System and method for satellite communication

Abstract

The invention discloses a system and method for satellite communication. Aspects of wireless communications are described including a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip configured for transmitting or receiving data, the chip including a first substrate including a first material and a second substrate including a second material different from the first material. The first substrate and the second substrate may be lattice matched such that an interfacial region between the first substrate and the second substrate exhibits an sp3 carbon peak at about 1332 cm <-1 >, having a full width at half maximum of no greater than 5.0 cm <-1 >, as measured by Raman spectroscopy. In some aspects, the first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz. In some aspects, the RF amplifier chip is part of a satellite transmitter.

Description

[0001] This application is a divisional application of Chinese patent application No. 201980076011.9, filed on September 18, 2019, entitled "System and Method for Satellite Communication" (the corresponding PCT application was filed on September 18, 2019, and has the application number PCT / US2019 / 051793).

[0002] Cross-references

[0003] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62 / 733,581, filed September 19, 2018, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Background Technology

[0004] Satellites orbiting the Earth serve multiple functions: broadcasting information, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and scientific exploration. Satellite constellations can be in low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), or geostationary orbit. Given the ever-increasing demand for mobile data and the anticipated data requirements related to 5G networks, satellites have gained significant attention. Therefore, satellite performance has been considered. Summary of the Invention

[0005] The devices and systems described herein can at least address the aforementioned problems by providing improved thermal performance and linearity superior to conventional RF power amplifiers. For example, the gallium nitride-on-diamond (GaND) amplifiers disclosed herein can provide at least some of the following advantages compared to conventional microwave or millimeter amplifiers: (1) For the same substrate temperature and chip design, aspects of this disclosure can provide higher output power and lower thermal resistance compared to conventional solid-state amplifier technologies. (2) For the same substrate and chip size, but not necessarily the same chip design, aspects of this disclosure can provide higher output power, lower thermal resistance, and more efficient heat flow compared to conventional solid-state amplifier technologies. (3) For the same output power and chip size, aspects of this disclosure can provide equal output power at lower substrate temperatures compared to conventional solid-state amplifier technologies at higher substrate temperatures. (4) For the same linear output power and chip size, aspects of this disclosure can provide higher power-added efficiency (PAE) and higher wall-mounting efficiency compared to conventional technologies. (5) For the same power dissipation (e.g., heat) and power flux density (PFD) limited linear output power, aspects of this disclosure can provide higher linearity due to reduced effects of higher-order intermodulation products.

[0006] In one aspect, a chip for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The chip may include: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched with the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM) is such that the first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0007] In some embodiments, the chip includes radio frequency amplifier circuitry. In some embodiments, the first substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK. In some embodiments, the first substrate comprises diamond. In some embodiments, the second substrate is a semiconductor. In some embodiments, the second substrate comprises a III-V group semiconductor. In some embodiments, the second substrate comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN. In some embodiments, the second substrate comprises silicon. In some embodiments, the interface region is at 1550 cm⁻¹. -1 The interface region exhibits an sp2 carbon peak, which, as measured by Raman spectroscopy, has an amplitude not exceeding 20% ​​of the height of the sp3 carbon peak after background subtraction. In some embodiments, the interface region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak with a local background intensity greater than or equal to 10%. In some embodiments, the transmission rate is at least 10 gigabits per second. In some embodiments, the transmission rate is at least 12 gigabits per second. In some embodiments, the transmission rate is at least 14 gigabits per second. In some embodiments, the transmission rate is at least 100 gigabits per second. In some embodiments, the transmission rate is at least 1 terabits per second. In some embodiments, the frequency is in the range from 37.5 GHz to 300 GHz. In some embodiments, the frequency is in the range from 37.5 GHz to 40.5 GHz. In some embodiments, the chip includes a transistor comprising a second substrate. In some embodiments, the transistor has a feature size of less than 40 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, the frequency has a bandwidth of at least 50 MHz.

[0008] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The chip may include: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the first and second substrates are lattice-matched such that (i) for an input power less than or equal to 2 W in linear mode, the chip outputs effective radiated power in the range of 5 W to 42 W within an antenna gain of less than 30 dBi; and (ii) the chip transmits or receives data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0009] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The chip may include: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK across the first and second substrates, and wherein the first and second substrates allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0010] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The chip may include: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first and second substrates are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

[0011] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The chip may include: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power-to-interference ratio of less than 20dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0012] On the other hand, a system for transmitting or receiving data is provided. The system may include: a chip comprising: (i) a first substrate comprising a first material, and (ii) a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM), as measured by Raman spectroscopy, wherein the first and second substrates allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz; and a transmit or receive unit operatively coupled to the chip, the transmit or receive unit being configured to transmit or receive data.

[0013] In some embodiments, the chip and the transmitting or receiving unit are part of a satellite. In some embodiments, the satellite is a CubeSat. In some embodiments, the satellite weighs less than 50 kg. In some embodiments, the system also includes one or more additional satellites, each including the chip and the transmitting or receiving unit. In some embodiments, the transmitting or receiving unit includes one or more antennas. In some embodiments, the transmitting or receiving unit is configured to transmit or receive data to or from a remote transmitting or receiving unit. In some embodiments, the data includes at least one of voice, audio, or video data.

[0014] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting data is provided. The chip may include: a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 10 W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

[0015] In some embodiments, the chip includes radio frequency (RF) amplifier circuitry. In some embodiments, the RF amplifier circuitry includes integrated microwave circuitry or integrated millimeter-wave circuitry. In some embodiments, the substrate includes diamond. In some embodiments, the semiconductor layer includes a group III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN. In some embodiments, the interference level from the noise power ratio of the chip is less than or equal to 20 dB. In some embodiments, the interference level from cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to 12 dB.

[0016] On the other hand, a transmitting device for transmitting data is provided. The transmitting device may include: a chip of any aspect or implementation; and a transmitting antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide output power to the transmitting antenna for transmitting data at a transmission rate and frequency.

[0017] In some embodiments, the device is a satellite transmitter. In some embodiments, the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit data at an altitude of at least 400 km. In some embodiments, the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit data at an altitude between approximately 400 km and approximately 600 km. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has a gain of at least 36 dBi. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has a pointing error of less than or equal to 1 degree. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than 2.3 dB or equal to dB. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 43 dBW.

[0018] On the other hand, a data communication link is provided. The data communication link may include: a transmitting device of any aspect or implementation; and a receiving device that wirelessly communicates with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0019] In some embodiments, the receiving device includes a receiving antenna with a gain of at least 65 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%. In some embodiments, the allocated bandwidth per carrier is at least about 1200 MHz. In some embodiments, the link has a noise power of less than or equal to 114 dB. In some embodiments, the link has a signal-to-noise ratio greater than 18 dB. In some embodiments, the link has a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 5 gigabits per second. In some embodiments, the link has a spectral efficiency of at least 5 bps / Hz. In some embodiments, the receiving antenna of the receiving device has a diameter of at least 12 meters. In some embodiments, the power flux density received at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 80 dBW / m. 2In some embodiments, the link suffers at least 200 dB of propagation loss. In some embodiments, the signal includes a modulated carrier signal, and the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip. In some embodiments, the signal distortion includes nth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, the nth-order intermodulation products include third-order or fifth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, the linearity of the chip is associated with the ratio of (i) the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, this ratio is at least 30 dB. In some embodiments, the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C. In some embodiments, the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operating mode of the chip. In some embodiments, the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operating mode of the chip. In some embodiments, the input power to the chip is backed off by at least 5 dB from the chip's saturation level to the chip's linear operating mode.

[0020] On the other hand, a chip for transmitting data is provided. The chip may include: a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, and wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 5 W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40 GHz.

[0021] In some embodiments, the chip includes radio frequency (RF) amplifier circuitry. In some embodiments, the RF amplifier circuitry includes integrated microwave circuitry or integrated millimeter-wave circuitry. In some embodiments, the substrate includes diamond. In some embodiments, the semiconductor layer includes a group III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN. In some embodiments, the interference level from the chip's noise power ratio is less than or equal to about 23 dB. In some embodiments, the interference level from cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to about 15 dB.

[0022] On the other hand, a transmitting device for transmitting data is provided. The transmitting device may include: a chip of any aspect or implementation; and a transmitting antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide output power to the transmitting antenna for transmitting data at a transmission rate and frequency.

[0023] In some embodiments, the device is a satellite transmitter. In some embodiments, the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit data at an altitude of at least 5000 km. In some embodiments, the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit data at an altitude of 6000 km. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%. In some embodiments, the transmitting antenna has a gain of at least 43 dBi. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has a pointing error of less than or equal to 0.5 degrees. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than or equal to 3 dB. In some embodiments, the transmitting device has an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 47 dBW.

[0024] On the other hand, a data communication link is provided, which includes a transmitting device of any aspect or implementation and a receiving device that wirelessly communicates with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0025] In some embodiments, the receiving device includes a receiving antenna with a gain of at least 72 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%. In some embodiments, the allocated bandwidth per carrier is at least 250 MHz. In some embodiments, the link has a noise power of less than about 120 dBW. In some embodiments, the link has a signal-to-noise ratio greater than about 8.5 dB. In some embodiments, the link has a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 500 megabits per second. In some embodiments, the link has a spectral efficiency of at least 2.9 bps / Hz. In some embodiments, the receiving antenna of the receiving device has a diameter of at least 12 meters. In some embodiments, the power flux density at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 99 dBW / m. 2In some embodiments, the link suffers at least 200 dB of propagation loss. In some embodiments, the signal includes a modulated carrier signal, and the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip. In some embodiments, the signal distortion includes nth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, the nth-order intermodulation products include third-order or fifth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, the linearity of the chip is associated with the ratio of (i) the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation products. In some embodiments, this ratio is at least 30 dB. In some embodiments, the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C. In some embodiments, the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operating mode of the chip. In some embodiments, the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operating mode of the chip. In some embodiments, the input power to the chip is backed down by at least 5 dB from the chip's saturation level to the chip's linear operating mode.

[0026] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate and including a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM), as measured by Raman spectroscopy, and based at least in part on the first and second substrates, transmits data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0027] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. This method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip of any aspect or implementation, and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on a first substrate and a second substrate.

[0028] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate including a second material different from the first material; and generating an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, for an input power less than or equal to 2W in linear mode, the output signal including an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi; and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0029] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip of any aspect or implementation; and, at least in part, based on lattice matching of a first substrate and a second substrate: generating an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, the output comprising an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi for an input power less than or equal to 2W in linear mode; and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0030] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate adjacent to the first substrate including a second material different from the first material; wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK between the first and second substrates, and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least partially on the first and second substrates.

[0031] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. This method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip of any aspect or implementation, and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on a first substrate and a second substrate.

[0032] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate and including a second material different from the first material; and, at least in part based on the lattice matching of the first and second substrates: (i) displaying an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, wherein the signal includes an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB; and (ii) transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

[0033] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate and including a second material different from the first material, and based at least in part on lattice matching of the first and second substrates; (i) displaying an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, wherein the signal includes an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power-to-interference ratio of less than 20dB; and (ii) transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0034] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK; and generating at least 10 W of output power, with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB, based at least in part on the thermal conductivity, for amplifying a signal and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

[0035] On the other hand, a method for using a transmitting device is provided. This method may include: providing a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip of any aspect or implementation; providing an antenna, wherein the RF amplifier chip is operatively coupled to the antenna; and generating output power to the antenna for transmitting data at a transmission rate and frequency. In some implementations, the transmitting device is a transmitting device of any aspect or implementation.

[0036] On the other hand, a method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided. The method may include: providing an RF amplifier chip including a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK; and generating at least 5 W of output power, with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB, based at least in part on the thermal conductivity, for amplifying a signal and transmitting data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40 GHz.

[0037] On the other hand, a method for using a transmitting device is provided. This method may include: providing a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip of any aspect or implementation; providing an antenna, wherein the RF amplifier chip is operatively coupled to the antenna; and generating output power to the antenna for transmitting data at a transmission rate and frequency. In some implementations, the transmitting device includes a transmitting device of any aspect or implementation.

[0038] On the other hand, a method for transmitting data is provided. This method may include: providing a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip comprising a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate comprising a first material, and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the silicon of the second substrate is lattice-matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first and second substrates is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM), as measured by Raman spectroscopy; provides an emitter unit operatively coupled to the chip, the emitter unit being configured to emit data; and emits data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on a first substrate and a second substrate.

[0039] On the other hand, a method for receiving data is provided. This method may include: providing a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip comprising a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate comprising a first material, and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the silicon of the second substrate is lattice-matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first and second substrates is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM), as measured by Raman spectroscopy; a receiving unit operatively coupled to the chip, configured to receive data; and receiving data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on a first substrate and a second substrate.

[0040] Other aspects and advantages of this disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, in which only illustrative embodiments of this disclosure are shown and described. As will be appreciated, this disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and certain details thereof can be modified in a variety of obvious ways without departing from this disclosure. Therefore, the drawings and descriptions should be considered illustrative in nature and not restrictive.

[0041] Incorporation

[0042] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are incorporated herein by reference to the extent that each individual publication, patent, or patent application is expressly and individually indicated as being incorporated by reference. Where a publication or patent or patent application incorporated by reference contradicts the disclosure contained in this specification, this specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such contradictory material. Attached Figure Description

[0043] The novel features of the invention are specifically set forth in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the invention can be obtained by referring to the following detailed description and the accompanying figures (also referred to herein as “Figures”), which illustrate illustrative embodiments utilizing various principles of the invention. In the figures:

[0044] Figure 1A A block diagram of an example communication system is shown, based on some aspects.

[0045] Figure 1B A block diagram of an example chip is shown, based on some aspects.

[0046] Figure 2 Examples of amplifier linearity characteristics are shown based on several aspects.

[0047] Figure 3 The power-added efficiency (PAE) characteristics of an example amplifier are illustrated according to some aspects.

[0048] Figure 4 The radiation pattern of an example antenna is shown according to some aspects. Detailed Implementation

[0049] Although various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be readily understood by those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Many variations, alterations, and substitutions will occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the aspects of this disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed. It should be understood that different aspects of the invention may be understood or modified individually, jointly, or in combination with each other. Where values ​​are described as ranges, it will be understood that such disclosure includes disclosure of all possible subranges within such ranges, as well as specific numerical values ​​falling within such ranges, whether or not a specific numerical value or a specific subrange is explicitly indicated.

[0050] As used herein, the term "thermal budget" generally refers to an assessment of temperature dissipation from one or more components to the environment. For example, a thermal budget can include the temperature drop across each component between a heat source (e.g., the active channel of an output stage power transistor) and the system's surrounding environment. The active layer of a semiconductor device can be several micrometers thick and can be formed on top of a mechanical carrier or substrate. The active layer of a semiconductor device can be formed over a mechanical carrier or substrate.

[0051] As used herein, the term "substrate" generally refers to any material on which a layered structure is deposited. Substrates can include the basis for manufacturing electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Substrates can include solid materials such as semiconductors or insulators. Substrate materials can include carbon, aluminum, gallium, silicon, germanium, arsenic, thallium, cadmium, tellurium, selenium, or alloys or allotropes thereof, or oxides or nitrides thereof. Substrates can include carbon (e.g., diamond) or semiconductors such as gallium nitride (GaN), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Substrates can include one or more chemical dopants such as nitrogen, phosphorus, boron, or indium. Substrate materials can include, for example, diamond, synthetic diamond, silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon carbide, alumina, sapphire, aluminum nitride, germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, or indium phosphide. Substrate materials can be single-crystal, polycrystalline, or amorphous.

[0052] As used herein, the term "single crystal" can refer to a material having a single crystal or translational symmetry. The term "polycrystalline" generally refers to a material having more than one crystal domain or orientation. Under low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) microscopy, polycrystalline materials can exhibit more than one crystal structure. The term "amorphous" generally refers to a material that does not have a true or apparent crystalline form. Under LEED, amorphous materials may not exhibit any long-range crystal structure.

[0053] As used herein in the context of semiconductor technology, the terms “wide bandgap” and “wide gap” (or variations thereof) generally refer to electronic and / or optoelectronic devices and fabrication techniques based on wide bandgap semiconductors. Wide bandgap semiconductors can have band gaps, for example, in the range of 2–4 electron volts (eV). Wide bandgap semiconductors can include, for example: (a) semiconductors containing bonds between nitrogen (N) and at least one Group III element of the periodic table (e.g., boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium); (b) semiconductors containing bonds between carbon (C) and at least one Group IV element of the periodic table (e.g., carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead); or (c) semiconductors containing bonds between oxygen (O) and at least one Group II element of the periodic table (e.g., beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, and cadmium).

[0054] Active layers for semiconductor devices can be epitaxially grown on substrates. In some cases, the substrate (e.g., a single-crystal substrate) can be of the same material family as the active layer of the electronic device, such as GaAs microwave devices on GaAs substrates, and AlGaN / GaN devices on gallium nitride, sapphire, silicon, and / or SiC substrates. Electronic materials for device fabrication can be realized by attaching the active layer to substrates comprising materials having crystal structures and combinations of materials different from the active layer. Examples of ways to attach semiconductors with different crystal structures to other substrates can include direct bonding and direct growth. Direct growth can include bridging different lattice structures using transition layers (e.g., GaN layers directly grown on Si or SiC substrates). Some examples can include attaching devices (e.g., AlGaN / GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs)) to diamond substrates. Some examples can include the direct growth of diamond on semiconductors (e.g., direct growth of diamond on GaN).

[0055] The substrate can have a variety of functions, including but not limited to: (i) mechanical support; (ii) conductivity that can be used to connect active layers to the bottom of the chip; (iii) electrical isolation with low dielectric loss that can be used in high-frequency devices and surface waveguides where electric fields penetrate into the substrate; and (iv) high thermal conductivity with or without associated electrical conductivity.

[0056] As used herein, the term "layered structure" generally refers to a structure created from layered materials with different properties. A layered structure may include layers of one or more materials having the same or varying semiconductor properties. Individual layers may be monocrystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous. Electronic and optoelectronic devices fabricated from layers with different semiconductor properties can be manufactured using various growth techniques. In some cases, these growth techniques allow for the controlled growth of individual layers. In some cases, these layers may be referred to as "epitaxy layers" or "epitaxial layers." The thickness of each layer can vary from sub-nanometers to tens of micrometers. Non-limiting examples of fabrication techniques include molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), vapor deposition (e.g., chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition), atomic layer deposition (ALD), metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy, and liquid phase epitaxy. Epitaxial layers may include boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, cadmium, and their alloys and allotropes. In some aspects of this disclosure, the epitaxial layer may include the wide-bandgap semiconductor material described above. The epitaxial layer may include gallium nitride (GaN), aluminum nitride (AlN), indium nitride (InN), aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN), indium gallium nitride (InGaN), indium aluminum nitride (InAlN), zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon carbide (SiC), and diamond. Any such material may be single-crystal, polycrystalline, or amorphous.

[0057] As used herein, the term "chip" generally refers to active electronic and / or optical devices mounted on a substrate. As used herein, a chip may include active devices (or one or more layers) and a substrate. Active electronic or optical devices may include layered structures. A chip may include one or more transistors. One or more transistors may include one or more high electron mobility transistors. A chip may include integrated circuits. In some examples, a chip may perform functions such as mixing, power amplification, low-noise amplification, and switching. In some examples, a chip may include a monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC).

[0058] As used herein, the term "transistor" generally refers to an electrical device that can act as a switch and / or amplifier. A transistor can be part of a digital circuit. A digital circuit can include multiple transistors. A transistor can include a layered structure as described elsewhere in this document. A transistor can be part of a computing device. A transistor can be part of a logic circuit or logic gate. A transistor can be a semiconductor device. As used herein, the term "field-effect transistor" generally refers to a transistor that uses an electric field to control the operation of a device having the transistor. An electric field can be used to control the flow of current between two contacts or terminals (such as source contacts and drain contacts) in the device.

[0059] As used herein, the term "high electron mobility transistor" (HEMT) generally refers to a field-effect transistor that includes a heterojunction. A heterojunction can refer to an interface between any two solid-state materials with different material properties. In some examples, these can include any two semiconductors, any two crystal forms of the same semiconductor (e.g., amorphous, polycrystalline), any two semiconductors containing the same elements but in different amounts, any two semiconductors with different dopant levels, and so on. The two materials can have unequal band gaps. The two materials can have band shifts. The two materials forming a heterojunction can be referred to as a "heterogeneous structure." In some examples, the interface between the buffer layer and the barrier layer of a HEMT can form a heterojunction.

[0060] As used herein, the term "interface" generally refers to a surface that forms a common boundary between two different materials, such as materials with different crystal structures, different material combinations, or different material properties. The term "interface" can also refer to the location where two different materials come into contact with each other. The term "interface" can also refer to, for example, the bonding of atoms of a first material with atoms of a second material at a location or boundary in the absence of atoms of a third material.

[0061] In some examples, the interface can be a surface that forms a common boundary between a semiconductor (e.g., a wide-bandgap semiconductor) and diamond (e.g., synthetic diamond). In some aspects, the interface can be a boundary between GaN and diamond. In some examples, the interface can be the location where diamond atoms come into contact with atoms of a wide-bandgap semiconductor material (e.g., GaN). A substrate comprising at least two different materials may include a single interface (e.g., a surface that forms a boundary between the two materials). In some examples, the substrate may not include more than one interface.

[0062] In the context of material deposition or crystal growth, the term "nucleation layer" or "nucleating layer" generally refers to a layer that facilitates the initiation of the growth or formation of another layer of material or stoichiometry. Nucleation layer materials may include, for example, silicon nitride (SiN), silicon carbide (SiC), or other amorphous or polycrystalline materials that can facilitate the nucleation of diamond (e.g., silicon or other wide-bandgap semiconductor materials) and help prevent etching or damage to the underlying semiconductor.

[0063] Wide-bandgap semiconductor materials, such as group III-V semiconductors, can be used in the design of microwave transistors for efficient and high-power applications. For example, semiconductor compounds including GaN, indium gallium nitride (InGaN), aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN), indium gallium aluminum nitride (InGaAlN), gallium oxide (Ga₂O₃), aluminum nitride (AlN), and indium aluminum nitride (InAlN) have been shown to improve performance and efficiency in the design of high-power microwave devices. Such high-power microwave devices can exhibit electron mobility, breakdown voltage, and thermal conductivity exceeding those of other semiconductor materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or silicon.

[0064] Compared to the heat sources in such devices, conventional heat dissipation systems for transistors, light-emitting devices, and other semiconductor devices (e.g., integrated microwave circuits, microwave amplifiers) are typically large. Due to the superior thermal properties of diamond, diamond heat sinks, diamond radiators, and other diamond plates can be used to dissipate heat beneath semiconductor devices for thermal management. In some cases, the diamond substrate may differ from the diamond heat sink (or radiator or plate). For example, a diamond substrate may include a substrate on which active electronic device layers are mounted to form devices (e.g., chips, radio frequency (RF) amplifier chips, microwave amplifier chips). In some cases, a diamond heat sink may be a thermal component to which devices can be attached, where the diamond heat sink facilitates the dissipation of heat generated by the device.

[0065] Some aspects of this disclosure relate to the design and manufacture of thermally efficient RF power amplifiers (e.g., RF amplifier chips including RF power amplifiers). Thermally efficient RF power amplifiers can have improved linearity for use in a variety of applications. Such applications can include wireless communications. Some applications include satellite communications. Some applications include cellular and / or non-cellular wireless communications. The RF power amplifiers of this disclosure can be used for downstream communications between satellites and ground stations and / or between satellites. Satellites can communicate over a wide range of frequencies and communication bands. In some examples, the amplifiers disclosed herein can operate in the L-band frequency range (e.g., 1-2 GHz), S-band frequency range (e.g., 2-4 GHz), C-band frequency range (e.g., 4-8 GHz), X-band frequency range (e.g., 8-12 GHz), K-band frequency range (e.g., 17-20 GHz (Ku / K band), 37-40 GHz (Ka band)), V-band frequency range (e.g., 40-75 GHz), W-band frequency range (e.g., 75-110 GHz), mm-wave frequency range, G-band frequency range (e.g., 110-300 GHz), E-band frequency range (e.g., 60-90 GHz), or any suitable frequency range.

[0066] In some aspects, this disclosure provides an RF amplifier chip. The RF amplifier chip may include components similar to... Figure 1B Various aspects of the chip 100B. In some aspects, the RF amplifier chip includes a semiconductor epitaxial layer disposed on a thermally conductive substrate and operably configured to provide (e.g., configured to output or emit) an amplified microwave signal with 3dB gain compression when a signal of first input power is amplified. The semiconductor epitaxial layer may be a wide-bandgap semiconductor epitaxial layer (e.g., GaN, AlN, InGaN, InAlN, AlGaN, InGaAlN, Ga2O3, and derivatives of AlGaN). The RF amplifier chip may be part of a transmitter, such as part of a transmitter used for satellite communications.

[0067] The thermally conductive substrate may include synthetic diamond, and an epitaxial layer (e.g., an AlGaN epitaxial layer) may be disposed on the synthetic diamond substrate and operatively configured to provide (e.g., configured to output or transmit) an amplified microwave signal with a 3dB gain compression when a signal of a first input power is amplified. The RF amplifier chip may be configured to provide an amplified microwave signal with linear output power when a signal of a second input power is amplified, and when the second input power is equal to a 6 dB reduction in the first input power, and when the third power of the third-order intermodulation product of the third power is at least 50 dB lower than the linear output power. For example, when the chip operates at the second input power, the power-added efficiency (PAE) of the amplifier chip may be at least 50%. The PAE may be determined at least in part based on measurements taken at the output of the amplifier chip. The first input power may be associated with a saturated output power at which the gain profile is reduced by 3 dB relative to the maximum output power in linear operating mode. The saturated output power may be referred to as the P3dB output level. In linear operating mode, the second input power may be associated with the maximum output power.

[0068] The systems and methods disclosed herein can provide improved thermal performance for RF amplifier chips. In some examples, the chip (e.g., an RF amplifier chip) may include or be part of a device such as a package, and the package may be mounted on a package substrate. Some aspects provide improved heat flow from the package to the package substrate. Some aspects provide improved heat flow from the active region of the transistor (e.g., the active layer of a semiconductor epitaxial layer) to the package substrate. Some aspects provide heat flow from the package substrate to radiating elements (e.g., radiative cooling elements). Such radiative cooling elements may be part of a satellite. A diamond substrate can improve heat flow (e.g., compared to a substrate that does not contain diamond), and the improved heat flow can contribute to an increase in transistor gate packing density and amplifier output power. Microwave amplifiers incorporating the GaN-on-Diamond (GaND) technology disclosed herein can have at least 20% to 30% higher PAE compared to microwave amplifiers that do not contain such GaND technology.

[0069] In some cases, heat dissipation can be more critical in small electronic devices such as RF power amplifiers, where the device's lateral dimensions may be approximately equal to or greater than the substrate thickness. For example, high electron mobility AlGaN / GaN transistors operating in the Ku band can be designed with a unit gate width of 100 μm or less to meet microwave performance requirements. In such devices, improving thermal performance by using a diamond substrate instead of a conventional substrate can be significant. For example, using a diamond substrate instead of sapphire, silicon, or SiC substrates for high-power AlGaN / GaN field-effect transistors can reduce the device's thermal resistance. Due to the reduced thermal resistance, the diamond substrate can improve energy efficiency, thereby increasing the amplifier's output RF power capability. In some examples, the linearity of the amplifiers disclosed herein at a given power can be improved compared to conventional amplifiers. In some cases, the saturated output power from the disclosed amplifiers (e.g., GaND-based amplifiers) can be at least twice that of conventional amplifiers of similar size.

[0070] Figure 1A A block diagram of an example communication system 100 according to some aspects is illustrated. The example communication system 100 may include a transmitter 116 and a receiver 130. The transmitter 116 may include a chip, such as an RF amplifier chip. This chip can be designed and manufactured according to the various aspects described herein, and the chip may, for example, include components related to... Figure 1B The described chip 100B is similar in many aspects. Transmitter 116 may include amplifiers, such as RF amplifiers.

[0071] Transmitter 116 and receiver 130 can be terrestrial or airborne equipment (e.g., units), and can be fixed (e.g., earth stations, terminals, gateways) or mobile (e.g., vehicles, airborne or mobile client equipment). Non-limiting examples of fixed equipment include, for example, ground stations (e.g., earth stations, terminals, gateways) or land stations (e.g., base stations, nodes, access points). Non-limiting examples of mobile equipment include, for example, vehicle equipment, airborne equipment, or mobile client equipment.

[0072] Transmitter 116 can be configured to transmit electromagnetic signals to receiver 130. Receiver 130 can be configured to receive electromagnetic signals from transmitter 116. Transmitter 116 can be an RF or microwave transmitter, including transmitting circuitry configured to communicatively couple to one or more antennas to transmit RF or microwave signals to receiver 130 via link 140. Receiver 130 can be an RF or microwave receiver, including receiving circuitry configured to communicatively couple to one or more antennas to receive RF or microwave signals from transmitter 116 via link 140. Transmitter 116 and receiver 130 may also include circuitry configured for both transmitting and receiving functions (e.g., transceiver functions).

[0073] The antenna may include, for example, an antenna array, such as a phased array antenna (e.g., configured for beamforming). Transmitter 116 may include multiple transmitting elements (e.g., an array of transmitting elements), and one or more transmitting elements may be communicatively coupled to antenna elements. Receiver 130 may also include multiple receiver elements, one or more of which may be communicatively coupled to antenna elements. Transmitter 116 and receiver 130 may be communicatively coupled and configured to communicate wirelessly via link 140. Link 140 may include electromagnetic transmission between transmitter 116 and receiver 130. Link 140 may be characterized by parameters including propagation loss (e.g., path loss) due to, for example, absorption of electromagnetic signals in the atmosphere or multipath fading.

[0074] In some aspects, the wireless communication system 100 may be a satellite communication system. The transmitter 116, receiver 130, or both may be a satellite, such as a CubeSat or microsatellite, or may be part of such a satellite. The receiver may be terrestrial, such as an earth station, or airborne, such as another satellite. In some examples, the transmitter 116 may include a satellite that includes an amplifier chip. The amplifier chip may include, for example, a... Figure 1BVarious aspects of chip 100B. A satellite can be configured to wirelessly communicate with a station (e.g., an earth station) or another satellite, such as another satellite including a receiver (e.g., receiver 130). In some examples, satellite communication between two or more satellites is possible. Satellite communication between a satellite and multiple stations or multiple satellites that may be configured as a network is possible. A satellite (e.g., a satellite transmitter or receiver) can be one of multiple satellites (e.g., a swarm). The swarm can be networked, and in some respects, a satellite can be configured to operate independently of the swarm.

[0075] Satellites can be part of a satellite constellation, such as a low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellation or a medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellite constellation. In some respects, satellites can be configured to transmit (e.g., receivers can be configured to receive) radio signals at any frequency from the L-band (e.g., 1-2 GHz) to millimeter-wave frequency bands including the G-band (e.g., 300 GHz). In some aspects, satellites can be configured to transmit (e.g., a receiver can be configured to receive) radio signals at any frequency within the following frequency ranges: L-band (e.g., 1-2 GHz), S-band (e.g., 2-4 GHz), C-band (e.g., 4-8 GHz), X-band (e.g., 8-12 GHz), K-band (e.g., 17-20 GHz (Ku / K band), 37-40 GHz (Ka band)), V-band (e.g., 40-75 GHz), W-band (e.g., 75-110 GHz), millimeter-wave, G-band (e.g., 110-300 GHz), E-band (e.g., 60-90 GHz), or any suitable frequency range. In some aspects, satellite communication systems can be configured for cellular backhaul communication. For example, one or more satellites can transmit wireless cellular backhaul signals to base stations (e.g., nodes, access points). In other examples, satellites can transmit wireless signals to mobile stations such as aircraft or airborne stations (e.g., for providing in-flight satellite internet).

[0076] In some examples, it may be desirable to increase the downstream data rate of a wireless communication system, reduce the physical payload weight, and reduce power dissipation (e.g., reduce heat loss). For example, in satellite applications, satellite weight, energy consumption and output, and thermal budget may be important design considerations for achieving any of these performance characteristics. Orbiting satellites, such as those in low Earth orbit (LEO) or medium Earth orbit (MEO), may take several minutes to deliver their information payload to a station (e.g., an earth station). The duration for delivering the information payload may be at least partially limited by the line-of-sight distance to the earth-based receiving station. The duration of the satellite's electromagnetic visibility and the distance between the satellite and the earth station may vary as the satellite travels through the sky (e.g., quantified by elevation angle; 0° horizontal, 90° zenith), and therefore the signal strength and noise levels captured by the receiver antenna at the earth station may vary over time. In some examples, antenna efficiency (e.g., satellite antenna efficiency) may depend on pointing accuracy. High-efficiency satellite antennas (e.g., gain exceeding 30 dBi) can point accurately at the earth station. In some cases, Earth coverage antennas that may not move relative to the satellite body may exhibit significantly lower efficiency, such as low-gain antennas (e.g., ranging from 5 dBi to 12 dBi).

[0077] Figure 1B A block diagram of an example chip is illustrated according to some aspects. In some aspects, chip 100B may include a monolithically integrated microwave or millimeter-wave circuit (MMIC). Chip 100B may be a packaged MMIC chip. Chip 100B may be part of a power amplifier. Chip 100B may include a layered structure 112, which may include one or more layers 105 disposed on a substrate 104. Chip 100B may include the layered structure 112 disposed on (e.g., mounted thereon, attached thereto) a package base 106. In some cases, substrate 104 may be attached to package base 106 using a solder layer 108. Substrate 104 may be a substrate with high thermal conductivity, such as a diamond substrate (e.g., a synthetic diamond substrate).

[0078] Layered structure 112 may include electrical connections. Electrical connections may include passive circuitry 102 and active circuitry 101 disposed on or as part of one or more layers 105. In some cases, active circuitry may include electrical contacts 102, 103, and 110. Chip 100B may include transistors. These transistors may be, for example, high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) or heterostructure field-effect transistors (HFETs). Electrical contacts may include source 102, gate 103, and drain 110 terminals. Source 102, gate 103, and drain 110 terminals may be disposed on one or more layers 105. One or more layers may include a two-dimensional electron gas layer (2DEG) or a channel 111. The 2DEG layer 111 may be embedded within one or more layers 105 (e.g., disposed on a substrate 104). The transistor can be operated by using a voltage applied between the gate 103 and the source 102 to control the current flowing along 2DEG 111 between the source 102 and the drain 110.

[0079] The region of 2DEG 111, where the gate voltage controls the current, can be located below the gate 103 terminal. One or more layers can be located close to 2DEG 111, for example, above or below 2DEG 111. In some aspects, the layer(s) located above 2DEG 111 may be referred to as barrier layer 115, and the layer(s) located below 2DEG 111 may be referred to as buffer layer 114. Barrier layer 115 and buffer layer 114 may include a heterojunction. Barrier layer 115 and buffer layer 114 may be part of an epitaxial layer. The epitaxial layer may be interchangeably referred to as one or more layers 105. Barrier layer 115 and buffer layer 114 may include a heterostructure. Barrier layer 115 and buffer layer 114 may have unequal band gaps. Barrier layer 115 and buffer layer 114 may have band offsets. The interface between one or more buffer layers (e.g., buffer layer 114) and one or more barrier layers (e.g., barrier layer 115) may include a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) layer (e.g., 2DEG layer 111). The 2DEG layer 111 may be located close to the interface between the barrier layer and the buffer layer.

[0080] In some cases, the width of the 2DEG layer 111 can be controlled by applying voltage. The width of the 2DEG layer 111 can be less than 50 nanometers, less than 10 nanometers, less than 5 nanometers, or even smaller. In some examples, the 2DEG layer 111 can be no more than 150 nanometers from the high thermal conductivity substrate. In some cases, the 2DEG layer is no more than 250 nanometers from the substrate, no more than 500 nanometers from the substrate, no more than 750 nanometers from the substrate, no more than 1 micrometer from the substrate, or no more than 100 micrometers from the substrate.

[0081] In some examples, the buffer layer may include a III-V semiconductor. In some examples, the barrier layer may include a III-III'-V ​​semiconductor. In some examples, the buffer layer includes GaN, and the barrier layer includes AlGaN. In some examples, the buffer layer includes GaAs, and the barrier layer includes AlGaAs. In some examples, the buffer layer includes GaN, and the barrier layer includes InGaN. In some examples, the buffer layer includes GaAs, and the barrier layer includes InGaAs. In some examples, the buffer layer includes a III-V semiconductor with a first dopant level, and the barrier layer includes a III-V semiconductor with a second dopant level. In some examples, the buffer layer includes a III-III'-V ​​semiconductor with a first dopant level, and the barrier layer includes a III-III'-V ​​semiconductor with a second dopant level.

[0082] In some examples, the chip (e.g., chip 100B) may include active devices comprising GaN (e.g., GaN and AlGaN) disposed on a synthetic diamond substrate (e.g., substrate 104). In some examples, the chip may include a substrate containing synthetic diamond (e.g., substrate 104). In some examples, the chip may be a GaN-based HEMT integrated on a synthetic diamond substrate (e.g., substrate 104). The chip may be an MMIC comprising one or more GaN-based HEMTs integrated on a synthetic diamond substrate (e.g., substrate 104). The substrate may include a diamond thickness of at least 1 micrometer. The substrate may include a diamond thickness of at least about 1 micrometer, at least about 10 micrometers, at least about 100 micrometers, at least about 1 millimeter, or greater. The substrate may include a diamond thickness of at least 1 millimeter. The substrate may include a diamond thickness in the range of 1 micrometer to 1 millimeter, in the range of 10 micrometers to 1 millimeter, or in the range of 100 micrometers to 500 micrometers. In some examples, the substrate may include a diamond thickness from about 20 nanometers (nm) to about 2,000 nm.

[0083] Diamond can provide high thermal conductivity. Substrates containing diamond can have higher thermal conductivity compared to substrates that do not contain diamond. Depending on manufacturing conditions, in some examples, the thermal conductivity of synthetic diamond can range from about 800 to 2200 W / mK. In some examples, the thermal conductivity of synthetic diamond can range from about 50 W / mK to about 500 W / mK. In some examples, the diamond substrate can include at least about 1000 W / mK of thermal conductivity. In other examples, the thermal conductivity of the diamond substrate can be greater than at least about 500 W / mK, 1000 W / mK, 2000 W / mK, 3000 W / mK, or greater. The thermal conductivity of the diamond substrate can range from about 500 W / mK to about 2000 W / mK. The thermal conductivity of the diamond substrate can range from about 500 W / mK to about 3000 W / mK.

[0084] In some aspects, chip 100B may include an intermediate layer between one or more layers 105 and substrate 104. Figure 1B (Not shown in the diagram), such as a nucleation layer. In some aspects, the nucleation layer may not be a separate layer (e.g., it may not be disposed on a layered structure as a separate layer); for example, the layered structure may include nucleating material that can grow within the layered structure itself. In some aspects, such as in the case where the substrate 104 is diamond, the nucleation layer may be used for the nucleation growth of diamond on one or more layers 105. Synthetic diamond may be nucleated and grown on the surface of the nucleation layer included in one or more layers 105 or on the surface of the nucleating material. The thickness of the nucleation layer sufficient for diamond nucleation may depend on the material used for nucleation. In some aspects, the nucleation layer may be formed on the surface of one or more layers by depositing amorphous SiN, SiC, or AlN. The nucleation layer may also be formed, for example, in the final step of forming one or more layers 105. In this case, instead of depositing separate nucleation layers on the surface of one or more layers 105, the growth process of one or more layers 105 can be accomplished by adding a nucleating material (e.g., SiN, SiC, or AlN) to the existing material of the layered structure (e.g., adding the nucleating material to existing GaN or a combination of GaN and AlN).

[0085] In some aspects of chip 100B, diamond (e.g., substrate 104) may be disposed or grown over or on one or more layers 105, wherein the diamond and at least one of the layers 105 form an interface. For example, at least one layer of diamond may be deposited over at least a portion of a layer or surface of one or more layers 105 at an interface (e.g., at a single interface). In some aspects, the interface may be a single interface between the diamond (e.g., of substrate 104) and one or more layers 105, the one or more layers 105 including at least a portion of the diamond in contact (e.g., direct contact) with at least a portion of the one or more layers 105. The single interface between the diamond and one or more layers 105 may be a surface forming the boundary between the diamond and one or more layers. Direct contact between the diamond and one or more layers 105 at a single interface (e.g., of substrate 104) may include the bonding of atoms of at least one of the one or more layers 105 with atoms of the diamond.

[0086] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched. In some aspects, the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched with the diamond substrate (e.g., 104). In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) may be lattice-matched with the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105).

[0087] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) can be lattically matched with the interface region between the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate. In some aspects, the diamond substrate can be lattically matched with the semiconductor substrate via the interface region (or the semiconductor substrate can be lattically matched with the diamond substrate).

[0088] In some aspects, the interface (e.g., interface region) between the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may include at least a portion of the diamond substrate. In some aspects, the interface region may include at least a portion of the semiconductor substrate.

[0089] In some examples, the interface (e.g., the interface region) between a diamond-containing substrate (e.g., substrate 104) and a semiconductor-containing substrate (e.g., one or more layers 105) can be measured, for example, by Raman spectroscopy or another method. In some aspects, such an interface can be approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM). Such RF chips, including diamond substrates and semiconductor substrates (e.g., 104 and 105 of chip 100B), can be configured to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0090] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched so that RF chips (e.g., 104 and 105, 100B) including such aspects of the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate can be configured to: (i) output effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi when the input power in linear mode is less than or equal to 2W, and (ii) transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0091] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched such that the thermal conductivity between the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate is greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK, and such that an RF chip including such aspects of the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate can be configured to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0092] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched so that RF chips (e.g., 104 and 105, 100B) including such aspects of the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate can be configured to: (i) output effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB, and (ii) transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

[0093] In some aspects, the diamond substrate (e.g., 104) and the semiconductor substrate (e.g., 105) may be lattice-matched so that RF chips (e.g., 104 and 105, 100B) including such aspects of the diamond substrate and the semiconductor substrate can be configured to: (i) output effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power ratio (NPR) of less than 20dB, and (ii) transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0094] In some respects, Figure 1BThe package base 106 shown may be part of another component or may be mounted on another component. The package base 106 may be configured to conduct heat from the chip 100B. The package base 106 may be configured to conduct heat from the chip 100B to a heat transfer element. The heat transfer element may be attached to the package base 106 at surface 113. In some aspects, surface 113 may be referred to as a substrate. The chip 100B or the package including the chip 100B may include other components and electrical connections not shown in the illustrated figures, such as solar photovoltaic arrays, batteries, antennas (e.g., antenna arrays), gyroscope pointing controllers, etc. The package including the chip 100B may be a satellite. In some aspects, the package including the chip 100B may be a CubeSat or a microsatellite.

[0095] In some examples, heat dissipation from a satellite can occur through electromagnetic radiation into space (e.g., blackbody radiation). In some cases, thermal management of a chip (e.g., chip 100B) or a package including chip 100B (such as a satellite) may include radiative cooling. In some examples, cooling at a location on or near the Earth's surface (e.g., device cooling) may include dissipating heat to the surrounding environment, at least partially, through air or liquid convection. Without being theoretically limited, heat dissipation from a blackbody into space can depend on the temperature of the radiating surface, according to Stefan Boltzmann's law: P = σT 4 ,in It is the power density emitted from the surface, σ = 56.7 nW / m 2 / K 4 , Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and T[K] is the absolute temperature.

[0096] In some examples, the device including chip 100B (e.g., a package) may include a radiating element (e.g., a radiative cooling element). In some examples, the radiative cooling element may include a surface. The radiative cooling element may include a surface of the device (e.g., a surface of the device exposed to space) and may be configured to emit electromagnetic radiation. The radiative cooling element may emit electromagnetic radiation, such as radiating heat into space. In some examples, the radiative cooling element may not include a heat sink, such as a heat sink used as a heat sink for an electronic device. The radiative cooling element may utilize a surface pointing away from the device to emit electromagnetic radiation (e.g., into space). In some cases, the radiative cooling element may include one or more louvers to change the emissivity of the surface.

[0097] In some aspects, the package may include a heat pipe cooling system. A heat pipe cooling system may include a recirculating closed-loop fluid system in which a cooling liquid is carried to a location where heat is generated (e.g., the location of an RF power amplifier), and the liquid can be evaporated by latent heat dissipation. A gaseous phase may be guided through conduits to a radiative cooling element, where the gas can be condensed into a liquid phase, thereby releasing heat. In some examples, the heat pipe cooling system and thermally conductive structure may include part of the package housing. The package housing may be configured to dissipate heat from a heat source (such as an RF power amplifier) ​​to another location where heat can be effectively dissipated (such as a radiative cooling element).

[0098] In some cases, only a small fraction of the electrical power used in operating the chip (e.g., chip 100B) can be converted into electromagnetic signals for transmission (e.g., from a satellite to Earth). In other cases, a large portion of this power can be converted into heat by the packaged electronics, such as heat generated by these devices. These electronics may include one or more components, such as a control unit, receiver, transmitter, and payload. The heat generated in this way can be dissipated via a cooling heatsink (e.g., dissipated into space). The amount of power converted into an electrical signal relative to the electrical signal converted into heat can depend on the amplifier efficiency. In some examples, such as satellite-based communications, the low thermal efficiency of the power amplifier can be a major source of heat dissipation during the communication cycle.

[0099] In some respects, the maximum temperature (T) of the active region 109 of chip 100B can be controlled. DEV The manufacturer's specification for the maximum permissible temperature can be defined as T. DEV (max). Device performance and expected lifetime may be compliant with a maximum temperature T. DEV The temperature at (max). In some cases, T DEV The value of (max) may range from 150°C to 225°C. DEV (max) can vary depending on the manufacturer and the type of material. In some cases, the systems and methods described herein can reduce resistance to heat flow from a heat source (e.g., 109) beneath the transistor through the package base 106 and surface 113 (e.g., and further to the radiative cooling element), as illustrated by heat flow line 107. Heat can then be dissipated from the device including chip 100B, for example, into space. Therefore, the systems and methods described herein can improve the thermal efficiency and performance of devices including microwave power amplifiers.

[0100] The disclosed systems and methods can also improve the linearity of microwave power amplifiers. In some aspects, for a given output power and linearity specification, a power amplifier (e.g., including chip 100B) generated according to the methods described herein can exhibit a higher maximum output power and a higher PAE compared to conventional amplifiers of similar or identical size. A higher maximum output power can result in a higher power output saturation (e.g., P3dB) level. A power amplifier with a higher P3dB level can use greater input power compensation while maintaining a maximum power flux density (PFD) value that conforms to a specified PFD limit, which is not possible with conventional power amplifiers. Aspects of the power amplifiers disclosed herein can provide large input power backoff values ​​without resulting in a substantial reduction in efficiency. The aspects described herein can provide improved power amplifier linearity by reducing the distortion effects of higher-order intermodulation products (e.g., third- or fifth-order intermodulation products) on the modulated carrier signal.

[0101] The information transmission rate from a transmitter (e.g., a satellite) to a receiver (e.g., an earth station) can depend on many factors. The link budget can include an estimate of the information transmission rate. In some cases, the link budget can estimate the bit error rate achievable when the satellite signal is detected at the earth station. The bit error rate can then depend on the ratio of the strength of the modulated signal received on Earth to the captured noise and the noise contributed by the earth station receiver. Both the noise level and the number of information bits that can be transmitted per second can increase with increasing instantaneous (e.g., analog) bandwidth B [Hz] of the modulated signal designed for the receiver. Without theoretical limitations, the maximum information transmission rate or channel capacity C [bits / second] can be given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem: Where B[Hz] is the analog modulation bandwidth, and It's the signal-to-noise ratio.

[0102] like This limit, as defined, may be the upper limit for error-free or low-error information transmission in the presence of noise. In some cases, this limit can be arbitrarily approached by encoding the information using an appropriate coding scheme. In some cases, the coding scheme may include forward error correction and a type of modulation protocol. The modulation protocol may define the bandwidth B. In narrowband communication, the modulated carrier can be a signal, so the carrier-to-noise ratio at the receiver can be given by the following formula: Where P RX [W] is the (e.g., received) carrier signal power, and N[W] is the noise power level (e.g., as seen in the decision circuitry of the receiver). In some examples, the efficiency of the amplifier (e.g., a wall-mounted plug) can be defined as... Where PTX [W] is the output or transmit power (e.g., from an amplifier) ​​of the modulated signal surrounding (one or more) carrier signals, and P DC [W] is the DC power delivered to the amplifier. In some examples, P DC DC power can be defined as the power delivered to an amplifier chip (e.g., the analog portion of the amplifier chip), which includes at least one driver stage and one output stage, and excludes a modulator, local oscillator, or digital-to-analog (D / A) converter. In other words, DC power can be the power delivered to the amplifier chip, or the power delivered to the portion of the amplifier chip that includes the driver stage and the output stage. The amplifier chip can be (e.g., a wide-bandgap) semiconductor chip. Output power P TX and P DC With the input RF signal power P IN And it changes, and the efficiency η varies with P. IN And change. PAE can be defined as... Where P TX and P DC As mentioned above, and P IN It is the power delivered to the input terminals of the amplifier chip.

[0103] In some cases, the link budget of a wireless communication system (e.g., the downstream satellite link budget) may include at least three parts: (1) the power emitted from the satellite transmitter in the direction of the Earth receiving station, referred to as the effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) [W], given as EIRP = P TX G TX G TX (1) Transmitter antenna gain; (2) Link loss, such as path loss, which may include free space propagation loss, atmospheric and rain absorption, and beam depolarization denoted by L, and may depend on the system's orbital type, altitude, and carrier frequency; (3) Power P received at a station (e.g., a ground station). RX [W]. The above part can indirectly depend on the carrier frequency (f). o The instantaneous bandwidth of the modulation (B). The expression for the received carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) can be written as: or If we express the quantity in dB.

[0104] In the example above, G RX It is the receiving antenna gain, T SYS [K] is the system noise temperature, and k is the Boltzmann constant. This can be applied (e.g., quantized) to the entire receiver system, and takes into account, for example, a system temperature T. SYSThe noise is caused by the antenna and the noise added by the electronics of the receiver system. Link loss (L) can depend at least in part on the choice of track and frequency. In some examples, it can be at least in part on the transmitter output power P. TX Transmitter antenna gain G TX The transmitter power spectral density (e.g., in the direction of the receiving station) is defined by the modulation bandwidth B. In some examples, a specified bit error rate can be achieved at least in part by selecting a specific type of modulation (e.g., on the carrier signal) for transmitting information, and the type of modulation can be expressed as a specified carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) (e.g., at the receiver).

[0105] In some examples, the satellite link budget may include the power flux density (PFD) values ​​(e.g., maximum PFD) of satellite signals arriving at the Earth's surface from one or more satellites. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has established maximum permissible values ​​for the power flux density of satellite signals, for example, in Article 21.16 of the ITU Radio Rules regarding PFD limits. The maximum permissible PFD limit can be calculated as follows: for the satellite transmit spectrum around carrier f0, in the incremental bandwidth B... FD (as specified by regulations) the maximum flux density that arrives from a satellite at an arbitrary elevation angle θ and is measured at the Earth's surface, integrated on the satellite. The PFD limit specified in Clause 21.16 must not be exceeded. For frequency f0, altitude r(θ) (e.g., selected according to the orbit), and instantaneous transmit bandwidth B, for example, it can be determined according to... Determine the maximum EIRP [W]. Maximum transmitter output power P TX =[W] can be derived from the antenna gain G TX Obtain as Such a maximum transmitter output power can define the legal operating limits of the satellite's downstream transmitter system and can be a design consideration for the satellite transmitter. Using orbital and transmitter antenna gain, the PFD limit can define the maximum legal output power of the satellite transmitter.

[0106] In some examples, the link budget can be a product of signal power terms (or, alternatively, a sum if the quantity is expressed in dB). The signal power term can start with the transmitter output power and can be successively increased by gain (e.g., antenna gain) and reduced by loss (e.g., free space loss and absorption). The result can be divided by the noise power and carrier-to-noise ratio used by a specified modulation algorithm to achieve a certain bit error rate at detection. If this product equals a single unity (e.g., equal to 1), the link may be at a threshold for specified operation. If the product is greater than a single unity, the margin can be said to be positive, and the link may operate at a better bit error rate than it would at the threshold. Conversely, if the product is less than a single unity, the link margin may be negative, and the link may operate at a lower bit error rate than it would at the threshold. In some examples, the link budget can be designed for a certain availability level (e.g., 99.99% availability) expressed as a percentage of availability. Due to fluctuations in atmospheric conditions, a certain availability probability can be assumed to calculate the satellite link budget.

[0107] In some cases, given a maximum transmit power (e.g., under the limits of the ITU Radio Code PFD), transmitter design considerations may include transmitting at maximum power while meeting a certain satellite energy budget (e.g., link budget) and maintaining amplifier linearity for all power up to the maximum transmit power. One parameter of the energy budget may be the transmitter output power (P... TX Furthermore, transmitter power-added efficiency (PAE) can be defined as... Where P IN It is the power delivered to the input of the transmitter amplifier, and P DC It is the DC power delivered to the transmitter (e.g., energy per unit time) to achieve P emitted from the transmitter. TX RF power.

[0108] In some examples, linear constraints can be used to maintain the fidelity of the signal shape under modulation when received by a receiver. The degree of amplifier nonlinearity can depend on the signal amplitude of the amplified signal. In some examples of RF amplifiers, the output transistor can be operated as a controlled current source, for example, in the linear region of the transistor's output characteristics. Such an amplifier can be referred to as a "linear" amplifier. In some examples, the circuit configuration for the amplifier can include Class A, AB, and B microwave amplifiers. The linearity or nonlinearity of an amplifier can be defined in part by one or more intermodulation products (e.g., signal distortion). In some examples, amplifier nonlinearity can be quantified by evaluating the intermodulation products(s)(s) present in the signal, and such intermodulation products can be generated by a sinusoidal signal passing through a nonlinear element (e.g., a power amplifier). Distortion of the modulated sinusoidal signal (e.g., reaching the receiver) can include distortion caused by intermodulation products (e.g., between odd harmonics of the signal and the fundamental or carrier signal). Such intermodulation products can include, for example, third-order intermodulation products (e.g., IMP3) and fifth-order intermodulation products (e.g., IMP5). These intermodulation products can appear within the instantaneous bandwidth of the intended modulation. Signal distortion can corrupt the amplitude and phase of the modulated signal, making it impossible for the receiver to detect and reconstruct information from the signal.

[0109] In some examples, when (e.g., to a power amplifier) ​​the input signal approaches At this time, the output signal from the amplifier becomes distorted. This occurs if the amplitude of the input signal is much smaller than the saturated output power P. SAT If [W], then the amplifier may operate close to linear in positive mode, and the amplifier's power gain... This can be constant (e.g., P1 could be the useful signal output power from the transmitter). The quality factor for a modulation scheme can be the ratio of information transmission in bits per second to instantaneous (e.g., analog) bandwidth in Hertz, and is referred to as spectral efficiency. For example, 16QAM modulation exhibits 4 bits per second / Hertz, while the digital television standard DVB-T2 has a spectral efficiency greater than 5 bits per second / Hertz. Many modulation schemes with high spectral efficiency employ both amplitude and phase modulation, and therefore can depend on amplifier linearity to accurately place the symbols in the constellation diagram. In some examples, making a transmitter compliant for a particular purpose can include: meeting one or more criteria that adjust the amount of permissible intermodulation products of the amplifier (e.g., within such a transmitter). An amplifier driven close to or entering saturation (e.g., transmit power close to P1). SATThe amplifier may have unacceptable levels of signal distortion, resulting in excessive power output in the intermodulation products. In some cases, bringing the amplifier to linear compliance according to the aforementioned criteria may include employing a combination of input power back-off and digital predistortion (DPD) algorithms to achieve sufficient amplifier linearity. The back-off procedure may include reducing the amplifier input power P... IN from The point at which any intermodulation products are reduced to an acceptable level (e.g., the bit error rate is reduced to a chosen level). The amount of input power reduction can be referred to as back-off (BO), often expressed in dB. In some examples, the BO value can range from 3 to 10 dB, depending on the amplifier's linearity and quality.

[0110] Linear amplifiers can exhibit some low levels of nonlinearity across the entire dynamic range (e.g., dynamic operating range); however, residual nonlinearity is typically below acceptable operating levels and can be managed using a digital phase-distribution amplifier (DPD). In some examples, the modulation scheme can be characterized by at least four parameters, including symbol rate, bit / symbol efficiency, instantaneous bandwidth, and peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR). The type of modulation used directly determines the bit / symbol efficiency and PAPR. In some examples, amplitude modulation schemes using several bits / symbols can achieve a PAPR of 10 dB. In such schemes, the average power in the modulated carrier can be ten times lower than the power in the unmodulated carrier. Amplitude modulation can result in a significant reduction in average output power relative to continuous wave (CW) signals. In some examples, amplitude modulation schemes can result in output power that is much lower than the peak output power (e.g., the average value can be less than the peak P). TX In cases where the peak-to-average power ratio (P-A ratio) is greater than a single value, the amplifier efficiency can be further reduced.

[0111] Figure 2 Examples of amplifier linearity characteristics are shown based on several aspects. In some aspects, Figure 2 Examples illustrate the difference in amplifier linearity between a conventional amplifier and an amplifier with improved thermal efficiency. In some aspects, according to the aspects disclosed herein, the amplifier with improved thermal efficiency includes GaN on diamond (GaND). For example, the amplifier with improved thermal efficiency may include a GaND chip. In some aspects, the GaN chip may include something similar to... Figure 1B The 100B chip encompasses various aspects. In some aspects, GaN chips may include MMICs.

[0112] Figure 2 The curves 200 and 220 qualitatively illustrate the various components of the output RF power on the vertical axis, which is the input RF power P on the horizontal axis. INThe function of [W]. Figure 2 The 200 examples of graphs illustrate the fundamental, third-order intermodulation, and output power of a conventional amplifier (e.g., a GaN-on-SiC amplifier). The 200 examples of graphs also illustrate the output power as input power P. IN The output power 201P1[W] in the fundamental frequency of the function is given by the function. In some cases, P1 can be the power within the modulation bandwidth near the carrier frequency f0 of the signal. Graph 200 illustrates the input power P. IN The power generated by the third-order intermodulation IMP3[W]202 is a function of the power (e.g., the comparison is qualitative or relative). Graph 200 illustrates the gain experienced by the signal to be amplified. Third-order intermodulation 202 is interference within signal 201 and constitutes signal distortion to be reduced in order to allow for improved detection of the modulated signal P. IN The information it carries. In low P IN The flattening in the IMP3 curve 202 in the model can qualitatively represent the residual distortion in the amplifier. The intersection point 207 between the linear extrapolation of P1 shown by dashed line 208 and the linear extrapolation of IMP3 shown by dashed line 209 is called the third-order intercept (TOI) [W], and can be a quality factor used to characterize the nonlinearity of the amplifier.

[0113] Referring to curve 200, for low input power, output power curve 201 can be nearly linear; therefore, the gain G shown in curve 203 is relatively constant in linear mode. In some cases, the gain may tend to increase with a slower input power P than implied by curve 203. IN The gain decreases, and this decrease can depend on the amplifier's materials and design. As the input power P... IN An increase in gain can lead to the point where the amplifier begins to saturate and the gain decreases, as shown by the flattening of the output power curve 201 and the decrease in the gain curve 203. The output power at which the gain curve decreases by 3dB relative to its value at low power is called the P3dB output level 210. The output power P1 is equal to the input power P at P3dB. IN The input power is referred to as P3dB, and is shown as vertical line 205.

[0114] In some cases, the PxdB power definition can be used to refer to the output power when the amplifier gain is reduced by x dB. As noted above, if the amplifier is used in saturation (e.g., when the input signal reaches P1 dB of input power), the corresponding output signal (P1+1MP3+...) from the amplifier will be distorted. This distortion can be quantified by the ratio P1 / IMP3, expressed in dBc, where P1 is the power in the carrier signal 201 and IMP3 is the power in the third-order intermodulation signal 202. As shown in graph 200, this ratio (e.g., at any P...) represents the power of the amplifier. IN At this point, the vertical spacing between curves 201 and 202 may be very small. Operation at P1dB may be insufficient for reliable communication, and linearization of an amplifier with this level of distortion may be impractical. The P1 / IMP3 ratio increases with input power P IN It decreases as P increases, because P1 decreases with P. IN It increases approximately linearly (e.g., most of curve 201 may have a first slope, as illustrated by line 208 in graph 200), while IMP3 increases with P. IN The third power increases (for example, most of curve 202 may have a second slope, as illustrated by line 209 in curve graph 200).

[0115] In some examples, the input power P can be less than or equal to the ratio P1 / IMP3 when the target value for a specific modulation is achieved. IN The target ratio is set to a level that achieves sufficient linearity. The target ratio can vary depending on the end application. For example, for many wireless standards, the target ratio can be greater than 50 dB. For illustrative purposes, in... Figure 2 In this context, the target P1 / IMP3 ratio can be 25 dBc. IN The decrease from PxdB to the linearity condition can be called backoff, and the maximum output power that satisfies the linearity condition can be called... Graph 200 qualitatively illustrates this, where the input power P IN The input power level drops by approximately 4 dB from point P3dB 210 (e.g., the input power level shown by vertical line 205) to the lower level shown by vertical dashed line 206, and the output power... Marked at point 204. Output power. It can be less than or equal to P FD limit. Figure 2 The target linearity (e.g., P1 / IMP3 = 25 dB) and efficiency (e.g., PAE ≈ 18%) of the conventional amplifier shown in the left curve can be achieved with a 4 dB backoff (e.g., the horizontal interval between online 205 and 206 measured in dB).

[0116] Figure 2 The curve 220 qualitatively illustrates the fundamental, third-order intermodulation, and gain output power of the amplifier of this disclosure. The amplifier may be a GaN amplifier comprising a high thermal conductivity substrate (e.g., it may include chip 100B). For example, the amplifier may include a GaND substrate. The curve 220 shows the input power P. IN The output power 221P1[W] in the fundamental harmonic is a function of the function. In some cases, P1 can be the power within the modulation bandwidth around the carrier frequency f0. Figure 220 illustrates the input power P. IN The power generated by the third-order intermodulation IMP3[W]222 is a function of the signal (e.g., the comparison is qualitative or relative). Graph 220 illustrates the gain G = P1 / P experienced by the signal to be amplified. IN 223. Third-order intermodulation 222 is interference within signal 221 and can indicate the amount of signal distortion to be reduced, for example, to allow improved detection of information carried by modulated signal P1.

[0117] At low P IN The flattening of the IMP3 curve 222 in the mode can qualitatively represent the residual distortion in the amplifier. The intersection 227 between the linear extrapolation of P1 shown by dashed line 228 and the linear extrapolation of IMP3 shown by dashed line 229 is called the third-order intercept (TOI) [W] and can be a quality factor used to characterize the nonlinearity of the amplifier. Referring to curve 220, for low input power, the output power curve 221 can be close to linear; therefore, the gain G shown by curve 223 can be relatively constant in this linear mode. In some cases, the gain may tend to be lower than that implied by curve 223 at a slower input power P. IN The gain decreases, and this decrease can depend on the amplifier's materials and design. As the input power P... IN An increase in gain can lead to the point where the amplifier begins to saturate and the gain decreases, as shown by the flattening of curve 221 and the decrease in gain curve 223. The output power at which the gain curve decreases by 3dB relative to its value at low power is called the P3dB output level 230. The output power P1 is equal to the input power P at P3dB. IN The input power is referred to as P3dB, and is shown as vertical line 225.

[0118] In some respects, the amplifier chip can have operating characteristics as shown in graph 220 and can be constructed to have the same size as a conventional amplifier chip with operating characteristics as shown in graph 200. Compared to the characteristics shown in graph 200, the amplifier in graph 220 can provide more output power (e.g., as indicated by point 230 of P3dB), which is approximately 3dB greater than the P3dB value shown at 210 on graph 200. The example amplifier can have a higher power output compared to a conventional amplifier of the same (or similar) size. In some respects, to reduce the output power P1 to meet the value set by the PFD specification, the input power P can be backed up. IN Until the output power P1 equals the power specified by (e.g., PFD specification) P FD The limit is fixed The output power, for example as shown at point 224 in graph 220, can be similar to point 204 in graph 200. In some respects, the example amplifier in graph 220 can have a larger P3dB than the P3dB shown in graph 200, while also having a larger BO to achieve... Therefore, in some respects, the ratio P1 / IMP3 (e.g., 231) of the example amplifier in graph 220 can be greater than such a ratio (e.g., 211) of the conventional amplifier in graph 200. The amount of backoff can be shown by the interval between the vertical lines 225 and 226 in graph 220. In some respects, the P1 / IMP3 ratio of the example amplifier in graph 220 can be 30 dB, which is greater than the P1 / IMP3 value obtained with the conventional amplifier in graph 200. A higher P1 / IMP3 ratio (e.g., for the example amplifier in graph 220) can indicate that the example amplifier has higher linearity compared to the conventional amplifier.

[0119] In conventional amplifiers, back-off input power may have at least two drawbacks: (i) a larger amplifier may be required to achieve a specific transmit power, such as a saturation level at least equal to P. TX • The power-added efficiency (PAE) of the amplifier with BO, and (ii) the linear amplifier, may decrease with increasing back-off (e.g., an increase in BO reduces PAE). Aspects of this disclosure can at least mitigate the aforementioned drawbacks. First, aspects of the disclosed amplifier (e.g., including chip 100B) can provide greater output power compared to conventional amplifiers of the same (or similar) size. Thus, aspects of the disclosed amplifier can provide the desired transmit power P. TX This does not necessarily require increasing the size of the amplifier. In contrast, conventional amplifiers would typically require increasing in size to achieve the same (or similar) desired transmit power P. TX Some aspects of this disclosure allow for the use of smaller amplifiers to meet the desired P.TX In some respects, the disclosed amplifier can have greater input power back-off without experiencing a significant reduction in PAE compared to conventional amplifiers, thus allowing for greater efficiency and improved linearity.

[0120] Figure 3 Examples of power-added efficiency (PAE) characteristics of example amplifiers are shown according to some aspects. In some aspects, Figure 3 Examples illustrate the differences in PAE between conventional amplifiers and amplifiers with improved thermal efficiency. Some aspects of amplifiers with improved thermal efficiency include amplifiers comprising chips such as MMICs (Micro-Made Microcontrollers) that incorporate wide-bandgap semiconductor materials (e.g., GaND chips). In some aspects, such chips can be used with… Figure 1B The chip is similar to (or identical to) the 100B chip.

[0121] Figure 3 Graphs 300 and 320 qualitatively illustrate PAE [%] on the vertical axis, which is a function of input RF power [W] on the horizontal axis. In some aspects, graph 300 corresponds to the efficiency of a conventional amplifier, such as an amplifier comprising GaN on one or more SiC substrates. In some aspects, graph 320 corresponds to the efficiency of the disclosed example amplifier (e.g., comprising chip 100B) with improved thermal management. Figure 3 As shown in graph 300, an amplifier exhibiting a high PAE (e.g., approximately P3dB) at peak power can achieve a lower average power at backoff. The operation exhibits a significantly lower PAE than at peak power (e.g., P3dB). This phenomenon can be qualitatively illustrated, for example, in graph 300, which illustrates the effect of input power P... IN The PAE of the function is 301. The efficiency at P3dB 302 (e.g., the intersection of line 205 and efficiency curve 301) is approximately 30%, but when the amplifier goes back 4dB, the efficiency drops to approximately 18% (e.g., the intersection of line 206 and efficiency curve 301), indicated by point 303.

[0122] Graph 320 qualitatively illustrates the effect of input power on PAE of an amplifier with improved thermal efficiency. In some aspects, such an amplifier may include a chip (e.g., chip 100B), such as an MMIC chip, which includes a high thermal conductivity substrate (e.g., diamond), and this chip may have a lower thermal resistance than a chip of the same size including a substrate with lower thermal conductivity (e.g., SiC). Figure 3As shown in graph 320, compared to conventional technologies with chips of the same size, the amplifier of the chip disclosed herein can have improved output power levels (e.g., 3dB or higher P3dB improvement) and improved PAE values ​​(e.g., PAE improvement of 20% to 30%).

[0123] The aspects of the disclosed amplifier provide the ability to operate such an amplifier using a lower operating backoff value. Referring to line 301 in graph 320, conventional (e.g., amplified) amplifiers operate with reduced efficiency to achieve a similar improvement in linearity. For example, as illustrated by PAE curve 326, for a given power and chip size, the aspects of the disclosed amplifier can provide 20% to 30% higher PAE. Graph 320 qualitatively illustrates that the PAE 326 for the amplifier of this disclosure can be greater than the PAE 301 of a conventional amplifier, such that the disclosed amplifier exhibits a PAE exceeding 40% at P3dB (point 322 in graph 320), as illustrated by arrow 328.

[0124] As shown in graph 320, backing down the amplifier's input power (e.g., backing down the power by approximately 7 dB, as illustrated by the interval between lines 325 and 327) can bring the PAE in the amplifier back to a value likely similar to that of a lower thermal conductivity amplifier (e.g., PAE of approximately 18%), while having an improved P1 / IMP3 ratio (e.g., 30 dB as shown at point 323). The input power delivering P3 dB of output power can be illustrated by vertical line 325, while the vertical dashed line 327 can illustrate the result of the selected... (For example, maintaining the backoff power equal to the value illustrated in graph 300). In some respects, despite having a larger input power backoff, the amplifier still exhibits improved linearity compared to a conventional amplifier operating at the same PAE. This difference can be illustrated, for example, by arrow 329.

[0125] For purposes of explanation in this disclosure, the values ​​of output power, P3dB level, and IMP3 level and ratio are used as examples. Actual values ​​may differ from those used herein, and aspects of the example amplifiers described herein may vary depending on the application. As illustrated in the examples, while back-off can improve linearity, it also reduces energy efficiency. In some respects, the disclosed amplifiers (e.g., including chip 100B) can provide a smaller efficiency reduction compared to conventional amplifiers with a similar (or identical) amount of power back-off. The efficiency of a linear amplifier (e.g., Class A, AB, B) can depend on the amplitude of the output signal.

[0126] In some examples, a linear amplifier can use a power supply to provide a constant voltage to the amplifier. (For example, the output power of a linear amplifier can vary with the input power P.) IN And it changes slowly. In some cases, DC power consumption can be independent of, or at least nearly independent of, the input signal. Therefore, efficiency is approximately proportional to the amplitude of the output signal (e.g., the square root of the output RF power). Target linear output power The PFD limit can be set by the target. In some cases, conventional amplifiers can have a sufficiently high P3dB so that back-off results in better linearity, but at the cost of a significant reduction in PAE. Conversely, conventional amplifiers can have a sufficiently low P3dB so that back-off results in higher PAE, but at the cost of reduced linearity. Aspects of this disclosure provide effective linearity while maintaining high PAE.

[0127] Table 1 below illustrates certain characteristics of an example microwave amplifier according to the disclosed aspects, compared to certain characteristics of conventional microwave amplifiers. In some aspects, the example microwave amplifier includes a GaN-on-SiC chip (e.g., chip 100B), while conventional amplifiers include a GaN-on-SiC chip. Conventional amplifiers can be commercially available amplifiers used in the K-band frequency range (e.g., Ku-band, 17-20 GHz) and capable of providing, for example, at least 10 W of output power. Table 1 illustrates how the disclosed aspects of the example amplifier can provide improved thermal management, higher efficiency, and greater output power.

[0128]

[0129]

[0130] Table 1

[0131] Wireless communication systems (e.g., including wireless communication links) can be characterized by a link budget, which can be characterized by calculating the signal-to-noise ratio achievable at the receiver (e.g., station, ground station, earth station) given possible system parameters and environmental impairments. The link budget can include many device parameters, but for practical considerations, it is possible to use simplified methods where signal propagation can be accounted for using one or more parameters contributing to each phenomenon or component. In some examples, the link budget can include at least two parameters of the wireless communication channel from the transmitting device to the receiving device. Link parameters can include power loss and noise accumulation along the channel. In some examples, the link budget can assume that the electromagnetic signal arriving at the antenna of the receiving device can include a noise-free signal carrying information and noise.

[0132] A wireless communication system link can be characterized at least in part by a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In some examples, the wireless communication system link can be linear, and in such examples, the SNR can include signal power divided by noise power. The link budget can include signal power, noise power, or both. In some examples, the link budget can include gain and attenuation values ​​of the devices (including the wireless link). The link budget can be expressed, for example, as the received signal power equal to the sum of transmitter power, transmitter antenna gain, receiver antenna gain, path loss, transmit loss, and other factors. In some aspects, a transmitting device communicatively coupled to one or more antennas can include transmit power P... TX A signal (e.g., a modulated carrier wave) is transmitted to one or more antennas. Antennas, such as those in an antenna array (e.g., transmitting antennas) or antenna elements, can be configured to radiate a focused beam of electromagnetic energy in a specific direction. An antenna with 100% efficiency can radiate received power in one direction, such as... Figure 4 The sample radiation pattern is shown in the image.

[0133] Figure 4 The following is an example of a radiation pattern 400 of an example antenna according to some aspects. In some aspects, Figure 4 A pattern of radiation intensity as a function of the angle of a directional antenna (e.g., 410) is shown. Figure 4 A pattern of radiation intensity of an equivalent power isotropic radiator (e.g., 430) is also illustrated. Figure 4 Antenna gain, for example, 420, is also illustrated. Line 410 illustrates intensity and direction (in dB), which can be proportional to the distance from the origin to the line. Line 430 illustrates the intensity of an isotropic radiator. In some respects, the total power emitted, as illustrated by line 430, can be equivalent to the power illustrated by line 410. Antenna gain (G) can be illustrated by the length of line 420 (expressed in dB), and the ratio of main lobe intensity to isotropic intensity can be equivalent to the length of line 420. Figure 4 It can be illustrated that the maximum radiation (e.g., the highest emission) can occur in the zero-angle direction; however, radiation can also occur on either side. In one example, the power density can be estimated by assuming a uniform radiation pattern (e.g., the opposite of a single-lobed radiation pattern).

[0134] Assuming a uniform distribution (e.g., the intensity is approximately equal in all directions), the power density P' at a distance r [W / m] 2 ] can be equal to Where EIRP is the effective isotropic radiated power [W], given as EIRP = P TX ·G TX G TXThis is the transmitter antenna gain. Antenna gain can be expressed as the ratio of the intensity at zero angle (e.g., as shown at the tip of line 420) to the intensity of an isotropic radiator emitting equal total power (e.g., as shown in line 430).

[0135] The transmitter can emit electromagnetic signals that propagate in a specific direction. At any distance r, it can transmit... The power density is obtained by measuring it in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic waves propagating to Earth can travel a distance (e.g., over 500 km) and eventually reach the atmosphere, where some power may be absorbed by the atmosphere and / or rainwater. Additionally, the polarization of the wave can be randomly redirected. In some cases, an antenna can typically emit a wave with one polarization and receive a wave with another. In this case, if the polarization rotates during propagation, the matching with the receiver may be less effective and may manifest as loss. Gamma (gamma) can be used to indicate the power component of the electromagnetic signal that can reach the receiver (e.g., the unattenuated portion of the signal). At the Earth's surface, the power density can be...

[0136] In some respects, the receiver antenna (e.g., an antenna communicatively coupled to the receiving device) can have an effective aperture region (A). R ). Received power P R It can be equal to the product of the effective receiver antenna aperture and the power density of the electromagnetic signal incident on the antenna (e.g., the aperture), for example, according to P. R =A R ·P′[W]. It can be achieved through P R =λ 2 G RX / 4π·γ·EIRP / 4πr 2 [W] represents the power received at the receiver (e.g., at the receiver antenna), where A R =λ 2 G RX / 4π. Alternatively, the received power can be determined by P. R =G RX ·G TX ·P TX (λ / 4πr) 2 ·γ[W] is given. The term (λ / 4πr) 2 It can be referred to as free space loss, and the γ term can be decomposed into at least absorption, polarization loss and rainwater absorption.

[0137] In some examples, the noise power estimate may be an estimate of how much noise an antenna (e.g., a receiver antenna) will capture. In some cases, the noise estimate may include thermal noise with a power spectral density PSD = kT, [W / Hz], where T is the temperature of the light source and k is the Boltzmann constant. In some cases, the noise power may be expressed as noise temperature. PSD and noise temperature may be linearly proportional to each other. Noise temperature may include the space temperature associated with background radiation in space. The space temperature may depend on the receiving frequency. In some cases, the space temperature of the antenna may be at least 2.7 K. In some cases, the space temperature may be approximately 100 K. Noise temperature may include contributions from a combination of radiation reflected from stars and the atmosphere. Noise temperature may also include contributions from noise from the amplifier and waveguide losses in the receiving system. In some examples, the system temperature T SYS It can depend on any one or more of the noise power, noise temperature, or ambient temperature, which is approximately 290K. In some examples, the SNR can also depend on the receiver bandwidth B [Hz]. Receiver bandwidth (e.g., and transmitter bandwidth) can be a factor in determining the rate at which data can be transmitted. SNR can be comprised of the received signal power divided by the total noise received by the system:

[0138] Noise power can be calculated using kTB, where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the Kelvin temperature, and B is the bandwidth. The roll-off factor describes the steepness of the bandwidth function with respect to frequency. When a digital signal is modulated for transmission (e.g., by a transmitting device), the modulated signal can be a sinusoidal waveform with an effective infinite bandwidth. A raised cosine roll-off filter can be applied to reduce the occupied bandwidth of the signal. Roll-off can be a measure of spectral efficiency, such as how much data can be fitted into a specific bandwidth. An example of satellite signal bandwidth can be at least about 1200 MHz. Applying a filter with a roll-off of 0.1 can reduce this bandwidth to 1091 Msym / s. The roll-off factor can be 0.35. In some examples, the roll-off factor can be in the range of 0.2 to 0.4. In some examples, the roll-off factor can be greater than 0.1. In some examples, the modulation scheme can be 128 APSK, which uses 7 bits per symbol. In some cases, the symbol rate can be the transmit bit rate divided by 7.

[0139] In some examples, the noise power can increase with the instantaneous (e.g., analog) bandwidth B [Hz], and the number of bits of information that can be transmitted per second can increase with B. The modulation code can be given by the spectral efficiency η in bits / second / Hz. s To characterize it. Using this feature, if the system is built with an analog bandwidth B [Hz], and uses η s For a given modulation scheme, the estimated bit rate ηs • B [bits / second] may be greater than 4 Gbps. The maximum information transmission rate is often referred to as the channel capacity C [bits / second], which can be given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem and expressed as C = B log2(1 + S / N), where S / N is the ratio of signal power to noise power. In the presence of noise as defined by the S / N ratio, the channel capacity C can include an upper limit for error-free or near-error-free information transmission.

[0140] Example

[0141] An example of a satellite communication system includes at least a satellite and a receiver. The satellite's altitude is 500 km. In other examples, the altitude can be between 400 and 600 km. The signal transmission frequency is in the Ka band and is 18.3 GHz. In other examples, the signal transmission frequency can be between 18.3 and 20.2 GHz. The satellite transmitter has an RF power of 10 W. In other examples, the transmitter can have a power of 20 or 50 W. The transmitter's noise-to-power ratio is 30 dB. In other examples, the noise-to-power ratio can be between 15 dB and 30 dB. Cross-polarization isolation (XPI) is 22 dB. The antenna diameter is 0.5 m, but other examples can use smaller antennas (e.g., antennas with a diameter of 0.45 to 1.2 meters) or larger antennas (e.g., antennas with a diameter of 2 to 5 meters). The antenna efficiency is 0.45. (E.g., using efficiency, antenna diameter, and wavelength of the transmitted signal) the calculated antenna gain is 36.16 dBi. The pointing error is 1.0 degree. For these values, the transmitter transmits at an EIRP of 43.88 dBW.

[0142] Multiple factors contribute to signal attenuation or propagation loss. The elevation angle is 20 degrees. In other examples, the elevation angle can be a value ranging from 15 to 25 degrees. The path length is 1193 km. The free-space path loss calculated based on the path length and signal wavelength is 179.22 dB. Atmospheric gas loss is 1.5 dB, and may range from 0 to 10 dB. The expected loss due to rain attenuation is 20 dB. The total propagation loss is the sum of the free-space path loss and environmental losses (e.g., atmospheric gas loss and rain attenuation), and equals 200.72 dB. The gain at the receiver contributes to the signal strength and depends on the geometry of the receiver antenna. The diameter of the receiver antenna is 13.2 meters. In other examples, the antenna diameter can range from 10 to 20 meters. In this example, the antenna efficiency is 0.6. The gain calculated using efficiency, signal wavelength, and antenna diameter is 65.84 dBi.

[0143] The receiver also contributes to signal loss. Pointing loss at the receiver is 0.2 dB. XPI loss is 25 dB. The antenna temperature is 75 K. The receiver low-noise amplifier (LNA) noise figure is 2 dB. The effective noise temperature of the LNA, calculated using the noise figure, is 169.62 K. The feeder operating temperature is 300 K. Feeder and input filter losses are 1 dB. The effective system noise temperature, calculated using the effective noise temperature, feeder operating temperature, feeder loss, and antenna temperature, is 290.90 K. Including these factors, the receiver gain is 40.01 dB / K across the entire temperature range. The satellite is allocated a bandwidth of 1200 MHz. The transmitter roll-off factor is 0.1. The roll-off factor can be between 0 and 0.4. The symbol rate, calculated based on the allocated bandwidth and roll-off factor, is 1090.91 Msym / s. A 128 APSK modulation scheme is used, with a symbol rate corresponding to 7 bits per symbol. The code rate is 0.8. The overhead is 0.1. The sum of the transmitter and receiver gain and loss is -102.2 dB. The carrier signal equals the sum added to the 10 dBW transmitter power, totaling -92.2 dBW. The noise signal is calculated from the noise temperature and symbol rate and is equal to -113.58 dBW. The calculated CNR is 21.39 dB. When losses due to XPI and noise power ratio are added, the CNR becomes 17.51 ​​dB. The Shannon capacity calculated using bandwidth and CNR is 7.01 Gbps. Considering coding and overhead, this decreases to 5.05 Gbps. The dB factor far from Shannon is 3 dB. The data rate is 5.84 Gbps and is calculated by subtracting the dB factor in linear space from the bandwidth and C / N factor (e.g., CNR). Considering coding and overhead, the data rate is 4.21 Gbps.

[0144] Another example of a satellite communication system includes at least a satellite and a receiver. The satellite's altitude is 500 km. In other examples, the altitude can be between 400 and 600 km. The signal transmission frequency is 42 GHz. The satellite transmitter has an RF power of 5 W. In other examples, the transmitter has a power of 10 W, 20 W, or 50 W. The transmitter's noise-to-power ratio is 15 dB. In other examples, the noise-to-power ratio can be between 15 dB and 30 dB. Cross-polarization isolation (XPI) is 22 dB. The antenna diameter is 0.5 m, but other examples may use small antennas (e.g., 0.45 to 1.2 meters in diameter) or large antennas (e.g., 2 to 5 meters in diameter). The antenna efficiency is 0.45. (E.g., using efficiency, antenna diameter, and wavelength of the transmitted signal) the calculated antenna gain is 43.4 dBi. The pointing error is 1.0 degree. For these values, the transmitter transmits at an EIRP of 47.37 dBW.

[0145] Signal attenuation or propagation loss is related to several factors. The elevation angle is 20 degrees. In other examples, the elevation angle can be a value ranging from 15 to 25 degrees. The path length is 1193 km. The free-space path loss calculated based on the path length and signal wavelength is 86.44 dB. Atmospheric gas loss is 1.5 dB, and may range from 0 to 10 dB. The expected loss due to rain attenuation is 20 dB. The total propagation loss is the sum of the free-space path loss and environmental losses (e.g., atmospheric gas loss and rain attenuation), and equals 212.94 dB. The gain at the receiver contributes to the signal strength and depends on the geometry of the receiver antenna. The diameter of the receiver antenna is 12 meters. In other examples, the antenna diameter can range from 10 to 20 meters. In this example, the antenna efficiency is 0.6. The gain calculated using efficiency, signal wavelength, and antenna diameter is 72.23 dBi.

[0146] The receiver also contributes to signal loss. Pointing loss at the receiver is 0.2 dB. XPI loss is 25 dB. The antenna temperature is 75 K. The receiver low-noise amplifier (LNA) noise figure is 2 dB. The effective noise temperature of the LNA, calculated using the noise figure, is 169.62 K. The feeder operating temperature is 300 K. Feeder and input filter losses are 1 dB. The effective system noise temperature, calculated using the effective noise temperature, feeder operating temperature, feeder loss, and antenna temperature, is 290.90 K. Including these factors, the receiver gain is 46.39 dB / K across the entire temperature range.

[0147] The satellite is allocated a bandwidth of 2000MHz. The transmitter roll-off factor is 0.1. The roll-off factor can be between 0 and 0.4. The symbol rate calculated based on the allocated bandwidth and roll-off factor is 1818.18 Msym / s. For a modulation scheme using 128APSK, this symbol rate corresponds to 7 bits per symbol. The code rate is 0.8. The overhead is 0.1. The sum of the transmitter and receiver gain and loss is -101.53dB. The carrier signal equals the sum added to the 10dBW transmitter power, totaling -94.54dBW. The noise signal is calculated from the noise temperature and symbol rate and is equal to -111.37dBW. The calculated CNR is 16.82dB. When losses due to XPI and noise power ratio are added, the CNR becomes 16.82dB. The Shannon capacity calculated using bandwidth and CNR is 8.2Gbps. Taking encoding and overhead into account, this reduces to 5.91 Gbps. The dB factor far from Shannon is 3 dB. The data rate is 6.37 Gbps, calculated by subtracting the dB factor in linear space from the bandwidth and C / N factor (e.g., CNR). Taking encoding and overhead into account, the data rate is 4.59 GBps.

[0148] Another example of a satellite communication system includes at least a satellite and a receiver. The satellite's altitude is 6000 km. In other examples, the altitude can be between 5000 and 7000 km. The signal transmission frequency is 42 GHz. The satellite transmitter has an RF power of 5 W or 6.99 dBW. In other examples, the transmitter can have a power of 10 W, 20 W, or 50 W. The transmitter's noise-to-power ratio is 30 dB. In other examples, the noise-to-power ratio can be between 15 dB and 30 dB. Cross-polarization isolation (XPI) is 22 dB. The antenna diameter is 0.5 m, but other examples can use small antennas (e.g., 0.45 to 1.2 meters in diameter) or large antennas (e.g., 2 to 5 meters in diameter). The antenna efficiency is 0.45. (E.g., using efficiency, antenna diameter, and wavelength of the transmitted signal) the calculated antenna gain is 43.4 dBi. The pointing error is 1.0 degree. For these values, the transmitter transmits at an EIRP of 47.37 dBW.

[0149] Multiple factors contribute to signal attenuation or propagation loss. The elevation angle is 20 degrees. In other examples, the elevation angle can be a value ranging from 15 to 25 degrees. The path length is 1193 km. The free-space path loss calculated based on the path length and signal wavelength is 86.44 dB. Atmospheric gas loss is 1.5 dB, and may range from 0 to 10 dB. Assuming heavy rain, the expected loss due to rain attenuation is 25 dB. The total propagation loss is the sum of free-space path loss and environmental losses (e.g., atmospheric gas loss and rain attenuation), and equals 230.15 dB. The gain at the receiver contributes to the signal strength and depends on the geometry of the receiver antenna. The diameter of the receiver antenna is 12 meters. In other examples, the antenna diameter can range from 10 to 20 meters. In this example, the antenna efficiency is 0.6. The gain calculated using efficiency, signal wavelength, and antenna diameter is 72.23 dBi.

[0150] The receiver can also cause signal loss. The receiver's pointing loss is 0.2 dB. The XPI loss is 25 dB. The antenna temperature is 75 K. The receiver's low-noise amplifier (LNA) noise figure is 2 dB. The effective noise temperature of the LNA, calculated using the noise figure, is 169.62 K. The feeder operating temperature is 300 K. The combined losses of the feeder and input filter are 1 dB. The effective system noise temperature, calculated using the effective noise temperature, feeder operating temperature, feeder loss, and antenna temperature, is 290.90 K. Including these factors, the receiver gain is 46.39 dB / K across the entire temperature range.

[0151] The satellite is allocated a bandwidth of 250 MHz. The transmitter roll-off factor is 0.1. The roll-off factor can be between 0 and 0.4. The symbol rate calculated based on the allocated bandwidth and roll-off factor is 227.27 Msym / s. For a modulation scheme using 128 APSK, this symbol rate corresponds to 7 bits per symbol. The code rate is 0.8. The overhead is 0.1. The sum of the transmitter and receiver gain and loss is -118.74 dB. The carrier signal equals the sum added to the 10 dBW transmitter power, totaling -111.75 dBW. The noise signal is calculated from the noise temperature and symbol rate and is equal to -120.40 dBW. The calculated CNR is 8.65 dB. When losses due to XPI and noise power ratio are added, the CNR becomes 8.33 dB. The Shannon capacity calculated using bandwidth and CNR is 0.74 Gbps. Taking encoding and overhead into account, this reduces to 0.53 Gbps. The dB factor far from Shannon is 3 dB. The data rate is 0.54 Gbps, calculated by subtracting the dB factor in linear space using bandwidth and C / N factor (e.g., CNR). Taking encoding and overhead into account, the data rate is 0.39 Gbps.

[0152] Another example of a satellite communication system includes at least a satellite and a receiver. The satellite's altitude is 6000 km. In other examples, the altitude can be between 5000 and 7000 km. The signal transmission frequency is in the Ka band and is in the range of 17.7-20.2 GHz. The satellite transmitter has an RF power of 300 W. In other examples, the transmitter can have a power between 200-400 W. The transmitter's noise-to-power ratio is 15 dB. In other examples, the noise-to-power ratio can be between 15 dB and 30 dB. Cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) is greater than 15 dB. The antenna gain calculated using efficiency, antenna diameter, and the wavelength of the transmitted signal is 40 dBi. In other examples, the antenna gain can be between 38-42 dBi. The satellite is allocated a bandwidth of 20 GHz. The total capacity of the satellite communication system is at least approximately 50 Gbps.

[0153] Another example of a satellite communication system includes at least a satellite and a receiver. The satellite's altitude is likely approximately 6000 km. In other examples, the altitude can be between 5000 and 7000 km. In still other examples, the satellite's altitude can be approximately 500 km or between 400 and 600 km. The signal transmission frequency is in the E-band and is in the range of approximately 71 GHz to approximately 76 GHz. The satellite transmitter has approximately 40 W of RF power. The transmitter's noise-to-power ratio is approximately 15 dB. Cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) is approximately 18 dB.

[0154] Example 1 is a chip for transmitting or receiving data, the chip comprising: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The peak exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which, as measured by Raman spectroscopy, has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the first and second substrates allows the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0155] In Example 2, the subject of Example 1 includes the chip comprising an RF amplifier circuit.

[0156] In Example 3, the subject of Example 1 includes the first substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK.

[0157] In Example 4, the subject of Example 3 includes, wherein the first substrate comprises diamond.

[0158] In Example 5, the subject of Example 1 includes the second substrate being a semiconductor.

[0159] In Example 6, the subject of Example 5 includes the second substrate comprising a III-V semiconductor.

[0160] In Example 7, the subject of Example 6 includes the second substrate comprising a material selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN.

[0161] In Example 8, the subject of Example 5 includes, wherein the second substrate comprises silicon.

[0162] In Example 9, the subject of Example 1 includes, wherein the interface area is 1550cm. -1 The sp2 carbon peak is displayed, with an amplitude not exceeding 20% ​​of the height of the sp3 carbon peak after background subtraction, as measured by Raman spectroscopy.

[0163] In Example 10, the subject of Example 9 includes the sp3 carbon peak, wherein the interface region exhibits a local background intensity of greater than or equal to 10%.

[0164] In Example 11, the subject of Example 1 includes the fact that the transmission rate is at least 10 gigabits per second.

[0165] In Example 12, the subject of Example 1 includes the fact that the transmission rate is at least 12 gigabits per second.

[0166] In Example 13, the subject of Example 1 includes the fact that the transmission rate is at least 14 gigabits per second.

[0167] In Example 14, the subject of Example 1 includes the fact that the transmission rate is at least 100 gigabits per second.

[0168] In Example 15, the subject of Example 1 includes the fact that the transmission rate is at least 1 terabit per second.

[0169] In Example 16, the subject of Example 1 includes the frequency range of 37.5 GHz to 300 GHz.

[0170] In Example 17, the subject of Example 1 includes the frequency being in the range of 37.5 GHz to 40.5 GHz.

[0171] In Example 18, the subject of Example 1 includes the chip comprising a transistor, wherein the transistor comprises the second substrate.

[0172] In Example 19, the subject of Example 1 includes the transistor having a feature size of less than 40 nanometers (nm).

[0173] In Example 20, the subject of Example 1 includes the frequency having a bandwidth of at least 50 MHz.

[0174] Example 21 is a chip for transmitting or receiving data, the chip comprising: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattice-matched such that (i) for an input power less than or equal to 2 W in linear mode, the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5 W to 42 W within an antenna gain of less than 30 dBi, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0175] Example 22 is a chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: a first substrate including a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate including a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK between the first substrate and the second substrate, and wherein the first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0176] Example 23 is a chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: a first substrate including a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate including a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

[0177] Example 24 is a chip for transmitting or receiving data, the chip comprising: a first substrate comprising a first material; and a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power-to-interference ratio of less than 20dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0178] Example 25 is a system for transmitting or receiving data, the system comprising: a chip including: (i) a first substrate comprising a first material; and (ii) a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 The region exhibits an sp3 carbon peak, which has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM), as measured by Raman spectroscopy, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz; and a transmit or receive unit operatively coupled to the chip, the transmit or receive unit being configured to transmit or receive the data.

[0179] In Example 26, the subject of Example 25 includes the fact that the chip and the transmitting or receiving unit are part of a satellite.

[0180] In Example 27, the subject of Example 26 includes that the satellite is a CubeSat.

[0181] In Example 28, the subject of Example 26 includes the satellite weighing less than 50 kg.

[0182] In Example 29, the subject of Example 26 includes, but is not limited to, one or more additional satellites, each of which includes the chip and a transmit or receive unit.

[0183] In Example 30, the subject of Example 25 includes the fact that the transmitting or receiving unit includes one or more antennas.

[0184] In Example 31, the subject of Example 25 includes that the transmitting or receiving unit is configured to transmit or receive the data to or from a remote transmitting or receiving unit.

[0185] In Example 32, the subject of Example 25 includes, wherein the data includes at least one of voice, audio, or video data.

[0186] Example 33 is a chip for transmitting data, comprising: a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 10 W of output power W with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

[0187] In Example 34, the subject of Example 33 includes the chip comprising a radio frequency amplifier circuit.

[0188] In Example 35, the subject of Example 33 includes the radio frequency amplifier circuit comprising an integrated microwave circuit or an integrated millimeter-wave circuit.

[0189] In Example 36, the subject of Example 33 includes the substrate containing diamond.

[0190] In Example 37, the subject of Example 33 includes the semiconductor layer comprising a group III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN.

[0191] In Example 38, the subject of Example 33 includes an interference level of less than or equal to 20 dB from the noise power ratio of the chip.

[0192] In Example 39, the subject of Example 33 includes: wherein the interference level from the cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to 12dB.

[0193] Example 40 is a transmitting device for transmitting data, comprising: a chip of Example 33; and a transmitting antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide the transmitting antenna with the output power for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0194] In Example 41, the subject of Example 40 includes, wherein the device is a satellite transmitter.

[0195] In Example 42, the subject of Example 41 includes the satellite transmitter being configured to transmit the data at an altitude of at least 400 km.

[0196] In Example 43, the subject of Example 41 includes the satellite transmitter being configured to transmit the data at an altitude between approximately 400 km and approximately 600 km.

[0197] In Example 44, the subject of Example 41 includes the fact that the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters.

[0198] In Example 45, the subject of Example 40 includes the fact that the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%.

[0199] In Example 46, the subject of Example 40 includes the transmitting antenna having a gain of at least 36 dBi.

[0200] In Example 47, the subject of Example 40 includes the fact that the transmitting device has a pointing error of less than or equal to 1 degree.

[0201] In Example 48, the subject of Example 40 includes the fact that the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than 2.3 or equal to dB.

[0202] In Example 49, the subject of Example 40 includes the fact that the transmitting device has an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 43 dBW.

[0203] Example 50 is a data communication link including a transmitting device of Example 40; and a receiving device that wirelessly communicates with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive the data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0204] In Example 51, the subject of Example 50 includes the receiving device comprising a receiving antenna having a gain of at least 65 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%.

[0205] In Example 52, the subject of Example 50 includes a bandwidth of at least about 1200 MHz allocated to each carrier.

[0206] In Example 53, the subject of Example 50 includes the link having a noise power of less than or equal to 114 dB.

[0207] In Example 54, the subject of Example 50 includes the link having a signal-to-noise ratio greater than 18 dB.

[0208] In Example 55, the subject of Example 50 includes the link having a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 5 gigabits per second.

[0209] In Example 56, the subject of Example 50 includes the link having a spectral efficiency of at least 5 bps / Hz.

[0210] In Example 57, the subject of Example 51 includes the receiving antenna of the receiving device having a diameter of at least 12 meters.

[0211] In Example 58, the subject matter of Example 51 includes, wherein the power flux density received at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 80 dBW / m. 2 .

[0212] In Example 59, the subject of Example 50 includes the link suffering at least 200 dB of propagation loss.

[0213] In Example 60, the subject of Example 33 includes the fact that the signal comprises a modulated carrier signal, and that the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip.

[0214] In Example 61, the subject of Example 60 includes the fact that the signal distortion includes an nth-order intermodulation product.

[0215] In Example 62, the subject of Example 61 includes the fact that the nth-order intermodulation product includes a third-order intermodulation product or a fifth-order intermodulation product.

[0216] In Example 63, the subject of Example 61 includes the fact that the linearity of the chip is associated with the ratio of (i) the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation product.

[0217] In Example 64, the subject of Example 63 includes, wherein the ratio is at least 30 dB.

[0218] In Example 65, the subject of Example 63 includes the fact that the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C.

[0219] In Example 66, the subject of Example 33 includes the fact that the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0220] In Example 67, the subject of Example 33 includes the fact that the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0221] In Example 68, the subject of Example 33 includes a method in which the input power to the chip is backed down by at least 5 dB from the saturation level of the chip to the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0222] Example 69 is a chip for transmitting data, comprising: a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, and wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 5 W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40 GHz.

[0223] In Example 70, the subject of Example 69 includes the chip comprising a radio frequency amplifier circuit.

[0224] In Example 71, the subject of Example 69 includes the radio frequency amplifier circuit comprising an integrated microwave circuit or an integrated millimeter-wave circuit.

[0225] In Example 72, the subject of Example 69 includes, wherein the substrate comprises diamond.

[0226] In Example 73, the subject of Example 69 includes the semiconductor layer comprising a group III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, and InGaAlN.

[0227] In Example 74, the subject of Example 69 includes: wherein the interference level of the noise power ratio from the chip is less than or equal to approximately 23 dB.

[0228] In Example 75, the subject of Example 69 includes: wherein the interference level from the cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to about 15 dB.

[0229] Example 76 is a transmitting device for transmitting data, comprising: a chip of Example 69; and a transmitting antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide the transmitting antenna with the output power for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0230] In Example 77, the subject of Example 76 includes, wherein the device is a satellite transmitter.

[0231] In Example 78, the subject of Example 77 includes the satellite transmitter being configured to transmit the data at an altitude of at least 5000 km.

[0232] In Example 79, the subject of Example 78 includes the satellite transmitter being configured to transmit the data at an altitude of 6000 km.

[0233] In Example 80, the subject of Example 76 includes the fact that the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters.

[0234] In Example 81, the subject of Example 76 includes the fact that the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%.

[0235] In Example 82, the subject of Example 76 includes the transmitting antenna having a gain of at least 43 dBi.

[0236] In Example 83, the subject of Example 76 includes that the pointing error of the transmitting device is less than or equal to 0.5 degrees.

[0237] In Example 84, the subject of Example 76 includes the fact that the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than or equal to 3 dB.

[0238] In Example 85, the subject of Example 76 includes: said emitting device having an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 47 dBW.

[0239] Example 86 is a data communication link comprising: a transmitting device of Example 76; and a receiving device wirelessly communicating with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive the data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0240] In Example 87, the subject of Example 86 includes the receiving device comprising a receiving antenna having a gain of at least 72 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%.

[0241] In Example 88, the subject of Example 86 includes a scenario where the allocated bandwidth for each carrier is at least 250 MHz.

[0242] In Example 89, the subject of Example 86 includes the link having a noise power of less than about 120 dBW.

[0243] In Example 90, the subject of Example 86 includes the link having a signal-to-noise ratio greater than about 8.5 dB.

[0244] In Example 91, the subject of Example 86 includes the link having a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0245] In Example 92, the subject of Example 86 includes the link having a spectral efficiency of at least 2.9 bps / Hz.

[0246] In Example 93, the subject of Example 87 includes the receiving antenna of the receiving device having a diameter of at least 12 meters.

[0247] In Example 94, the subject matter of Example 87 includes, wherein the power flux density at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 99 dBW / m. 2 .

[0248] In Example 95, the subject of Example 86 includes the link suffering at least 200 dB of propagation loss.

[0249] In Example 96, the subject of Example 76 includes the following: wherein the signal comprises a modulated carrier signal, and wherein the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip.

[0250] In Example 97, the subject of Example 96 includes the fact that the signal distortion includes an nth-order intermodulation product.

[0251] In Example 98, the subject of Example 97 includes the fact that the nth-order intermodulation product includes a third-order intermodulation product or a fifth-order intermodulation product.

[0252] In Example 99, the subject of Example 97 includes: wherein the linearity of the chip is associated with (i) the ratio of the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation product.

[0253] In Example 100, the subject of Example 99 includes, wherein the ratio is at least 30 dB.

[0254] In Example 101, the subject of Example 99 includes the fact that the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C.

[0255] In Example 102, the subject of Example 76 includes the fact that the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0256] In Example 103, the subject of Example 76 includes the fact that the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0257] In Example 104, the subject of Example 76 includes a method in which the input power to the chip is backed down by at least 5 dB from the saturation level of the chip to the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0258] Example 105 is an apparatus that includes modules for performing any of the operations in Examples 1 through 104.

[0259] Example 106 is a system that performs the operation of any of Examples 1 through 104.

[0260] Example 107 is a method that implements any of Examples 1–104.

[0261] This invention provides, but is not limited to, the following embodiments:

[0262] 1. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0263] Including a first substrate of a first material; and

[0264] A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate has a lattice-matched structure to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of the half-peak, and

[0265] The first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0266] 2. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the chip includes a radio frequency amplifier circuit.

[0267] 3. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the first substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK.

[0268] 4. The chip according to embodiment 3, wherein the first substrate comprises diamond.

[0269] 5. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the second substrate is a semiconductor.

[0270] 6. The chip according to embodiment 5, wherein the second substrate comprises a III-V semiconductor.

[0271] 7. The chip according to embodiment 6, wherein the second substrate comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN and InGaAlN.

[0272] 8. The chip according to embodiment 5, wherein the second substrate comprises silicon.

[0273] 9. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the interface region is at 1550 cm⁻¹ -1 The sp2 carbon peak is observed, and as measured by Raman spectroscopy, the sp2 carbon peak has an amplitude not greater than 20% of the height of the sp3 carbon peak after background subtraction.

[0274] 10. The chip according to embodiment 9, wherein the interface region exhibits the sp3 carbon peak with a local background intensity of greater than or equal to 10%.

[0275] 11. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the transmission rate is at least 10 gigabits per second.

[0276] 12. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the transmission rate is at least 12 gigabits per second.

[0277] 13. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the transmission rate is at least 14 gigabits per second.

[0278] 14. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the transmission rate is at least 100 gigabits per second.

[0279] 15. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the transmission rate is at least 1 terabits per second.

[0280] 16. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the frequency is in the range of 37.5 GHz to 300 GHz.

[0281] 17. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the frequency is in the range of 37.5 GHz to 40.5 GHz.

[0282] 18. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the chip includes a transistor, and the transistor includes the second substrate.

[0283] 19. The chip according to embodiment 18, wherein the transistor has a feature size of less than 40 nanometers (nm).

[0284] 20. The chip according to embodiment 1, wherein the frequency has a bandwidth of at least 50 MHz.

[0285] 21. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0286] Including a first substrate of a first material; and

[0287] A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material.

[0288] The first substrate and the second substrate are lattice-matched such that (i) for an input power less than or equal to 2W in linear mode, the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0289] 22. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0290] Including a first substrate of a first material; and

[0291] A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK between the first and second substrates, and

[0292] The first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0293] 23. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0294] Including a first substrate of a first material; and

[0295] A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

[0296] 24. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0297] Including a first substrate of a first material; and

[0298] A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power interference ratio of less than 20dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8GHz.

[0299] 25. A system for transmitting or receiving data, comprising:

[0300] A chip includes: (i) a first substrate comprising a first material, and (ii) a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the first and second substrates allows the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz; and

[0301] A transmit or receive unit operatively coupled to the chip, the transmit or receive unit being configured to transmit or receive the data.

[0302] 26. The system according to embodiment 25, wherein the chip and the transmitting or receiving unit are part of a satellite.

[0303] 27. The system according to embodiment 26, wherein the satellite is a CubeSat.

[0304] 28. The system according to embodiment 26, wherein the satellite weighs less than 50 kg.

[0305] 29. The system according to embodiment 26 further includes one or more additional satellites, each satellite including the chip and a transmit or receive unit.

[0306] 30. The system according to embodiment 25, wherein the transmitting or receiving unit includes one or more antennas.

[0307] 31. The system according to embodiment 25, wherein the transmitting or receiving unit is configured to transmit or receive the data to or from a remote transmitting or receiving unit.

[0308] 32. The system according to embodiment 25, wherein the data includes at least one of voice, audio, or video data.

[0309] 33. A chip for transmitting data, comprising:

[0310] A semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 10 W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

[0311] 34. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the chip includes a radio frequency amplifier circuit.

[0312] 35. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the radio frequency amplifier circuit includes an integrated microwave circuit or an integrated millimeter-wave circuit.

[0313] 36. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the substrate comprises diamond.

[0314] 37. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the semiconductor layer comprises a III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN and InGaAlN.

[0315] 38. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the interference level of the noise power ratio from the chip is less than or equal to 20 dB.

[0316] 39. The chip according to embodiment 33, wherein the interference level from cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to 12dB.

[0317] 40. A transmitting device for transmitting data, comprising: a chip according to any one of embodiments 1-24 and 33-39; and

[0318] A transmit antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide the output power to the transmit antenna for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0319] 41. The launching device according to embodiment 40, wherein the device is a satellite transmitter.

[0320] 42. The launching device according to embodiment 41, wherein the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit the data at an altitude of at least 400 km.

[0321] 43. The launching apparatus according to embodiment 41, wherein the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit the data at an altitude between approximately 400 km and approximately 600 km.

[0322] 44. The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters.

[0323] 45. The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%.

[0324] 46. ​​The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting antenna has a gain of at least 36 dBi.

[0325] 47. The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting device has a pointing error of less than or equal to 1 degree.

[0326] 48. The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than 2.3 or equal to dB.

[0327] 49. The transmitting device according to embodiment 40, wherein the transmitting device has an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 43 dBW.

[0328] 50. A data communication link, comprising:

[0329] The launching device according to any one of embodiments 40-49; and

[0330] A receiving device that wirelessly communicates with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive the data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0331] 51. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the receiving device includes a receiving antenna having a gain of at least 65 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%.

[0332] 52. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the allocated bandwidth for each carrier is at least about 1200 MHz.

[0333] 53. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the link has a noise power of less than or equal to 114 dB.

[0334] 54. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the link has a signal-to-noise ratio greater than 18 dB.

[0335] 55. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the link has a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 5 gigabits per second.

[0336] 56. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the link has a spectral efficiency of at least 5 bps / Hz.

[0337] 57. The data communication link according to embodiment 51, wherein the receiving antenna of the receiving device has a diameter of at least 12 meters.

[0338] 58. The data communication link according to embodiment 51, wherein the power flux density received at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 80 dBW / m. 2 .

[0339] 59. The data communication link according to embodiment 50, wherein the link suffers at least 200 dB of propagation loss.

[0340] 60. The chip according to any one of embodiments 33-39, wherein the signal comprises a modulated carrier signal, and wherein the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip.

[0341] 61. The chip according to embodiment 60, wherein the signal distortion includes an nth-order intermodulation product.

[0342] 62. The chip according to embodiment 61, wherein the nth-order intermodulation product includes a third-order intermodulation product or a fifth-order intermodulation product.

[0343] 63. The chip according to embodiment 61, wherein the linearity of the chip is related to the ratio of (i) the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation product.

[0344] 64. The chip according to embodiment 63, wherein the ratio is at least 30 dB.

[0345] 65. The chip according to embodiment 63, wherein the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C.

[0346] 66. The chip according to any one of embodiments 33-39, wherein the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0347] 67. The chip according to any one of embodiments 33-39, wherein the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0348] 68. The chip according to any one of embodiments 33-39, wherein the input power to the chip is backed down by at least 5 dB from the saturation level of the chip to the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0349] 69. A chip for transmitting data, comprising:

[0350] A semiconductor layer operably coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, and

[0351] The thermal conductivity described therein enables the chip to generate at least 5W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40GHz.

[0352] 70. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the chip includes a radio frequency amplifier circuit.

[0353] 71. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the radio frequency amplifier circuit includes an integrated microwave circuit or an integrated millimeter-wave circuit.

[0354] 72. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the substrate comprises diamond.

[0355] 73. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the semiconductor layer comprises a III-V semiconductor selected from the group consisting of GaN, InGaN, AlGaN and InGaAlN.

[0356] 74. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the interference level of the noise power ratio from the chip is less than or equal to about 23 dB.

[0357] 75. The chip according to embodiment 69, wherein the interference level from cross-polarization on the chip is less than or equal to about 15 dB.

[0358] 76. A transmitting device for transmitting data, comprising:

[0359] The chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75; and

[0360] A transmit antenna operatively coupled to the chip, wherein the chip is configured to provide the output power to the transmit antenna for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0361] 77. The launching device according to embodiment 76, wherein the device is a satellite transmitter.

[0362] 78. The launching apparatus according to embodiment 77, wherein the satellite transmitter is configured to launch the data at an altitude of at least 5000 km.

[0363] 79. The launching apparatus according to embodiment 78, wherein the satellite transmitter is configured to transmit the data at an altitude of 6000 km.

[0364] 80. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting antenna has a diameter of less than or equal to 0.5 meters.

[0365] 81. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting antenna has an efficiency of at least 45%.

[0366] 82. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting antenna has a gain of at least 43 dBi.

[0367] 83. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting device has a pointing error of less than or equal to 0.5 degrees.

[0368] 84. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting device has a pointing loss of less than or equal to 3 dB.

[0369] 85. The transmitting device according to embodiment 76, wherein the transmitting device has an effective isotropic radiated power of at least 47 dBW.

[0370] 86. A data communication link, comprising:

[0371] The launching device according to any one of embodiments 76-85; and

[0372] A receiving device that wirelessly communicates with the transmitting device, wherein the receiving device is configured to receive the data transmitted from the transmitting device.

[0373] 87. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the receiving device includes a receiving antenna having a gain of at least 72 dBi and an efficiency of at least 60%.

[0374] 88. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the allocated bandwidth for each carrier is at least 250MHz.

[0375] 89. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the link has a noise power of less than about 120 dBW.

[0376] 90. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the link has a signal-to-noise ratio greater than about 8.5 dB.

[0377] 91. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the link has a maximum channel data rate capacity of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0378] 92. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the link has a spectral efficiency of at least 2.9 bps / Hz.

[0379] 93. The data communication link according to embodiment 87, wherein the receiving antenna of the receiving device has a diameter of at least 12 meters.

[0380] 94. The data communication link according to embodiment 87, wherein the power flux density at the receiving antenna of the receiving device is at least 99 dBW / m. 2 .

[0381] 95. The data communication link according to embodiment 86, wherein the link suffers at least 200 dB of propagation loss.

[0382] 96. The chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75, wherein the signal comprises a modulated carrier signal, and wherein the chip has reduced signal distortion relative to the modulated carrier signal, thereby improving the linearity of the chip.

[0383] 97. The chip according to embodiment 96, wherein the signal distortion includes an nth-order intermodulation product.

[0384] 98. The chip according to embodiment 97, wherein the nth-order intermodulation product includes a third-order intermodulation product or a fifth-order intermodulation product.

[0385] 99. The chip according to embodiment 97, wherein the linearity of the chip is related to the ratio of (i) the output power of the modulated carrier signal to (ii) the power of the nth-order intermodulation product.

[0386] 100. The chip according to embodiment 99, wherein the ratio is at least 30 dB.

[0387] 101. The chip according to embodiment 99, wherein the operating channel temperature of the chip is less than 200°C.

[0388] 102. The chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75, wherein the output power corresponds to the maximum output power in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0389] 103. The chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75, wherein the efficiency corresponds to the power-added efficiency (PAE) in the linear operation mode of the chip.

[0390] 104. The chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75, wherein the input power to the chip is backed down by at least 5 dB from the saturation level of the chip to the linear operating mode of the chip.

[0391] 105. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0392] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate, wherein the second substrate including a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of the half-peak, and

[0393] Data is transmitted at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0394] 106. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip: comprising:

[0395] Provide an RF amplifier chip according to any one of embodiments 2-20, and

[0396] Data is transmitted at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0397] 107. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0398] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate, wherein the second substrate includes a second material different from the first material; and

[0399] Based at least in part on the lattice matching of the first substrate and the second substrate:

[0400] The RF amplifier chip generates an output signal that, for an input power less than or equal to 2W in linear mode, includes an effective radiated power ranging from 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi; and

[0401] Transmit data at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0402] 108. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0403] The RF amplifier chip according to any one of embodiments 2-20; and

[0404] Based at least in part on the lattice matching of the first substrate and the second substrate:

[0405] The RF amplifier chip generates an output signal that, for an input power of less than or equal to 2W in linear mode, includes an effective radiated power ranging from 5W to 42W within an antenna gain of less than 30dBi; and

[0406] Transmit data at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

[0407] 109. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0408] The RF amplifier chip is provided, comprising a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate comprising a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate, wherein the second substrate comprises a second material different from the first material, and wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK between the first and second substrates.

[0409] Data is transmitted at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0410] 110. A method for using a radio frequency amplifier chip, comprising:

[0411] Provide an RF amplifier chip according to any one of embodiments 2-20, and

[0412] Data is transmitted at a rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz, based at least in part on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0413] 111. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0414] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate, wherein the second substrate includes a second material different from the first material; and

[0415] Based at least in part on the lattice matching of the first substrate and the second substrate:

[0416] (i) Generating an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, wherein the signal includes an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB; and

[0417] (ii) Transmit data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth of at least 50 MHz.

[0418] 112. A method for using a radio frequency amplifier chip, comprising:

[0419] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate including a first material, the second substrate being adjacent to the first substrate, wherein the second substrate includes a second material different from the first material; and

[0420] Based at least in part on the lattice matching of the first substrate and the second substrate:

[0421] (i) Generating an output signal from the RF amplifier chip, wherein the signal includes effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power-to-interference ratio of less than 20dB; and

[0422] (ii) Transmit data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0423] 113. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0424] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK; and

[0425] Based at least in part on the thermal conductivity, at least 10W of output power is generated with at least 40% efficiency and at least 30dB gain to amplify the signal and transmit data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

[0426] 114. A method for using a transmitting device, comprising:

[0427] Provide a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip according to any one of embodiments 33-39;

[0428] Provide an antenna, wherein the RF amplifier chip is operatively coupled to the antenna; and

[0429] The output power is delivered to the antenna for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0430] 115. The method according to embodiment 114, wherein the transmitting device is the transmitting device according to any one of embodiments 40 to 49.

[0431] 116. A method for using a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip, comprising:

[0432] The RF amplifier chip is provided, the RF amplifier chip including a semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK; and

[0433] Based at least in part on the thermal conductivity, at least 5W of output power is generated with at least 40% efficiency and at least 30dB gain to amplify the signal and transmit data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40GHz.

[0434] 117. A method for using a transmitting device, comprising:

[0435] Provide a radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip according to any one of embodiments 69-75;

[0436] Provide an antenna, wherein the RF amplifier chip is operatively coupled to the antenna; and

[0437] The output power is delivered to the antenna for transmitting the data at the transmission rate and the frequency.

[0438] 118. The method according to embodiment 117, wherein the transmitting device includes the transmitting device according to any one of embodiments 76-85.

[0439] 119. A method for transmitting data, comprising:

[0440] A radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided, comprising a first substrate and a second substrate, wherein the first substrate comprises a first material, the second substrate is adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprises a second material different from the first material, and wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of half the peak;

[0441] A transmitter unit operatively coupled to the chip is provided, the transmitter unit being configured to transmit the data; and is at least partially based on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0442] Transmit data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0443] 120. A method for receiving data, comprising:

[0444] A radio frequency (RF) amplifier chip is provided, comprising a first substrate and a second substrate, wherein the first substrate comprises a first material, the second substrate is adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprises a second material different from the first material, and wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of half the peak;

[0445] A receiving unit is provided operatively coupled to the chip, the receiving unit being configured to receive the data; and is at least partially based on the first substrate and the second substrate.

[0446] Data is received at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

[0447] Although preferred embodiments of this disclosure have been shown and described herein, it will be readily understood by those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. This disclosure is not intended to be limited to the specific examples provided in the specification. Although this disclosure has been described with reference to the foregoing description, the description and illustration of embodiments herein are not intended to be interpreted in a limiting sense. Many variations, modifications, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from this disclosure. Furthermore, it should be understood that all aspects of this disclosure are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations, or relative proportions set forth herein, which depend on various conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of this disclosure described herein may be employed in the practice of this disclosure. Therefore, it is contemplated that this disclosure will also cover any such substitutions, modifications, variations, or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of this disclosure and thereby cover the methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents.

Claims

1. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: Including the layered structure of the first material; and The second material, unlike the first material, has an average thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK, and The layered structure and the second material are configured to allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second.

2. The chip of claim 1, wherein the layered structure and the substrate are configured to allow the device to transmit or receive the signal having a bandwidth of at least 50 MHz at a threshold frequency.

3. The chip of claim 2, wherein the threshold frequency is at least 1 gigahertz (GHz).

4. The chip of claim 1, wherein the second material is at a wavenumber of 1332 (cm²). -1 The peak at position ) shows an sp3 carbon peak, which, as measured by Raman spectroscopy, has a value less than or equal to 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of half the peak.

5. The chip of claim 1, wherein the second material exhibits the sp3 carbon peak with a local background intensity equal to or greater than 10%.

6. The chip of claim 1, wherein the second material comprises diamond.

7. The chip of claim 1, wherein the first material comprises a semiconductor.

8. The chip of claim 7, wherein the semiconductor is a wide-bandgap semiconductor.

9. The chip of claim 7, wherein the semiconductor comprises silicon.

10. The chip of claim 1, wherein the first material structure comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaN, AlN, InGaN, InAlN, AlGaN, InGaAlN, Ga2O3 and their derivatives or combinations thereof.

11. The chip of claim 1, wherein the first material comprises gallium and nitrogen.

12. The chip of claim 1, further comprising a transistor, the transistor comprising the second material.

13. The chip of claim 12, wherein the transistor has a feature size of less than 40 nanometers (nm).

14. The chip of claim 1, wherein the second material comprises silicon.

15. A system for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: A chip, the chip comprising: (i) a first substrate comprising a first material; and (ii) a second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the first and second substrates, and wherein the first and second substrates allow the chip to transmit or receive the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz; and A transmit or receive unit operatively coupled to the chip, the transmit or receive unit being configured to transmit or receive the data.

16. A chip for transmitting data, comprising: A semiconductor layer operatively coupled to a substrate having a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, wherein the thermal conductivity enables the chip to generate at least 10 W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30 dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 4 gigabits per second and a frequency of at least 18 GHz.

17. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: The first substrate includes the first material; and A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate has a lattice-matched structure to the first substrate such that the interface region between the first substrate and the second substrate is approximately 1332 cm⁻¹. -1 An sp3 carbon peak was observed at [location], and measured by Raman spectroscopy, this sp3 carbon peak has a value not exceeding 5.0 cm⁻¹. -1 The full width of the half-peak, and The first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

18. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: The first substrate includes the first material; and A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattice-matched with the first substrate to provide a thermal conductivity greater than or equal to 1000 W / mK between the first and second substrates, and The first substrate and the second substrate allow the chip to transmit or receive data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8 GHz.

19. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: The first substrate includes the first material; and A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs an effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a carrier-to-noise ratio greater than 25dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a bandwidth in the range of at least 50MHz.

20. A chip for transmitting or receiving data, comprising: The first substrate includes the first material; and A second substrate adjacent to the first substrate, the second substrate comprising a second material different from the first material, wherein the second substrate is lattically matched with the first substrate, wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are lattically matched such that (i) the chip outputs effective radiated power in the range of 5W to 42W and a noise power interference ratio of less than 20dB, and (ii) the chip transmits or receives the data at a transmission rate of at least 500 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 8GHz.

21. A chip for transmitting data, comprising: A semiconductor layer operably coupled to a substrate, wherein the substrate has a thermal conductivity greater than about 1000 W / mK, and The thermal conductivity described therein enables the chip to generate at least 5W of output power with an efficiency of at least 40% and a gain of at least 30dB for amplifying signals and transmitting the data at a transmission rate of at least 300 megabits per second and a frequency of at least 40GHz.

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