Methods of treating disorders
By targeting GLOD4 with agents like siRNA, alpha-synuclein nitration and aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases are inhibited, improving neuronal health and function.
Patent Information
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- NITRASE THERAPEUTICS INC
- Filing Date
- 2025-12-12
- Publication Date
- 2026-06-18
Smart Images

Figure PCTCN2025141936-FTAPPB-I100001 
Figure PCTCN2025141936-FTAPPB-I100002 
Figure PCTCN2025141936-FTAPPB-I100003
Abstract
Description
METHODS OF TREATING DISORDERS
[0001] Sequence Listing
[0002] The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in XML format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said XML copy, created on December 10, 2025, is named “51340-013WO2_Sequence_Listing_12_10_25. xml” and is 924, 945 bytes in size.Background
[0003] Nitration of proteins has been linked to various disease conditions through inducement of agglomeration of proteins. Nitration is known to play a role in cardiovascular disease, oncology, and stroke. Nitration has also been shown to play a role in neurodegenerative diseases, e.g., Alzheimer’s disease (AD) , Parkinson’s disease (PD) , amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) , and Huntington’s disease. The relevance of nitration has been demonstrated for α-synuclein structure and tyrosine hydroxylase activity in aging and diseases, additional relevance of nitration of proteins have been shown in cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, PD, AD, cancer, stroke, and heart attack.
[0004] Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, affecting one million people in the United States alone. The disease is characterized by a dramatic loss of dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra with up to 80%of these neurons having degenerated by the time of clinical manifestations. Death of these neurons causes tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. There is no effective intervention to slow, halt, or reverse disease progression. A hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathology is an intracellular accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates resulting in Lewy Bodies and Lewy Neurites. It has been hypothesized that these α-synuclein aggregates, in some form, are responsible for causing PD. Another prominent characteristic of PD and of many other neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) , and Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) , is the age-dependent nature of these disorders. This suggests that aging provides an additive factor in the development of neurodegenerative diseases.
[0005] The present disclosure relates to useful methods and compositions for the treatment of disorders related to nitration of proteins, such as neurodegenerative diseases, e.g., Parkinson’s disease.Summary
[0006] α-Synuclein (alpha-synuclein) has been shown to be nitrated in the inclusions present in PD, dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) , Lewy body variant of AD, and Multiple-System Atrophy (MSA) . Several studies have suggested that the insolubility of α-synuclein may be a result of nitration, since nitrated α-synuclein is present in the insoluble (not soluble) fraction of homogenates from PD brains. α-Synuclein nitration also induces oligomerization and β-pleated (beta-pleated) sheet formation in a nucleation-dependent manner. Furthermore, nitration of α-synuclein results in its removal from lipid vesicles and increases its half-life due to decreased ability of the proteasome to degrade it. Each of these factors contributes to α-synuclein accumulation and aggregation.
[0007] A role for the adverse effects of α-synuclein nitration and dityrosine crosslinking was also shown in two independent in vivo models of PD. One model mimics α-synuclein dityrosine crosslinking in an α-synuclein transgenic mouse model in which tyrosine 39 is replaced with cysteine facilitating inter-synuclein disulfide crosslinking. In a second model, nitrated α-synuclein was microinjected into dopaminergic neurons in the rat ventral mesencephalon. In both in vivo PD models, α-synuclein aggregation and either tyrosine hydroxylase positive cell loss and motor deficits or cognitive and motoric dysfunction were observed. The data suggest a role of α-synuclein nitration in mediating disease pathology and dysfunction in neurodegenerative disease, such as PD. Finding a mechanism to specifically inhibit this nitration event could be highly advantageous for the drug discovery efforts for treatment of neurodegenerative disease, such as PD, and its symptoms.
[0008] In the past, it was believed that this nitration was the result of chemical transformation via free radicals, e.g., nitric oxide. In fact, the dogma in the oxidative stress field still remains that protein nitration is strictly a chemical reaction due to the high level of reactivity and lability of oxygen free radicals. Recent studies have shown that familial ALS (fALS) mutations in SOD1 (Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase-1) cause the mutated SOD1 to catalyze the nitration of its protein substrates. The enzyme activity of fALS mutant SOD1 is weak but demonstrates enzyme-catalyzed protein nitration.
[0009] The exquisite selectivity of protein nitration in tissues from PD patients and animal models also suggests a directed and specific protein nitration and does not support the concept of chemical reaction mediated nitration alone. Prior to the present disclosure, no one has considered that there may be a biological basis for nitration of α-synuclein.
[0010] The present disclosure features useful methods to treat neurological disorders, e.g., in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the methods described herein are useful in the treatment of disorders, e.g., neurodegenerative diseases, such as, Parkinson’s disease, associated with nitration of proteins, such as, α-synuclein (alpha-synuclein) . In some embodiments, the methods described herein are useful in the treatment of disorders associated with nitration of proteins, e.g., α-synuclein.
[0011] In an aspect, the invention features a method of treating a protein nitrase-associated disorder in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0012] In one aspect, the invention features a method of treating a GLOD4-associated disorder in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0013] In some embodiments, the protein nitrase-associated disorder is a neurological disorder, e.g., a neurodegenerative disorder. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disorder is a synucleinopathy, e.g., Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease, or multiple system atrophy. In some embodiments, the synucleinopathy is Parkinson’s disease.
[0014] In one aspect, the invention features a method of inhibiting toxicity in a cell related to a protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0015] In some embodiments, the cell is a dopaminergic neuron. In some embodiments, the cell is in the substantia nigra.
[0016] In one aspect, the invention features a method of reducing the level of protein aggregation in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0017] In one aspect, the invention features a method of inhibiting nitration of a protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0018] In some embodiments, the protein is alpha-synuclein.
[0019] In one aspect, the invention features a method of reducing the level of a nitrated protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.
[0020] In some embodiments, the nitrated protein is nitrated alpha-synuclein.
[0021] In some embodiments, the subject has been identified as expressing GLOD4.
[0022] In some embodiments, the subject has been identified as having an elevated level of a nitrated protein as compared to a reference.
[0023] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 by at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 by at least 5%for at least 12 hours.
[0024] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of Lewy bodies and / or Lewy nitrates in the subject by at least 5%compared to a reference.
[0025] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of nitrated alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of aggregation of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces increases the solubility of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces oligomerization of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.
[0026] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of beta-pleated sheet alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent inhibits the formation of beta-pleated sheet alpha-synuclein in the subject.
[0027] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent decreases the level of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent increases the level of alpha-synuclein in lipid vesicles at least 5%compared to a reference.
[0028] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent increases ER-Golgi transport in the subject. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces ER stress and Golgi fragmentation in the subject.
[0029] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent increases synaptic vesicle release in the subject. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces apoptosis in the central nervous system of the subject. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of chaperone-mediated autophagy substrates in the central nervous system of the subject.
[0030] In some embodiments, the effective amount of the agent increases proteasome activity in the subject.
[0031] In some embodiments, the subject has, or has been identified as having, a neurological disorder. In some embodiments, the neurological disorder is a neurodegenerative disorder. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disorder is a synucleinopathy. In some embodiments, the synucleinopathy is Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease, or multiple system atrophy.
[0032] In some embodiments, the agent which reduces the activity of GLOD4 is a polynucleotide.
[0033] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide, a short interfering RNA (siRNA) , a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) , or a micro RNA (miRNA) .
[0034] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-196.
[0035] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 197-200. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 197. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 198.
[0036] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide comprising the formula F5-G10-F5. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide comprises a 2’-MOE gapmer modification. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 204-403.
[0037] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 404-603. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 477, 465, 406, 532, 584, 588, 546, 541, 595, and 514.
[0038] Definitions
[0039] In this application, unless otherwise clear from context, (i) the term “a” may be understood to mean “at least one” ; (ii) the term “or” may be understood to mean “and / or” ; and (iii) the terms “including” and “including” may be understood to encompass itemized components or steps whether presented by themselves or together with one or more additional components or steps.
[0040] As used herein, the terms “about” and “approximately” refer to a value that is within 10%above or below the value being described. For example, the term “about 5 nM” indicates a range of from 4.5 to 5.5 nM.
[0041] As used herein, the term “administration” refers to the administration of a composition (e.g., a compound or a preparation that includes a compound as described herein) to a subject or system. Administration to an animal subject (e.g., to a human) may be by any appropriate route. For example, in some embodiments, administration may be bronchial (including by bronchial instillation) , buccal, enteral, interdermal, intra-arterial, intradermal, intragastric, intramedullary, intramuscular, intranasal, intraperitoneal, intrathecal, intratumoral, intravenous, intraventricular, mucosal, nasal, oral, rectal, subcutaneous, sublingual, topical, tracheal (including by intratracheal instillation) , transdermal, vaginal, and vitreal.
[0042] As used herein, a “combination therapy” or “administered in combination” means that two (or more) different agents or treatments are administered to a subject as part of a defined treatment regimen for a particular disease or condition. The treatment regimen defines the doses and periodicity of administration of each agent such that the effects of the separate agents on the subject overlap. In some embodiments, the delivery of the two or more agents is simultaneous or concurrent and the agents may be co-formulated. In some embodiments, the two or more agents are not co-formulated and are administered in a sequential manner as part of a prescribed regimen. In some embodiments, administration of two or more agents or treatments in combination is such that the reduction in a symptom, or other parameter related to the disorder is greater than what would be observed with one agent or treatment delivered alone or in the absence of the other. The effect of the two treatments can be partially additive, wholly additive, or greater than additive (e.g., synergistic) . Sequential or substantially simultaneous administration of each therapeutic agent can be effected by any appropriate route including, but not limited to, oral routes, intravenous routes, intramuscular routes, dermal routes (e.g., transdermal routes, such as a patch) , and direct absorption through mucous membrane tissues. The therapeutic agents can be administered by the same route or by different routes. For example, a first therapeutic agent of the combination may be administered by intravenous injection while a second therapeutic agent of the combination may be administered orally.
[0043] As used herein, the term “degradation moiety” refers to a moiety whose binding results in degradation of a protein, e.g., GLOD4. In one example, the moiety binds to a protease or a ubiquitin ligase that metabolizes the protein, e.g., GLOD4.
[0044] By “determining the level of a protein” is meant the detection of a protein, or an mRNA encoding the protein, by methods known in the art either directly or indirectly. “Directly determining” means performing a process (e.g., performing an assay or test on a sample or “analyzing a sample” as that term is defined herein) to obtain the physical entity or value. “Indirectly determining” refers to receiving the physical entity or value from another party or source (e.g., a third-party laboratory that directly acquired the physical entity or value) . Methods to measure protein level generally include, but are not limited to, western blotting, immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) , radioimmunoassay (RIA) , immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence, surface plasmon resonance, chemiluminescence, fluorescent polarization, phosphorescence, immunohistochemical analysis, matrix-assisted laser desorption / ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography (LC) -mass spectrometry, microcytometry, microscopy, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) , and flow cytometry, as well as assays based on a property of a protein including, but not limited to, enzymatic activity or interaction with other protein partners. Methods to measure mRNA levels are known in the art.
[0045] By “level” is meant a level of a protein, or mRNA encoding the protein, as compared to a reference. The reference can be any useful reference, as defined herein. By a “decreased level” or an “increased level” of a protein is meant a decrease or increase in protein level, as compared to a reference (e.g., a decrease or an increase by about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 100%, about 150%, about 200%, about 300%, about 400%, about 500%, or more; a decrease or an increase of more than about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 50%, about 75%, about 100%, or about 200%, as compared to a reference; a decrease or an increase by less than about 0.01-fold, about 0.02-fold, about 0.1-fold, about 0.3-fold, about 0.5-fold, about 0.8-fold, or less; or an increase by more than about 1.2-fold, about 1.4-fold, about 1.5-fold, about 1.8-fold, about 2.0-fold, about 3.0-fold, about 3.5-fold, about 4.5-fold, about 5.0-fold, about 10-fold, about 15-fold, about 20-fold, about 30-fold, about 40-fold, about 50-fold, about 100-fold, about 1000-fold, or more) . A level of a protein may be expressed in mass / vol (e.g., g / dL, mg / mL, μg / mL, ng / mL) or percentage relative to total protein or mRNA in a sample.
[0046] As used herein, the terms “effective amount, ” “therapeutically effective amount, ” and “a “sufficient amount” of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 (e.g., in a cell or a subject) described herein refer to a quantity sufficient to, when administered to the subject, including a human, effect beneficial or desired results, including clinical results, and, as such, an “effective amount” or synonym thereto depends on the context in which it is being applied. For example, in the context of treating neurological disorder, it is an amount of the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 sufficient to achieve a treatment response as compared to the response obtained without administration of the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4. The amount of a given agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 described herein that will correspond to such an amount will vary depending upon various factors, such as the given agent, the pharmaceutical formulation, the route of administration, the type of disease or disorder, the identity of the subject (e.g., age, sex, and / or weight) or host being treated, and the like, but can nevertheless be routinely determined by one of skill in the art. Also, as used herein, a “therapeutically effective amount” of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 of the present disclosure is an amount which results in a beneficial or desired result in a subject as compared to a control. As defined herein, a therapeutically effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 of the present disclosure may be readily determined by one of ordinary skill by routine methods known in the art. Dosage regimen may be adjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response.
[0047] As used herein, the term “GLOD4” refers to glyoxalase domain-containing protein 4 (also known as C17orf25, chromosome 17 open reading frame 25, CGI-150, and HC71; UNIProtKB Q9HC38) . GLOD4 is encoded by the GLOD4 gene, the nucleic acid sequence of which is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1.
[0048] The term “GLOD4” also refers to natural variants of the wild-type GLOD4 protein, such as proteins having at least 85%identity (e.g., 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%identity, or more) to the amino acid sequence of wild-type GLOD4, which is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2.
[0049] SEQ ID NO: 2
[0050] As used herein, the term “GLOD4-associated disorder” refers to a physiological condition, disorder, or disease that is associated with and / or mediated at least in part by the activity of GLOD4. In some instances, GLOD4-associated disorders are associated with excess GLOD4 levels and / or activity. Exemplary GLOD4-associated disorders include, but are not limited to neurological disorders and neurodegenerative disorders, such as synucleinopathies (e.g., Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease, or multiple system atrophy) , among other conditions. Additional GLOD4-associated disorders are described herein or known in the art.
[0051] As used herein, the term “inhibitor” refers to any agent which reduces the level and / or activity of a protein (e.g., GLOD4) . As used herein, inhibitors include polynucleotides (e.g., siRNA or antisense oligonucleotide) .
[0052] The term “inhibitory RNA agent” refers to an RNA, or analog thereof, having sufficient sequence complementarity to a target RNA to direct RNA interference. Examples also include a DNA that can be used to make the RNA. RNA interference (RNAi) refers to a sequence-specific or selective process by which a target molecule (e.g., a target gene, protein, or RNA) is down-regulated. Generally, an interfering RNA ( “iRNA” ) is a double-stranded short-interfering RNA (siRNA) , short hairpin RNA (shRNA) , or single-stranded micro-RNA (miRNA) that results in catalytic degradation of specific mRNAs, and also can be used to lower or inhibit gene expression.
[0053] The terms “short interfering RNA” and “siRNA” (also known as “small interfering RNAs” ) refer to an RNA agent, preferably a double-stranded agent, of about 10-50 nucleotides in length, the strands optionally having overhanging ends comprising, for example 1, 2 or 3 overhanging nucleotides (or nucleotide analogs) , which is capable of directing or mediating RNA interference. Naturally-occurring siRNAs are generated from longer dsRNA molecules (e.g., >25 nucleotides in length) by a cell's RNAi machinery (e.g., Dicer or a homolog thereof) .
[0054] The term “shRNA” , as used herein, refers to an RNA agent having a stem-loop structure, comprising a first and second region of complementary sequence, the degree of complementarity and orientation of the regions being sufficient such that base pairing occurs between the regions, the first and second regions being joined by a loop region, the loop resulting from a lack of base pairing between nucleotides (or nucleotide analogs) within the loop region.
[0055] The terms “miRNA” and “microRNA” refer to an RNA agent, preferably a single-stranded agent, of about 10-50 nucleotides in length, preferably between about 15-25 nucleotides in length, which is capable of directing or mediating RNA interference. Naturally-occurring miRNAs are generated from stem-loop precursor RNAs (i.e., pre-miRNAs) by Dicer. The term “Dicer” as used herein, includes Dicer as well as any Dicer ortholog or homolog capable of processing dsRNA structures into siRNAs, miRNAs, siRNA-like or miRNA-like molecules. The term microRNA ( “miRNA” ) is used interchangeably with the term “small temporal RNA” ( “stRNA” ) based on the fact that naturally-occurring miRNAs have been found to be expressed in a temporal fashion (e.g., during development) .
[0056] The term “antisense, ” as used herein, refers to a nucleic acid comprising a polynucleotide that is sufficiently complementary to all or a portion of a gene, primary transcript, or processed mRNA, so as to interfere with expression of the endogenous gene. “Complementary” polynucleotides are those that are capable of base pairing according to the standard Watson-Crick complementarity rules. Specifically, purines will base pair with pyrimidines to form a combination of guanine paired with cytosine (G: C) and adenine paired with either thymine (A: T) in the case of DNA, or adenine paired with uracil (A: U) in the case of RNA. It is understood that two polynucleotides may hybridize to each other even if they are not completely complementary to each other, provided that each has at least one region that is substantially complementary to the other.
[0057] The term “antisense nucleic acid” or “antisense oligonucleotide” includes single-stranded RNA as well as double-stranded DNA expression cassettes that can be transcribed to produce an antisense RNA. “Active” antisense nucleic acids are antisense RNA molecules that are capable of selectively hybridizing with a primary transcript or mRNA encoding a polypeptide having at least 80%sequence identity (e.g., 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%identity, or more) with the targeted polypeptide sequence. The antisense nucleic acid can be complementary to an entire coding strand, or to only a portion thereof. In some embodiments, an antisense nucleic acid molecule is antisense to a “coding region” of the coding strand of a nucleotide sequence. The term “coding region” refers to the region of the nucleotide sequence comprising codons that are translated into amino acid residues. In some embodiments, the antisense nucleic acid molecule is antisense to a “noncoding region” of the coding strand of a nucleotide sequence. The term “noncoding region” refers to 5′and 3′sequences that flank the coding region that are not translated into amino acids (i.e., also referred to as 5′and 3′untranslated regions) . The antisense nucleic acid molecule can be complementary to the entire coding region of mRNA, or can be antisense to only a portion of the coding or noncoding region of an mRNA. For example, the antisense oligonucleotide can be complementary to the region surrounding the translation start site. An antisense oligonucleotide can be, for example, about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 nucleotides in length.
[0058] “Percent (%) sequence identity” with respect to a reference polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence is defined as the percentage of nucleic acids or amino acids in a candidate sequence that are identical to the nucleic acids or amino acids in the reference polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence, after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent sequence identity. Alignment for purposes of determining percent nucleic acid or amino acid sequence identity can be achieved in various ways that are within the capabilities of one of skill in the art, for example, using publicly available computer software such as BLAST, BLAST-2, or MegAlign software. Those skilled in the art can determine appropriate parameters for aligning sequences, including any algorithms needed to achieve maximal alignment over the full length of the sequences being compared. For example, percent sequence identity values may be generated using the sequence comparison computer program BLAST. As an illustration, the percent sequence identity of a given nucleic acid or amino acid sequence, A, to, with, or against a given nucleic acid or amino acid sequence, B, (which can alternatively be phrased as a given nucleic acid or amino acid sequence, A that has a certain percent sequence identity to, with, or against a given nucleic acid or amino acid sequence, B) is calculated as follows:
[0059] 100 multiplied by (the fraction X / Y)
[0060] where X is the number of nucleotides or amino acids scored as identical matches by a sequence alignment program (e.g., BLAST) in that program’s alignment of A and B, and where Y is the total number of nucleic acids in B. It will be appreciated that where the length of nucleic acid or amino acid sequence A is not equal to the length of nucleic acid or amino acid sequence B, the percent sequence identity of A to B will not equal the percent sequence identity of B to A.
[0061] The term “pharmaceutical composition, ” as used herein, represents a composition containing a compound described herein formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and manufactured or sold with the approval of a governmental regulatory agency as part of a therapeutic regimen for the treatment of disease in a mammal. Pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated, for example, for oral administration in unit dosage form (e.g., a tablet, capsule, caplet, gelcap, or syrup) ; for topical administration (e.g., as a cream, gel, lotion, or ointment) ; for intravenous administration (e.g., as a sterile solution free of particulate emboli and in a solvent system suitable for intravenous use) ; for subcutaneous administration (e.g., via injection) ; or in any other pharmaceutically acceptable formulation.
[0062] A “pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, ” as used herein, refers any ingredient other than the compounds described herein (for example, a vehicle capable of suspending or dissolving the active compound) and having the properties of being substantially nontoxic and non-inflammatory in a patient. Excipients may include, for example: antiadherents, antioxidants, binders, coatings, compression aids, disintegrants, dyes (colors) , emollients, emulsifiers, fillers (diluents) , film formers or coatings, flavors, fragrances, glidants (flow enhancers) , lubricants, preservatives, printing inks, sorbents, suspensing or dispersing agents, sweeteners, and waters of hydration. Exemplary excipients include, but are not limited to: butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) , calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate (dibasic) , calcium stearate, croscarmellose, crosslinked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, citric acid, crospovidone, cysteine, ethylcellulose, gelatin, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, lactose, magnesium stearate, maltitol, mannitol, methionine, methylcellulose, methyl paraben, microcrystalline cellulose, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, povidone, pregelatinized starch, propyl paraben, retinyl palmitate, shellac, silicon dioxide, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium citrate, sodium starch glycolate, sorbitol, starch (corn) , stearic acid, sucrose, talc, titanium dioxide, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, and xylitol.
[0063] As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” means any pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the compound of any of the compounds described herein. For example, pharmaceutically acceptable salts of any of the compounds described herein include those that are within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit / risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, pharmaceutically acceptable salts are described in: Berge et al., J. Pharmaceutical Sciences 66: 1-19, 1977 and in Pharmaceutical Salts: Properties, Selection, and Use, (Eds. P.H. Stahl and C. G. Wermuth) , Wiley-VCH, 2008. The salts can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds described herein or separately by reacting a free base group with a suitable organic acid.
[0064] The compounds described herein may have ionizable groups so as to be capable of preparation as pharmaceutically acceptable salts. These salts may be acid addition salts involving inorganic or organic acids or the salts may, in the case of acidic forms of the compounds described herein, be prepared from inorganic or organic bases. Frequently, the compounds are prepared or used as pharmaceutically acceptable salts prepared as addition products of pharmaceutically acceptable acids or bases. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable acids and bases and methods for preparation of the appropriate salts are well-known in the art. Salts may be prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic acids and bases including inorganic and organic acids and bases. Representative acid addition salts include acetate, adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, hemisulfate, heptonate, hexanoate, hydrobromide, hydrochloride, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, and valerate salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as well as nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations, including, but not limited to ammonium, tetramethylammonium, tetraethylammonium, methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, and ethylamine.
[0065] By “reducing the activity of GLOD4, ” is meant decreasing the level of an activity related to GLOD4, or a related downstream effect. The activity level of GLOD4 may be measured using any method known in the art. In some embodiments, an agent which reduces the activity of GLOD4 is a polynucleotide (e.g., siRNA or antisense oligonucleotide) .
[0066] By “reducing the level of GLOD4, ” is meant decreasing the level of GLOD4 in a cell or subject, e.g., by administering a degrader to the cell or subject. The level of GLOD4 may be measured using any method known in the art.
[0067] By a “reference” is meant any useful reference used to compare protein or mRNA levels. The reference can be any sample, standard, standard curve, or level that is used for comparison purposes. The reference can be a normal reference sample or a reference standard or level. A “reference sample” can be, for example, a control, e.g., a predetermined negative control value such as a “normal control” or a prior sample taken from the same subject; a sample from a normal healthy subject, such as a normal cell or normal tissue; a sample (e.g., a cell or tissue) from a subject not having a disease; a sample from a subject that is diagnosed with a disease, but not yet treated with a compound described herein; a sample from a subject that has been treated by a compound described herein; or a sample of a purified protein (e.g., any described herein) at a known normal concentration. By “reference standard or level” is meant a value or number derived from a reference sample. A “normal control value” is a pre-determined value indicative of non-disease state, e.g., a value expected in a healthy control subject. Typically, a normal control value is expressed as a range (“between X and Y” ) , a high threshold ( “no higher than X” ) , or a low threshold ( “no lower than X” ) . A subject having a measured value within the normal control value for a particular biomarker is typically referred to as “within normal limits” for that biomarker. A normal reference standard or level can be a value or number derived from a normal subject not having a disease or disorder (e.g., cancer) ; a subject that has been treated with a compound described herein. In preferred embodiments, the reference sample, standard, or level is matched to the sample subject sample by at least one of the following criteria: age, weight, sex, disease stage, and overall health. A standard curve of levels of a purified protein, e.g., any described herein, within the normal reference range can also be used as a reference.
[0068] As used herein, the term “subject” refers to any organism to which a composition in accordance with the invention may be administered, e.g., for experimental, diagnostic, prophylactic, and / or therapeutic purposes. Typical subjects include any animal (e.g., mammals such as mice, rats, rabbits, non-human primates, and humans) . A subject may seek or be in need of treatment, require treatment, be receiving treatment, be receiving treatment in the future, or be a human or animal who is under care by a trained professional for a particular disease or condition.
[0069] As used herein, the terms "treat, " "treated, " or "treating" mean both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures wherein the object is to prevent or slow down (lessen) an undesired physiological condition, disorder, or disease, or obtain beneficial or desired clinical results. Beneficial or desired clinical results include, but are not limited to, alleviation of symptoms;
[0070] diminishment of the extent of a condition, disorder, or disease; stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of condition, disorder, or disease; delay in onset or slowing of condition, disorder, or disease progression; amelioration of the condition, disorder, or disease state or remission (whether partial or total) , whether detectable or undetectable; an amelioration of at least one measurable physical parameter, not necessarily discernible by the patient; or enhancement or improvement of condition, disorder, or disease. Treatment includes eliciting a clinically significant response without excessive levels of side effects. Treatment also includes prolonging survival as compared to expected survival if not receiving treatment.
[0071] As used herein, the terms “variant” and “derivative” are used interchangeably and refer to naturally-occurring, synthetic, and semi-synthetic analogues of a compound, peptide, protein, or other substance described herein. A variant or derivative of a compound, peptide, protein, or other substance described herein may retain or improve upon the biological activity of the original material.
[0072] The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and from the claims.Brief Description of the Drawings
[0073] FIG. 1 is a graph illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein nitration upon transfection of cells with cDNA of several proteins, including GLOD4.
[0074] FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein nitration by recombinant GLOD4.
[0075] FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein nitration in cells treated with siRNA targeting GLOD4.
[0076] FIG. 4 are graphs illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein aggregation in cells treated with a small molecule GLOD4 inhibitor.
[0077] FIG. 5 are graphs illustrating the level of neuronal survival of cells treated with a small molecule GLOD4 inhibitor.
[0078] FIG. 6 are graphs illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein nitrase and the level of alpha-synuclein nitration in cells treated with siRNA targeting GLOD4.
[0079] FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the level of alpha-synuclein nitration in iPSC-neurons treated with siRNA targeting GLOD4.
[0080] FIG. 8A –FIG. 8G are graphs showing SY5Y lysate derived protein fractions inducing α-syn nitration and aggregation. FIG. 8A: α-Syn (1 μg) was reacted with 100 μM peroxynitrite in the absence (background) or presence of 4 μg protein fractions for 10 min. Nitration of α-syn was detected by western blot using antibody, Clone 10G5, against nY125 α-syn. FIG. 8B: Quantification of α-syn nitration by ELISA, capture with nSYN12 and detection with biotinylated 6H7. FIG. 8C: 1 μg of biotinylated α-syn peptide (Syn-Y39) , (Syn-Y125) or (Syn-Y133, 136) was reacted with 100 μM peroxynitrite in the absence (background) or presence of 4 μg protein fractions for 10 min. Nitration of peptides was quantified by streptavidin capture and ELISA. n > 3 experiments. FIG. 8D: Western blot using anti-α-syn antibody (Syn-1) depicting lysate dependent induction of α-syn aggregation upon reaction with either 10 or 100 μM peroxynitrite. FIG. 8E: Western blot as in (d) indicating that boiled lysate fraction did not induce α-syn aggregation as compared to intact lysates. α-Syn (1 μg) was added to different concentrations of peroxynitrite and 4 μg boiled or intact protein fractions for 10 minutes and aggregation of α-syn measured by anti-α-syn (Syn-1) Western blot. FIG. 8F: Western blot as in (d) indicating that trypsin digested cell lysate fraction did not induce α-syn aggregation as compared to intact lysates. FIG. 8G: Western blot as in (d) indicating that BSA does not mimic lysate-dependent induction of α-syn aggregation. n > 3 experiments for FIG 8A–FIG. 8G.
[0081] FIG. 9A –FIG. 9D are graphs showing screening results for α-synuclein nitrase activity. FIG. 9A:Candidate proteins were expressed using the in vitro transcription / translation (IVTT) assay. The synuclein nitration assay was conducted by adding 1 μg α-syn peptide (biotinylated a-syn-Y133, 136) , 4 μg IVTT expressed protein lysate and 100 μM peroxynitrite for 10 minutes. The nitration of the α-syn peptide was quantified by ELISA using streptavidin capture and an anti-nitrated Y125, 136-α-syn antibody (nSYN12) . Candidate proteins that showed α-syn nitration above IVTT control lysate were considered as potential nitrases for α-syn, n=3; values represent mean ± sd. FIG. 9B:
[0082] Recombinantly expressed and purified GLO2 (20 ng) and GLOD4 (10 pg) were tested for ability to nitrate α-syn peptide (biotinylated a-syn-Y133, 136) . n > 3; values are expressed as fold change from the level of nitration by 100 μM peroxynitrite in the absence of GLO2 or GLOD4 and represent mean ±sem. FIG. 9C: Substrate specificity for GLOD4 catalyzed protein tyrosine nitration. The nitration of potential substrates was assessed in a HuProt microarray chip (CDI) containing 23,000 unique human proteins in the presence of 200 ng GLOD4 and 2 consecutive boluses of 100 μM peroxynitrite. Nitrated proteins were quantified by ELISA using a cocktail of anti-3-nitrotyrosine antibodies. GLOD4 catalyzed the nitration of α-syn and b-synuclein, PPM1 B and PQBP1. The statistical analysis parameters for this test are listed below in the graph for top 4 putative substrates: F635 is the average foreground signal intensity of 2 replicate spots for a given protein in the detection channel (635 nM) . Z = ( [F635-F635 (ave) ] / F635 (sd) ; F635 (ave) and F635 (sd) are the average and standard deviation of the F635 values of all spots on the chip; S-score is the difference of the Z scores for a given protein and those ranked in its surrounding area. If the S score of the hit is > 3, the score is considered highly specific, n > 3 experiments. These four proteins with Z score > 10 and S score > 3 were considered putative substrates. FIG. 9D: Independent confirmation of the GLOD4 nitration substrates, including those which narrowly missed the predetermined Z and S scores, (OXCT1, AIFM2 and CAPR1 N1) using 1 μg substrate, 4 ng GLOD4, and 100 μM peroxynitrite in a 40 μl reaction for 10 minutes. The substrates were captured using anti-His antibody and tyrosine nitration was quantified by ELISA using a cocktail of anti-3-nitrotyrosine antibodies. The data is expressed as fold change using the levels of nitration in the absence of GLOD4 as background, n=2 experiments.
[0083] FIG. 10 is a scheme showing process for synuclein nitrase isolation: Serial conventional and affinity chromatography and LC / MS analysis of active fractions. Synuclein nitrase was isolated from both bovine brain and from human red blood cell homogenates with similar isolation process. This started with an ammonium sulfate separation of the homogenates, thermal stability separation retaining proteins stable at 70℃, hydrophobic, and an anion exchange. The final step was an affinity isolation using covalent binding of synuclein nitrase to biotin-α-syn peptide α-syn-Y133, 136-SS-biotin using EDC coupling, binding to streptavidin resin and elute covalent interactors with 50 mM DTT. Eluted proteins were digested with trypsin and analyzed by LC / MS for protein identification. This isolation process resulted in an enrichment of synuclein nitrase activity of over 18, 731-fold compared to total protein in active fractions.
[0084] FIG. 11A–FIG. 11 D show results of LC / MS analysis confirming nitration of α-syn by synuclein nitrase. Samples containing α-syn were reacted with peroxynitrite in the absence or presence of synuclein nitrase. The samples were then digested with chymotrypsin and trypsin. Peptides were analyzed by LC / MS / MS for α-syn and post-translational modifications, including nitration. FIG. 11A: α-Syn sequence was observed with 684 SpC and 100%sequence coverage. FIG. 11 B: Both oxidation and nitration were observed. Oxidation levels were comparable between chemical and synuclein nitrase nitration of α-syn based on relative PTM / Peptide SpC. Nitration at α-syn-Y39 and α-syn-Y-125 were increased by synuclein nitrase above chemical nitration (relative PTM / Peptide SpC) with a best Ascore of 1000. FIG. 11 C: Representative MS2 spectrum for nY39. FIG. 11 D: Representative MS2 spectrum for nY125.
[0085] FIG. 12 is a graph showing synuclein nitrase activity. Synuclein nitrase increases nitration of all three α-syn peptides containing tyrosine residues; Y39, Y125 and Y133 / 136, n>3. Nitration was detected by streptavidin capture and detecting nY39 with nSYN14 and nY125 and nY133 / 136 with nSYN12 antibodies.
[0086] [Rectified under Rule 91, 20.03.2026]FIG. 13A –FIG. 13E show results of demonstrating synuclein nitrase catalyzed α-syn nitration using additional co-factors. Reactions were performed with 576 nM α-syn without or with 38 nM synuclein nitrase (SN) in the presence of peroxynitrite, H2O2, NaNO2, or H2O2 plus NaNO2. The yield of α-syn nitration was quantified by MSD by capturing with anti-α-syn-nY39 (Clone 8C2) and detecting with anti-α-syn Clone 42, n>3 in all cases. FIG. 13A: The levels of α-syn-nY39 nitration normalized to the respective buffer. FIG. 13B (i-iv) and FIG. 13C: Monitoring of oxidase and peroxidase activity of SN using dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR123) . SN does not oxidize DHR123 in the presence of alternate co-factors. The xanthine-xanthine oxidase (XO) system and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were used as positive controls for oxidase and peroxidase activities respectively, n>3 for all conditions. FIG. 13D: α-Syn nitration was detected as described in FIG. 13A with and without SN using nitric oxide as co-factor. i: Detection of NO released from nitric oxide donor DETA NONOate and secondary nitric oxide-derived species (NO2, N2O3, N2O4) monitored DAF-FM. ii: SN did not catalyze α-syn-nY39 nitration at various concentration of DETA NONOate. n>3 in all cases. FIG. 13E: Western blot showing dose-dependent, cytokine-mediated iNOS induction in wild-type (WT) and SN-KO H4 neuroglioma cells. Cells were treated with a combination of IL1β, IFNγ, and TNFα for 12 hours, then scraped in lysis buffer. Beta-actin is used as a loading control.
[0087] FIG. 14A –FIG. 14D are plots showing synuclein nitrase kinetics of nitration of a-syn peptide. FIG. 14A: Synuclein nitrase catalysis of α-syn tyrosine nitration using peroxynitrite and α-syn peptide as substrates was evaluated using 2 ng synuclein nitrase, varying concentrations of the of α-syn peptide Y133, 136 from 1.4 nM to 3 μM and 50 μM peroxynitrite. The reaction was stopped at different times from 15 seconds to 10 minutes using 1.0 mM TCEP. The yield of nitration was quantified by streptavidin capture and ELISA using the nSYN12 antibody. FIG. 14B: Initial rates of a α-syn peptide nitration. FIG. 14C: Initial rates plotted against varying concentration of the α-syn peptide indicated typical Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics. FIG. 14D: Purified wildtype synuclein nitrase, but not active site mutants, catalyzes α-syn nitration. α-syn (1.0 μg) was added to a reaction containing 100 μM peroxynitrite and various concentrations of synuclein nitrase. After 10 minutes the nitration of α-syn was quantified by ELISA using the anti-nitrated Y39-α-syn antibody (nSYN14) . Data represent the levels of α-syn after subtracting the background nitration in the absence of synuclein nitrase. Mutation of synuclein nitrase at putative metal binding residues, H8A, E70A, and within its active site, C254A, reduced or eliminated synuclein nitrase catalysis of α-syn nitration.
[0088] FIG. 15A –FIG. 15C are renderings showing synuclein nitrase crystal structure. FIG. 15A: Synuclein nitrase crystal structure with Zn2+ present in its predicted active site. Zn2+ (purple) , Cl (green) , and metal binding amino acids (stick) ; FIG. 15B: Zn2+ containing active site. The Zn2+ is liganded by Glu70 and His8 (in back) . Note Cys254 in back of pocket; FIG. 15C: Active site flipped 180° showing His8. Structure deposited in wwPDB; PDB ID: 9CSJ.
[0089] FIG. 16A and FIG. 16B show synuclein nitrase regulating a-syn nitration in cells. FIG. 16A: Synuclein nitrase knockouts were generated in H4 neuroblastoma cell line and confirmed by Western blot analysis. FIG. 16B: Tyrosine nitration of a α-syn was reduced in H4 Synuclein nitrase KO cells. Wild type and synuclein nitrase KO cells were treated with two bolus additions of 200 μM peroxynitrite for 10 minutes and α-syn nitration was quantified by ELISA using nSYN14. α-Syn level was quantified by MSD using the anti-α-syn Clone 42 antibody for capture and the anti-α-syn MJFR1antibody for detection. Data are expressed as %of nitrated α-syn, values represent mean ± sd, n > 3; p=0.0002.
[0090] FIG. 17A –FIG. 17C show SN regulating neuronal connectivity of iPSC-dopaminergic neurons. FIG. 17A: Synuclein nitrase expression detected by immunofluorescence (top) , magnification 40X; scale bar, 20 mm; and Western blot (bottom) in tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH+) iPSC-DA neuronal cultures. FIG. 17B: Neuronal activity was quantified in differentiated iPSC-DA neurons derived from heathy, non-PD controls (HC) and α-syn triplication (fPD) , and each of these lines in the presence (SNWT) or absence of synuclein nitrase (SNKO) . The number of active neurons during differentiation were similar but weighted mean firing rate differences were detected between genotypes. FIG. 17C (i-iii) : Multielectrode array analysis of cultured iDAs derived from fPD and HC individuals revealed distinct activity patterns for the two cell types: ii. fPD iDAs have a higher network burst frequency and lower synchrony index than non-PD iDAs. SNKO show reduced bursting and increased the network synchrony index for iii. fPD and also i. increased synchrony in non-PD iPSC-DA neurons.
[0091] FIG. 18A and FIG. 18B show Synuclein nitrase driving α-syn and phospho-synuclein insolubility in PFF α-syn treated iPSC-DA neurons. iPSC-DA neurons (SNWT and SNKO) matured for 120 days were treated with monomeric α-syn or α-syn-derived PFFs for 9 days. FIG. 18A: Western blot confirmation of synuclein nitrase knockout in cell lysates using tubulin as loading control. The relative levels of unmodified α-syn were quantified in Triton X100 insoluble fractions by MSD as in FIG. 16B. Ser129 phosphorylated α-syn was quantified by MSD using anti-phoshoSer129-α-syn 11A5 antibody for capture and MJFR1 antibody for detection. FIG. 18B: Insoluble α-syn was reduced by 96%, and c. phospho-α-syn was reduced 98%in SNKO vs SNWT (n=3, p < 0.0001, one-way ANOVA, Sidak’s multiple comparisons test) .
[0092] FIG. 19A –FIG. 19C are graphs showing that SY5Y protein fraction mediated α-syn nitration is inhibited by NB001. FIG. 19A: 100 μM NB001, was added to a nitration reaction of various peroxynitrite concentrations and α-syn nitration was quantified by nSYN12 ELISA. NB001 had no effect on peroxynitrite-mediated nitration. FIG. 19B: Dose response of NB001 was added to same nitration reaction containing 1 μg synuclein added to 100 μM peroxynitrite and 4 μg protein lysate fraction (QFT) for 10 minutes. α-Syn nitration, nY125 and nY133, 136, was quantified by nSYN12 ELISA. FIG. 19C: Dose response of NB001 was added to a reaction mixture containing α-syn peptide-Y133, 136, in the presence or absence of QFT (4 μg protein) reacted with 50 μM peroxynitrite for 10 minutes. Nitration was quantified by streptavidin capture and nSYN12 ELISA.
[0093] FIG. 20 is a graph showing NB001 inhibiting α-syn nitration in mice in RBCs. Mice were treated with 10 mg / kg methamphetamine, vehicle, or 100 mg / kg or 300 mg / kg pan-nitrase inhibitor, NB001. α-Syn nitration in RBCs was quantified using nSYN12 antibody for capturing and biotinylated 6H7 antibody for detection. NB001 at both doses eliminated α-syn nitration.
[0094] FIG. 21 is a graph showing that synuclein nitrase (SN) contributes to paralysis in M83 A53T α-syn transgenic (Tg) mice. Probability of survival from paralysis in the natural history study up to 18 months. The analysis only included mice that survived to 18 months of age and those with documented posterior paralysis prior to death, p < 0.0001 for SNWT x M83HOM vs SNKO x M83HOM, hazard ratio > 2.6 using Mantel-Cox analysis.
[0095] FIG. 22A and FIG. 22B show autonitration of synuclein nitrase and structurally related proteins. FIG. 22A: Autonitration of GLO1, GLO2, GLOD5, HPD, MBLAC2 and HAGHL, was determined by incubating each protein (1 μg) with 100 μM peroxynitrite (50 μM for HAGHL) with or without 30 μM NB001 (100 μM NB001 for HAGHL) , an inhibitor of nitrase-catalyzed protein nitration Each protein was detected by anti-His, Clone HIS. H8, Flag, Clone M2, or HAGHL, Clone 3H2, antibodies in top row and nitration using anti-3-nitrotyrosine in bottom row. FIG. 22B: Nitration of exogenous substrates, MBLAC2 of PIGR, MCEE of creatine kinase (CKMT1A) . Nitrase activity was determined by incubating each Nitrase (1, 5 or 10 ng) with 2 μg of substrate and 100 μM peroxynitrite with or without 100 μM NB001, the pan-Nitrase inhibitor in 10 minute reactions.
[0096] FIG. 23A –FIG. 23J are graphs showing levels of GLOD4 measured after 72 hrs of ASO treatment in SY5Y cells. Each nucleofected ASO was plated in duplicate and data shown is combined replicates. FIG. 23A –FIG. 23J correspond to SEQ ID NOs: 477, 465, 406, 532, 584, 588, 546, 541, 595, and 514, respectively.Detailed Description
[0097] Inhibition or depletion of GLOD4 level and / or activity in a cell was discovered to be effective in the treatment of neurological disorders. Accordingly, the invention features useful methods to treat neurological disorders in a subject in need thereof, e.g., by administering an agent capable of inhibiting or decreasing expression of GLOD4, e.g., in a cell or subject.
[0098] Nitration-Reducing Agents
[0099] Agents described herein that reduce the level and / or activity of GLOD4 in a cell may be a polynucleotide, e.g., an inhibitory RNA molecule or an antisense oligonucleotide. The agents reduce the level of an activity related to GLOD4, or a related downstream effect, or reduce the level of GLOD4 in a cell or subject.
[0100] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 in a cell is a polynucleotide, e.g., an inhibitory RNA molecule or an antisense oligonucleotide.
[0101] Polynucleotides
[0102] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is a polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is an inhibitory RNA molecule, e.g., that acts by way of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. An inhibitory RNA molecule can decrease the expression level (e.g., protein level or mRNA level) of GLOD4. For example, an inhibitory RNA molecule includes a short interfering RNA (siRNA) , short hairpin RNA (shRNA) , and / or a microRNA (miRNA) that targets full-length GLOD4. A siRNA is a double-stranded RNA molecule that typically has a length of about 19-25 base pairs. A shRNA is a RNA molecule including a hairpin turn that decreases expression of target genes via RNAi. A microRNA is a non-coding RNA molecule that typically has a length of about 22 nucleotides. MiRNAs bind to target sites on mRNA molecules and silence the mRNA, e.g., by causing cleavage of the mRNA, destabilization of the mRNA, or inhibition of translation of the mRNA. Degradation is caused by an enzymatic, RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) .
[0103] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide decreases the level and / or activity of a negative regulator of function or a positive regulator of function. In other embodiments, the polynucleotide decreases the level and / or activity of an inhibitor of a positive regulator of function.
[0104] A polynucleotide can be modified, e.g., to contain modified nucleotides, e.g., 2’-fluoro, 2’-o-methyl, 2’-deoxy, unlocked nucleic acid, 2’-hydroxy, phosphorothioate, 2’-thiouridine, 4’-thiouridine, 2’-deoxyuridine. Without being bound by theory, it is believed that certain modification can increase nuclease resistance and / or serum stability, or decrease immunogenicity. The polynucleotides mentioned above, may also be provided in a specialized form such as liposomes, microspheres, or may be applied to gene therapy, or may be provided in combination with attached moieties. Such attached moieties include polycations such as polylysine that act as charge neutralizers of the phosphate backbone, or hydrophobic moieties such as lipids (e.g., phospholipids, cholesterols, etc. ) that enhance the interaction with cell membranes or increase uptake of the nucleic acid. These moieties may be attached to the nucleic acid at the 3′or 5′ends and may also be attached through a base, sugar, or intramolecular nucleoside linkage. Other moieties may be capping groups specifically placed at the 3′or 5′ends of the nucleic acid to prevent degradation by nucleases such as exonuclease, RNase, etc. Such capping groups include hydroxyl protecting groups known in the art, including glycols such as polyethylene glycol and tetraethylene glycol. The inhibitory action of the polynucleotide can be examined using a cell-line or animal based gene expression system of the present invention in vivo and in vitro.
[0105] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide decreases the level and / or activity or function of GLOD4. In embodiments, the polynucleotide inhibits expression of GLOD4. In other embodiments, the polynucleotide increases degradation of GLOD4 and / or decreases the stability (i.e., half-life) of GLOD4. The inhibitory RNA molecule can be chemically synthesized or transcribed in vitro.
[0106] Inhibitory polynucleotides can be designed by methods well known in the art. siRNA, miRNA, shRNA, and asRNA molecules with homology sufficient to provide sequence specificity required to uniquely degrade any RNA can be designed using programs known in the art, including, but not limited to, those maintained on websites for Thermo Fisher Scientific, the German Cancer Research Center, and The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. Systematic testing of several designed species for optimization of the inhibitory polynucleotide sequence can be routinely performed by those skilled in the art. Considerations when designing interfering polynucleotides include, but are not limited to, biophysical, thermodynamic, and structural considerations, base preferences at specific positions in the sense strand, and homology.
[0107] The making and use of inhibitory therapeutic agents based on non-coding RNA such as ribozymes, RNAse P, siRNAs, and miRNAs are also known in the art, for example, as described in Sioud, RNA Therapeutics: Function, Design, and Delivery (Methods in Molecular Biology) . Humana Press 2010.
[0108] Exemplary inhibitory polynucleotides, for use in the methods of the invention, are provided in Table 1, below. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotides have a nucleic acid sequence with at least 50% (e.g., at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100%) sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of an inhibitory polynucleotide in Table 1. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotides have a nucleic acid sequence with at least 70%sequence identity (e.g., 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%identity, or more) to the nucleic acid sequence of an inhibitory polynucleotide in Table 1. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-196. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 197-200. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 197. In some embodiments, the inhibitory polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 198.
[0109] Table 1: Exemplary Inhibitory Polynucleotides
[0110] Construction of vectors for expression of polynucleotides for use in the invention may be accomplished using conventional techniques which do not require detailed explanation to one of ordinary skill in the art. For generation of efficient expression vectors, it is necessary to have regulatory sequences that control the expression of the polynucleotide. These regulatory sequences include promoter and enhancer sequences and are influenced by specific cellular factors that interact with these sequences, and are well known in the art.
[0111] Antisense Oligonucleotides
[0112] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is an antisense nucleic acid. Antisense nucleic acids include antisense RNA (asRNA) and antisense DNA (asDNA) molecules, typically about 10 to 30 nucleotides in length, which recognize polynucleotide target sequences or sequence portions through hydrogen bonding interactions with the nucleotide bases of the target sequence (e.g., GLOD4) . The target sequences may be single-or double-stranded RNA, or single-or double-stranded DNA. Antisense oligonucleotides are not substantially double stranded and are therefore not siRNAs or shRNAs. In some embodiments, antisense oligonucleotides are single-stranded. In some embodiments, single stranded oligonucleotides described herein (e.g., antisense oligonucleotides) can form hairpins or intermolecular duplex structures (duplex between two molecules of the same oligonucleotide) , as long as the degree of intra or inter self-complementarity is less than 50%across of the full length of the oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, an antisense oligonucleotide may comprises one or more modified nucleosides or nucleotides, such as 2’s ugar modified nucleosides.
[0113] In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide comprises antisense oligonucleotide comprises one or more sugar modified nucleosides, such as one or more 2’s ugar modified nucleosides, such as one or more 2’s ugar modified nucleoside independently selected from the group consisting of 2’-O-alkyl-RNA, 2’-O-methyl-RNA, 2’-alkoxy-RNA, 2’-O-methoxyethyl-RNA, 2’-amino-DNA, 2’-fluoro-DNA, arabino nucleic acid (ANA) , 2’-fluoro-ANA and LNA nucleosides. In some embodiments, a 2’ modified sugar may provide enhanced binding affinity and / or increased nuclease resistance to the antisense oligonucleotide. An LNA nucleoside is a 2’-modified nucleoside which comprises a biradical linking the C2’a nd C4’ of the ribose sugar ring of said nucleoside (also referred to as a “2’-4’ bridge” ) , which restricts or locks the conformation of the ribose ring. The locking of the conformation of the ribose sugar is associated with an enhanced affinity of hybridization (duplex stabilization) when the LNA is incorporated into an oligonucleotide (e.g., an antisense oligonucleotide) for a complementary RNA or DNA molecule. Exemplary LNAs include beta-D-oxy-LNA, 6’-methyl-beta-D-oxy LNA such as (S) -6’-methyl-beta-D-oxy-LNA (ScET) , and ENA.
[0114] Modified antisense oligonucleotides that do not have a phosphorus atom in their internucleoside backbone can also be considered to be antisense oligonucleosides. Modified antisense oligonucleotide backbones containing a phosphorus atom therein include, for example, phosphorothioates, chiral phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, phosphotriesters, aminoalkylphosphotriesters, methyl and other alkyl phosphonates including 3' -alkylene phosphonates, 5' -alkylene phosphonates and chiral phosphonates, phosphinates, phosphoramidates including 3' -amino phosphoramidate and aminoalkylphosphoramidates, thionophosphoramidates, thionoalkylphosphonates, thionoalkylphosphotriesters, phosphonoacetate, and thiophosphonoacetate (see Sheehan et al, Nucleic Acids Research, 2003, 31 (14) , 4109-4118 and Dellinger et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2003, 125, 940-950) , selenophos-phates and boranophosphates having normal 3' -5' linkages, 2' -5' linked analogs of these, and those having inverted polarity wherein one or more internucleoside or internucleotide linkages is a 3' to 3' , 5' to 5' or 2' to 2' linkage. One phosphorus containing modified internucleoside linkage is the phosphorothioate internucleoside linkage, e.g., which may be linked in a 3' -5' linkage.
[0115] In some embodiments, an antisense oligonucleotide possesses RNase activity, e.g., RNase H activity. In some embodiments, the RNase H activity of an antisense oligonucleotide refers to its ability to recruit RNase H when in a duplex with a complementary RNA molecule. WO 01 / 23613 provides in vitro methods for determining RNase H activity, which may be used to determine the ability to recruit RNase H. Typically an antisense oligonucleotide is deemed capable of recruiting RNase H if it, when provided with a complementary target nucleic acid sequence, has an initial rate, as measured in pmol / l / min, of at least 5%, e.g., at least 10%or more than 20%, of the of the initial rate determined when using an antisense oligonucleotide having the same base sequence as the modified oligonucleotide being tested, but containing only DNA monomers with phosphorothioate linkages between all monomers in the antisense oligonucleotide, and using the methodology provided by Examples 91-95 of WO 01 / 23613 (hereby incorporated by reference) . For use in determining RNase H activity, recombinant human RNase H1 is available from Creative (Recombinant Human RNASEH1 fused with His tag expressed in E. coli) .
[0116] An antisense oligonucleotide described herein may be a gapmer, (e.g., a gapmer antisense oligonucleotide. Gapmers can be used to inhibit a target nucleic acid via RNase H mediated degradation. A gapmer comprises at least three distinct structural regions a 5’-flank, a gap, and a 3’-flank (i.e., F-G-F’) in the ‘5-> 3’ orientation. The “gap” region (G) comprises a stretch of contiguous DNA nucleotides which enable the gapmer to recruit RNase H. The gap region is flanked by a 5’ flanking region (F) comprising one or more sugar modified nucleosides, advantageously high affinity sugar modified nucleosides, and by a 3’ flanking region (F’) comprising one or more sugar modified nucleosides, advantageously high affinity sugar modified nucleosides. The one or more sugar modified nucleosides in region F and F’ enhance the affinity of the gapmer for the target nucleic acid (i.e. are affinity enhancing sugar modified nucleosides) . In some embodiments, the one or more sugar modified nucleosides in region F and F’are 2’s ugar modified nucleosides, such as high affinity 2’ sugar modifications, e.g., LNA or 2’-MOE. In particular embodiments, the one or more sugar modified nucleotides region F and F’are 2’-MOE.
[0117] In some embodiments, in a gapmer, the 5’ and 3’ most nucleosides of the gap region are DNA or RNA nucleosides, and are positioned adjacent to a sugar modified nucleoside of the 5’ (F) or 3’ (F’) region respectively. The flanks may further include at least one sugar modified nucleoside at the end most distant from the gap region, i.e., at the 5’ end of the 5’ flank and at the 3’ end of the 3’ flank.
[0118] Regions F-G-F’ form a contiguous nucleotide sequence. Antisense oligonucleotides or the contiguous nucleotide sequence thereof may comprise a gapmer region of formula F-G-F’ .
[0119] The overall length of the gapmer design F-G-F’ may be, e.g., 12 to 32 nucleosides, such as 13 to 24, such as 14 to 22 nucleosides, Such as from 14 to 17, such as 16 to 18 nucleosides.
[0120] For example, the gapmer oligonucleotide of the present invention can be represented by the following formula:
[0121] F1-8-G5-16-F’1-8, with subscript indicating length ranges of each region.
[0122] In an aspect of the invention the antisense oligonucleotide or contiguous nucleotide sequence thereof consists of or comprises a gapmer of formula 5’ -F-G-F’ -3’ , where region F and F’ independently comprise or consist of 1-8 nucleosides, of which 1-4 are 2’ sugar modified and defines the 5’ and 3’ end of the F and F’ region, and G is a region between 6 and 16 nucleosides which are capable of recruiting RNase H.
[0123] In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is an F5-G10-F5 antisense oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is an F5-G10-F5 antisense oligonucleotide comprising 2’ -MOE gapmer modification. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 204-403.
[0124] In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 404-603. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 477, 465, 406, 532, 584, 588, 546, 541, 595, and 514. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 477. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 465. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 406. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 532. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 584. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 588. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 546. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 541. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 595. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 514.
[0125] In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide comprises RNA.
[0126] Pharmaceutical Uses
[0127] The compounds described herein (e.g., the antisense oligonucleotides or siRNAs) are useful in the methods of the invention and, while not bound by theory, are believed to exert their desirable effects through their ability to modulate the level, status, and / or activity of GLOD4, e.g., by inhibiting toxicity caused by alpha-synuclein aggregation in a cell by decreasing nitration of alpha-synuclein.
[0128] Another aspect of the present invention relates to methods of treating and / or preventing a neurological disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases in a subject in need thereof (e.g., by administering to the subject a compound described herein (e.g., one or more antisense oligonucleotides or siRNAs described herein) . The pathology of neurodegenerative disease, may be characterized by the presence of inclusion bodies in brain tissue of affected patients.
[0129] In certain embodiments, neurological disorders that may be treated and / or prevented by the inventive methods include, but are not limited to, Alexander disease, Alper' s disease, Alzheimer’s disease (e.g., Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease) , multiple system atrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ataxia telangiectasia, Canavan disease, Cockayne syndrome, corticobasal degeneration, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Huntington disease, Kennedy's disease, Krabbe disease, Lewy body dementia, Machado-Joseph disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, Pick's disease, primary lateral sclerosis, Ref sum's disease, Sandhoff disease, Schilder' s disease, Steele-Richardson-Olszewski disease, tabes dorsalis, and Guillain-Barre Syndrome.
[0130] The agents described herein are useful at reducing the level and / or activity of GLOD4, and can be useful in methods of treating and / or preventing GLOD4-associated disorders. GLOD4-associated disorders include central nervous system (CNS) disorders, disorders related to alpha-synuclein aggregation, dementia, schizophrenia, mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's Disease, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, dementia associated with Down Syndrome, other neurodegenerative diseases, psychiatric disorders, eye diseases, immune disorders, multiple sclerosis, neuropathy, and depression.
[0131] Methods and Assays
[0132] Nitration assays
[0133] An alkaline aqueous stock solution of sodium peroxynitrite is obtained according to published procedures (Uppu, R. M. &Pryor, W. A. Anal Biochem 236, 242-249, 1996) . SN activity (in purified preps, isolation fractions, or homogenates) is measured in 50 mM Tris, pH 8.0, with full-length recombinant synuclein or biotin-tagged 10 amino acid (a. a. ) α-synuclein (α-syn) peptides surrounding Y39, Y125, or Y133, Y136 (Abclonal, custom synthesis) in the presence of peroxynitrite (with varying concentrations ranging from 0.1 μM to 100 μM) in 40 μl reactions for 10 minutes. Additional putative substrates; b-synuclein (rPeptide #S-1003) , phosphatase 1 b (PPM1 b) (Origene#TP312918) , poly Q binding protein (PQBP1) (Origene#TP323943) , OXCT1 (CDI Labs#JHU13084. B15C7R12) , AIFM2 (CDI Labs#JHU14077. B10C28R38) , CAPR1 N1 (CDI Labs#JHU12559. B10C28R16) are similarly tested. Nitration due to peroxynitrite alone (chemical nitration) is measured without the addition of SN. SN activity is calculated as the ratio of the amount of nitrated substrate with enzyme to that of nitrated substrate with chemical nitration alone (fold change) . Nitrase activity for MBLAC2 (LS Bio#LS-G73730) and MCEE (LS Bio #LS-G972) are similarly measured with concentrations of peroxynitrite (varying concentrations as described in figure legends) and specific substrates as described in figures and legends.
[0134] ELISA detection of nitrated, phosphorylated and
[0135] total synuclein levels
[0136] ELISAs specific for nitrated α-syn, phosphorylated α-syn and total α-syn (including unmodified, nitrated and phosphorylated full length α-syn) are developed using a sandwich ELISA either with HRP / TMB absorbance detection or with electrochemiluminescence detection on the MSD platform (Mesoscale Diagnostics) . Synuclein nitrated at tyrosine 39 is measured using nSYN14 (#36-012, EMD Millipore Sigma) or clone 8C2 (Nitrase) as a capture antibody and synuclein nitrated at tyrosine 125 / 136 is detected with nSYN12 (#36-011, EMD Millipore Sigma) as a capture antibody. Detection for both nitrated α-syn species is performed with a total α-syn antibody (either 6H7, Elan / Imago Pharmaceuticals or #610787, BD Biosciences) . Total α-syn levels are assayed using α-syn antibodies as capture (either antibody #610787, BD Transduction Labs or #10842-1, Proteintech) with detection by another total synuclein antibody (either #ab138501, MJFR1, Abcam or 6H7, Elan / Imago Pharmaceuticals) . Synuclein phosphorylated at serine 129 is detected using 11A5 (Imago Pharmaceuticals) as a capture antibody and MJFR1 as a detection antibody and reported using anti-mouse sulfotag and readout in electrochemiluminescence units (MSD units) .
[0137] Synuclein nitrase isolation
[0138] Homogenate preparation: Liquid nitrogen is added to frozen bovine brain (Rockland #BVT-266) , pulverized and homogenized in buffer containing 50 mM Tris, pH 8, 25 mM NaCl + protease inhibitors + phosphatase inhibitors (Millipore #5872) (1: 500) . Homogenates are cleared by 30 minutes of centrifugation at 20K × g. Protein content is measured by a BCA assay kit according to manufacturer protocols (Pierce #23225) .
[0139] Ammonium sulfate precipitation: Ammonium sulfate is added to the cleared homogenate to achieve a final concentration of 2.8 M. The sample is spun at 20,000 × g for 20 minutes. Ammonium sulfate is added to the supernatant to achieve a final concentration of 3.0 M. After equilibration on ice, the sample is spun at 20,000 × g for 20 minutes. The pellet is collected and resuspended, and the synuclein nitration activity (after dialysis into 20 mM Tris, pH 7.5, to remove ammonium sulfate) is measured as described above.
[0140] Phenyl sepharose analysis: The pellet from the 3.0 M ammonium sulfate cut is resuspended in 2.6 M ammonium sulfate, with a pH of 7.0, then equilibrated on ice and spun at 20,000 × g for 30 minutes. The sample is passed through a 0.22 μm filter, loaded onto HiScreen Phenyl Sepharose FF (HS) (GE #17-0973-05) and run according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The samples are step-eluted at 40, 60, 80, and 100%ammonium sulfate in 20 mM Tris, with a pH of 7.5. Ten-milliliter samples are collected, dialyzed into 20 mM Tris, pH 7.5, and tested for SN activity. The 60%elution fractions display the highest synuclein nitration activity and are pooled.
[0141] Thermostability enrichment: Phenyl sepharose-pooled eluate is passed through a 70℃ water bath in 24 ft, 1.5 mm internal diameter silica-coated tubing at a rate of 1.8 ml / minute, followed by centrifugation at 20,000 × g for 30 minutes. SN activity of the fractions can be determined according to the methods described above.
[0142] Q sepharose analysis: Following the thermostability enrichment step, the active sample is buffer exchanged to 20 mM Tris (pH 7.5) with a protease / phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (Millipore #5872) . Then, 0.22 μM is filtered and loaded onto a Q sepharose anion exchange (HiTrap Q HP) AKTA AVANT 25 (GE #28930842) column and run according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The SN activity in the flowthrough from Q sepharose (QFT) is analyzed as described above.
[0143] Synuclein peptide affinity isolation: Partially purified fractions from QFT containing SN activity are filter dialyzed to remove Tris, exchanged with 0.5X PBS, with a pH of 8.0, and added to 1.87 mg / ml biotin-SS-Syn-aa#121-129 peptide for covalent conjugation using 10 mg / ml EDC for 2 hours at room temperature (RT) prior to termination of the reaction with 100 mM Tris, pH 8.8. The reaction mixture is applied to a streptavidin column, and proteins bound to the peptide are eluted by cleaving the peptide from biotin using 0.5× TBS and 50 mM DTT. Fractions are separated by SDS-PAGE, silver stained, and visualized.
[0144] LC / MS-MS analysis of synuclein nitrating fractions and
[0145] posttranslational modifications of α-synuclein
[0146] Fractions containing SN activity are prepared by tryptic digestion at 37 ℃ for 12 hr. The resulting digests are analyzed by MS Bioworks (Ann Arbor, Michigan) using nano LC / MS-MS with a Waters M-class HPLC coupled to a ThermoFisher Fusion Lumos mass spectrometer. Peptides are separated on a Luna C18 column (Phenomenex) using a 30 min gradient at 350 nL / min. The mass spectrometer is operated using data-dependent acquisition in the Orbitrap at 60,000 full width at half maximum (FWHM) resolution (MS1) and 15,000 FWHM resolution (MS2) with a 3 second cycle for MS and MS-MS. The resulting data are queried against the Swiss-Prot Human Protein Database within a 10 ppm mass tolerance for protein ID using default Byonic (Protein Metrics) metrics. At least two unique peptides are required for protein identification. The scaffold results are exported in mzIdentML format and imported into Scaffold PTM to assign site localization probabilities using A-Score, a probability-based approach for high-throughput protein phosphorylation analysis and site localization (Beausoleil, S. A. , Villen, J. , Gerber, S. A. , Rush, J. &Gygi, S. P. Nat Biotechnol 24, 1285-1292, 2006) . For α-syn LC / MS-MS, the post-translational modifications (PTMs) analyzed includes nitration, oxidation, phosphorylation, and acetylation.
[0147] Nitrase activity on HuProt chip:
[0148] Purified from E. coli, recombinant nitrases (200 ng) are each incubated with a HuProt Array chip (CDI Labs, Mayaguez, PR) in 10 mls of 50 mM Tris, pH 8.0 with two boluses of 100 mM peroxynitrite solution each administered ten minutes apart while gently shaking. Control chips are similarly incubated with peroxynitrite without synuclein nitrase. Nitrated proteins are labeled with two nitrotyrosine antibodies (Invitrogen cat#A21285, Novus Biologicals #NB110-96877) , with detection by anti-rabbit IgG Alexa-488 (ThermoFisher #A78953) and anti-mouse IgG Alexa-488 (ThermoFisher #A-11001) . Chips are scanned and analyzed for hits by CDI Labs.
[0149] IVTT expression and SN activity assessment
[0150] cDNA constructs are generated for all candidate proteins detected in the active fraction via the isolation process. These cDNA plasmids containing the T7 promoter are expressed by in vitro transcription / translation (Promega #L1170) . Lysates from these expression lines are tested in SN assays (as described above) , and activity above the basal level for any expressed construct is noted. Stopped-flow method for detecting the decomposition of
[0151] peroxynitrite in the presence and absence of SN
[0152] SN is dialyzed into 1.0 M Tris (pH 8.0) . The required concentrations of peroxynitrite are made in 0.1 M NaOH. Then, 50 μM SN in 1.0 M Tris (pH 8.0) is loaded into one syringe of an SX. 20 stopped-flow fluorometer (Applied Photophysics, Letherhead, UK) . Peroxynitrite in 0.1 M NaOH is loaded into another syringe. The components of both syringes are rapidly mixed 1: 1 within 2 ms, and the absorbance at 302 nm was monitored as a function of time. The final concentrations are 25 μM SN, 0.5 M Tris (pH 8.0) , and 0.05 M NaOH, and the final concentrations of peroxynitrite are recorded. For experiments without SN, 1.0 M Tris (pH 8.0) is loaded into one syringe and rapidly mixed with the peroxynitrite in 0.1 N NaOH present in the other syringe in the stopped flow. All kinetic traces are plotted to represent the average of at least five individual determinations.
[0153] GLOD4 KO in H4 neuroblastoma lines
[0154] CRISPR / Cas9-mediated KO of GLOD4 in patient-derived iPSCs and Tet-inducible synuclein-H4 neuroglioma cells are generated by Synthego Corporation (Redwood City, CA, USA) (Toth, G. et al.PLoS One 9, e87133, 2014) .
[0155] H4 WT and GLOD4 KO α-syn nitration assay: Tet-inducible a syn-overexpressing H4 cells are cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10%heat-inactivated FBS. Four days prior to analysis, α-syn overexpression is induced with 1 μg / ml tetracycline HCl (Fisher Scientific #MT61242RG) . For the nitration assay, the cells are harvested, washed and resuspended at 5 × 106 cells / ml in PBS containing Ca2+ and Mg2+. Fifty μl of H4 WT or GLOD4 KO cells are plated into 96-well plates and treated with vehicle or 100 μM peroxynitrite two times for 10 minutes. A total of 20 μl of lysis buffer (1%Triton X-100, 20 mM Tris, pH 7.6, 25 mM NaCl with protease and phosphatase inhibitors) is added to the reactions prior to detecting nitrated synuclein levels by a sandwich ELISA on the MSD platform (Mesoscale Diagnostics) using nSYN14 (nY39 synuclein-specific mouse antibody, EMD Millipore Sigma #36-012) as a capture antibody and detection with a total α-syn antibody (Becton Dickinson #610787) . Total α-syn levels are detected by capture with the α-syn antibody (Becton Dickinson #610787) and detection with MJFR1 antibody (Abcam AB#138501) .
[0156] GLOD4 KO in iPSC-DA neurons
[0157] Neural induction: iPSCs were differentiated into dopaminergic neurons (iDAs) using a protocol described in the literature61 and matured for up to 120 days. See the extended methods section for details.
[0158] DA neuron immunofluorescence procedures: 100k cells / well are seeded on glass bottom 96-well plates coated with polyornithine, 1 μg / ml fibronectin, and 3.3 μg / ml mouse laminin. The cells are maintained at 37℃ in neural basal media supplemented with B27 for 15 days. On day 15, the cells are washed with PBS and fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde (Sigma #1004960700) for 15 minutes. After fixation, the cells are washed with PBS, permeabilized with 0.3%Triton X-100 and blocked in 10%normal goat serum. The cells are stained with antibodies (Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) , Immunostar #22941; GLOD4, Proteintech #16788) overnight at 4℃. The cells are washed and incubated with labeled secondary antibodies (goat anti chicken 488 Alexa A11039 for TH; goat anti rabbit 547 Alexa A11037 for GLOD4) for 1 hour at RT, then washed again and incubated with DAPI (1:1000) . The cells are imaged with Operetta CLS (Perkin Elmer) .
[0159] MEA recording: Recordings are conducted using the Maestro MEA System Neural module (AXION Biosystems) . iDAs are plated in 24-well CytoView plates with astrocytes according to the manufacturer’s instructions. On the day of recording, the culture media is replaced with ACSF containing 126 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, 1.2 mM MgCl2, 1.2 mM NaH2PO4, 21.4 mM NaHCO3, and 11 mM glucose. After media exchange, the neurons are equilibrated in Maestro with an environmental chamber for >15 minutes before acquisition. Recordings are conducted according to the manufacturer’s recommendation. The number of bursts detected per electrode is determined via a minimum Poisson value of 5, with a minimum of 3 spikes and an interspike interval <100 ms.
[0160] PFF treatment of cells: Synuclein PFFs (Abcam #ab218819) are diluted to 0.1 mg / ml in PBS, probe sonicated (Fisher, 20%power, 1 s on 1 s off for 10 cycles) and then diluted to a final concentration of 5 μg / ml in neural basal media supplemented with B27. The α-syn monomer (rPeptide #S-1001-2) is diluted to 1 mg / ml in water and then diluted to 5 μg / ml in cell culture media. The cells are treated for 3 days, the PFFs are removed, and the cells are harvested 3 days later for a total of 6 days. Cells are lysed in 1.0%Triton / TBS / HALT protease inhibitor cocktail and spun for 15 minutes at 18,000 × g. Supernatants are removed (Triton soluble fraction) , and the pellet is resuspended in 1.0%SDS / TBS / HALT (Triton insoluble fraction) . The pellets are rotated at 1400 rpm at 70℃ on an Eppendorf thermomixer for 10 minutes, followed by water bath sonication for 5 minutes. Triton insoluble fractions are analyzed by MSD ELISA for phosphorylated α-syn and total α-syn.
[0161] Methamphetamine administration in mice: All experiments are approved by the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF) Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, and the procedures are consistent with those described in The Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Male and female C57Bl / 6J mice (22–24 weeks old, Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME) are housed in polycarbonate cages in a vivarium on a reverse 12-h light / dark cycle with abundant corncob bedding in a temperature-controlled room (21±1 ℃) . All animals had ad libitum access to standard chow (PicoLab Rodent Diet 20) and water. Methamphetamine HCl (methamphetamine) may be obtained from the NIDA Drug Supply Program (Bethesda, MD) and was reconstituted in sterile saline (0.9%) for infusion.
[0162] Methamphetamine treatment of SN WT and SN KO mice.
[0163] Three GLOD4 (Taconic #TF1171) genotypes (129 / SvEv-C57BL / 6; GLOD4 WT + / +, heterozygous + / -, and homozygous - / -) of mice (8-13 weeks of age) are treated with 10 mg / kg methamphetamine using saline as the excipient. The mice are treated by intraperitoneal (i. p. ) injection, twice a day (BID) , for 4 days.
[0164] Twenty-four hours after the last dose, the animals are anesthetized with isoflurane by inhalation, and whole blood is collected via closed cardiac puncture using a 23G needle and placed in heparin-coated tubes. To obtain washed RBCs, whole blood is centrifuged at 3000 rpm (1800 rcf) for 5 minutes. The pellet is resuspended in normal saline (0.9%NaCl) and centrifuged for 5 minutes at 2000 rpm, after which the supernatant is discarded. These steps were repeated until the supernatant was clear. The RBC pellets were snap frozen and stored at -80 ℃. Animals are transcardially perfused with PBS (~50 ml) , and the brains are harvested and split into two hemispheres. The striatum is harvested from the left hemisphere, weighed and snap frozen and stored at -80℃ prior to biochemical analysis.
[0165] Biochemical analysis of synuclein nitration in tissue homogenates
[0166] For whole blood lysis, 1 mL of 1X RBC lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 20 mM NaCl, 1%Triton 100X, protease inhibitor cocktail, Sigma #P2714) was added to 0.1 mL of blood and incubated for 10–15 minutes at room temperature until the solution is clear. Then, the samples are heated to 95 ℃ for 10 minutes, followed by centrifugation at 5000 × g for 5 minutes at 4 ℃ to pellet the cell membranes. Total protein in the supernatants is quantified by BCA assay (Pierce #23227) , and the samples are stored at -80 ℃ until analysis by MSD ELISA for α-syn and nitrated α-syn.
[0167] Lysis of brain tissue: Tissue and 10x volume (uL) per weight (mg) of 50 mM Tris pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, and 1X protease inhibitor (Sigma #P2714) are added to Omni Bead Ruptor Elite tubes containing beads and homogenized according to the manufacturer’s directions. The samples are centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 20 minutes at 4 ℃, and the supernatant is transferred to a fresh tube on ice. The amount of tissue is quantified for total protein using a BCA assay, and the lysate is stored at -80 ℃ until use in an MSD ELISA for synuclein and nitrated synuclein.
[0168] PFF induction in A53T mice
[0169] Mice (129 / SvEv-C57BL / 6; A53T M83) are bred by Jackson Laboratory and crossed with mice with GLOD4 genotypes (Taconic #TF1171) (129 / SvEv-C57BL / 6; GLOD4 WT / WT+ / +, and homozygous KO / KO - / -) .
[0170] PFFs are prepared and validated as detailed in De Giorgi, F. et al. Sci Adv 6, 2020. Briefly, mice are stereotactically injected with α-syn polymorph fibril 1 b or monomeric α-syn at the level of the right dorsal striatum.
[0171] For immunohistochemistry, free-floating coronal sections of the entire brain are collected, and phosphorylated α-syn immunohistochemistry is performed on each rostrocaudal series of sections. The slides are scanned using a Panoramic Scan II (3DHISTECH, Hungary) at 20x magnification with an extended mode in which 5-layer focus was acquired and flattened in a single-focus final picture. The images are then processed through Motac’s proprietary algorithm for quantification of aggregates after cellular segmentation.
[0172] Natural history study of A53T Tg x Glod4 WT or Glod4 KO
[0173] Glod4 KO heterozygous; α-Syn (A53T) M83tg heterozygous mice are bred with each other at Jackson Labs to generate GLOD4 KO homozygous littermates and GLOD4 WT littermates on either a nontransgenic or homozygous: α-syn (A53T) M83 Tg background. All mice are included in the study at approximately 8 months of age, with an equal number of males and females in each group, and are evaluated twice a week for weight changes, signs of gross motility issues and indicators of paralysis until they reached 18 months of age. If mice exhibit paralysis in both hindlimbs; are unable to right themselves; or had other severe paralysis-associated endpoints, such as urine scalding and severe self-inflicted tail biting or injury, the mice are euthanized for humane reasons.
[0174] Autonitration
[0175] For the autonitration assays, 1 μg His-tagged synuclein nitrase (Nitrase Tx) is incubated with or without the tool compound 100 μM NB001 (nitromethane, Sigma #02484, a pan-nitrase inhibitor that does not affect chemical nitration) and treated with 100 μM peroxynitrite as described above in the nitration assay subsection. SN is probed for nitration by WB using the mouse monoclonal nitrotyrosine antibody clone 39B6 (Novus Biologicals #NB110-96877) .
[0176] SN autonitration is also conducted as a positive control to compare with VOC homologs and to determine whether these other homologs could also catalyze autonitration. Autonitration of GLO1 (LS Bio#LS-G66158) , GLO2 (OriGene #NM_005326) , GLOD5 (LS-G73380) , HPD (Origene #TP306860) MBLAC2 (LS Bio#LS-G73730) and HAGHL (OriGene #RC200832) is determined by incubating each protein with 100 μM peroxynitrite (50 μM for HAGHL) with or without 30 μM NB001 (100 μM NB001 for HAGHL) , a pan-Nitrase inhibitor. Each protein is detected by Western blotting for His (Invitrogen #MA121315) , Flag (OriGene #TA50011) , or HAGHL (OriGene #TA502537) Western blot and nitration using anti-3-nitrotyrosine (Invitrogen #A21285) .
[0177] Synuclein aggregation in the presence of peroxynitrite and lysate
[0178] SH-SY5Y cells (ATCC#CRL-2266) are washed with ice-cold PBS and lysed in lysis buffer (25 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 0.5%Triton X-100, 0.5 mM EDTA, and 0.5 mM EGTA + protease inhibitors + 40 mM nitrophenylphosphate + 400 μM nitrotyrosine) . The cells are then passed through a 26G needle and spun at 15K rpm for 15 minutes. Alpha-synuclein is incubated in the presence of SH-SY5Y lysate (4 μg / reaction) and peroxynitrite, and samples are subjected to Western blotting for anti-nitrosynuclein (mouse monoclonal Ab-nY125-α-syn; Clone 10G5, Elan Pharmaceuticals) and α-syn (Syn-1, BD Transduction Labs) .
[0179] GLOD4 crystallization
[0180] GLOD4 aa2-298 (UniProt #A8K8F0) with an N-terminal 8-His tag is expressed in E. coli, purified by IMAC and SEC, purified to > 95%purity, and stored in 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.5) , 500 mM NaCl, and 5%glycerol at -80 ℃. His-GLOD4 (18 mg / ml) is crystallized after His-tag removal in 34%PEG 3350, 200 mM MgCl2, and 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.3. X-ray diffraction data show that GLOD4 was in the P41212 space group at a resolution of 2.00 A. Structure is deposited in wwPDB; PDB ID: 9CSJ. Synuclein nitrase catalysis using other co-factors
[0181] Nitration experiments are performed with buffer or 38 nM SN and 576 nM full length α-synuclein. Peroxynitrite (in-house) , H2O2, NaNO2 and H2O2+NaNO2, are added while shaking and incubated for 10 minutes. The nitration α-synuclein is captured with 8C2 and detecting with anti-α-syn Clone 42 (BD #610787) in the MSD platform. For oxidase activity test, buffer or 38 nM SN is incubated with H2O2, NaNO2 and H2O2+NaNO2 in the presence of 5 μM DHR-123 (Invitrogen, D632) . Fluorescence is measured based on the DHR123 fluorescence upon oxidation at 535 nm with SpectraMax plate reader at 30 minutes. Xanthine-xanthine oxidase (XO) system (Sigma Aldrich, CS0009-1 KT) is used as a positive control for protein oxidase activity. Similarly, DHR123 probe is used to monitor oxidase and peroxidase activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO) as a control along with GLOD4 with increasing concentration of H2O2. Subsequently, the concentration of DETA NONOate (Adipogen, AG-CR1-3614-M005) that would sufficiently generate nitric oxide as an alternative substrate for GLOD4 in the nitration assay is determined. NO sensitive fluorescence probe DAF-FM (Invitrogen, D23844) is incubated with DETA NONOate and fluorescence is measured at 535 nm with SpectraMax plate reader at 60 minutes. Alpha-synuclein nitration with and without SN with nitrogen species generated by DETA NONOate at various concentration is evaluated like the earlier nitration assay described with peroxynitrite.
[0182] iNOS induction in H4 cells: Cells are serum starved overnight, then treated for 12 hours with 10 ng / mL IL1 b, 5 ng / mL IFNg and 2.5 ng / mL TNFa (top dose) or 1: 2 dilutions of this cocktail. Serum-starved cells without added cytokines are used as a control. Cells are scraped directly in lysis buffer (1%Triton-X in PBS with HALT Protease Inhibitors) and lysates are cleared by centrifugation. Lysate samples are subjected to Western blotting for anti-iNOS (Cell Signaling #20609) , SN (Proteintech #16788-1-AP) and beta-actin (LICOR #926-42212) .
[0183] Methamphetamine treatment in the NB001 study
[0184] Mice. 22-24 weeks old, are divided into six experimental groups in a 2x3 design (methamphetamine x NB001) , with both sexes represented equally. Mice are treated either with a neurotoxic dose of methamphetamine (10 mg / kg, i. p. ) or with saline vehicle control twice a day (injections at 0800 and 2000 h) . Thirty minutes before each methamphetamine injection, mice from the respective groups are treated by oral gavage with NB001 (100 mg / kg or 300 mg / kg p. o. ) or vehicle (85%D5W, 10%solutol, 5%DMSO) . Treatments are continued twice a day for 4 days. Twelve hours after the last injection of methamphetamine or saline, the last dose of NB001 (or vehicle) is administered. Each cohort has equal numbers of mice of each sex from each group (methamphetamine and NB001) . The vehicle us administered the day before treatment in each cohort. Mice are weighed twice a day during treatment to ensure proper dosing.
[0185] Dopaminergic neuron induction
[0186] For floorplate-based midbrain DA neuron induction, a modified version of the dual-SMAD inhibition and FP induction12 protocol is used based on timed exposure to LDN193189 (100 nM, Stemgent, Cambridge, MA) , SB431542 (10 μM, Tocris, Ellisville, MI) , SHH C25II (100 ng / ml, R&D, Minneapolis, MN) , purmorphamine (2 μM, Stemgent) , FGF8 (100 ng / ml, R&D) and CHIR99021 (CHIR; 3 μM, Stemgent) . The cells are plated (35-40 x 103 cells / cm2) and cultured for 11 days on Matrigel (BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ) in KO serum replacement medium (KSR) supplemented with DMEM, 15%KO serum replacement, 2 mM L-glutamine and 10 μM β-mercaptoethanol. KSR medium is gradually changed to N2 medium starting on day 5 of differentiation as described previously. On day 11, the media is changed to neurobasal / B27 / L-Glut-containing medium (NB / B27; Invitrogen) supplemented with CHIR (until day 13) , brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, 20 ng / ml; R&D) , ascorbic acid (0.2 mM, Sigma, St. Louis, MI) , glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF, 20 ng / ml; R&D) , TGFβ3 (transforming growth factor type β3, 1 ng / ml; R&D) , dibutyryl cAMP (0.5 mM; Sigma) , and DAPT (10 nM; Tocris) for 9 days. On day 20, the cells are dissociated using (Innovative Cell Technology, San Diego, CA) and re-plated under high cell density conditions (300-400k cells / cm2) on dishes precoated with polyornithine (PO; 15 μg / ml) / laminin (1 μg / ml) / fibronectin (2 μg / ml) in differentiation medium (NB / B27 + BDNF, AA, GDNF, dbcAMP, TGFβ3 and DAPT) until the desired maturation stage for a given experiment.
[0187] PFF induction in vivo
[0188] Each animal is placed in an anesthetic chamber supplied with a continuous flow of oxygen (1.5 l / min) and 3%isoflurane. Following loss of consciousness, the animal is placed in a stereotactic frame (Kopf) , and its head is fixed into position using ear bars. Using a glass pipette syringe, each animal receives a unilateral injection of 2 μl of PFF / monomer into the right dorsal striatum (target AP: +1 mm; L: 1.5 mm; DV: -2.2; volume: 2 μl) (Paxinos, G. &Watson, C. The rat brain in stereotaxic coordinates. 6th edn, Academic Press / Elsevier, 2007) . After the injection, the pipette is left in place for 5 min before being slowly withdrawn from the brain.
[0189] At the end of the in vivo phase, the animals are sacrificed in accordance with the European Veterinary Medical Association guidelines by pentobarbital overdose (100 mg / kg i. p. ) . The brain and spinal cord are removed and weighed. After removal, the brain and spinal cord are fixed in paraformaldehyde (PFA; 4%) . The brains are divided into rostral and caudal parts, cryoprotected in 20%sucrose in 0.1 M PBS, frozen in isopentane and stored at -80 ℃.
[0190] Activity Assay for Antisense Oligonucleotides in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells
[0191] SH-SY5Y cells (CRL-2266, ATCC) are cultured in growth medium at 37 ℃ and 10%CO2. ASOs are electroporated into cells by pulsing once at 160V for 6 mS with the ECM 830 instrument (Harvard Apparatus) . After 24 hours, the cells are washed with PBS buffer before lysing for mRNA isolation and analysis. For each treatment condition, quadruplicate wells are tested.
[0192] The mRNA is purified with a glass fiber filter plate (Pall, 5072) and chaotropic salts. The human SNCA message level is quantitated with qPCR on the QS7 instrument (Applied Biosystems) . Total mRNA levels are measured with the Quant-iT RiboGreen mRNA reagent and are used to normalize the SNCA data. Data are analyzed using Microsoft Excel and GraphPad Prism.
[0193] Immunohistochemistry
[0194] The entire brain (from the rostral cerebral cortex anterior to the striatum to the medulla, i.e., bregma -6.72 mm) is cut into coronal serial free-floating sections with a cryostat at 50 μm intervals and collected in PBS with sodium azide solution as 8 series of 1-in-8 sections for immunohistochemical processing. Immunohistochemical analysis of phosphorylated α-syn is performed on each rostro caudal series. After thorough rinsing with PBS, endogenous peroxidase is inhibited with peroxidase-blocking solution (Dako REAL, S2023) for 10 min. After additional rinsing with PBS, nonspecific labeling is prevented by blocking the antigen sites in PBS containing 2%BSA, 0.3%Triton X-100, and 0.01%thimerosal for 30 min. The sections are then incubated overnight at room temperature with a primary antibody (monoclonal rabbit anti-phospho-α-syn (phospho S129 Abcam Clone #EP1536Y, #ab51253, ) and detected with labeled polymer-HRP-conjugated anti-rabbit antibody (Dako EnVision+TM Kit, K4011. Phospho-α-syn is visualized with Dako DAB (#K3468) counterstained with Nissl stain, dehydrated, cleared in xylene, and cover-slipped in permanent mounting media.
[0195] Useful antibodies for the methods described above are shown below in Table 2.
[0196] Table 2. List of antibodies
[0197] Target Gene Inhibition by qPCR in SH-SY5Y cell line
[0198] Cells are collected and digested to make a cell suspension. 20 μL cell suspension is added to 20 μL AO / PI (Acridine Orange and Propidium Iodide) and mixed well, then cells are counted using a Countstar cell counter. The cell suspension is diluted with cell medium, and the required number of cells is centrifugated at 90 x g for 10 minutes at room temperature. The supernatant is removed completely, and the cell pellet is re-suspended at room temperature with Opti-MEM to the desired final cell density of 4.0 x 106 cells / ml. 5μL of compound is added to 20μL of opti-MEM cell suspension and mixed slowly in 16-well NucleocuvetteTM strips at room temperature. The 4D-NucleofectorTM System is started, selecting the CA-137 NucleofectorTM Program. 45 μL of fresh culture medium is added to the sample post Nucleofection, total 70 μL. 50 μL pre-warmed fresh medium is transferred to a 96-well culture plate, and then cells (cultured at 37 ℃ and 5%CO2 for 24 hours) are added into the well to a final total volume of 120 μL. Intracellular RNA is isolated with EZ-Press 96 RNA Purification Kit (EZ4001-L) according to the instruction manual. Reverse transcription is performed using III RT SuperMix for qPCR (+gDNA wiper) (Vazyme-R323-01) .
[0199] The expression of the target gene in each test sample is determined by relative quantitation (RQ) using the comparative Ct (ΔΔCt) method:
[0200] ΔCT=average Ct of target gene–average Ct of GAPDH
[0201] ΔΔCT=ΔCT (sample) –ΔCT (Control) ;
[0202] Relative quantity of target gene mRNA=2-ΔΔCT
[0203] %inhibition= (relative quantity of control-relative quantity of sample) / relative quantity of control ×100%
[0204] Nucleofection and Cell Harvest
[0205] SH-SY5Y cells (ATCC, CRL-2266) are maintained in DMEM / F12 (ThermoFisher, 10565018) supplemented with 10%FBS (Cytiva, SH30088.03) and 1%penicillin / streptomycin (ThermoFisher, 15140122) . Delivery of the ASOs is performed by nucleofection of the SH-SY5Y cells per manufacturer directions using the Lonza 4D nucleofector system. Briefly, cells are trypsinized (ThermoFisher, 25300054) , spun down at 90 x g for 10 min at room temperature, and resuspended to 10e6 cells per mL in Opti-MEM (Thermofisher, 51985-034) . 20 μL of the cell suspension is combined with 5 μL ASO resuspended in water with final ASO concentrations between 10 and 0.04 uM. 20 μL of the nucleofection reaction is transferred into nucleofection strips (Lonza, V4XC2032) and nucleofected using the CA-137 program. Following a 10 min recovery period, 30 μL of warmed culture media is added and 20 μL of the nucleofected cells are plated into 80uL of culture media in 96-well plates (in duplicate) . 72 hours after nucleofection, protein lysates are harvested in 1%triton (ThermoFisher, 85111) in TBS (Fisher, BP2471-1) containing protease inhibitor (ThermoFisher, 87785) . Protein concentrations are determined by BCA according to manufacturer’s protocol (ThermoFisher, 23225) .
[0206] ELISA
[0207] 96-Well 1-Spot SECTOR Plates (MSD, L15XA-3) are coated with 30 μL of 2 μg / mL GLOD4 antibody (ProteinTech, 16788-1-AP) and left overnight at 4 ℃. Coated plates are washed in plate washer in 1x TBS (Fisher, BP2471-L, 10X diluted to 1X with MilliQ water) 0.05% (Fisher, BP337-500) (TBS-T) and blocked in 150 μL / well of 1x PBS and 1x Casein (Vector, SP-5020-250) , for 1 hour on a shaker at 750 rpm. Plates are washed in plate washer with TBS-T. Standards of recombinant GLOD4 (custom production Viva Biotech) starting at 1000 ng / ml, serially diluted 4-fold, and cell lysates diluted 5-fold in assay buffer (0.1X casein / PBS) are added at 25 μL / well and incubated for 1 hr at 750 rpm. Plates are then washed in plate washer with TBS-T, and biotinylated detection antibody (Proteintech 16788-1-AP, biotinylated in house at 1: 40 challenge ratio) is added at 25 μL / well at 1 μg / mL and incubated for 1 hour, shaking at 750 rpm. Plates are then washed in plate washer with TBS-T and incubated with streptavidin sulfotag antibody (MSD, R32AD-1) at 25 μL / well at 1 μg / ml for 1 hour, shaking 750 rpm. Plates are then washed a final time in plate washer with TBS-T and 100 μl of Read Buffer B (MSD, R60AM-4) is added to each well, and plates were read on the Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) Plate Reader, MESO QuickPlex SQ 120. The resulting assay has a dynamic range of 0.2 to 250 ng / ml, and cell lysate readouts generally range from 0.3 to 45 ng / ml
[0208] GLOD4.
[0209] Combination Therapies
[0210] The compounds of the invention can be combined with one or more therapeutic agents. In particular, the therapeutic agent can be one that treats or prophylactically treats any neurological disorder described herein.
[0211] A compound of the invention can be used alone or in combination with other agents that treat neurological disorders or symptoms associated therewith, or in combination with other types of treatment to treat, prevent, and / or reduce the risk of any neurological disorders. In combination treatments, the dosages of one or more of the therapeutic compounds may be reduced from standard dosages when administered alone. For example, doses may be determined empirically from drug combinations and permutations or may be deduced by isobolographic analysis (e.g., Black et al. , Neurology 65: S3-S6, 2005) . In this case, dosages of the compounds when combined should provide a therapeutic effect.
[0212] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is administered in combination with another Parkinson’s disease treatment, e.g., levodopa, amantadine, quetiapine, cholinesterase inhibitors, modafinil, pimavanserin, anticholinergics, COMT inhibitors such as tolcapone, dopamine agonists such as bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine, and lisuride, or MAO-B inhibitors such as safinamide, selegiline, and rasagiline, and combinations thereof.
[0213] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is administered in combination with another dementia with Lewy bodies treatment, e.g., acethylcholinesterase inhibitors such as donepezil and reivastigmine, levodopa, clozapine, quetiapine, mirtazapine, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, melatonin, clonazepam, modafinil, fludrocortisone, droxidopa, midodrine, or atomoxetine, and combinations thereof.
[0214] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is administered in combination with another Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease treatment, e.g., acethylcholinesterase inhibitors such as donepezil, tacrine, galantamine, and reivastigmine, NMDA receptor antagonists such as memantine, atypical antipsychotics, or huperzine A, and combinations thereof.
[0215] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is administered in combination with another multiple system atrophy treatment, e.g., mineralocorticoids such as fludrocortisone, alpha-agonists such as midodrine, levodopa, or riluzole, and combinations thereof.
[0216] Administration
[0217] Delivery of GLOD4 Agents
[0218] A variety of methods are available for the delivery of nitration-reducing agents to a subject including viral and non-viral methods.
[0219] Viral Delivery Methods
[0220] In some embodiments, the agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is delivered by a viral vector (e.g., a viral vector expressing an anti-GLOD4 agent) . Viral genomes provide a rich source of vectors that can be used for the efficient delivery of exogenous genes into a mammalian cell. Viral genomes are particularly useful vectors for gene delivery because the polynucleotides contained within such genomes are typically incorporated into the nuclear genome of a mammalian cell by generalized or specialized transduction. These processes occur as part of the natural viral replication cycle, and do not require added proteins or reagents in order to induce gene integration. Examples of viral vectors include a retrovirus (e.g., Retroviridae family viral vector) , adenovirus (e.g., Ad5, Ad26, Ad34, Ad35, and Ad48) , parvovirus (e.g., adeno-associated viruses) , coronavirus, negative strand RNA viruses such as orthomyxovirus (e.g., influenza virus) , rhabdovirus (e.g., rabies and vesicular stomatitis virus) , paramyxovirus (e.g., measles and Sendai) , positive strand RNA viruses, such as picornavirus and alphavirus, and double-stranded DNA viruses including adenovirus, herpesvirus (e.g., Herpes Simplex virus types 1 and 2, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, replication deficient herpes virus) , and poxvirus (e.g., vaccinia, modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) , fowlpox and canarypox) . Other viruses include Norwalk virus, togavirus, flavivirus, reoviruses, papovavirus, hepadnavirus, human papilloma virus, human foamy virus, and hepatitis virus, for example. Examples of retroviruses include: avian leukosis-sarcoma, avian C-type viruses, mammalian C-type, B-type viruses, D-type viruses, oncoretroviruses, HTLV-BLV group, lentivirus, alpharetrovirus, gammaretrovirus, spumavirus (Coffin, J. M. , Retroviridae: The viruses and their replication, Virology (Third Edition) Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1996) . Other examples include murine leukemia viruses, murine sarcoma viruses, mouse mammary tumor virus, bovine leukemia virus, feline leukemia virus, feline sarcoma virus, avian leukemia virus, human T cell leukemia virus, baboon endogenous virus, Gibbon ape leukemia virus, Mason Pfizer monkey virus, simian immunodeficiency virus, simian sarcoma virus, Rous sarcoma virus and lentiviruses. Other examples of vectors are described, for example, in US Patent No. 5, 801, 030, the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.
[0221] Exemplary viral vectors include lentiviral vectors, AAVs, and retroviral vectors. Lentiviral vectors and AAVs can integrate into the genome without cell divisions, and both types have been tested in pre-clinical animal studies. Methods for preparation of AAVs are described in the art e.g., in US 5, 677, 158, US 6, 309, 634, and US 6, 683, 058, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Methods for preparation and in vivo administration of lentiviruses are described in US 20020037281 (incorporated herein by reference) . Preferably, a lentiviral vector is a replication-defective lentivirus particle. Such a lentivirus particle can be produced from a lentiviral vector comprising a 5’ lentiviral LTR, a tRNA binding site, a packaging signal, a promoter operably linked to a polynucleotide signal encoding the fusion protein, an origin of second strand DNA synthesis and a 3’ lentiviral LTR.
[0222] Retroviruses are most commonly used in human clinical trials, as they carry 7-8 kb, and have the ability to infect cells and have their genetic material stably integrated into the host cell with high efficiency (see, e.g., WO 95 / 30761; WO 95 / 24929, each of which is incorporated herein by reference) . Preferably, a retroviral vector is replication defective. This prevents further generation of infectious retroviral particles in the target tissue. Thus, the replication defective virus becomes a "captive" transgene stable incorporated into the target cell genome. This is typically accomplished by deleting the gag, env, and pol genes (along with most of the rest of the viral genome) . Heterologous nucleic acids are inserted in place of the deleted viral genes. The heterologous genes may be under the control of the endogenous heterologous promoter, another heterologous promoter active in the target cell, or the retroviral 5' LTR (the viral LTR is active in diverse tissues) .
[0223] These delivery vectors described herein can be made target-specific by attaching, for example, a sugar, a glycolipid, or a protein (e.g., an antibody to a target cell receptor) .
[0224] Reversible delivery expression systems may also be used. The Cre-loxP or FLP / FRT system and other similar systems can be used for reversible delivery-expression of one or more of the above-described nucleic acids. See WO2005 / 112620, WO2005 / 039643, US20050130919, US20030022375, US20020022018, US20030027335, and US20040216178. In particular, the reversible delivery-expression system described in US20100284990 can be used to provide a selective or emergency shut-off.
[0225] Non-Viral Delivery Methods
[0226] Several non-viral methods exist for delivery of anti-GLOD4 agents including polymeric, biodegradable microparticle, or microcapsule delivery devices known in the art. For example, a colloidal dispersion system may be used for targeted delivery an anti-GLOD4 agent described herein. Colloidal dispersion systems include macromolecule complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems including oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. Liposomes are artificial membrane vesicles that are useful as delivery vehicles in vitro and in vivo. It has been shown that large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) , which range in size from 0.2-4.0 μm can encapsulate a substantial percentage of an aqueous buffer containing large macromolecules.
[0227] The composition of the liposome is usually a combination of phospholipids, usually in combination with steroids, especially cholesterol. Other phospholipids or other lipids may also be used. The physical characteristics of liposomes depend on pH, ionic strength, and the presence of divalent cations.
[0228] Lipids useful in liposome production include phosphatidyl compounds, such as phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, sphingolipids, cerebrosides, and gangliosides. Exemplary phospholipids include egg phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, and distearoyl-phosphatidylcholine. The targeting of liposomes is also possible based on, for example, organ-specificity, cell-specificity, and organelle-specificity and is known in the art. In the case of a liposomal targeted delivery system, lipid groups can be incorporated into the lipid bilayer of the liposome in order to maintain the targeting ligand in stable association with the liposomal bilayer. Various linking groups can be used for joining the lipid chains to the targeting ligand. Additional methods are known in the art and are described, for example in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20060058255.
[0229] In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide (e.g., antisense RNA) , antisense oligonucleotide conjugate, or pharmaceutical composition described herein may be administered via parenteral administration. In some embodiments, the administration route is subcutaneous or intravenous. In some embodiments, the administration route is selected from the group consisting of intravenous, subcutaneous, intra-muscular, intracerebral, epidural, intracerebroventricular intraocular, intrathecal administration, and transforaminal administration. In some embodiments, the administration route is intrathecal.
[0230] Pharmaceutical Compositions
[0231] The pharmaceutical compositions described herein are preferably formulated into pharmaceutical compositions for administration to human subjects in a biologically compatible form suitable for administration in vivo.
[0232] The compounds described herein may be used in the form of the free base, in the form of salts, solvates, and as prodrugs. All forms are within the methods described herein. In accordance with the methods of the invention, the described compounds or salts, solvates, or prodrugs thereof may be administered to a patient in a variety of forms depending on the selected route of administration, as will be understood by those skilled in the art. The compounds described herein may be administered, for example, by oral, parenteral, buccal, sublingual, nasal, rectal, patch, pump, intratumoral, or transdermal administration and the pharmaceutical compositions formulated accordingly. Parenteral administration includes intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, transepithelial, nasal, intrapulmonary, intrathecal, rectal, and topical modes of administration. Parenteral administration may be by continuous infusion over a selected period of time.
[0233] A compound described herein may be orally administered, for example, with an inert diluent or with an assimilable edible carrier, or it may be enclosed in hard or soft shell gelatin capsules, or it may be compressed into tablets, or it may be incorporated directly with the food of the diet. For oral therapeutic administration, a compound described herein may be incorporated with an excipient and used in the form of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, and wafers. A compound described herein may also be administered parenterally. Solutions of a compound described herein can be prepared in water suitably mixed with a surfactant, such as hydroxypropylcellulose. Dispersions can also be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, DMSO, and mixtures thereof with or without alcohol, and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations may contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. Conventional procedures and ingredients for the selection and preparation of suitable formulations are described, for example, in Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences (2012, 22nd ed. ) and in The United States Pharmacopeia: The National Formulary (USP 41 NF 36) , published in 2018. The pharmaceutical forms suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases the form must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent that may be easily administered via syringe. Compositions for nasal administration may conveniently be formulated as aerosols, drops, gels, and powders. Aerosol formulations typically include a solution or fine suspension of the active substance in a physiologically acceptable aqueous or non-aqueous solvent and are usually presented in single or multidose quantities in sterile form in a sealed container, which can take the form of a cartridge or refill for use with an atomizing device. Alternatively, the sealed container may be a unitary dispensing device, such as a single dose nasal inhaler or an aerosol dispenser fitted with a metering valve which is intended for disposal after use. Where the dosage form includes an aerosol dispenser, it will contain a propellant, which can be a compressed gas, such as compressed air or an organic propellant, such as fluorochlorohydrocarbon. The aerosol dosage forms can also take the form of a pump-atomizer. Compositions suitable for buccal or sublingual administration include tablets, lozenges, and pastilles, where the active ingredient is formulated with a carrier, such as sugar, acacia, tragacanth, gelatin, and glycerine. Compositions for rectal administration are conveniently in the form of suppositories containing a conventional suppository base, such as cocoa butter. A compound described herein may be administered intratumorally, for example, as an intratumoral injection. Intratumoral injection is injection directly into the tumor vasculature and is specifically contemplated for discrete, solid, accessible tumors. Local, regional, or systemic administration also may be appropriate. A compound described herein may advantageously be contacted by administering an injection or multiple injections to the tumor, spaced for example, at approximately, 1 cm intervals. In the case of surgical intervention, the present invention may be used preoperatively, such as to render an inoperable tumor subject to resection. Continuous administration also may be applied where appropriate, for example, by implanting a catheter into a tumor or into tumor vasculature.
[0234] The compounds described herein may be administered to an animal, e.g., a human, alone or in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, as noted herein, the proportion of which is determined by the solubility and chemical nature of the compound, chosen route of administration, and standard pharmaceutical practice.
[0235] Dosages
[0236] The dosage of the compounds described herein, and / or compositions including a compound described herein, can vary depending on many factors, such as the pharmacodynamic properties of the compound; the mode of administration; the age, health, and weight of the recipient; the nature and extent of the symptoms; the frequency of the treatment, and the type of concurrent treatment, if any; and the clearance rate of the compound in the animal to be treated. One of skill in the art can determine the appropriate dosage based on the above factors. The compounds described herein may be administered initially in a suitable dosage that may be adjusted as required, depending on the clinical response. In general, satisfactory results may be obtained when the compounds described herein are administered to a human at a daily dosage of, for example, between 0.05 mg and 3000 mg (measured as the solid form) . Dose ranges include, for example, between 10-1000 mg (e.g., 50-800 mg) . In some embodiments, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, or 1000 mg of the compound is administered.
[0237] Alternatively, the dosage amount can be calculated using the body weight of the patient. For example, the dose of a compound, or pharmaceutical composition thereof, administered to a patient may range from 0.1-50 mg / kg (e.g., 0.25-25 mg / kg) . In exemplary, non-limiting embodiments, the dose may range from 0.5-5.0 mg / kg (e.g., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, or 5.0 mg / kg) or from 5.0-20 mg / kg (e.g., 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 mg / kg) .
[0238] Kits
[0239] The invention also features kits including (a) a pharmaceutical composition including an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 in a cell or subject described herein, and (b) a package insert with instructions to perform any of the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the kit includes (a) a pharmaceutical composition including an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 in a cell or subject described herein, (b) an additional therapeutic agent (e.g., an anti-cancer agent) , and (c) a package insert with instructions to perform any of the methods described herein.
[0240] Examples
[0241] Example 1 –cDNA Expression of GLOD4 in Cells Increases Synuclein Nitration
[0242] Procedure: H4 neuroblastoma and 293 cell lines were transfected with 2.5ug control and GLOD4 cDNA in pCMV6-Entry expression vector as per manufacturer protocol for Lipofectamine 3000 (Invitrogen #L3000015) . After two days, cells were washed and cytosol collected using cold 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0 + protease inhibitor cocktail. 8 micrograms of cleared cytosols were used in the Synuclein Nitration assay as a source of enzyme by adding this to a streptavidin plate coated with biotinylated-alpha-synuclein Peptide 11 (human alpha-synuclein sequence #129-140) and 100 μM peroxynitrite added to start the reaction for 10 minutes at 37 ℃. After the reaction, plates are washed and wells incubated with 0.5 μg / mL nSyn12 anti-nitroSynuclein antibody, plates washed and incubated with anti-mouse IgG-HRP and detected after washing with TMB and absorbance read at 420nm-640nm.
[0243] Results: As shown in FIG. 1, cDNA expression of GLOD4 in cytosol from multiple cell lines increases alpha-synuclein nitration.
[0244] Example 2 –Synuclein Nitration by Recombinant GLOD4
[0245] Procedure: 8 picograms of purified, recombinant human GLOD4 or 1 μg partially purified GLOD4 from human red blood cells were used in the Synuclein Nitration assay as a source of enzyme by adding this to a streptavidin plate coated with biotinylated-alpha-synuclein Peptide 11 (human alpha-synuclein sequence #129-140) and 100 μM peroxynitrite added to start the reaction for 10 minutes at 37 ℃. After the reaction, plates are washed and wells incubated with 0.5 μg / mL nSyn12 anti-nitroSynuclein antibody, plates washed and incubated with anti-mouse IgG-HRP and detected after washing with TMB and absorbance read at 420nm-640nm.
[0246] Results: As shown in FIG. 2, purified recombinant GLOD4 catalyzes alpha-synuclein nitration.
[0247] Example 3 –siRNA Knockdown of GLOD4 Reduces Synuclein Nitration
[0248] Procedure: H4 neuroblastoma and 293 cell lines were transfected with 10 nM control siRNA and siRNA to GLOD4 as per manufacturer protocol for Lipofectamine 3000 (Invitrogen #L3000015) . After two days, cells were washed and cytosol collected using cold 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0 + protease inhibitor cocktail. 8 micrograms of cleared cytosols were used in the Synuclein Nitration assay as a source of enzyme by adding this to a streptavidin plate coated with biotinylated-alpha-synuclein Peptide 11 (human alpha-synuclein sequence #129-140) and 100 μM peroxynitrite added to start the reaction for 10 minutes at 37 ℃. After the reaction, plates are washed and wells incubated with 0.5 μg / mL nSyn12 anti-nitroSynuclein antibody, plates washed and incubated with anti-mouse IgG-HRP and detected after washing with TMB and absorbance read at 420nm-640nm.
[0249] Results: As shown in FIG. 3 and FIG. 6, siRNA directed against GLOD4 reduces alpha-synuclein nitration in multiple cell lines. Further, there was no apparent toxicity in either 293 or H4-Syn after 48 hours post-transfection. By Western blot of lysates of siRNA treated cells, Glod4 is knocked down an average of 47%in H4-Syn cells and an average of 87%in HEK293 cells. Nitration of alpha-synuclein by Glod4 knock-down is reduced by an average of 69%in H4-Syn cells and an average of 91%in HEK293 cells.
[0250] Example 4 –Inhibition of GLOD4 by Small Molecule Inhibitors Reduces Synuclein Nitration
[0251] Procedure: 4 μL partially purified endogenous GLOD4 was used in the Synuclein Nitration assay as a source of enzyme by adding this to a streptavidin plate coated with biotinylated-alpha-synuclein Peptide 11 (human alpha-synuclein sequence #129-140) , dose response of compound and 100 μM peroxynitrite solution added to start the reaction for 10 minutes at 37 ℃. After the reaction, plates are washed and wells incubated with 0.5 μg / mL nSyn12 anti-nitroSynuclein antibody, plates washed and incubated with anti-mouse IgG-HRP and detected after washing with TMB and absorbance read at 420 nm –640 nm.
[0252] Table 3. GLOD4 Inhibition Activity for Several Small Molecules
[0253] Results: As shown in Table 3, several small molecule inhibitors have been shown to inhibit alpha-synuclein nitration in neuroblastoma cells.
[0254] Example 5 –Inhibition of GLOD4 by Small Molecule Inhibitor Reduces Accumulation of alpha-Synuclein in Neurons
[0255] Procedure: 15 day Rat embryonic midbrain cells are cultured for six days prior to addition of 30 μM NB001 or 10 μM ferulic acid followed 30 minutes later by 10 nM rotenone, or 4 μM MPP + or 20 μM 6OHDA. After incubation for 24 (rotenone) -48 hours (MPP+, 6OHDA) , these neuronal cultures are fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde and cultures immunostained with anti-synuclein and detected by AlexaFlour 568 detection and quantitative whole well analysis automatically acquired (ImageXpress, Molecular Devices) and analyses automatically performed using Custom Module Editor (Molecular Devices) .
[0256] Results: As shown in FIG. 4, small molecule inhibitors of GLOD4 inhibit oxidative stress induced alpha-synuclein accumulation in vitro.
[0257] Example 6 –Inhibition of GLOD4 by Small Molecule Inhibitor Reduces Neuron Death
[0258] Procedure: 15 day Rat embryonic midbrain cells are cultured for six days prior to addition of 30 μM NB001 or 10 μM ferulic acid followed 30 minutes later by 10 nM rotenone, or 4 μM MPP + or 20 μM 6OHDA. After incubation for 24 (rotenone) -48 hours (MPP+, 6OHDA) , these neuronal cultures are fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde and cultures immunostained with anti-TH antibody and detected by AlexaFlour 488 detection and quantitative whole well analysis automatically acquired (ImageXpress, Molecular Devices) and analyses automatically performed using Custom Module Editor (Molecular Devices) .
[0259] Results: As shown in FIG. 5, small molecule inhibitors of GLOD4 reduce TH+ Neuron death in vitro.
[0260] Example 7 –Treatment of Neurons with siRNA
[0261] Procedure: 200,000 iPSC derived Cortical Neurons plus Astrocytes (BrainXell) were plated into each well of 12-wells plates and cultured for 4 weeks according to manufacturer’s instruction. Non-targeted and targeted siRNA (SEQ ID NO: 197 GUCAGAUCCUGUAUUAAAA;
[0262] SEQ ID NO: 198 CUCUGAUGUAAUUUAGAAA; SEQ ID NO: 199 GGAUUAGGCUCUUUUAGGU; and SEQ ID NO: 200 UCAACAACCUCAAGUUUGC) were prepared with fresh serum free media and then equilibrated for 20 minutes in incubator.
[0263] Media containing siRNA was added to corresponding wells with iPSC CNs. Final concentration was 1 μM siRNA. The plates were then placed in incubator for 96 hours. Cells were then washed with ice-cold 0.5 X TBS buffer. After washing, 500 μl 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0 and protease inhibitor cocktail were added to the plates. The plates were then incubated on ice for 30 minutes and then cell debris was scraped off the plates and collected into microfuge tubes while pipetting to aid lysis. The debris was spun down at 14,000 rpm for 20 minutes at 4 ℃. The supernatant was collected for nitration assay.
[0264] The lysate supernatant was quantified for total protein by BCA assay. The lysates were diluted with 4 mg / mL 100 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0 containing protease inhibitor. Then 8 mg of lysate was used as source of alpha-synuclein nitrase in activity assay.
[0265] For activity assay, 100 μL of 5 mg / mL biotinylated alpha-synuclein peptide containing Y133 / Y136 (SEQ ID NO: 201 Biotin-SEEGYQDYEPEA) was coated onto a streptavidin coated 96-well microplate for one hour and washed with TBS. Nitration of alpha-synuclein peptide occurs after addition of 100 mM Tris-HCl buffer, 20 mM peroxynitrite, and 8 μg (2 mL) of lysate containing alpha-synuclein nitrase. The reaction proceeded for 10 minutes at room temperature on a plate shaker.
[0266] The nitration reaction product on plate is washed with TBST and then detected with 0.5 μg / mL nSyn12 antibody (EMD Millipore) , which specifically detects nitrated Y133 / Y136 residues on alpha-synuclein, for 2 hours at room temperature on a plate shaker. Detecting antibody was washed with TBST followed by addition of 1 / 1000 dilution of anti-mouse IgG (H+L) -HRP antibody (Southern Biotech) for 2 hours at room temperature on a plate shaker. Antibody solution was washed with TBST followed by addition of Ultra TMB chromogenic substrate (Thermo Fisher) , turning the wells blue, and reaction was stopped by addition of 1.0 N sulfuric acid.
[0267] Absorbance was measured at 450 nm on a plate reader (Spectramax i3x) with higher absorbance values corresponding to higher nitration levels of alpha synuclein peptide.
[0268] Result: As shown in FIG. 7, siRNA SEQ ID NO: 198 and siRNA SEQ ID NO: 199 reduced alpha-synuclein nitration levels.
[0269] Example 8. Identification of synuclein nitrase representing a new class of enzymes and a potential new target for Parkinson’s disease therapy
[0270] Specific enzyme (s) that may be responsible for the selective nitration of tyrosine residues in α-syn was / were determined. Results demonstrated that nitration of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) in both cellular and animal models is catalyzed by glyoxalase domain containing protein 4 (GLOD4) , a protein of previously unknown function, which was termed synuclein nitrase (SN) . Results from neuronal and animal models of PD showed that SN was responsible for the spread of synuclein pathology as well as electrophysiological and motor deficits. These results suggested that SN may be a potential therapeutic target for PD. Following the characterization of SN, several structurally related proteins that also catalyze their own nitration (autonitration) and trans-nitration of substrates were identified. Thus, SN was shown to effectively serve as the prototypical member of a newly discovered enzyme family, termed “nitrases” . These results provide the basis for understanding the roles this new class of enzymes may play in diseases ranging from PD to oncology to autoimmunity.
[0271] Tyrosine nitration alters the structure, function, and / or cellular localization of proteins and is implicated in the pathology of multiple diseases. Although protein nitration has been assumed to involve a nonspecific chemical mechanism, it is exquisitely selective, suggesting the possibility of an enzymatic mechanism. In this Example, is shown that glyoxalase domain-containing protein 4 (GLOD4) , a previously uncharacterized protein, is an enzyme that catalyzes the nitration of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) , a protein that is central to the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD) and related disorders. The functional importance of tyrosine nitration of α-syn by GLOD4 in neurons and in mouse models of PD is further demonstrated. GLOD4 was found to impair neuronal connectivity and propagates preformed fibril (PFF) -induced α-syn aggregation in iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons. In A53T-synuclein transgenic mouse model of PD, GLOD4 knockout (KO) reduces paralysis and PFF-induced spread of pathological α-syn. Importantly, study has begun on a class of structurally related proteins within the glyoxalase gene subfamily of the vicinal oxygen chelate (VOC) superfamily and it was found that this class of structurally related proteins also catalyze protein autonitration, trans-nitration and which are collectively term “nitrases” . These results not only suggest that inhibiting the synuclein nitrase (SN) activity of GLOD4 could be a promising new therapeutic approach for PD but also identify a new class of proteins with a wholly unstudied enzymatic function.
[0272] Introduction
[0273] Protein posttranslational modifications (PTMs) such as tyrosine phosphorylation and glycosylation are well recognized to alter protein structure, function and / or localization, with important effects on cell behavior. Tyrosine nitration has effects like those of other PTMs such as change in structure, function or activity. Nitration of specific proteins has been implicated in multiple disease models, such as PD, oncology and autoimmunity. Moreover, the recent publication of a human protein tyrosine nitration database revealed that more than 908 proteins could be nitrated, suggesting that this modification might affect a broad range of processes.
[0274] Protein nitration, typically on tyrosines, has been considered almost exclusively a chemical reaction that occurs under conditions of oxidative / nitrative stress. Peroxynitrite forms in a rapid reaction of nitric oxide (NO) and a superoxide anion radical (O2·-) and is thought to mediate protein tyrosine nitration. Nitration of tyrosine residues has been shown to be selective as only specific tyrosine residues within a protein are nitrated. Previously, the biological selectivity of protein nitration was attributed to a combination of nonenzymatic factors, including the local environment of specific tyrosine residues and the proximity of the protein to nitric oxide synthases and / or peroxidases that catalyze the enzymatic generation of nitration of L-tyrosine and tyrosine residues on proteins in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and nitrite. Nevertheless, the specificity of tyrosine nitration suggests that protein nitration is not a random chemical process but instead might be regulated by a group of enzymes that can interact specifically with particular substrates and therein provide the exquisite selectivity observed in nitration of particular tyrosine residuess on proteins. Previously, enzymes whose primary function is to catalyze the nitration of specific proteins have not been identified.
[0275] Among those proteins whose function is altered by nitration, alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is of particular interest since it is a major constituent of Lewy bodies and cytoplasmic inclusions that are found in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative disease. Mutations in α-syn are responsible for familial Parkinson’s disease, and aggregates of the protein, along with other proteins known as Lewy bodies, are found in the cytoplasm of susceptible neurons in virtually all Parkinson’s patients and in other neurodegenerative disorders, such as dementia with Lewy body disease. The aggregated protein in Lewy bodies contains both nitrated and phosphorylated forms of α-syn. At least a portion of the α-syn in Lewy bodies is nitrated, and nitration is believed to contribute to its aggregation and induced neuronal dysfunction. Moreover, injection of nitrated α-syn, but not nonmodified α-syn, into the ventral mesencephalon of rats results in the death of dopaminergic neurons, the neurons dominantly affected in PD, and a decline in motor dysfunction, suggesting that α-syn nitration may contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of PD. Studies of PD patients also indicated that α-syn-related pathology spreads between brain regions via neural synaptic pathways. Many animal studies have recapitulated this finding by showing that extracellular aggregated α-syn (preformed fibrils; PFFs) induce the spread of α-syn pathology between brain regions. The mechanism of spread of α-syn pathology, however, is not well characterized.
[0276] Results
[0277] Identification and characterization of glyoxalase domain
[0278] containing protein 4 (GLOD4) as synuclein nitrase
[0279] To determine if a protein could catalyze nitration of α-syn the protein-dependency of α-syn nitration was first characterized in a cell line that showed nitration of α-syn. Either full-length α-syn or synthetic peptides was first incubated with peroxynitrite, the substrate responsible for protein nitration, (see Table 4) in the presence or absence of a SY5Y neuroblastoma protein lysate.
[0280] Table 4. Sequences of α-syn peptides
[0281] Nitrated α-syn was detected by Western blot using a monoclonal antibody specific for nitrated synuclein, and the yield of nitrated α-syn synthetic peptide was quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) . Incubation with the SY5Y neuroblastoma lysate or the flow through fraction from Q Sepharose chromatography of the lysate increased α-syn nitration by 8.5-fold (FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B) . The observed α-syn nitration activity in the lysate was heat-and trypsin-sensitive and not induced by the inclusion of a nonspecific protein (i.e., BSA) (FIG. 8D –FIG. 8G) , indicating that the increase in α-syn nitration is due to a protein (s) in this lysate. The protein-dependent activity of nitrating all 4 α-syn tyrosine residues was determined by ELISA using synthetic biotin-linked α-syn peptides (FIG. 9C) . Each peptide was similarly nitrated by lysate suggesting each tyrosine on α-syn could be nitrated by in a protein-dependent manner.
[0282] Next, to isolate the enzyme, designated synuclein nitrase (SN) , responsible for the above activity, protein purification was performed using conventional methods, followed by synuclein peptide affinity chromatography, while measuring and tracking synuclein nitrase activity in fractions. The isolation process was originally performed using SY5Y lysates, but much more starting material was needed than could be obtained from lysates. It was found that bovine brain and / or human red blood cell lysates also contained SN activity with substantially more starting material, and so isolation was instead performed using these sources of protein. SN activity enrichment of over 18,000-fold was observed, compared with that of the total protein in the final affinity fraction (FIG. 10) . To then identify the specific enzyme responsible for the observed SN activity, the purified active fraction was digested with trypsin, and the peptides were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS / MS) . Twenty candidate proteins for SN activity were identified in the purified active fraction (Table 5) .
[0283] Table 5. Proteins identified in fractions containing synuclein nitrase activity
[0284] Each of these proteins was then individually expressed using an in vitro transcription / translation (IVTT) expression system and screened for SN activity. Only two of the twenty candidate proteins, glyoxalase 2 (GLO2) and glyoxalase domain containing protein 4 (GLOD4) , appeared to catalyze α-syn peptide nitration (Fig. 9A) . However, further testing using recombinantly expressed purified proteins obtained from commercial sources revealed that only GLOD4, and not GLO2, exhibited α-syn nitration activity (Fig. 9B) .
[0285] To confirm synuclein nitration ELISA data showing that GLOD4 is catalyzing nitration of synuclein, LC / MS-MS analysis of α-syn was conducted. This confirmed that GLOD4 catalyzed nitration at tyrosine residues Y39 and Y125 (FIG. 11A –FIG. 11 D) . Nitration of residues Y133 and Y136 could not be detected by MS-MS because of the limited peptide detection capability at the α-syn C-terminus. However, nitrate α-syn peptides that corresponded to each tyrosine residue were able to be detected, demonstrating that affinity-purified GLOD4 from human red blood cells (RBCs) nitrated each tyrosine residue Y39, Y125, or both Y133 and Y136 (FIG. 12) .
[0286] To explore potential protein targets for GLOD4 catalyzed tyrosine nitration, recombinant His-GLOD4 was incubated with a human protein chip (HuProt, CDI) containing α-syn along with 23,000 other unique human proteins and isoform variants (Fig. 9C) . α-Syn and the highly homologous isoform b-synuclein were the primary nitrated proteins among the 23,000 proteins (Fig. 9D) . Nitration of phosphatase 1 b (PPM1b) and poly Q binding protein (PQBP1) was also observed (Fig. 9D) . These data indicated that GLOD4, a known protein with unknown function, selectively nitrated a few substrates including α-syn and b-synuclein and was responsible for the synuclein nitrase activity.
[0287] Whether GLOD4 could utilize other nitrogen species to catalyze nitration of α-syn was explored. Peroxidases such as myeloperoxidase utilize hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and nitrite to nitrate proteins. As shown in FIG. 13A, GLOD4 does not nitrate α-syn using H2O2 and nitrite. The data confirmed that it effectively nitrates α-syn using peroxynitrite.
[0288] FIG. 13B and FIG. 13C further show that GLOD4 does not function as an oxidase or peroxidase. GLOD4 does not nitric oxide (NO) or NO-derived oxidants to nitrate of α-syn, (FIG. 13D) . Finally in cells, GLOD4 / SN does not regulate the expression of iNOS, FIG. 13E. Collectively these data indicate that GLOD4 selectively and efficiently catalyzes nitration of α-syn.
[0289] GLOD4 increases decomposition of peroxynitrite
[0290] Given that GLOD4 was observed to increase the α-syn nitration, the kinetic parameters of synuclein nitrase (SN) activity of GLOD4 to decompose peroxynitrite was determined since it is the substrate that SN requires for nitration of α-syn. The kinetic parameters of the SN activity of GLOD4 are difficult to determine because of the short half-life of peroxynitrite, which, at physiological pH, decays rapidly due to homolysis or isomerization to nitrate. To overcome this, the pH-induced decomposition of peroxynitrite was determined by stopped flow absorbance at 302 nm in the absence or presence of 25 μM SN. This showed that GLOD4 accelerates the decomposition of peroxynitrite. The initial velocity for the pH-dependent decomposition of 5 mM peroxynitrite at pH 8.0 and 25 ℃ was 0.539 ± 0.006 mM s-1, which is consistent with previously published data. The decomposition of peroxynitrite in the presence of SN was accelerated by a factor of 5.5 with an initial velocity of 2.99 ±0.04 mM s-1. The observed rate constants determined by fitting each time course collected at different peroxynitrite concentrations to a single exponential function plotted against the initial concentration of peroxynitrite (Table 6) indicate that GLOD4 reacts with and accelerates the decomposition of peroxynitrite. This showed an interaction of GLOD4 with peroxynitrite and suggested that the GLOD4 acceleration of peroxynitrite degradation could contribute to GLOD’s ability to nitrate α-syn.
[0291] Table 6. Analysis of stopped flow measurements of the mixing of varying concentrations of peroxynitrite with buffer or 25 μM synuclein nitrase
[0292] GLOD4 catalytically nitrates α-synuclein
[0293] To determine if GLOD4 functions catalytically to nitrate α-syn, the kinetics of α-syn nitration by GLOD4 was determined. Using peroxynitrite and a synthetic α-syn peptide containing tyrosine residues Y133 / 136 as substrates, GLOD4 kinetics were quantified and used to calculate Michaelis-Menten enzyme parameters (FIG. 14A –FIG. 14C) . The GLOD4-mediated tyrosine nitration of the α-syn peptide was rapid and followed Michaelis-Mention kinetics, with an apparent Km of 10 nM for this peptide, a Vmax of 0.22 nM s-1 and a kcat rate constant of 0.155 s-1 (Table 7) . The estimated catalytic efficiency kcat / Km was 1.6 x 107 M-1 s-1, indicating that GLOD4 is an efficient nitrase. These data demonstrate that GLOD4’s SN activity in nitrating α-syn proceeded in a catalytic manner.
[0294] Table 7. Michaelis-Menten values for synuclein nitrase activity of the α-syn peptide, Y133, 136
[0295] The structural properties of SN indicate an enzymatic
[0296] mechanism of action
[0297] [Rectified under Rule 91, 20.03.2026]Because protein function can be inferred from structure, to aid in understanding the mechanism of action of SN, the crystal structure of synuclein nitrase was examined in the RCSB Protein Data Bank (PDB) (3ZI1) . The SN structure in the PDB did not contain metal in the active site. However, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis revealed that Zn2+ was present in the purified SN (data not shown) . Based on this observation, new analyses of the structure of GLOD4 crystallized in the presence of Zn2+ (FIG. 15A) was performed. The resolved structure features a Zn2+ containing active site similar to those of other members of the metallo-β-lactamase super-family. The Zn2+ is liganded by E70 and H8 (FIG. 15A) . Mutations at either site (H8A and E70A) abolish enzymatic nitration activity (FIG. 14D) . In addition, one cysteine protrudes into the putative active site (C254, FIG. 15B and FIG. 15C) . Mutation of this site (C254A) also abolished enzyme activity. Based on these observations, it was proposed that the zinc bound form of the enzyme uses peroxynitrite as a substrate to catalyze the transfer of the nitro group to the tyrosine residues of the substrate protein.
[0298] GLOD4 knockout (KO) reduces α-synuclein nitration in cells
[0299] To establish the role of SN in cells, an H4 neuroglioma cell line that had been stably transfected to overexpress α-syn in a tet-inducible manner was first examined in order to evaluate the ability of GLOD4 to nitrate α-syn in a cellular context. Exogenous peroxynitrite administration to doxycycline-treated H4 cells resulted in α-syn nitration (FIG. 16A and FIG. 16B) . Using a CRISPR approach, a GLOD4 KO was generated in this H4 neuroblastoma line. In the GLOD4 KO line, tyrosine nitration of α-syn was reduced by 86%upon the addition of peroxynitrite under the same experimental conditions.
[0300] GLOD4 knockout (KO) regulates electrophysiological activity
[0301] in iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons
[0302] To see if GLOD4 / SN plays a role in PD-dependent electrophysiological functions in dopaminergic neurons derived from PD patients, cultures of human iPSC-derived tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) -positive dopaminergic neurons (iDAs) were generated from both non-PD controls (HC) and familial synuclein triplication (fPD) patients. SN was found to be expressed in these TH+neurons by visualizing the overlap of anti-GLOD4 immunofluorescence (yellow) in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) -positive dopaminergic neurons that were visualized by anti-TH reactivity (green) immunofluorescence (FIG. 17A) , confirming the presence of SN in TH+ dopaminergic neurons.
[0303] To evaluate the effect of SN on electrical activity, neuronal activity was recorded in GLOD4 wild-type (WT) and GLOD4 KO iDAs. Using a CRISPR approach, GLOD4-KO lines from both non-PD and fPD lines were generated, which were confirmed by Western blotting (FIG. 17A) . These recordings revealed that the number of active neurons was similar between non-PD control and fPD-derived iDAs, irrespective of the presence or absence of SN (FIG. 17B) . However, GLOD4 expression influenced the weighted mean firing rate. Moreover, the absence of GLOD4 in control iDAs significantly increased the weighted mean firing rate, but in fPD-derived iDAs, the absence of SN slightly reduced the weighted mean firing rate. These results suggest that GLOD4 KO differentiate normally into iDAs and that the ability of iDAs to fire is regulated by GLOD4.
[0304] To further explore SNs effect on neuronal activity, cultured iDAs derived from fPD and non-PD individuals were analyzed via multielectrode array analysis. This data revealed distinct patterns of activity for the two cell types (FIG. 17C (i-iii) ) . fPD-derived iDAs had a greater network burst frequency than non-PD iDAs. In addition, analysis of the network synchrony index showed that fPD-derived iDAs had reduced synchrony compared to non-PD iDAs. Moreover, the absence of SN increased the network synchrony index for both fPD and non-PD iDAs (FIG. 17C (i-iii) ) . Collectively, these results suggested that SN expression influences the electrical activity pattern of iDAs and may contribute to electrophysiological changes in fPD neurons.
[0305] GLOD4 knockout (KO) reduces aggregation in PFF induced
[0306] cellular model of PD
[0307] α-Syn aggregation is a key pathological driver of PD. a-Syn nitration has previously been demonstrated to drive its aggregation. To determine if SN contributes to α-syn aggregation in a cellular model of PD pathology, the responses of control (GLOD4 WT) and GLOD4 KO iDA lines in culture to α-syn PFFs, a well-characterized model for the induction of α-syn aggregation, was then compared. α-syn aggregation was measured by quantitating the amount of both total and phosphorylated Ser129-α-syn in the insoluble fraction of the neurons. When the responses of SN WT and SN KO cell lines to PFFs were compared, the loss of SN resulted in a 96%reduction in total α-syn and 98%reduction of phosphorylated Ser129 α-syn in the insoluble fraction (FIG. 18A and FIG. 18B) . This finding suggested that SN plays a significant role in α-syn aggregation in these neurons, thus indicating the importance of SN in neuronal models of α-syn nitration and PFF-induced α-syn aggregation.
[0308] SN regulates α-synuclein nitration in mice
[0309] To determine if SN regulated α-syn nitration in animals, male and female C57Bl / 6J mice (22–24 weeks old) were treated with methamphetamine, which has been shown to increase the level of protein nitration in general and synuclein nitration in particular. α-syn was confirmed to be one of the proteins whose nitration was increased by methamphetamine treatment. The effect of nitromethane (NB001) was then examined, which was explored as a bioisosteric analog of peroxynitrite. It was found that, in vitro, NB001 inhibits synuclein nitration by SN but not chemical nitration and is an inhibitor of SN activity. In a DMPK study, 100 and 300 mg / kg doses of NB001 showed sufficient levels of NB001 in plasma to cover SN EC50 (18 μM) (data not shown) . In methamphetamine-treated mice it was observed that NB001 eliminated the methamphetamine-induced nitration of α-syn in RBCs (FIG. 20) , highlighting the ability of NB001 to pharmacologically regulate synuclein nitration in mice.
[0310] Next, because nitromethane is expected to be a nonspecific inhibitor of nitrase-mediated protein nitration, it was determined whether GLOD4 specifically regulated α-syn nitration in mice. A colony of SN (GLOD4) -KO mice (from Taconic #TF1171; 129 / SvEv-C57BL / 6; GLOD4 WT + / +, heterozygous + / -, and homozygous - / -) were expanded and it was confirmed that the levels of SN in GLOD4 heterozygous (HET) mice was reduced and the protein in GLOD4 KO mice was absent while synuclein levels remained constant. It was also observed that GLOD4 KO mice were viable, followed Mendelian genetics in birth rates, and showed no phenotypic defects through 18 months of age. Notably, GLOD4 KO mice showed a gene-dependent reduction in basal levels of nitrated α-syn in RBCs and in the striatum. GLOD4 HET mice showed a significant 39%and 13%reduction in α-syn nitration in the RBCs and the striatum, respectively, whereas the corresponding reductions in the GLOD4 KO mice were 97%and 66%, respectively. Moreover, compared with GLOD4 WT mice, GLOD4 KO mice showed a 60%reduction in α-syn nitration in the striatum and a 70%reduction in RBCs after methamphetamine treatment. Collectively, these data indicate that enzymatic nitration, specifically SN-mediated nitration, is responsible for the majority of the in vivo α-syn nitration in both untreated basal and methamphetamine-treated mice in both the periphery and brain.
[0311] SN drives pathology in an in vivo model of PFF induced
[0312] α-synuclein aggregation
[0313] Preformed fibril (PFF) -induced α-syn aggregation model is an in vivo model in which preformed fibrils (PFFs) were injected into mouse striatum enables the evaluation of the spread of aggregated α-syn. It was shown that synuclein nitrase (SN; GLOD4) regulated α-syn aggregation in iDA and therefore it was determined whether it also regulated spread of α-syn aggregation in animals. The role of SN in PFF-induced aggregated α-syn in GLOD4 WT and GLOD4 KO mice was investigated. These models were induced by unilateral injection of PFFs or monomeric α-syn into the dorsal striatum. For the study, 2-3 month old SN KO / KO or WT / WT x PrP. hu. αSyn. A53T. Tg (homozygous) mice received unilateral intracerebral injection of human α-syn PFFs into the right dorsal striatum according to the manner shown below in Table 8.
[0314] Table 8. Study design for PFF treated SNKO or SNWT prP. hu. aSyn. A53T. Tg (homozygote) mice.
[0315] The levels of Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn aggregates were then measured by histological analysis six weeks after injection. Consistent with previous findings, injection of PFFs, but not monomeric α-syn, significantly increased (>200-fold) the levels of Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn aggregates in both the ipsilateral and contralateral midbrain and thalamus regions of WT mice. The levels of Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn aggregates were reduced by as much as 62%in the same regions in the SN KO mice, highlighting the importance of this enzyme in spread of α-syn aggregation in vivo.
[0316] SN drives motor dysfunction in an in vivo model of
[0317] Parkinson’s disease
[0318] One of the cardinal features of Parkinson’s disease is the motoric dysfunction that worsens with disease progression. It was previously shown that the M83 mice reach an end-stage of paralysis as they age due to the overexpression of a mutant (A53T) form of α-syn driven by a mouse prion protein promoter. This strong phenotype of motoric dysfunction was used to determine if SN plays a role this PD phenotype. The contribution of SN to this PD phenotype was investigated by breeding GLOD4 WT and GLOD4 KO mice with M83 transgenic mice. By 12-15 months of age, the offspring develop posterior paralysis of the hindlimbs, followed by early death. To assess deaths due to paralysis, littermates of the 4 genotypically different mice were monitored for up to 18 months for posterior paralysis prior to death. Notably, only 42%of the GLOD4 WT-M83 transgenic mice survived, while 77%of the GLOD4 KO-M83 transgenic mice survived (FIG. 21) , indicating that ablation of GLOD4 had considerably prolonged survival and delayed the onset of paralysis in the M83 transgenic mice. Since the mice were sacrificed just prior to paralysis or after aging to 18 months, the mouse brains had similar α-syn pathology regardless of GLOD4 level (data not shown) .
[0319] SN is the prototype member of a new enzyme family
[0320] The finding that α-syn is specifically nitrated by GLOD4 suggested that there might be other unrecognized enzymes that nitrate many known nitrated proteins. Although GLOD4 has no known sequence-based homologs, it is a member of a structurally related family of metalloenzymes called the vicinal oxygen chelate (VOC) superfamily. Some of these proteins have or are thought to have an enzymatic function. Moreover, SN is a member of a subfamily of VOCs that contain glyoxalase homology domains. To determine if any other VOC members are capable of a nitrase activity, VOC members were tested for their capability for self-directed or autonitration activity, which was observed for SN. Incubation of SN with peroxynitrite results in nitration of tyrosine on SN (FIG. 22A) . Considering the autonitration of SN (GLOD4) , several members of this family, namely, glyoxalase 1 (GLO1) , glyoxalase 2 (GLO2) , glyoxalase domain containing protein 5 (GLOD5) , 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPD) , metallo-beta-lactamase domain containing protein 2 (MBLAC2) , and hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase-like (HAGL) , were incubated with peroxynitrite to assess their autonitration activity. Each evaluated member of the family was shown to undergo autonitration and in each case, this reaction was inhibited by nitromethane (NB001) (FIG. 22A) , a compound that does not inhibit chemical nitration. Using HuProt chip described in FIG. 9C, protein substrates for two of these proposed enzymes were identified and confirmed; MBLAC2 catalyzes nitration of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (PIGR) and methylmalonyl CoA epimerase (MCEE) catalyzes nitration of creatine kinase mitochondrial 1A (CKMT1A) (FIG. 22B) . Thus, SN appears to be an inaugural member of a new class of proteins that catalyze protein nitration. This class of proteins are termed nitrases.
[0321] Discussion
[0322] While the exquisite specificity of nitration catalysis seems to suggest an enzymatic rather than a chemical mechanism, specific enzyme-mediated tyrosine nitration on heterologous protein substrates has not been previously described. The nitration of α-syn was investigated because of the importance of this protein in PD and other neurodegenerative disorders. Described here is GLOD4 (e.g., synuclein nitrase, (SN) ) , the first member of a new class of enzymes termed nitrases, that catalyze tyrosine nitration of specific proteins. This study has shown that GLOD4 (i.e., SN) catalyzes the nitration of α-syn biochemically and is responsible for the majority of α-syn nitration in cells and in mice. SN impairs neuronal connectivity, motor function and propagates preformed fibril (PFF) -induced α-syn aggregation in iDA and in mice. Finally, the class of SN structurally related proteins has been studied and it was found that they induce their autonitration and trans-nitration of exogenous substrates. These results not only suggest that inhibiting the synuclein nitrase (SN) activity of GLOD4 could be a promising new therapeutic approach for PD but also identify a new class of proteins with a previously unstudied enzymatic function.
[0323] The identification of GLOD4 as an SN ascribed this function to a protein predicted to be an enzyme based on its structure but for which a biological role had not been identified. Because peroxynitrite rapidly degrades and nitrates substrates at physiological pH, SN has to be highly efficient. Using an α-syn peptide that is similarly nitrated by SN as full-length α-syn, it was determined that SN’s catalytic efficiency compares favorably to those of other enzymes. The data described above provides the identification of the type of enzymatic activity for GLOD4, a protein that previously was hypothesized to contain an enzymatic activity.
[0324] The data from an enzymatic nitration assay using a 23,000 unique human protein chip array indicate that GLOD4 / SN selectively catalyzes the nitration of α-syn (SNCA) , b-synuclein (SNCB) as well as protein phosphatase 1 B (PPM1 B) and polyglutamine-binding protein 1 (PQBP1) . Three of the four targets, SNCA, SNCB and PQBP1 are intrinsically disordered proteins. PPM1 b has been implicated in cellular mechanisms associated with neurodegeneration. PPM1 b-mediated dephosphorylation and inhibition of DYRK1A kinase activity results in a reduction in tau aggregation. PPM1 b furthermore has been shown to dephosphorylate Rpi3 to inhibit necroptosis. Multiple studies have implicated PQBP1 in regulation of transcription of and binding to disordered proteins implicated in neurodegenerative and intellectual disorders. Although GLOD4-catalyzed nitration of PPM1 b and PQBP1 is observed only in vitro, future studies in cell and in vivo could provide new mechanistic insights for the role of enzymatic nitration in neurodegeneration and intellectual disabilities. Collectively the data described above indicate that GLOD4 selectively nitrates target proteins and is a principal enzymatic source of nitrated α-syn.
[0325] An enzyme that catalyzes nitration would likely require a metal in its active site to catalyze this conversion. It was shown that the metal binding residues histidine 8 and glutamic acid 70 coordinate Zn2+ in the putative active site and are necessary for activity. It was found that mutating cysteine 254 inactivates SN activity. Zinc binding sites in proteins are often distorted tetrahedral or trigonal bipyramidal geometries composed of the sulfur of cysteine, the nitrogen of histidine or the oxygen of aspartate and glutamate, or a combination. Zinc in proteins can participate directly in chemical catalysis, in which the zinc ion functions as a Lewis acid. It was found that GLOD4 / SN selectively uses peroxynitrite, but not NO, NO-derived oxidants, or H2O2 plus nitrite to nitrate α-syn. Moreover, SN does not function as an oxidase or peroxidase. Work to further dissect the catalytic mechanism of SN is ongoing. This includes determining if zinc is the best or only metal SN requires for catalysis. Other metals that could play a role include manganese, nickel, and iron, as well as other redox-capable metals.
[0326] The identification of SN and its impact on both the spread of disease pathology and motor function highlights a new potential therapeutic target for PD. SN is one of only a few enzymes implicated in driving α-syn pathology and as such provides a rare PD opportunity for an inhibitor drug to target the synuclein pathway. These results showed SN KO also regulates neuronal electrophysiology in iPSC-iDA derived from a familial Parkinson’s patient containing an α-syn triplication (fPD-iDA) . SN KO improved neuronal communication in this line as evidenced by the improved synchrony index. Disruption and impairment of neuronal connectivity has been documented in PD and in models of PD as the disease progresses. The iPSC-α-syn triplication DA neurons also showed disruption which is restored in the α-syn triplication DA-GLOD4 KO cells. Moreover, during disease progression the increased burden from α-syn pathology would exacerbate neuronal connectivity leading to motor impairment seen in PD animal models. This is evidenced in one of the in vivo models in this study. This study indicates that the M83 / A53T a-synuclein mice become end-stage paralyzed and SNKO reduces the progression to paralysis in these mice.
[0327] Interestingly, SN KO also reduced the random bursting activity in the fPD iDA line. The implications from SN regulation of fPD bursting is not entirely certain, it could be related to the observation that showed iDA lines with fPD mutations displayed increased hyperexcitability compared to HC iDA. This could suggest that SN may be critical in the regulation of the seizure activity observed in some PD patients. Each of these observations supports SN role as a critical mediator of synuclein-dependent phenotypes believed to be important in PD progression.
[0328] The data indicate the importance of GLOD4 in the pathway leading to α-syn nitration, aggregation and motoric dysfunction. Previous work has indicated the close association between tyrosine nitration and α-syn aggregation as well as the diminished capacity of nitrated α-syn to bind lipid vesicles reducing normal biological function. How GLOD4 affects neuronal connectivity is more speculative and future studies could investigate possible molecular mechanisms.
[0329] Given the new biology building with this first identification of a nitrase, there were initial struggles in the development of new protocols to characterize SN. Additionally, due to peroxynitrite’s very short half-life at physiological pH, techniques and technical excellence had to be built to obtain reproducible nitrase activities.
[0330] The finding that α-syn is specifically nitrated by GLOD4 suggests that there might be additional enzymes that specifically nitrate other proteins. Additionally, in mice, SN KO reduced but did not eliminate α-syn nitration, while treatment with the pan-nitrase inhibitor NB001 completely eliminated α-syn nitration. This suggests either uncatalyzed nitration or another nitrase capable of nitrating α-syn may be upregulated in this model. An inducible SN KO model could help to address this question. Beyond α-syn, a significant subset of proteins (908) has also been shown to be nitrated and these nitrations are implicated in diseases ranging from neurodegeneration to cardiovascular disease to oncology suggesting that, if one nitrase exists to nitrate α-syn, perhaps a class of enzymes are responsible for nitration of these additional proteins. Due to these findings, questions, and the assumption that if one nitrase exists, the likelihood of a family of nitrases existing, these ruminations led to the search for homologs that might represent additional members of the nitrase family. Based on its structural features, SN / GLOD4 is a member of the VOC superfamily. Despite low sequence identity and divergent catalytic chemistries, there is a high degree to which the active sites of the VOC family members overlap when aligned about a seven-β-strand core, particularly with respect to the metal ligating residues and the metal center that enables bidentate chelation by the ligand or in the intermediate or transition state. These observations suggested that other VOC proteins may also be nitrases. This hypothesis was confirmed by identifying the autonitration activity of both SN as well as several additional VOC family members and by demonstrating that MBLAC2 mediates trans-nitration of PIGR and MCEE trans-nitration of CKMT1A, thereby identifying additional nitrases. The effect of autonitration by VOC family members and the effect of nitration on PIGR and CKMT1A is still to be determined. These results identify a new class of proteins with a wholly unstudied enzymatic function.
[0331] Considering that nitration of specific proteins has been implicated in diseases ranging from neurodegeneration to cancer, and cardiovascular disease, the discovery of these nitrases may open new areas of biological investigation and provide opportunities for novel and specific therapeutic approaches aimed at inhibiting pathophysiological nitration. The discovery of substrates for each nitrase could point to disease indications that are linked to the nitrase, the substrate or both. With this knowledge, proof-of-concept studies can be initiated to determine if inhibiting nitrases beyond SN could provide new therapeutic approaches for additional disease indications in which protein nitration is implicated. The investigation of the role these enzymes play in protein nitration and human physiology and pathophysiology holds promise for intriguing research activity for years to come.
[0332] Example 9 –Treatment of SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells with Antisense Oligonucleotides
[0333] SH-SY5Y cells (CRL-2266, ATCC) are cultured in growth medium at 37 ℃ and 10%CO2. ASOs are electroporated into cells by pulsing once at 160V for 6 mS with the ECM 830 instrument (Harvard Apparatus) . After 24 hours, the cells are washed with PBS buffer before lysing for mRNA isolation and analysis. For each treatment condition, quadruplicate wells are tested.
[0334] The mRNA is purified with a glass fiber filter plate (Pall, 5072) and chaotropic salts. The human SNCA message level is quantitated with qPCR on the QS7 instrument (Applied Biosystems) . Total mRNA levels are measured with the Quant-iT RiboGreen mRNA reagent and are used to normalize the SNCA data. Data are analyzed using Microsoft Excel and GraphPad Prism.
[0335] Example 10. Treatment of a Synucleinopathy in Human Subjects
[0336] Using the compositions and methods of the disclosure, a subject (e.g., a human subject) , may be treated for a synucleinopathy (e.g., DLB, MSA, PD, or Alzheimer’s disease with synuclein pathology) . To treat the subject, a physician of skill in the art can administer to the subject a composition containing an polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 (e.g., an antisense oligonucleotide comprising the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 204-403) . The composition containing the polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 may be administered to the subject, for example, intravenously. The polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 thereof may be administered in a therapeutically effective amount, such as from 0.01 to 500 mg / kg (e.g., 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, or 500 mg / kg) . In some embodiments, the polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 is administered bimonthly, once a month, once every two weeks, or at least once a week or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 times a week or more) .
[0337] Following administration of the composition to a patient, a practitioner of skill in the art can monitor the patient’s improvement in response to the therapy by a variety of methods. For example, a physician can monitor the patient’s motor and / or cognitive symptoms. A finding that the patient does not develop or exhibits improved motor and / or cognitive symptoms following administration of the composition compared to an untreated subject or compared to measurements from the patient prior to treatment indicates that the patient is responding favorably to the treatment. Subsequent doses can be determined and administered as needed.
[0338] Example 11.5-10-5 gapmer antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) Synthesis –General Procedure
[0339] 5-10-5 gapmer ASO synthesis was performed on a 192X or 12 synthesizer (LGC, Biosearch Technologies) using standard solid-phase synthesis protocols. All phosphoramidites, including 2' -O-MOE-A (Bz) , 2' -O-MOE-5C (Bz) , 2' -O-MOE-T, 2' -O-MOE-G (iBu) , and LNA-A (Bz) , LNA-5C(Bz) , LNA-T, LNA-G (iBu) , were supplied by WuXi TIDES, Shanghai, China. All phosphoramidites were dissolved in acetonitrile and molecular sieves were added. Unylinker CPG (LGC, Biosearch Technologies) was used as the solid support unless otherwise noted. The synthesis cycle consists of four individual steps, detritylation, coupling, oxidation (or sulfurization) , and capping. 5-Ethylthio-1 H-tetrazole (ETT, 0.25 M in acetonitrile) was used as activator solution. A 0.05 M solution of 3- ( (N, N-dimethylaminomethylidene) amino) -3H-1, 2, 4-dithiazole-5-thione (DDTT) in pyridine was employed to introduce phosphorothioate linkages. Upon completion of solid-phase synthesis, the phosphate protecting group (2-cyanoethyl group) was removed by a 20%solution of diethylamine (DEA) in acetonitrile for 1 hour (h) . The cleavage from solid support and nucleobase deprotection (C&D) were performed in NH4OH at 65 ℃ for 5 h. The crude oligonucleotide solution was concentrated by centrifugal evaporation under elevated temperature (45 ℃) and reduced pressure (5.6 Torr) for 8 h to give crude oligo as a solid. The resulting solid was subjected to prep-HPLC purification or cartridge purification. The appropriate fractions were pooled and lyophilized to give the purified products.
[0340] A series of assayed gapmer ASO compounds are shown in Table 9. These gapmers were designed to target different regions of the human GLOD4 RNA. The gapmer compounds in Table 9 are chimeric oligonucleotides ( "gapmers" ) . For instance, gapmers with a configuration of 20 (5-10-5) nucleotides in length were composed of a central "gap" region of ten 2' -deoxynucleotides, which was flanked on both sides (5' and 3' directions) by five-nucleotide "wings" . These wings were composed of 2' -methoxyethyl (2' -MOE) sugar modified nucleosides. The internucleotide (backbone) linkages were phosphorothioate throughout the entire oligonucleotide sequence. Deoxycytidine residues were 5-methyl deoxycytidines (d5C) .
[0341] Table 9. Gapmer ASO Compounds
[0342] The ASO compounds from Table 9 were analyzed for activity against GLOD4 mRNA in SH-SY5Y cells delivered by electroporation assay in Example 12 below.
[0343] Example 12. Target Gene Inhibition by qPCR in SH-SY5Y cell line
[0344] Cells were collected and digested to make a cell suspension. 20 μL cell suspension was added to 20 μL AO / PI (Acridine Orange and Propidium Iodide) and mixed well, then cells were counted using a Countstar cell counter. The cell suspension was diluted with cell medium, and the required number of cells was centrifugated at 90 x g for 10 minutes at room temperature. The supernatant was removed completely, and the cell pellet was re-suspended carefully at room temperature with Opti-MEM to the desired final cell density of 4.0 x 10^6 cells / ml. 5 μL of compound was added to 20 μL of opti-MEM cell suspension and mixed slowly in 16-well NucleocuvetteTM strips at room temperature. The 4D-NucleofectorTM System was started, selecting the CA-137 NucleofectorTM Program. 45 μL of fresh culture medium was added to the sample post Nucleofection, total 70 μL. 50 μL pre-warmed fresh medium was transferred to a 96-well culture plate, and then cells (cultured at 37 ℃ and 5%CO2 for 24 hours) were added into the well to a final total volume of 120 μL. Intracellular RNA was isolated with EZ-Press 96 RNA Purification Kit (EZ4001-L) according to the instruction manual. Reverse transcription was performed using III RT SuperMix for qPCR (+gDNA wiper) (Vazyme-R323-01) .
[0345] The expression of the target gene in each test sample was determined by relative quantitation (RQ) using the comparative Ct (ΔΔCt) method:
[0346] ΔCT=average Ct of target gene–average Ct of GAPDH
[0347] ΔΔCT=ΔCT (sample) –ΔCT (Control) ;
[0348] Relative quantity of target gene mRNA=2-ΔΔCT
[0349] %inhibition= (relative quantity of control-relative quantity of sample) / relative quantity of control ×100%
[0350] Inhibition results are summarized below in Table 10. In Table 10, gene inhibition of the ASO compounds were graded as follows: A: IC50 < 1 uM; B: IC50 1-5 uM, C: IC50 > 5 uM.
[0351] Table 10. Gene Inhibition by ASO compounds
[0352] Example 13. Protein Knockdown by ASO Compounds in SH-SY5Y cell line
[0353] Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) directed against GLOD4 were evaluated for effect on GLOD4 protein in SH-SY5Y cells. ASOs were nucleofected into SH-SY5Y cells and GLOD4 protein levels were determined using an in house developed GLOD4 ELISA.
[0354] Nucleofection and Cell Harvest
[0355] SH-SY5Y cells (ATCC, CRL-2266) were maintained in DMEM / F12 (ThermoFisher, 10565018) supplemented with 10%FBS (Cytiva, SH30088.03) and 1%penicillin / streptomycin (ThermoFisher, 15140122) . Delivery of the ASOs was performed by nucleofection of the SH-SY5Y cells per manufacturer directions using the Lonza 4D nucleofector system. Briefly, cells were trypsinized (ThermoFisher, 25300054) , spun down at 90 x g for 10 min at room temperature, and resuspended to 10e6 cells per mL in Opti-MEM (Thermofisher, 51985-034) . 20 μL of the cell suspension was combined with 5 μL ASO resuspended in water with final ASO concentrations between 10 and 0.04 uM.20 μL of the nucleofection reaction was transferred into nucleofection strips (Lonza, V4XC2032) and nucleofected using the CA-137 program. Following a 10 min recovery period, 30 μL of warmed culture media was added and 20 μL of the nucleofected cells were plated into 80uL of culture media in 96-well plates (in duplicate) . 72 hours after nucleofection, protein lysates were harvested in 1%triton (ThermoFisher, 85111) in TBS (Fisher, BP2471-1) containing protease inhibitor (ThermoFisher, 87785) . Protein concentrations were determined by BCA according to manufacturer’s protocol (ThermoFisher, 23225) .
[0356] ELISA
[0357] 96-Well 1-Spot SECTOR Plates (MSD, L15XA-3) were coated with 30 μL of 2 μg / mL GLOD4 antibody (ProteinTech, 16788-1-AP) and left overnight at 4 ℃. Coated plates were washed in plate washer in 1x TBS (Fisher, BP2471-L, 10X diluted to 1X with MilliQ water) 0.05% (Fisher, BP337-500) (TBS-T) and blocked in 150 μL / well of 1x PBS and 1x Casein (Vector, SP-5020-250) , for 1 hour on a shaker at 750 rpm. Plates were washed in plate washer with TBS-T. Standards of recombinant GLOD4 (custom production Viva Biotech) starting at 1000 ng / ml, serially diluted 4-fold, and cell lysates diluted 5-fold in assay buffer (0.1X casein / PBS) were added at 25 μL / well and incubated for 1 hr at 750rpm. Plates were then washed in plate washer with TBS-T, and biotinylated detection antibody (Proteintech 16788-1-AP, biotinylated in house at 1: 40 challenge ratio) was added at 25 μL / well at 1 μg / mL and incubated for 1 hour, shaking at 750 rpm. Plates were then washed in plate washer with TBS-T and incubated with streptavidin sulfotag antibody (MSD, R32AD-1) at 25 μL / well at 1 μg / ml for 1 hour, shaking 750 rpm. Plates were then washed a final time in plate washer with TBS-T and 100 μl of Read Buffer B (MSD, R60AM-4) was added to each well, and plates were read on the Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) Plate Reader, MESO QuickPlex SQ 120. The resulting assay had a dynamic range of 0.2 to 250 ng / ml, and cell lysate readouts generally ranged from 0.3 to 45 ng / ml GLOD4.
[0358] Analysis
[0359] The data output from the MSD were reviewed against the acceptance criteria for precision and accuracy using a sigmoidal, 4PL non-linear regression fit in Prism (GraphPad) . For the calibration curve, back-calculated concentrations of triplicate wells for each calibrator were within ± 25%of the nominal value. If a calibrator level did not meet the acceptance criteria, that level was removed from the curve and a new regression was performed. The regression fit must have had an r-squared value of >0.95. A minimum of 6 calibrators must have achieved the acceptance criteria, with at least one point per level.
[0360] For unknown samples, concentrations must have been detected within the assay curve range and were reported using the average of the multiple replicate analysis wells. If a dilution was performed prior to analysis, a dilution factor was applied to the calculated concentration for final reporting of unknown sample concentrations.
[0361] After determining sample values for GLOD4 levels, the samples were normalized to total protein levels. For comparing activity of the ASOs, the total protein normalized GLOD4 values were normalized to the scrambled ASO control and were reported as GLOD4 protein levels (%scrambled ASO control) . Results are shown in FIG. 23A –FIG. 23J.
[0362] Results are shown in FIG. 23A –FIG. 23J.
[0363] EC50 (μM) values were calculated using GraphPad Prism 10 using a four parameter logistic fit and are reported below in Table 11.
[0364] Table 11. EC50 (μM) values of tested ASO compounds
[0365] Other Embodiments
[0366] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety. Where a term in the present application is found to be defined differently in a document incorporated herein by reference, the definition provided herein is to serve as the definition for the term.
[0367] While the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood that invention is capable of further modifications and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure that come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth, and follows in the scope of the claims.
[0368] Other embodiments are in the claims.
Claims
1.A method of treating a GLOD4-associated disorder in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a polynucleotide that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.2.The method of claim 1, wherein the GLOD4-associated disorder is a neurological disorder.3.The method of claim 2, wherein the neurological disorder is a neurodegenerative disorder.4.The method of claim 3, wherein the neurodegenerative disorder is a synucleinopathy.5.The method of claim 4, wherein the synucleinopathy is Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease, or multiple system atrophy.6.The method of claim 5, wherein the synucleinopathy is Parkinson’s disease.7.A method of inhibiting toxicity in a cell related to a protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.8.The method of claim 7, wherein the cell is a dopaminergic neuron.9.The method of claim 7 or 8, wherein the cell is in the substantia nigra.10.A method of reducing the level of protein aggregation in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.11.A method of inhibiting nitration of a protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.12.The method of any one of claims 7 to 11, wherein the protein is alpha-synuclein.13.A method of reducing the level of a nitrated protein in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of an agent that reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4.14.The method of claim 13, wherein the nitrated protein is nitrated alpha-synuclein.15.The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the subject has been identified as expressing GLOD4.16.The method of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the subject has been identified as having an elevated level of a nitrated protein as compared to a reference.17.The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 by at least 5%compared to a reference.18.The method of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level and / or activity of GLOD4 by at least 5%for at least 12 hours.19.The method of any one of claims 1 to 18, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of Lewy bodies and / or Lewy nitrates in the subject by at least 5%compared to a reference.20.The method of any one of claims 1 to 19, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of nitrated alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.21.The method of any one of claims 1 to 20, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of aggregation of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.22.The method of any one of claims 1 to 21, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces increases the solubility of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.23.The method of any one of claims 1 to 22, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces oligomerization of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.24.The method of any one of claims 1 to 23, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of beta-pleated sheet alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.25.The method of any one of claims 1 to 24, wherein the effective amount of the agent inhibits the formation of beta-pleated sheet alpha-synuclein in the subject.26.The method of any one of claims 1 to 25, wherein the effective amount of the agent decreases the level of alpha-synuclein in the subject at least 5%compared to a reference.27.The method of any one of claims 1 to 26, wherein the effective amount of the agent increases the level of alpha-synuclein in lipid vesicles at least 5%compared to a reference.28.The method of any one of claims 1 to 27, wherein the effective amount of the agent increases ER-Golgi transport in the subject.29.The method of any one of claims 1 to 28, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces ER stress and Golgi fragmentation in the subject.30.The method of any one of claims 1 to 29, wherein the effective amount of the agent increases synaptic vesicle release in the subject.31.The method of any one of claims 1 to 30, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces apoptosis in the central nervous system of the subject.32.The method of any one of claims 1 to 31, wherein the effective amount of the agent reduces the level of chaperone-mediated autophagy substrates in the central nervous system of the subject.33.The method of any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the effective amount of the agent increases proteasome activity in the subject.34.The method of any one of claims 1 to 33, wherein the subject has, or has been identified as having, a neurological disorder.35.The method of claim 34, wherein the neurological disorder is a neurodegenerative disorder.36.The method of claim 35, wherein the neurodegenerative disorder is a synucleinopathy.37.The method of claim 36, wherein the synucleinopathy is Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease, or multiple system atrophy.38.The method of claim 1, wherein the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide, a short interfering RNA (siRNA) , a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) , or a micro RNA (miRNA) .39.The method of claim 38, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-196.40.The method of claim 38, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 197-200.41.The method of claim 40, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 197.42.The method of claim 40, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 198.43.The method of claim 38, wherein the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide comprising the formula F5-G10-F5.44.The method of claim 43, wherein the antisense oligonucleotide comprises a 2’ -MOE gapmer modification.45.The method of claim 43 or 44, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 204-403.46.The method of claim 43 or 44, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 404-603.47.The method of claim 46, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 477, 465, 406, 532, 584, 588, 546, 541, 595, and 514.48.The method of any one of claims 7-37, wherein the agent is a polynucleotide.49.The method of claim 48, wherein the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide, a short interfering RNA (siRNA) , a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) , or a micro RNA (miRNA) .50.The method of claim 49, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-196.51.The method of claim 49, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 197-200.52.The method of claim 51, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 197.53.The method of claim 51, wherein the polynucleotide comprises a sequence having at least 85%sequence identity to the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 198.54.The method of claim 49, wherein the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide comprising the formula F5-G10-F5.55.The method of claim 54, wherein the antisense oligonucleotide comprises a 2’ -MOE gapmer modification.56.The method of claim 54 or 55, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 204-403.57.The method of claim 54 or 55, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 404-603.58.The method of claim 57, wherein the polynucleotide comprises the nucleic acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs:477, 465, 406, 532, 584, 588, 546, 541, 595, and 514.