , and library quality was assessed on the Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 system. Quantified libraries were sequenced on the Illumina platform Novaseq 6000 using PE150 read length.
[0104] Pathway Analysis
[0105] Gene-set enrichment analysis of RNA-seq and Ribo-seq expression data was performed using gene sets from the Hallmark collection in the Molecular Signatures Database. Vesicle-Like PLGA-based nanoparticle (VNP)
[0106] 2’ -O-Methyl (2’ -OMe) modified siRNA was purchased from GenePharma Co. Ltd (Shanghai, China) . A pool of two validated siRNAs targeting human TRMT61A or non-targeting siRNA controls (siNC) was used with their sequence listed below:
[0107] Human siTRMT61A-1: GGCACUCAGUUGACCUUAUTT (SEQ ID NO: 1) (sense: 5’ –3’ ) and AUAAGGUCAACUGAGUGCCTT (SEQ ID NO: 2) (anti-sense: 5’ –3’ ) ; Human siTRMT61A-2: CGCAGCUCCAUGGUUUAUATT (SEQ ID NO: 3) (sense: 5’ –3’ ) and UAUAAACCAUGGAGCUGCGTT (SEQ ID NO: 4) (anti-sense: 5’ –3’ ) .
[0108] VNP was assembled by Guangzhou Kelan Biotechnology Co., Ltd (Guangzhou, China) . For xenograft assays, 1×106 CRC cells were subcutaneously injected into dorsal flanks of 4-6-week-old male nude mice. After tumor volume reached 50-100 mm3, the mice were assigned into control and treatment groups with equal tumor size distribution (average and variance) . The mice were given VNP-siNC or VNP-siTRMT61A via intertumoral injection (2 mg / kg) every other day. All animal studies were approved by the Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee of The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
[0109] Structure-Based Virtual Screening Pipeline
[0110] The crystal structure of human TRM61A protein was downloaded from the RCSB Protein Data Bank (PDB ID: 5CCB) 27. Virtual Screening Workflow (MedChemExpress) was employed to screen 100, 100 compounds, including Epigenetics Library (9,300) , RNA Library (15,500) , Protein-Protein Interaction Library (40,600) , MCE Bioactive Compound Library (15,600) , Discovery Diversity Set 10 (10,200) , and Protein Mimetics Library (8,900) in silico to identify TRMT61A inhibitor hits. The docking score was calculated by Schro dinger software (LigPrep Module) utilizing three precision modes (HTVS, high-throughput virtual screening; SP, standard precision; and XP, extra precision) . The top 30 compounds were selected for further study.
[0111] Cellular Thermal Shift Assay (CETSA)
[0112] The cells were resuspended in PBS supplemented with a protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche) and then freeze-thawed three times using liquid nitrogen for complete cell lysis. The cell lysate-containing supernatants were centrifuged at 20,000 g for 20 min at 4℃ to remove cell debris. The lysates were diluted in PBS and divided into two subgroups: one mixed with Pentagalloylglucose (PGG, 5 μM) while the other mixed with DMSO. After a 30-min incubation at room temperature, the lysates were aliquoted in 50 μL, and each aliquot was heated to the designated temperatures (37-62℃) for 3 min using a thermal cycler (Applied Biosystems) , followed by cooling for 3 min at room temperature. The heated lysates were centrifuged at 20,000 g for 20 min at 4℃ to collect supernatants with the soluble protein fraction for subsequent western blot (WB) analysis.
[0113] Drug Affinity Responsive Targets Stability (DARTS) Assay
[0114] DARTS assay was conducted in CRC cells accordingly25. According to the docking poses of PGG and TRMT61A protein, residues Q85, G111, S114, F136, D163, V164, and D181 are important for the binding of TRMT61A with PGG. Thus, a mutant TRMT61AQ85A / G111A / S114A / F136A / D163A / V164A / D181A was constructed using Q5 Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit6. After lentiviral production and transduction, CRC cells stably expressing wild-type or mutant TRMT61A were collected and lysed in an M-PER buffer. After centrifugation, the supernatant will be mixed with a one-tenth volume of 10x TNC buffer (500 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) , 500 mM NaCl, 100 mM CaCl2) and split into 6 samples. Each sample was incubated with serial doses of PGG for 1 h at room temperature and then digested with Pronase (Roche) for 30 min. A protein inhibitor cocktail was added to quench the reaction, followed by WB.
[0115] MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST)
[0116] 150 μL of 200 nM His-tagged recombinant human TRMT61A was incubated with 150 μL of 100 nM RED-tris-NTA 2nd generation dye in PBS-T (PBS, pH 7.4, 0.005%Tween-20) for 30 min at room temperature. After centrifugation for 10 min at 15,000 g under 4℃, the labeled protein was diluted in PBST to a final concentration of 100 nM. The interactions between PGG and TRMT61A protein in Monolith NT. 115 Standard Treated Capillaries were determined on a NanTemper Technologies NT. 115 instrument at Medium MST power and LED power of 100 %. The data were analyzed using MO. Affinity Analysis Software.
[0117] Administration of PGG In Vivo
[0118] For xenograft mouse models, 1×106 CRC cells were injected subcutaneously into the dorsal flanks of male nude mice aged 4-6 weeks. Once the tumor volume reached 50-100 mm3, the mice were divided into control and treatment groups, ensuring an equal distribution of tumor sizes in terms of both average and variance. PBS or PGG (20 mg / kg in PBS) were given via intraperitoneal (i.p. ) injection two or three times a week. For the spontaneous CRC mouse model, the Azoxymethane (AOM) / Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and Apcmin model were employed 6, 8. After confirming tumor formation through mouse colonoscopy, the mice received i.p. injections of either PBS or PGG (20 mg / kg in PBS) twice a week. Following sacrifice, the tumors were collected, weighed, and histologically confirmed via H&E staining.
[0119] Statistical Analysis
[0120] Unless otherwise indicated, all results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD) . Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon matched pairs test, or Student t test was performed to compare the difference between two groups. The difference between growth rates was determined by ANOVA with repeated-measures analysis of variances. For immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining, at least five random regions were selected to quantify the percentage of positively stained cells and staining intensity. For survival analysis, the follow-up data were truncated at 60 months. Kaplan-Meier analysis and log-rank test were performed to evaluate the association between TRMT61A expression and patient survival. The Cox proportion hazard regression model was performed to assess the prognostic value of TRMT61A expression. All statistical tests were performed with GraphPad Prism or SPSS.
[0121] Real-Time PCR
[0122] Total RNA was extracted from tissues using QIAzol reagent (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) , and cDNA was synthesized (Roche, Indianapolis, IN) . Real-time PCR was performed using SYBR Green master mixture on the HT7900 system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) . Each sample was tested in triplicate. The gene expression level was determined by the ΔΔCT method.
[0123] Western Blot
[0124] Total protein was loaded into an SDS-PAGE gel. After gel electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane at 70V for 2 h and then blocked with 5%bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 1 h at room temperature. Next, the blocked membrane was incubated with the primary antibody overnight at 4 ℃. Protein quantification was performed by Image J.
[0125] Immunohistochemistry
[0126] TRMT61A protein expressions were assessed by immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays. The staining scores of TRMT61A were determined by two pathologists independently. IHC score 0: no staining; IHC score 1: < 10%staining; IHC score 2: ≤ 70%weak or moderate staining or strong staining in 10%–30%; IHC score 3: moderate staining in >70%or strong staining in >30%.
[0127] Human CRC Cancer Cell Lines
[0128] HCT116, DLD1, LOVO, RKO, and LS180 cells were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA) and grown in DMEM supplemented with 10%fetal bovine serum (FBS) and antibiotics.
[0129] Lentivirus Production
[0130] HEK293T cells were seeded in a 10 cm dish. 8 μg of transfer plasmid, 6 μg of psPAX2, 2 μg of pMD2. G, and 36 μL of FuGENE HD Transfection Reagent were mixed for transfection 14, 15. The virus was collected at 48-and 72-hours post-transfection. The sequence of specific single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) is listed below:
[0131] sgTRMT6-1: 5’ -ACGCCGTGGAGCACGGCGAC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 5) .
[0132] sgTRMT6-2: 5’ -GGAGACCACCGCATCCGCGA-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 6) .
[0133] sgTRMT61A-1: 5’ -CATGAGCTTCGTGGCATACG-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 7) .
[0134] sgTRMT61A-2: 5’ -AGCCGAAGGGGCGGCCGATA-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 8) .
[0135] Cell Proliferation and Colony Formation Assays
[0136] For the cell proliferation assay, HCT116, LOVO, RKO, or LS180 were planted in 96-well plates (1000 per well) with 100 μL fresh medium. Cell viability was measured at different time points using CellTiter 96 AQueousOne Solution Cell Proliferation Assay (Promega, America) . For the colony formation assay, 100 cells were planted in 6-well plates with 2ml fresh medium and grown for two weeks. Visible colonies were stained with 0.5%crystal violet, and colony numbers were calculated.
[0137] Cell Wound Healing, Migration, and Invasion Assays
[0138] For the cell wound healing assay, 2 × 105 cells were seeded into 12-well plates overnight. The monolayers were scratched with a sterile 200 μl tip. The width of the wounded area was captured using a microscope microscopy (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) at different time points. The wound closure was quantified by ImageJ software. All experiments were conducted in triplicate. For migration assay, 2 × 105 cells in 500 μL serum-free medium were added into the upper chamber of a transwell insert (pore size, 8 mm; Corning Falcon) and placed on a receiver well containing 750 μL cell culture medium supplemented with 10%fetal bovine serum. For invasion assay, the chambers were pre-coated with 100 μL Matrigel at 37℃ for 1 hour. The cells were then added as described in the migration assay. After 48 or 72 hours, the transwell inserts were collected and stained by 0.5%crystal violet. The migrated cells were counted in five random fields.
[0139] Cell Cycle and Cell Apoptosis Assays
[0140] For cell cycle assay, cells were fixed in 70%ethanol, stained with propidium iodide (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) , and analyzed by flow cytometry. Dean-Jett-Fox model was used to determine the frequency of cell population in different phases of a cell cycle by FlowJo (Ashland, Oregon, USA) . For cell apoptosis assay, cells were stained with annexin-phycoerythrin / 7-amino actinomycin D staining kit (BD Biosciences (Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, USA) ) and analyzed by flow cytometry.
[0141] Subcutaneous Xenograft and Experimental Metastasis Mouse Model
[0142] 1× 106 CRC cells were injected subcutaneously into the dorsal right flank of 4-week-old male nude mice. Tumor volume (Volume = 0.5 × Length × Width × Width) was measured every two days. For in vivo lung metastasis assay, 5 × 106 CRC cells were injected into the lateral tail vein of 4-week-old male nude mice. Mice were sacrificed 5 weeks after the injection. Tumors in the lung were excised and weighed. As to the liver metastasis mouse model, 5 × 106 CRC cells were injected into the spleen of nude mice. Mice were euthanized 3 to 4 weeks after intrasplenic injection. The liver was removed and fixed for histological examination. Liver metastasis was assessed by counting visible metastatic nodules, measuring the liver area, and determining the proportion of tumor metastases when the nodules were indistinguishable. All animal studies were approved by the Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee of The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
[0143] All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, including all Figureures and tables, to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.
[0144] Following are examples that illustrate procedures for practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are by volume unless otherwise noted.
[0145] EXAMPLE 1-RNA M1A METHYLTRANSFERASE TRMT61A PLAYS AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN CRC
[0146] To investigate the occurrence of aberrant RNA m1A modifications during CRC development, we first detected the changes in RNA m1A level within tumor tissues by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) . The results showed that RNA m1A level was significantly increased in primary CRCs compared to adjacent normal tissues (Figure 1A) , suggesting a potential alteration in RNA m1A profile during CRC development.
[0147] We next screened m1A regulators important for CRC using CRISPR / Cas9 dropout screening in two CRC cell lines 6. Overlap of gene candidates in HCT116 and POP92 identified TRMT61A as the top essential m1A regulator in CRC (Figure 1B) . TRMT61A is recognized as the catalytic subunit of m1A methyltransferase complex TRMT61A / TRMT6, and the interaction between TRMT61A and TRMT6 was verified through co-immunoprecipitation in HCT116 cells (Figure 8A) . In line with this, genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 screen data analysis from 54 CRC cell lines of Project Achilles verified that TRMT61A and TRMT6 are essential and functionally correlated in CRC (Figure 8B) . To confirm the role of TRMT61A as an m1A writer in CRC, we assessed the total RNA m1A levels in different CRC cells with TRMT61A knockout or overexpression using m1A dot blot. The results revealed that overexpression of TRMT61A augmented the m1A abundance in LS180 and HCT116 cells (Figure 1C) . Conversely, the depletion of TRMT61A reduced the global m1A level in RKO and HCT116 cells (Figure 1C) . Consistently, we observed a positive correlation between TRMT61A expression and global RNA m1A level in primary CRCs (Figure 1D) , suggesting that TRMT61A is responsible for m1A formation in CRC. It is noteworthy that TRMT61A and TRMT6 proteins can stabilize each other, as depletion of TRMT61A markedly decreased TRMT6 protein expression, and vice versa (Figure 8C) . Similarly, the knockdown of TRMT61A or TRMT6 significantly impeded CRC cell proliferation and clone formation (Figures 8D and 8E) . Together, RNA m1A modifications play a critical role in CRC pathogenesis.
[0148] EXAMPLE 2-HIGH TRMT61A EXPRESSION PREDICTS POOR PROGNOSIS OF CRC PATIENTS
[0149] We next assessed the clinical significance of TRMT61A and TRMT6 in 3 independent CRC cohorts. TRMT61A mRNA expression was upregulated in 81.3%(122 / 150) and 84.0% (42 / 50) of primary CRCs compared to paired adjacent normal tissues in our CRC cohort (Beijing) by qPCR and TCGA cohort (both P<.001) , respectively (Figure 1E) . Consistently, higher TRMT6 mRNA expression was observed in primary CRCs compared to adjacent normal tissues in both Beijing and TCGA cohorts (Figures 1E and 9A) . Besides mRNA expression, the TRMT61A and TRMT6 protein expressions were upregulated in primary CRCs by WB (Figure 1F) . Notably, a positive correlation between the expression of TRMT61A and TRMT6 was observed at both the mRNA and protein levels (Figures 9B and 9C) , corroborating their functional and regulatory relationships. In line with this, a strong positive correlation between TRMT6 and TRMT61A protein expressions was identified across different CRC cell lines (Figure 9D) . We selected TRMT61A, the core catalytic subunit of the m1A methyltransferase complex, for further investigation. By IHC staining, TRMT61A protein expression was upregulated in CRC tumor tissues compared to paired adjacent normal tissues in the Hong Kong cohort (Figure 1G) . Furthermore, higher TRMT61A protein expression (IHC score: 2 and 3) was significantly associated with poorer overall survival of CRC patients (Figures 1H and 9E) . We further performed a multivariate Cox regression analysis to assess the significance of TRMT61A expression in predicting CRC prognosis while adjusting for other relevant risk factors, including age, sex, tumor site, and TNM stage. The result showed that elevated TRMT61A protein expression was an independent poor prognostic factor for CRC patients (hazard ratio [HR] , 1.862; 95%confidence interval [CI] , 1.119 -3.098; P =.0167) (Figure 1H) . The prognostic significance of TRMT61A was further confirmed in an independent cohort (GSE29623) , where elevated TRMT61A mRNA expression was significantly associated with poorer survival outcome (HR, 2.852; 95%CI, 1.119 -6.783; P = .018) (Figure 1I) . Thus, TRMT61A could serve as an independent prognostic factor for patients with CRC.
[0150] EXAMPLE 3-TRMT61A PLAYS AN ONCOGENIC ROLE IN CRC
[0151] To determine the function of TRMT61A in CRC, we employed the CRISPR / Cas9 system to silence TRMT61A in different CRC cell lines (Figure 10A) . The results showed that knockout of TRMT61A significantly reduced CRC cell proliferation (Figures 2A and 10B) and colony formation (Figure 2B) . Conversely, overexpression of wild-type (WT) TRMT61A, but not catalytic inactive TRMT61AD181A mutant, promoted CRC growth and colony formation (Figures 2A, 2B, and 10C) , implying that m1A methyltransferase activity of TRMT61A is essential for CRC growth. In line with these findings, the growth of patient-derived CRC organoids was suppressed upon silencing of TRMT61A, while the TRMT61A-WT exerted the opposite effect, but not the TRMT61AD181A (Figures 2C and 10D) . We next examined the impact of TRMT61A on the cell cycle. Serum starvation was conducted to induce cell synchronization in CRC cells (Figure 11) . The results showed that the knockdown of TRMT61A in HCT116 cells induced cell cycle arrest at the G2 / M phase (Figure 11) . Similarly, the knockout of TRMT61A resulted in more cell accumulation at the G2 / M phase (Figure 2D) . Thus, TRMT61A regulates G2 / M checkpoint transition. To further validate this finding, we induced a G2 / M-phase arrest by treating CRC cells with nocodazole 19. Compared to the control group, cells with TRMT61A overexpression showed increased resistance to nocodazole treatment, as demonstrated by a significantly lower accumulation of cells at the G2 / M phase (Figure 2E) . Furthermore, the G2 / M regulatory proteins P-Wee1 and Cyclin B1 were inhibited after TRMT61A knockout Figure 2F) , whereas TRMT61A overexpression had the opposite effect (Figure 2G) . In addition to cell cycle regulation, TRMT61A also regulates cell apoptosis. We found that knockout of TRMT61A led to increased apoptosis of CRC cells (Figure 2H) , concomitant with elevated expression of apoptotic markers such as cleaved caspase 3 and cleaved PARP (Figure 2I) . Conversely, overexpression of TRMT61A exerted the opposite effect (Figures 2H and 2I) . Together, TRMT61A exerts the oncogenic function by promoting cell cycle progression but reducing cell apoptosis.
[0152] EXAMPLE 4-TARGETING TRMT61A EXPRESSION SUPPRESSES CRC GROWTH
[0153] To confirm the functional significance of TRMT61A, we established xenograft CRC mouse models and conducted further experiments. Consistent with in vitro findings, knockout of TRMT61A markedly reduced the tumor volume and weight of HCT116 and RKO xenografts in vivo (Figures 3A and 3B) . Additionally, we observed a decrease in tumor cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis in the CRC xenografts upon TRMT61A silencing, as evidenced by Ki-67 and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining, respectively (Figures 3C and 3D) . Thus, targeting TRMT61A expression can suppress the growth of CRC in vivo. We further use a nanoparticle-mediated siRNA delivery system20 to explore the potential of TRMT61A as a therapeutic target in CRC. The knockdown efficiency of TRMT61A-siRNA was confirmed in HCT116 cells (Figure 3E) . Following tumor inoculation, the mice received intratumoral injections of Vesicle-like PLGA-based nanoparticle (VNP) -encapsulated either siCTL or siTRMT61A. Consistently, VNP-siTRMT61A treatment significantly reduced both tumor volume and weight of HCT116 and RKO xenografts compared to the VNP-siNC group (Figure 3F) . In line with this, VNP-siTRMT61A treatment led to a reduction in cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis in CRC xenografts (Figures 3G and 3H) . All these data suggest that targeting TRMT61A expression inhibits CRC growth.
[0154] EXAMPLE 5-TRMT61A PROMOTES CRC METASTASIS
[0155] We next investigated the effect of TRMT61A on the metastatic ability of CRC cells using in vitro wound healing, migration, and invasion assays. We found that depletion of TRMT61A significantly inhibited cell migration and invasive capability in both HCT116 and RKO cells compared to the control groups (Figures 4A-4C, 12A, and 12B) . In contrast, ectopic expression of TRMT61A-WT, but not the TRMT61AD181A, enhanced CRC cell migration and invasion (Figures 4D-4F) , corroborating that the oncogenic function of TRMT61A in CRC is dependent on its m1A methyltransferase activity. In keeping with these findings, western blot analyses showed that TRMT61A induced the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by increasing the expression of mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin, Vimentin, and Snail) and decreasing the expression of epithelial markers (E-cadherin and Claudin-1) in both HCT116 and RKO cells, whereas TRMT61A knockout exerted the opposite effect (Figure 4G) . Furthermore, in vivo murine lung and liver metastasis models were established by lateral tail vein and intrasplenic injections of HCT116 cells, respectively. The results showed that silencing of TRMT61A led to a significant decrease in metastatic lesions in the lungs and livers (Figures 4H and 4I) . Together, TRMT61A promotes the metastatic ability of CRC cells.
[0156] EXAMPLE 6-ONECUT2 IS A CRITICAL DOWNSTREAM TARGET OF TRMT61A
[0157] To identify the functional downstream effectors of TRMT61A, we performed m1A -seq in HCT116 cells with or without TRMT61A knockout (Figure 5A) . Consistent with previous findings21, m1A peaks are highly enriched at 5' UTR near the start codon and tend to have GA-rich motifs (Figure 5B) . In total, we identified 434 transcripts displaying significantly reduced m1A peaks (m1A enrichment (log2) (sgTRMT61A / sgCTL) < -0.5 and adjusted p < 0.01) upon TRMT61A knockout (Figure 5C) . To investigate the impact of TRMT61A depletion on m1A -modified transcripts, we further conducted RNA-seq and Ribo-seq (Figure 5A) . Silencing of TRMT61A led to profound alterations in both gene transcriptional expression and ribosome-protected fragment (RPF) abundance (Figures 13A and 13B) . Following TRMT61A depletion, we observed a significantly lower RNA abundance of TRMT61A targets identified by m1A -seq compared to other transcripts (Figure 5D) . We also calculated the translational efficiency of each mRNA by dividing the number of RPF by the mRNA expression. Nevertheless, we observed only a negligible difference in translational efficiency between TRMT61A targets and other transcripts following TRMT61A depletion (Figure 13C) . Thus, TRMT61A could potentially modulate the mRNA expression of its downstream targets. Out of the 434 potential targets of TRMT61A, 55 transcripts showed a significant decrease in mRNA expression (adjusted P < .01) following TRMT61A knockout (Figure 5D) . To determine the potential downstream target of TRMT61A that was responsible for the oncogenic role of TRMT61A, we analyzed the top 10 candidates’ expression in the TCGA-CRC dataset. Among them, ONECUT2, VGF, and TMEM158 showed significantly higher levels in primary CRCs than adjacent normal tissues (Figure 5E) . m1A -seq analysis revealed a significant reduction in m1A levels of ONECUT2, VGF, and TMEM158 after TRMT61A depletion (Figure 5F) , which was further confirmed by MeRIP-qPCR analysis in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 5G) . WB analysis showed that silencing of TRMT61A strongly inhibited the expression of ONECUT2 protein (Figure 5H) but had no significant effect on the protein levels of VGF and TMEM158 (Figure 13D) . Thus, ONECUT2 may act as an important downstream target of TRMT61A. Consistently, the mRNA levels of ONECUT2 were significantly reduced after TRMT61A knockout in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 5I) . Conversely, ectopic expression of TRMT61A-WT, but not the TRMT61AD181A, increased both mRNA and protein expression of ONECUT2 (Figures 5H and 5I) . To investigate how TRMT61A affects the fate of mRNAs, we measured the stability of ONECUT2 transcripts. Our results showed that ONECUT2 mRNA stability was reduced following TRMT61A depletion (Figure 5J) , whereas overexpression of TRMT61A-WT, but not TRMT61AD181A, promoted ONECUT2 mRNA stability (Figure 5K) , implying that TRMT61A regulates OENCUT2 mRNA expression in an m1A -dependent manner. We next asked if TRMT61A could directly bind to ONECUT2 mRNA for deposition of the m1A marks. To this end, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) was performed. Our results indicated that ONECUT2 mRNA was pulled down with TRMT61A protein in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figures 5L and 13E) , suggesting a direct interaction between TRMT61A and ONECUT2 mRNA. To investigate the direct effect of m1A on promoting ONECUT2 expression, we generated a luciferase reporter by inserting the m1A -containing region of ONECUT2 (m1A-WT) or its analogous sequence in which all putative m1A sites were abrogated (m1A-mut) upstream of a firefly luciferase gene (Figure 14) . Our results showed a significant increase in relative luciferase activity of the m1A-WT reporter in both HCT116 and RKO cells upon overexpression of TRMT61A-WT, compared to the control group and TRMT61AD181A group (Figure 5M) . In contrast, the activity of the m1A-MUT reporter showed no significant change in response to TRMT61A overexpression (Figure 5M) . Thus, TRMT61A may directly interact with ONECUT2 mRNA to catalyze m1A methylation, thereby enhancing ONECUT2 stability and expression. Notably, the knockdown of ONECUT2 eliminated the promoting effect of TRMT61A in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 5N) , confirming ONECUT2's mediatory role in TRMT61A's tumor-promoting function. Additionally, our investigation in the Beijing cohort found that primary CRCs had higher ONECUT2 mRNA expression than adjacent normal tissues (Figure 5O) . We also noted a positive correlation between TRMT61A and ONECUT2 mRNA expression (Figure 5P) . All these results collectively suggest that ONECUT2 is a critical downstream target of TRMT61A in CRC.
[0158] EXAMPLE 7-TRMT61A ACTIVATES THE M1A-ONECUT2-MAPK / ERK AXIS IN CRC
[0159] To uncover signaling pathways perturbed by TRMT61A, we performed gene set enrichment analysis of RNA-seq and Ribo-seq data, identifying several cancer-associated pathways (Figures 15A and 15B) . Remarkably, MAPK / ERK signaling was identified as the common enriched gene set (Figure 6A) , which is well recognized for its pivotal role in regulating cell growth, division, and differentiation. Depletion of TRMT61A was significantly associated with the inactivation of MAPK / ERK signaling by gene set enrichment analysis of RNA-seq and Ribo-seq data sets (Figure 6B) . In support of this, WB analysis revealed that knockout of TRMT61A reduced the phosphorylation of c-raf, MEK1 / 2, ERK1 / 2, P90RSK, and MSK1 in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 6C) . Conversely, overexpression of TRMT61A activated MAPK / ERK signaling (Figure 6D) . We went further to explore the potential role of ONECUT2 in mediating the activation of the MAPK / ERK pathway by TRMT61A. Our results demonstrated that the promoting effect of TRMT61A on MAPK / ERK signaling was abolished in ONECUT2-deficient CRC cells (Figure 6E) , implying that TRMT61A promotes MAPK / ERK signaling via ONECUT2. Consistent with in vitro findings, VNP-siTRMT61A treatment was capable of inhibiting TRMT61A, ONECUT2, p-c-raf, p-MEK1 / 2, p-ERK1 / 2, and p-P90RSK expression in in vivo mouse CRC xenograft models (Figures 6F and 6G) . To confirm whether the oncogenic function of TRMT61A depends on MAPK / ERK signaling activation, CRC cells with or without ectopic expression of TRMT61A were treated with two different inhibitors of MAPK / ERK signaling, AS-IV (Astragaloside IV) 22 and FR180204 23 (Figure 15C) . Treatment with either AS-IV or FR-180204 abolished the promoting effect of TRMT61A on cell proliferation in both HCT116 and RKO cells (Figure 6H) , suggesting that TRMT61A promotes CRC growth through activating MAPK / ERK pathway (Figure 15D) .
[0160] EXAMPLE 8-ONECUT2 DRIVES SOS1 TRANSCRIPTION TO INDUCE MAPK / ERK SIGNALING IN CRC
[0161] ONECUT2 belongs to the ONECUT family of transcription factors. To investigate molecular mechanisms underlying the MAPK / ERK pathway regulated by ONECUT2, RNA-seq was conducted in HCT116 cells both in the presence and absence of siONECUT2 (Figure 16A) . Given that ONECUT2 is a downstream target of TMRT61A, we performed an integrative analysis by combining multiple datasets, comprising RNA-seq data from HCT116 cells with or without sgTRMT61A (Figure 13A) , RNA-seq data from HCT116 cells with or without siONECUT2 (Figure 16A) , and genes involved in the MAPK / ERK pathway (Table 1) . Through this integrated approach, we identified 5 potential targets of ONECTUT2 that regulate MAPK / ERK: RPS6KA3, SOS1, NGFR, MAP3K12, and ITGB1 (Figure 6I) . Among them, putative ONECUT2 binding motifs were identified in SOS1, NGFR, and ITGB1 promoters (Figure 16B) using JASPAR 24. RT-PCR analysis revealed that depletion of ONECUT2 or TRMT61A caused significant inhibition of SOS1 and ITGB1 mRNA expression in both HCT116 and RKO cells, while NGFR mRNA displayed low expression levels (Figure 6J) . WB confirmed that knockdown ONECUT2 inhibited SOS1 protein expression (Figure 6K) . Thus, SOS1 may mediate the activation of the MAPK / ERK pathway by TRMT61A-ONECUT2. In support of this, overexpression of TRMT61A-WT, but not TRMT61AD181A, promoted SOS1 protein expression (Figure 16C) . To assess the direct binding of ONECUT2 at the SOS1 promoter, we employed Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. The results demonstrated that the immunoprecipitation of the promoter region of SOS1 by anti-ONECUT2 was successfully achieved using three different primer sets specific to the SOS1 promoter region (Figures 6L and 6M) . We next investigated the functional relevance of ONECUT2 binding within the SOS1 promoter region by inserting the wild-type SOS1 promoter region (Figure 17) or a mutant sequence lacking all three ONECUT2 binding sites upstream of a luciferase gene (Figure 6N) . The results revealed a significant reduction in luciferase activity of the reporter containing the wild-type SOS1 promoter region upon knockdown of ONECUT2 (Figure 6N) . In contrast, the mutant SOS1 promoter construct exhibited no significant change (Figure 6N) . In addition, we found that primary CRCs expressed significantly higher SOS1 than adjacent normal tissues (Figure 18) . A positive correlation between TRMT61A and SOS1 expression was uncovered in primary CRCs (Figure 18) . All these data suggest that TRMT61A-induced ONECUT2 can bind to the SOS1 promoter, resulting in the upregulation of SOS1 expression and subsequent activation of the MAPK / ERK pathway.
[0162] Table 1 . ERK / MAPK pathway members
[0163] EXAMPLE 9-PGG IS A PROMISING TRMT61A INHIBITOR EXHIBITING POTENT ANTI-CRC EFFICACY
[0164] To identify potential TRMT61A inhibitors, we conducted a structure-based virtual screening of the 100,100 compounds, including Epigenetics Library, RNA Library, Protein-Protein Interaction Library, MCE Bioactive Compound Library, Discovery Diversity Set 10, and Protein Mimetics Library. Based on their docking scores to TRMT61A’s catalytic pocket (Figure 7A) , we selected the Top 30 compounds. Cell viability assays revealed that Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) had the most robust inhibitory effects on HCT116 and RKO cells (Figures 7B and 7C) , with the IC50 (half-maximal inhibitory concentration) values of 7.2 and 5.4 μM, respectively (Figure 19A) . Additionally, the knockout of TRMT61A reduced the sensitivity of HCT116 and RKO cells to PGG (Figure. 7D) , suggesting that the anti-CRC effect of PGG depends on TRMT61A expression. Notably, PGG treatment strongly suppressed total RNA m1A levels in different CRC cell lines Figure 7E) and decreased RNA and protein levels of ONECUT2 (Figures 19B and 19C) , a key downstream target of TRMT61A. Thus, PGG inhibits TRMT61A’s methylase activity. We next confirmed the direct interactions between PGG and TRMT61A protein using Drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) assay 25 and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) 26. According to the docking poses of PGG and TRMT61A protein, residues Q85, G111, S114, F136, D163, V164 and D181 (7A) are important for the binding of TRMT61A with PGG (Figure 7C) . Accordingly, a mutant TRMT61A-7A was constructed (Figure 20A) . As expected, PGG could block pronase-induced proteolysis of TRMT61A-WT but not that of mutant TRMT61A-7A (Figure 7F) , corroborating that TRMT61A could directly bind with PGG, and the 7A amino acids are essential for their interactions. In support of this, PGG treatment led to substantial shifts in the thermal stability of TRMT61A protein but not TRMT6 protein (Figures 7G and 20B) . Furthermore, the PGG-TRMT61A interaction was characterized through MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) assays (Figures 21A and 21B) , and a dissociation constant (Kd) value of 0.614 uM was determined (Figure 7H) . We went further to explore the therapeutic potential of PGG in vivo. Our results showed that the PGG treatment had a strong inhibitory effect against the growth of CRC xenografts (Figure 7I and 7J) . Additionally, we observed reduced tumor cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in the CRC xenografts upon PGG treatment, as evidenced by Ki-67 and TUNEL staining, respectively (Figures 22A and 22B) . In line with these findings, administration of PGG significantly suppressed intestinal tumorigenesis in both AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figures 7K, 7L, and 23A-23C) and Apcmin / + mice (Figures 23D and 23E) . Ki-67 and TUNEL staining analyses revealed that PGG treatment effectively suppressed tumor cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis (Figure 7L) . Importantly, PGG treatment did not result in any noticeable alterations in mouse body weight (Figure 23A) or colon length (Figure 23C) . We also determined the safety of PGG treatment by measuring serum markers of the liver (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate transaminase) and kidney function (blood urea nitrogen) . Mice treated with PGG showed no signs of abnormal liver or kidney function (Figure. 23F) , indicating good tolerance to the treatment. Of note, PGG treatment exhibited the ability to inhibit the expression of ONECUT2, SOS1, p-MEK1 / 2, p-ERK1 / 2, p-P90RSK, and p-MSK1 in the colon tumors of AOM / DSS-treated mice (Figures 7M and 23G) , corroborating that PGG is a selective TRMT61A inhibitor. We also assessed the impact of PGG on two human-derived primary CRC organoids. Our findings revealed a significant inhibition of CRC organoid growth upon treatment with PGG (Figure 7N) . Together, PGG is a highly potent, safe, and selective TRMT61A inhibitor.
[0165] It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and the scope of the appended claims. In addition, any elements or limitations of any invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein can be combined with any and / or all other elements or limitations (individually or in any combination) or any other invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein, and all such combinations are contemplated with the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.
[0166] SEQUENCES
[0167] EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS
[0168] Embodiment 1. A method of inhibiting TRMT61A activity in a subject, the method comprising administering an effective amount of a TRMT61A inhibitor to a subject.
[0169] Embodiment 2. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the subject has colorectal cancer.
[0170] Embodiment 3. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 times per week.
[0171] Embodiment 4. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered intraperitoneally.
[0172] Embodiment 5. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) .
[0173] Embodiment 6. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the m1A methyltransferase activity of TRMT61A.
[0174] Embodiment 7. The method of embodiment 2, further comprising, before administering the TRMT61A inhibitor to the subject, obtaining a biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and a biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.
[0175] Embodiment 8. The method of embodiment 7, further comprising measuring levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A, protein levels of TRMT61A, or a combination thereof in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.
[0176] Embodiment 9. The method of embodiment 8, further comprising comparing levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue, wherein high levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A indicates a poor prognosis for subjects with colorectal cancer, wherein mRNA levels encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A are at least about 50%greater in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue than mRNA levels encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A in the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.
[0177] Embodiment 10. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the binding of TRMT61A to an mRNA transcript of ONECUT2.
[0178] Embodiment 11. The method of embodiment 10, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the stabilization of the ONECUT2 mRNA transcript.
[0179] Embodiment 12. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits SOS1-MAPK / ERK signaling.
[0180] Embodiment 13. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered at a dose of about 10 mg / kg to about 20 mg / kg.
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Claims
1.A method of inhibiting TRMT61A activity in a subject, the method comprising administering an effective amount of a TRMT61A inhibitor to a subject.2.The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has colorectal cancer.3.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 times per week.4.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered intraperitoneally.5.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is Pentagalloylglucose (PGG) .6.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the m1A methyltransferase activity of TRMT61A.7.The method of claim 2, further comprising, before administering the TRMT61A inhibitor to the subject, obtaining a biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and a biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.8.The method of claim 7, further comprising measuring levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A, protein levels of TRMT61A, or a combination thereof in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.9.The method of claim 8, further comprising comparing levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue and the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue, wherein high levels of mRNA encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A indicates a poor prognosis for subjects with colorectal cancer, wherein mRNA levels encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A are at least about 50%greater in the biopsy sample of colorectal cancer tissue than mRNA levels encoding TRMT61A and / or protein levels of TRMT61A in the biopsy sample of non-cancerous tissue adjacent to the colorectal cancer tissue.10.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the binding of TRMT61A to an mRNA transcript of ONECUT2.11.The method of claim 10, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits the stabilization of the ONECUT2 mRNA transcript.12.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor inhibits SOS1-MAPK / ERK signaling.13.The method of claim 1, wherein the TRMT61A inhibitor is administered at a dose of about 10 mg / kg to about 20 mg / kg.
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