Methods and compositions utilizing alternative sources of carbon dioxide for sequestration

Abstract

Provided herein are systems and methods for using carbon dioxide, such as carbon dioxide containing one or more contaminants produced in a process where the carbon dioxide comes directly or indirectly from the atmosphere, to perform one or more processes that combine the carbon dioxide or one or more carbon dioxide reaction products with one or more reactants to produce one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products, e.g., products that permanently sequester the carbon dioxide.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] cross reference This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 254,633, filed October 12, 2021, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 320,729, filed March 17, 2022, which are incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] Carbon dioxide sequestration and removal is becoming increasingly important. Thus, new and more efficient methods of carbon dioxide removal and / or sequestration are needed.

[0003] Incorporation by Reference All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each such publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in this specification. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0004] Carbon dioxide is produced in a variety of processes in which it contains one or more contaminants. The one or more contaminants, for example, due to their nature and / or concentration, make the carbon dioxide unsuitable for various uses. For example, the carbon dioxide is not food grade or is not of sufficient purity for other uses. Such processes include biogas production, syngas production, ethanol production (e.g., from landfill waste), biomass, hydrogen production, and the like. Generally, the carbon dioxide produced in these processes is considered to be a waste product or requires further purification for use. In some cases, the carbon dioxide is used without further purification. In some cases, the carbon dioxide is further purified and used. In many of these and other processes, the carbon dioxide is directly or indirectly removed from the atmosphere. As used herein, the term "carbon dioxide directly or indirectly removed from the atmosphere" and similar terms include: Carbon dioxide directly removed from the current atmosphere (e.g., carbon dioxide removed by direct air capture (DAC)); Carbon dioxide indirectly removed (e.g., carbon dioxide removed during a process such as biomass production). In such processes, carbon dioxide from the present atmosphere is captured, for example, in carbohydrates of biomass, and then released as new carbon dioxide molecules from the biomass in a later process (e.g., biogas process from biomass, ethanol production process, hydrogen production). Thus, the hope is that the sequestration of such carbon dioxide will ultimately reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide or at least reduce the rate of increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide from other processes. Carbon dioxide obtained directly or indirectly from the atmosphere does not include carbon dioxide that originates from the burning of fossil fuels, the calcination of limestone to make cement, etc., because such carbon dioxide may have come indirectly from an atmosphere, but that atmosphere is not the present atmosphere.The use of carbon dioxide containing one or more pollutants in a process to sequester (preferably for long-term sequestration) carbon dioxide offers an opportunity to ensure both carbon utilization and carbon removal, which is currently considered unsuitable for use in many cases.

[0005] Furthermore, the facilities where these processes are carried out (sometimes referred to herein as "carbon dioxide production facilities" or the like) are in various geographic locations, but are often in close proximity to other facilities (where the carbon dioxide from the carbon dioxide production process can be utilized in the carbon dioxide sequestration process). Such facilities may be referred to herein as "sequestration plants," "sequestration facilities," or the like. Generally, sequestration facilities chemically react carbon dioxide or a reaction product of carbon dioxide with one or more reactants to non-covalently or covalently bind the carbon dioxide or its reaction product into a reaction product. Thus, sequestration facilities do not include facilities for pumping carbon dioxide underground, for example, for carbon dioxide sequestration, enhanced oil recovery, or the like. Furthermore, even if such carbon dioxide reacts with minerals (e.g., underground minerals) to produce reaction products, the underground minerals are not, of course, part of the facility. Thus, they are not sequestration facilities as that term is used herein. When one or more carbon dioxide production facilities are connected to one or more carbon dioxide sequestration facilities, carbon dioxide can be readily supplied with minimal or no processing and minimal transportation. In some cases, one or more sequestration facilities may utilize some or all of the carbon dioxide to produce useful and / or commercially valuable products. In some cases, the sequestration facilities may be concrete manufacturing plants and / or concrete product processing plants, which may be collectively referred to herein as concrete product plants. Generally, the term refers to facilities that produce one or more concrete products and / or facilities that process one or more concrete products, as described in more detail herein. Thus, carbon dioxide (e.g., carbon dioxide containing contaminants above a certain concentration that is currently considered waste or, at best, requires significant additional purification for use) may become a raw material. Such raw materials may be used as is or with minimal purification, at low or no cost, with minimal transportation costs, and with minimal transportation of associated carbon dioxide output.

[0006] Any system can be constructed that includes: 1) one or more carbon dioxide production facilities (e.g., one or more biogas facilities, one or more ethanol facilities, one or more direct air capture facilities, and / or one or more hydrogen production facilities, etc.) with the necessary equipment to separate and / or treat the separated carbon dioxide to make it suitable for transportation, typically either as is or with minimal purification (i.e., with one or more contaminants remaining in the carbon dioxide); 2) transportation equipment appropriate to the form and amount of carbon dioxide, used to transport the separated and treated carbon dioxide; and 3) one or more carbon sequestration facilities that accept the carbon dioxide shipment and react the carbon dioxide, typically with no or only minimal further purification, with one or more materials that sequester the carbon dioxide and often also sequester one or more of the contaminants in the carbon dioxide. For regulatory purposes, what is considered a "contaminant" of carbon dioxide may be relatively harmless, toxic, or anything in between, with the understanding that relatively harmless contaminants may be carried along with the separated carbon dioxide, and that their release is harmless even if not sequestered in a subsequent reaction, as long as they do not substantially impede the sequestration process. In some cases, more toxic contaminants may be carried along with the carbon dioxide and sequestered by chemical reaction, physical capture, or a combination thereof, as further described herein. In certain embodiments, an entity partially or entirely owns or controls the equipment at one or more carbon dioxide producing facilities, and that separates the carbon dioxide and / or makes it transportable, and in some cases, the equipment that makes the carbon dioxide transportable. The same entity may partially or entirely own the equipment at a carbon dioxide sequestration facility for sequestering the carbon dioxide, and possibly for sequestrating one or more contaminants of the carbon dioxide. In certain embodiments, the carbon sequestration facility comprises one or more of the following systems:1) one or more systems that deliver carbon dioxide (and, optionally, one or more contaminants in the carbon dioxide) to a cement mix being mixed (e.g., concrete in a concrete manufacturing facility), where the cement mix being mixed (e.g., concrete mix) is typically a mixture made by first adding water to dry cement powder; 2) one or more systems that deliver carbon dioxide (and, optionally, one or more contaminants in the carbon dioxide) to wet concrete, where the wet concrete is, for example, returned to the concrete manufacturing facility or otherwise, where typically the wet concrete can be mixed while still wet, but the dry cement mix can be mixed while still wet. 2) one or more systems that deliver, transport, and / or use carbon dioxide (and, optionally, one or more contaminants in the carbon dioxide) to wash water (also known as process water or wastewater) from concrete production to carbonate the wash water, and in some cases, one or more systems that further deliver at least a portion of the carbonated wash water for use as mix water in a subsequent concrete batch; and 3) one or more systems that deliver carbon dioxide (and, optionally, one or more contaminants in the carbon dioxide) to recycled concrete aggregate and / or concrete fine aggregate. The carbon dioxide is converted to a carbonate form, e.g., calcium carbonate, and is permanently sequestered. The one or more contaminants are released, removed, or sequestered along with the carbon dioxide. As used herein, the term "permanently sequestered" refers to the absence of any significant amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere during normal use or storage of the product, where the carbon dioxide is sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years. It will be appreciated that if the carbon dioxide is sequestered in a solid mass (e.g., a concrete block) as, for example, calcium carbonate, it is comparable and similarly stable to, for example, calcium carbonate in limestone. This is merely by way of example. The carbon dioxide may be released over a shorter period of time, e.g., days, weeks, months, or years, during normal use or storage of the product. Such cases may be referred to as "temporarily sequestered."Additionally or alternatively, the system further comprises one or more purification systems for purifying the carbon dioxide before making it suitable for transport, processing, and / or use. This is advantageous when the required equipment for handling the carbon dioxide requires carbon dioxide of a certain purity (e.g., when the equipment for handling the carbon dioxide requires food and beverage grade carbon dioxide). The purification system can be configured to produce carbon dioxide at any suitable purity (e.g., at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 99.9, 99.99, 99.999, or 100% purity) according to the requirements of the equipment. In certain embodiments, the system comprises a first purification system, the first purification system comprising an inlet for a carbon dioxide-containing gas source (e.g., waste gas from a biogas process), a purified gas outlet for directing the purified carbon dioxide-containing gas stream, and a waste gas outlet for directing the carbon dioxide-depleted waste gas to a downstream process and / or to the atmosphere. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide reduced waste gas has a higher concentration of one or more components (e.g., biogas components such as methane) that can be sent to a downstream process (e.g., a biogas reformer) or sent to a second purification system. In certain embodiments, the waste gas outlet is sent to a second purification system configured to increase the concentration of one or more components (e.g., hydrogen and methane) that can be recovered for one or more commercial applications.

[0007] It will be understood that such systems and processes result in the removal of carbon from the atmosphere when the carbon dioxide is obtained directly or indirectly from the atmosphere at the source of carbon dioxide. In either case, for example, the amount of carbon dioxide from each source of carbon dioxide and the amount of carbon dioxide produced from various aspects of the systems and processes (e.g., amounts of carbon dioxide emitted during transportation, amounts of carbon dioxide emitted during energy generation to power various processes, etc.) can be tracked and / or calculated, and a net carbon removal can be determined for which carbon credits can be issued. The carbon credits can be shared in any suitable manner between one or more owners or operators of the carbon dioxide producing facilities and one or more owners or operators of the carbon sequestration system.

[0008] The carbon dioxide source suitable for use in the methods and compositions disclosed herein can be any suitable one. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide source includes a facility that includes or performs a process that produces carbon dioxide at least in part from the atmosphere, either directly or indirectly. An example of the former is direct air capture (DAC). Examples of the latter include biogas production, ethanol production (e.g., from plant materials such as corn), and some forms of hydrogen production (e.g., hydrogen production from biomass). The carbon dioxide produced in these processes is often considered a by-product of the main product (e.g., methane in the case of biogas production, ethanol in the case of ethanol production, and hydrogen in the case of hydrogen production). Generally, carbon dioxide is released or otherwise becomes a waste product during the normal course of the process. Other suitable sources of carbon dioxide can also be used, as known in the art.

[0009] In certain embodiments, the source of carbon dioxide includes a biogas facility. As used herein, the term "biogas" encompasses the products of organic matter decomposition under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions. Raw biogas generally requires processing to remove impurities to meet pipeline specifications. As used herein, the term "biomethane" encompasses cleaned and reformed biogas that meets pipeline quality. As used herein, the term "renewable natural gas (RNG)" encompasses pipeline-compatible gaseous fuels derived from biogenic or other renewable sources. Such gaseous fuels have lower life cycle carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) emissions than geologically derived natural gas and are often endowed with "environmental attributes" (EA) from renewable sources. Such gaseous fuels can be used as alternative fuels, in place of natural gas, for heat sources, power generation, automotive fuels, and bioproduct feedstocks. As used herein, the term "environmental attributes" (EA) encompasses a quantity of gas produced in a specified environmentally beneficial manner. The “EA” can be separated from the biomethane and allocated to gas in another region (e.g., biomethane can be produced in Wisconsin, introduced into a pipeline, and receive credits under California’s LCFS program).

[0010] As used herein, "biogas facility," "biogas plant," and like terms include facilities that produce methane and carbon dioxide containing gases by anaerobic digestion of organic matter. The feedstock source or sources can be any suitable feedstock, such as landfill waste, animal waste, materials from water resource recovery facilities, food waste, agricultural residues, forestry and forest product residues, agricultural plant waste, municipal solid waste, and the like.

[0011] At the biogas facility and / or elsewhere, the methane is separated from the carbon dioxide. The methane is generally separated and / or processed so that it can be used as a fuel (e.g., for gas pipeline injection or other uses, e.g., for use as RNG). The carbon dioxide separated from the methane is often largely vented or otherwise disposed of, as such carbon dioxide often contains one or more contaminants present in concentrations that do not meet industrial or food standards. The compositions and methods described herein utilize carbon dioxide from the biogas facility. In some cases, the methods described herein include separating the carbon dioxide from the biogas, while in some cases the carbon dioxide is already separated and provided. In either case, the carbon dioxide can be used as is or can be further purified as required. The carbon dioxide can be treated as required to make it suitable for transport. In some cases, the carbon dioxide can be liquefied and transported as a liquid. In some cases, the carbon dioxide can be a gas or can be transported as a gas (e.g., pressurized gas). In some cases, some or all of the carbon dioxide (e.g., some or all of the carbon dioxide that has been treated to make it suitable for transport) can be stored at or near the biogas facility. The system may include a system for separating the carbon dioxide from the methane, a system for treating the carbon dioxide to make it suitable for transport, one or more storage vessels, and / or, in some cases, a system for purifying the carbon dioxide (e.g., a system for partially purifying the carbon dioxide before making it suitable for transport). The purification system may be configured to produce carbon dioxide of any suitable purity (e.g., at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 99.9, 99.99, 99.999, or 100% purity). In certain embodiments, the biogas facility is typically provided with a system for making the carbon dioxide suitable for transport. This system may be provided by a party other than the party that owns or controls the biogas facility.Typically, the carbon dioxide is transported to a location other than the biogas facility, although some or all of the carbon dioxide can be used in the biogas facility (e.g., some or all of the carbon dioxide can be used to generate a material that sequesters (e.g., permanently sequesters) the carbon dioxide), as described in more detail elsewhere herein. If transported, any suitable transportation method can be used, such as truck, pipeline, rail, barge, and / or any other suitable transportation means or combination of transportation means. In certain cases, the equipment used to transport the carbon dioxide can require the carbon dioxide to be of an appropriate purity, and thus the methods and systems described herein are configured for use with such equipment to produce carbon dioxide of the required purity (e.g., food and beverage grade CO2).

[0012] The biogas facility can be any suitable biogas facility. Types of biogas facilities include landfill gas (LFG) biogas plants, animal manure biogas plants, water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plants, food waste biogas plants, agricultural residues biogas plants, forestry and / or forest product residues biogas plants, energy crop biogas plants, municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plants, renewable power biogas plants, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the biogas facility includes a LFG biogas plant. In certain embodiments, the biogas facility includes an animal manure biogas plant. In certain embodiments, multiple biogas facilities are used in the systems or methods provided herein, for example, at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, or 75 biogas facilities, and / or no more than 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, or 100 biogas facilities.

[0013] Carbon dioxide, whether from a biogas facility or other facilities as further described herein, typically contains contaminants, often of a type and / or concentration that makes it unsuitable for general commercial use (e.g., as food-grade carbon dioxide). The U.S. FDA currently requires that carbon dioxide used in food products be at least 99.90% pure. In certain embodiments, the purity of carbon dioxide used in the compositions and methods disclosed herein is less than 99.99%, less than 99.95%, less than 99.92%, less than 99.90%, less than 98.99%, less than 98.98%, less than 98.97%, less than 98.96%, less than 98.95%, less than 98.92%, less than 98.90%, less than 98.80%, less than 98.70%, less than 98.60%, less than 98.5%, less than 98.0%, less than 97.5%, less than 97.0%, less than 96.5 ... 0%, 95.5%, 95.0%, 94.5%, 94.0%, 93.5%, 93.0%, 92.5%, 92.0%, 91.5%, 91.0%, 90.5%, 90.0%, 89%, 88%, 87%, 86%, 85%, 84%, 83%, 82%, 81%, 80%, 77%, 75%, 72%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, or 55% purity. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide purity is less than 99.90%. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide purity is less than 99%. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide purity is less than 95%. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide purity is less than 90%. In certain embodiments, the purity of the carbon dioxide is 80-99.89%, 80-95%, 80-90%, 85-99.89%, 85-95%, 85-90%, 90-99.89%, 90-95%, or 95-99.89%.In certain embodiments, one or more contaminants are present in the carbon dioxide at a total concentration of at least 0.001%, 0.01%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.49%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 0.99%, 1.0%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.5%, 1.7%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 15%, or 20% (e.g., % w / w). For example, at least 0.09%, at least 0.99% of the contaminant or at least 2% of the contaminant is present in the carbon dioxide.

[0014] The nature of the contaminants in the carbon dioxide and their respective concentrations generally vary depending on its source. For example, for carbon dioxide from a biogas facility, the contaminants in the carbon dioxide often depend at least in part on the type of organic matter used for anaerobic digestion. Thus, fecal contaminants may be present if animal or other feces are used. LFG may contain a variety of contaminants, depending on the landfill contents, etc. For example, the presence of cosmetics and deodorants in household waste will result in the presence of siloxanes in the biogas, the presence of refrigerants will result in the presence of halogenated hydrocarbons in the biogas, and the operation of landfill gas collection systems under vacuum as part of an effort to limit fugitive emissions 60 often results in the presence of nitrogen and oxygen in the biogas, incidentally. Contaminants may include one or more of water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, sulfur compounds (especially hydrogen sulfide), halogenated hydrocarbons, siloxanes, other volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals.

[0015] Another source of carbon dioxide is the carbon dioxide associated with ethanol production, particularly from biomass such as corn. Currently, the carbon dioxide produced by this process is relatively pure, but still requires further purification before it can be used, for example, as food-grade carbon dioxide. The systems and methods described herein can utilize the carbon dioxide produced by ethanol production, as is, for example, without purification. The carbon dioxide only needs to be treated to make it suitable for transportation, and if transported as a gas, the carbon dioxide only needs to be pressurized. In certain embodiments, the systems or methods described herein utilize carbon dioxide produced at an ethanol production facility, such as a corn ethanol production facility. One or more systems may be implemented at the facility, for example, to allow the carbon dioxide to be transported or to store the carbon dioxide. In certain embodiments, the systems or methods described herein include one or more ethanol production facilities and / or one or more systems within the ethanol production facility (e.g., a system to allow the carbon dioxide produced by the ethanol production facility to be transported and / or a system to store the carbon dioxide). The transportation can be performed as described elsewhere herein. Additionally or alternatively, the system further comprises one or more purification systems to purify the carbon dioxide before making it suitable for transport, processing, and / or use. This is advantageous when the required equipment for handling the carbon dioxide requires carbon dioxide of a particular purity (e.g., when the equipment for handling the carbon dioxide requires food and beverage grade carbon dioxide). The purification system can be configured to produce carbon dioxide at any suitable purity according to the requirements of the equipment (e.g., at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 99.9, 99.99, 99.999, or 100% purity).

[0016] The carbon dioxide is optionally transported to one or more sites where at least a portion of the carbon dioxide is sequestered. Sequestration is accomplished, for example, by subjecting the carbon dioxide to a chemical reaction or a reaction product of the carbon dioxide to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. The resulting product or products may be non-permanent sequestration products, such as paints, fuels, and the like. In certain embodiments, the product or products may be permanent sequestration products, such as mineralization products, and the like. Permanent sequestration of carbon dioxide may include converting the carbon dioxide to a thermodynamically stable product. In mineralization, the carbon dioxide may be converted to a thermodynamically stable solid.

[0017] In certain cases, the carbon dioxide, or a portion thereof, is converted to a thermodynamically stable product that is, or is part of, a commercially valuable product that can be used in one or more industries.

[0018] In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide, or a portion thereof, is used in one or more processes or systems related to concrete products. A site where one or more concrete products are manufactured or processed may be referred to herein as a "concrete manufacturing site."

[0019] In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide from one or more carbon dioxide sources (e.g., carbon dioxide containing one or more contaminants as described herein), or a portion thereof, is used to carbonate the mixing concrete mix. This is typically done during its initial mixing (e.g., during and / or immediately after adding water to dry cement). In such embodiments, carbon dioxide can be provided to the mixing concrete mix in any suitable form (e.g., as a mixture of solid and gaseous carbon dioxide (e.g., can be produced from liquid carbon dioxide)). Any suitable amount of carbon dioxide may be used, for example, 0.001-10% by weight of cement (bwc), 0.001-5%, 0.001-3%, 0.001-2%, 0.001-1.5%, 0.001-1.0%, 0.001-0.8%, 0.001-0.5%, 0.001-0.1%, 0.005-10%, 0.005-5%, 0.005-3%, 0.005-2%, 0.005-1.5%, 0.005-1.0%, 0.005-0.8%, 0.005-0.5%, 0.005-0.1%, 0.01-10%, 0.01-5%, 0.005-0.1%, 0.01-5%, 0.005-0.2%, 0.005-0.1%, 0.01-10%, 0.01-5%, 0.005-0.2 ... 0.01-3%, 0.01-2%, 0.01-1.5%, 0.01-1.0%, 0.01-0.8%, 0.01-0.5%, 0.01-0.1%, 0.1-10%, 0.1-5%, 0.1-3%, 0.1-2%, 0.1-1.5%, 0.1-1.4%, 0.1-1.3%, 0.1-1.2%, 0.1-1.0%, 0.1-0.9%, 0.1-0.8%, 0.1-0.7%, 0.1-0.6%, 0.1-0.5%, 0.1-0.4%, 0.1-0.3%, or 0.1-0.2% bwc, or any other suitable range may be used. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the mixing concrete mix at an addition amount of 0.01-3%, such as 0.01-1.5%, or alternatively 0.01-1% bwc. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the mixing concrete mix at an addition amount of 0.05-3%, such as 0.05-1.5%, or alternatively 0.05-1% bwc.In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the concrete mix during mixing at an amount of 0.1-3%, for example 0.1-1.5%, or 0.1-1% bwc. Of course, for these amounts, the amount refers to the amount of carbon dioxide provided to the concrete and does not include atmospheric carbon dioxide that may be absorbed into the mix during mixing. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the cement and water mixture (aggregates and other ingredients may also be used), or provided after carbonation of the cement / water mixture, or provided after partial carbonation of the cement / water mixture. Suitable systems for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing are present in situ. Such systems are, for example, systems that convert liquid carbon dioxide to solid and gaseous carbon dioxide and provide the solid and gaseous carbon dioxide to the mixed concrete (e.g., systems described in WO2020124054). Further processes and apparatus for use in carbonating the concrete mix during mixing and the cement mix during mixing are described in more detail in US Pat. No. 10,927,042.

[0020] Alternatively or additionally, carbon dioxide from one or more carbon dioxide sources (e.g., carbon dioxide containing one or more contaminants as described herein) or a portion thereof is used to carbonate the wet concrete mix. This is done after its initial mixing. Such a concrete mix may be, for example, a batch that does not meet the quality control at the concrete production facility, or may be concrete produced in excess of the amount used at the job site and returned to the concrete production facility, or the like. Such wet concrete may require mixing or stirring to maintain fluidity and retard setting and hardening, but is not considered a "concrete mix during mixing" as described above (this embodiment refers to the initial mixing of the concrete ingredients). In such an embodiment, the carbon dioxide may be provided to the concrete mix in any suitable form (e.g., as a mixture of solid and gaseous carbon dioxide (e.g., can be produced from liquid carbon dioxide)). Any suitable amount of carbon dioxide may be used, but the amount added is often greater than the amount that can be used in the mixed concrete, for example. This is because there is no need to maintain the workability of the concrete (e.g., returned to the facility), since it is not poured at the job site or otherwise dispensed into a mold or container to be adapted.Therefore, suitable ranges of addition amounts are, for example, 0.001-20%, 0.001-10%, 0.001-5%, 0.001-3%, 0.001-2%, 0.001-1.5%, 0.001-1.0%, 0.001-0.8%, 0.001-0.5%, 0.001-0.1%, 0.005-20%, 0.005-10%, 0.005-5%, 0.005-3%, 0.005-2%, 0.005-1.5%, 0.005-1.0%, 0.005-0.8%, 0.005-0.5%, 0.005-0.1%, 0.01-20%, 0.01-10%, 0.0 1-5%, 0.01-3%, 0.01-2%, 0.01-1.5%, 0.01-1.0%, 0.01-0.8%, 0.01-0.5%, 0.01-0.1%, 0.1-20%, 0.1-10%, 0.1-5%, 0.1-3%, 0.1-2%, 0.1-1.5%, 0.1-1.4%, 0.1-1.3%, 0.1-1.2%, 0.1-1.0%, 0.1-0.9%, 0.1-0.8%, 0.1-0.7%, 0.1-0.6%, 0.1-0.5%, 0.1-0.4%, 0.1-0.3%, or 0.1-0.2% bwc, or other appropriate range. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the concrete mix during mixing in an amount of 0.01-6%, such as 0.01-3%, alternatively 0.01-2%, and in certain cases 0.01-1% bwc. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the concrete mix during mixing in an amount of 0.05-6%, such as 0.05-3%, alternatively 0.05-2%, and in certain cases 0.05-1% bwc. In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is provided to the concrete mix during mixing in an amount of 0.1-6%, such as 0.1-3%, alternatively 0.1-2%, and in certain cases 0.1-1% bwc. Of course, in the case of these amounts, the amount refers to the amount of carbon dioxide provided to the concrete and does not include atmospheric carbon dioxide that may be absorbed by the mix during mixing. Typically, the wet mix thus treated is hardened and processed, for example to produce aggregates for future concrete batches. Suitable systems exist for carbonating wet concrete mixes.If the site is already equipped with a system for carbonating the concrete mix while it is being mixed, the same or a similar system may be used to carbonate the wet concrete mix, although typically a different but similar system is used (e.g., a system that converts liquid carbon dioxide to gaseous and solid carbon dioxide and delivers the gaseous and solid carbon dioxide to the wet concrete mix).

[0021] Alternatively or additionally, carbon dioxide (e.g., carbon dioxide containing one or more contaminants as described herein) or a portion thereof from one or more carbon dioxide sources is used to carbonate the recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). Carbonation of RCA is well known and any suitable method can be used. In certain cases, the aggregate is carbonated in a vessel. The RCA is placed in a vessel, into which gaseous carbon dioxide (e.g., carbon dioxide as described herein, e.g., containing one or more contaminants) is then introduced. The introduction is generally carried out at a pressure or above sufficient to expel most or all of the air in the vessel. In certain embodiments, the RCA is placed in a vessel and partially or completely covered with water (which may be carbonated wash water or clarified carbonated wash water, as described in the next section), and carbon dioxide is either pre-present in the water (in solution and / or in reacted form, such as carbonic acid or products of carbonic acid) or is added to the water, or both. The RCA is then carbonated with carbon dioxide water and / or carbon dioxide water reaction products. The amount added can be any one of those disclosed in WO2020217232. Of course, for these amounts of addition, the amount refers to the amount of carbon dioxide supplied to the RCA, and does not include atmospheric carbon dioxide that may also be absorbed by the RCA during processing. For further description of carbonation of RCA, see WO2020217232. The carbonated RCA can be used in any suitable manner (e.g., reuse in subsequent concrete batches, for road fill layers, etc.). For carbonation of RCA, suitable systems exist as described (e.g., air tanks, water tanks, or any suitable system).

[0022] Alternatively or additionally, carbon dioxide from one or more carbon dioxide sources (e.g., carbon dioxide containing one or more contaminants as described herein) is used to carbonate concrete wash water. In concrete manufacturing operations, wash water is generated during various aspects of concrete production, transportation, and use, such as water used on-site to flush drums after concrete has been poured and to keep remaining concrete from setting or hardening, and / or water returned to the batch site to flush drums, which generally are not allowed to be returned untreated to the environment. As the context makes clear, "wash water" includes water used to wash drums of ready mix trucks and / or other mixer trucks (containing cement and aggregates), as well as water that still contains solids, such as cementitious solids, after aggregate has been removed, for example, in a reclaimer. Typically, at least a portion of such solids is retained in the wash water, in some cases, for reuse in a subsequent concrete batch. Carbon dioxide can be used to treat the wash water (e.g., to make it suitable for disposal in a water disposal system). In certain embodiments, the wash water may be carbonated and used as at least a portion or even all of the mix water for a subsequent batch. In some cases, no further treatment of the wash water beyond carbonation is required to make it suitable for use as the mix water for a subsequent batch. In certain embodiments, the wastewater (wash water) is carbonated before it is used in a subsequent concrete batch from which no more than 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 95% of the residual solids have been removed. In certain embodiments, no residual solids have been removed at all. The carbonated wash water may be combined with non-wash water (e.g., normal mix water) prior to or during use in a subsequent concrete batch to provide the total amount of water used in the batch. In certain embodiments, the carbonated wash water constitutes at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 99% of the total amount of water used in the batch.In certain embodiments, 100% of the total amount of water used in the batch is carbonated wash water (excluding water used to flush equipment and excluding water added in the operation before or during pouring of the concrete mix, if any). The amount of carbon dioxide added (either a single truck or a combination of two or more trucks) used in the wash water can be expressed as an amount by weight solids (where the percentage of cement and other carbon dioxide reactive or carbon dioxide absorbing materials are known or estimated, and / or the efficiency of carbonation is known or estimated), for example, at least 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, or 95% carbon dioxide by weight solids, and / or up to 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100% carbon dioxide by weight solids. Higher addition amounts (e.g., greater than 100% by weight solids) may be used depending on the cement content of the wash water, the expected carbonation efficiency, etc. Reusing the carbonated wash water can save disposal costs and equipment and can provide additional benefits in the concrete batch in which it is used (e.g., provide some usable cement and therefore less new cement needed in the batch and / or increase the strength of the concrete, which can lead to a further reduction in the amount of cement needed, compared to the same mix made without the carbonated wash water). The use of the carbonated wash water in the concrete mix during mixing can be supplemented by carbonation of the mix, as described above. Alternatively or additionally, the carbonated wash water may be used as is or after further suitable treatment, as a source of water to soak recycled concrete aggregate for carbonation (see next section) and / or as an additional source of water that can be added to the wet concrete mix before, during, or after carbonation.Of course, for these amounts of addition, the amount refers to the amount of carbon dioxide provided to the wash water and does not include atmospheric carbon dioxide that may be absorbed by the wash water during mixing. Systems for carbonating the wash water (e.g., by providing gaseous carbon dioxide to carbonate it) exist on-site, for example systems that carbonate the wash water in a recirculation loop attached to a holding tank or similar vessel. Processes and apparatus for carbonating the wash water are further described in WO2018232507.

[0023] In certain embodiments, a system and / or method is provided that includes a biogas facility and a direct air capture (DAC) facility. The methane produced in the biogas facility typically needs to be processed and further purified to meet standards for introduction into a supply pipeline. A portion of this crude methane can be combusted. The heat from the combustion of this crude methane can be used 1) to generate electricity (e.g., in a steam-driven generator) and / or 2) as a heat source for regenerating the carbon dioxide sorbent used in the DAC facility (where the sorbent is regenerated (i.e., releases captured carbon dioxide and becomes reusable for capturing additional carbon dioxide) in a process that utilizes a temperature swing, alone or in combination with other processes known in the art). It will be appreciated that even when the heat produced by the combustion of methane is used to generate electricity, a certain amount of waste heat is still produced that can be used to regenerate the sorbent. Heat can be generated in sufficient quantities to be directly used for sorbent regeneration. In certain embodiments, a heat pump can be used to provide a sufficient temperature increase for sorbent regeneration, but typically the heat from the combustion of crude methane can be sufficient to perform sorbent regeneration without a heat pump. In general, a DAC facility includes a system for moving air (e.g., a fan), a system for removing water from the air (e.g., a dehumidifier or desiccant), and a carbon dioxide absorption system (which typically includes a sorbent (e.g., an amine sorbent) that reversibly binds carbon dioxide). One or more of these systems utilize energy to power the process (e.g., a fan moves the air). Thus, methane combustion at a biogas facility can be combined with carbon dioxide capture and release at a DAC facility, where the combustion of methane (e.g., from the crude methane) provides one or both of the electricity to drive one or more elements of the DAC facility's system (e.g., a fan and / or other equipment or processes that require electrical energy) and / or provides heat (e.g., waste heat) to regenerate the carbon dioxide sorbent (e.g., an amine sorbent). The carbon dioxide adsorbent then becomes capable of absorbing further carbon dioxide.Carbon dioxide from the combustion of methane may be added to the carbon dioxide already produced by the biogas facility (which has been treated as described herein), and carbon dioxide released from the sorbent of the DAC system may also be added to that carbon dioxide.

[0024] Each of the above processes and the corresponding systems for carrying out the processes may be at the same site or at different sites. For example, a concrete production site may incorporate one, two, three, or all four of the following four systems: a system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing, a system for carbonating concrete wash water (typically at least a portion of the carbonated wash water is used as mixing water in a subsequent concrete batch), a system for carbonating the wet concrete mix, and / or a system for carbonating the RCA. Often, one, two, or all three of the first system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing, the second system for carbonating the concrete wash water, and / or the third system for carbonating the wet concrete mix are at a single site. Often, a concrete production site incorporates only a system for carbonating the RCA, e.g., exclusively carbonating the RCA, which can then be sent, e.g., to other concrete production sites for use, or to other sites for use (e.g., roadbeds). In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a system for carbonating the concrete wash water. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a system for carbonating the wet concrete mix. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a system for carbonating the RCA. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a first system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing and a second system for carbonating the concrete wash water. In certain of these embodiments, the site may further incorporate a third system for carbonating the wet concrete mix. In certain embodiments, the site may alternatively incorporate a third system for carbonating the RCA.In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a first system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing and a second system for carbonating the wet concrete mix. In certain embodiments, the site may further incorporate a third system for carbonating the RCA. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a first system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing and a second system for carbonating the RCA. The RCA carbonation site may be a separate site or may be incorporated into the concrete production site. In certain embodiments, the concrete production site incorporates a first system for carbonating the concrete mix during mixing, a second system for carbonating the concrete wash water, a third system for carbonating the wet concrete mix, and a fourth system for carbonating the RCA.

[0025] Carbon dioxide from a particular carbon dioxide source may be used at only one concrete production site or at more than one site, for example at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, or 50 concrete production sites and / or up to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, 50, or 100 concrete production sites. Each concrete production site, whether a single site or one of multiple sites, may use carbon dioxide from a particular carbon dioxide source in one, two, three, or all four of the mixed concrete carbonation, wet concrete carbonation, concrete aggregate carbonation, and / or wash water carbonation. Additionally or alternatively, a particular concrete production site may use carbon dioxide from only one carbon dioxide source, or may use carbon dioxide from more than one carbon dioxide source, for example, at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, or 50 carbon dioxide sources and / or up to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, 50, or 100 carbon dioxide sources. Of course, any suitable combination of multiple carbon dioxide sources and multiple concrete production sites is encompassed by the embodiments described herein. Thus, in certain embodiments, a single carbon dioxide producing site (e.g., a single biogas plant, a single ethanol plant, a single hydrogen production plant, or a single DAC plant or site, or other suitable carbon dioxide source as described herein (in certain embodiments, having a system that allows carbon dioxide to be transported on-site)) delivers carbon dioxide (e.g., carbon dioxide with one or more pollutants as described herein) to a single concrete production site. A single concrete production site may incorporate one, two, three, or all four of the systems: a system for carbonating mixed concrete, a system for carbonating wet concrete, a system for carbonating RCA, and / or a system for carbonating wash water.In certain embodiments, each of the multiple carbon dioxide producing sites may be a biogas plant, an ethanol plant, a hydrogen production plant, or a DAC plant or site, or other suitable carbon dioxide producing site as described herein (which in certain embodiments have a system that allows carbon dioxide to be transported on-site), where the multiple carbon dioxide producing sites deliver carbon dioxide (e.g., carbon dioxide with one or more contaminants as described herein) to a single concrete production site. The single concrete production site may incorporate one, two, three, or all four of a system for carbonating mixed concrete, a system for carbonating wet concrete, a system for carbonating RCA, and / or a system for carbonating wash water.

[0026] In embodiments where carbon dioxide is used in one or more reactions, for example, where the carbon dioxide is sequestered (e.g., permanently sequestered, such as in a concrete manufacturing process or facility), the carbon dioxide may be used as is, i.e., in the form as supplied (optionally after being treated to make it suitable for transport from its production facility or other facility to a sequestration facility) including any contaminants that travel with the carbon dioxide. In some cases, the carbon dioxide may be treated to remove at least a portion of the contaminant or contaminants. In general, however, it is desirable for the contaminants to remain in the carbon dioxide unless the contaminant or combination of contaminants significantly interferes with the carbonation process or other processes for using the cement / concrete / concrete product, or unless the contaminant or combination of contaminants is not toxic and could be released to the environment at unacceptable levels during or after the carbonation process. What happens to the contaminants in the carbon dioxide used for carbonation in that or other forms of carbonation may vary depending on the contaminant itself (e.g., the chemical nature of the contaminant) and / or the carbonation method and materials. In some cases, the contaminant may itself undergo a chemical reaction or other process to become a thermodynamically stable product. In some cases, the contaminant may not become a thermodynamically stable product. In such cases, the contaminant may be trapped (e.g., physically trapped within the concrete) to reduce the likelihood of it being released, at least during the life of the concrete. In some cases, the contaminant may be released to the environment (e.g., air) or wastewater, etc. Release is permitted unless the contaminant is one for which such release is prohibited, or is prohibited from being released above certain levels (and releases are below such levels), or such release is undesirable.In this case, many substances classified as "contaminants" of carbon dioxide are not toxic or not significantly toxic, but simply render the carbon dioxide less or of no value for, for example, an intended use (e.g., certain industrial uses such as welding), while providing no or no significant toxicity when released to the atmosphere or otherwise released to the environment. Thus, carbon dioxide may be used in this or other carbonation processes (e.g., processes described herein) that are not of a purity suitable for a particular use, such as carbon dioxide that is not food grade (e.g., less than 99.90% purity) or that is not industrial grade (e.g., not welding carbon dioxide, which would generally require 99.5% purity), but that are considered to be of sufficient purity for the carbonation process (e.g., processes described herein) and that do not release significant amounts (e.g., amounts above regulatory levels) of contaminants that may be of environmental and / or health concern to the environment, in some cases.

[0027] In certain embodiments, carbon dioxide from a biogas facility is used, and / or the biogas facility itself is used, and / or a system is used in one or more biogas facilities to separate the carbon dioxide and / or make it suitable for transport.

[0028] Specific embodiments In a first embodiment, a method of carbon removal is provided, the method comprising: (i) providing either: (a) carbon dioxide from a gas comprising carbon dioxide and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material at a first site, at least a portion of which is separated from the methane to produce a carbon dioxide portion and a methane portion; or (b) providing carbon dioxide from a composition produced by direct air capture of carbon dioxide at a second site, the carbon dioxide being obtained by separating at least a portion of the carbon dioxide from the composition; and (ii) at a third site, subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion, or a reaction product thereof, to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products, and sequestrating at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion. In a second embodiment, the method of the first embodiment is provided, where the first and second sites are different from the third site. In a third embodiment, the method of the second embodiment is provided, further comprising, if necessary, processing the carbon dioxide at the first site and / or the second site to make it suitable for transport, and transporting the carbon dioxide to the third site. In a fourth embodiment, there is provided the method of the third embodiment, wherein the first and / or second site is within 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 700, or 1000 miles of the third site. In a fifth embodiment, there is provided the method of the fourth embodiment, wherein the first and / or second site is within 250 miles of the third site.In a sixth embodiment, the method further comprises providing carbon dioxide derived from gas comprising carbon dioxide and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material, where at least a portion of the carbon dioxide has been separated from the methane to produce a carbon dioxide portion and a methane portion at one or more additional sites different from the first site (e.g., at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 sites different from the first site); and / or providing carbon dioxide produced by direct air capture of carbon dioxide at one or more additional sites different from the second site (e.g., at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 sites different from the second site). and / or at one or more additional sites distinct from the third site (e.g., at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 sites distinct from the third site), chemically reacting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion or a reaction product thereof provided by the first site and optionally additional sites similar to the first site, and / or the second site and optionally additional sites similar to the second site to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products and sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion. In a seventh embodiment, the method of the sixth embodiment is provided, wherein at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion from the first, second, and / or further site is sequestered in one or more further sites similar to the third site. In an eighth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to seventh embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide portion of (i)(a) comprises one or more contaminants. In a ninth embodiment, the method of the eighth embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide is unsuitable as food-grade carbon dioxide due to the nature and / or concentration of the contaminants. In a tenth embodiment, the method of the eighth or ninth embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants comprise organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof. In an eleventh embodiment, the method of any one of the eighth to tenth embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises 0.01-10% (e.g., % w / w) of contaminants. In a twelfth embodiment, the method of any one of the eighth to tenth embodiments is provided, wherein the contaminants are present at a total concentration of at least 0.001, 0.01, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.49, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 20% (e.g., % w / w), e.g., at a total concentration of at least 0.09%, or in some cases at a total concentration of at least 0.49%, e.g., in some cases at a total concentration of at least 0.99%. In a thirteenth embodiment, the method of any one of the eighth to twelfth embodiments is provided, wherein at least a portion of the one or more contaminants is sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a fourteenth embodiment, the method of the thirteenth embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants are permanently sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a fifteenth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to fourteenth embodiments is provided, wherein the organic material comprises landfill waste, wastewater treatment products (e.g., sewage sludge), animal manure, food waste, agricultural residues, forestry and / or forest product residues, energy crops, municipal solid waste, or a combination thereof.In a sixteenth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to fifteenth embodiments is provided, where the one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprise a short-term sequestration product (e.g., fuel, etc.). In a seventeenth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to fifteenth embodiments is provided, where the one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprise a permanent sequestration product. In an eighteenth embodiment, the method of the seventeenth embodiment is provided, where the one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprise a mineralization product. In a nineteenth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to fifteenth embodiments is provided, where the one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprise one or more carbonated concrete production products. In a twentieth embodiment, the method of the nineteenth embodiment is provided, where the carbonated concrete production products comprise carbonated concrete, carbonated concrete wash water, carbonated recycled concrete aggregate, or a combination thereof. In a twenty-first embodiment, the method of any one of the first to twenty-first embodiments is provided, further comprising quantifying the carbon dioxide removal. In a twenty-second embodiment, the method of the twenty-first embodiment is provided, further comprising obtaining carbon credits based on the quantified amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere. In a twenty-third embodiment, the method of any one of the first to twenty-second embodiments is provided, where the digital information of the capture site and the utilization / storage site is shared. In a twenty-fourth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to twenty-third embodiments is provided, where at least a portion of the chemical reaction involves the formation of a non-covalent bond. In a twenty-fifth embodiment, the method of any one of the first to twenty-third embodiments is provided, where at least a portion of the chemical reaction involves the formation of a covalent bond.

[0029] In a twenty-sixth embodiment, there is provided a method comprising: (i) providing carbon dioxide containing 0.001, 0.01, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.49, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 20% (e.g., % w / w) contaminant, e.g., at least 0.09% contaminant, or optionally at least 0.49% contaminant, e.g., optionally at least 0.99% contaminant; and (ii) subjecting the carbon dioxide or a reaction product thereof to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products and sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide. In a twenty-seventh embodiment, the method of the twenty-sixth embodiment is provided, in which the one or more contaminants include one or more of organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, halogenated hydrocarbons, other volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, or combinations thereof. In a twenty-eighth embodiment, the method of the twenty-sixth or twenty-seventh embodiment is provided, in which at least a portion of the one or more contaminants is sequestered (e.g., permanently sequestered). In a twenty-ninth embodiment, the method of any one of the twenty-sixth to twenty-eighth embodiments is provided, in which the one or more contaminants include one or more of organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof. In a thirtieth embodiment, the method of any one of the twenty-sixth to twenty-ninth embodiments is provided, in which carbon dioxide is produced during ethanol production, biogas production, hydrogen production, direct air capture, or combinations thereof. A thirty-first embodiment provides the method of any one of the twenty-sixth to thirty embodiments, wherein sequestration comprises contacting the carbon dioxide with concrete or a concrete product.

[0030] In a thirty-second embodiment, a method is provided that includes (i) providing a carbon dioxide-containing gas, the carbon dioxide comprising carbon dioxide derived directly or indirectly from atmospheric carbon dioxide, and (ii) subjecting the carbon dioxide or a reaction product thereof to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products to sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide. In a thirty-third embodiment, the method of the thirty-second embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises one or more contaminants. In a thirty-fourth embodiment, the method of the thirty-third embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants are present at a total concentration of at least 0.001, 0.01, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.49, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 20% (e.g., % w / w), such as at a total concentration of at least 0.09%, or optionally at a total concentration of at least 0.49%, such as optionally at a total concentration of at least 0.99%. In a thirty-fifth embodiment, the method of any one of the thirty-second to thirty-fourth embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises carbon dioxide obtained by DAC. In a thirty-sixth embodiment, the method of any one of the thirty-second to thirty-fourth embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material. In a thirty-seventh embodiment, the method of any one of the thirty-second to thirty-fourth embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises carbon dioxide produced during ethanol production (e.g., ethanol production from a biomass crop such as corn). In a thirty-eighth embodiment, the method of any one of the thirty-second to thirty-fourth embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises carbon dioxide produced during H2 production (e.g., H2 production from biomass). In a thirty-ninth embodiment, the method of any one of the thirty-second to thirty-eighth embodiments is provided, wherein the sequestering comprises contacting the carbon dioxide with concrete or a concrete product. Further details regarding contacting the carbon dioxide with the concrete or a concrete product are as described herein.

[0031] In a fortieth embodiment, a carbon removal system is provided comprising: (i) a carbon dioxide production facility including a source of carbon dioxide obtained directly or indirectly from the atmosphere and optionally including a system for processing the carbon dioxide suitable for transport; and (ii) a sequestration plant to which the carbon dioxide is optionally transported, the sequestration plant including one or more systems for carrying out one or more processes to combine the carbon dioxide or one or more carbon dioxide reaction products with one or more reactants to produce one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a fortieth embodiment, the system of the fortieth embodiment is provided, wherein the source is a biogenic carbon dioxide source. In a fortieth embodiment, the system of the fortieth embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide production facility comprises a biogas plant. In a forty-third embodiment, the system of the forty-second embodiment is provided, wherein the biogas plant comprises a landfill gas (LFG) biogas plant, an animal manure biogas plant, a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plant, a food waste biogas plant, an agricultural residue biogas plant, a forestry and / or forest product residue biogas plant, an energy crop biogas plant, a municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plant, a renewable power biogas plant, or a combination thereof. In a forty-fourth embodiment, the system of any one of the forty-first to forty-third embodiments is provided, wherein the sequestration plant comprises a concrete manufacturing plant, a concrete product processing plant, or a combination thereof. In a forty-fifth embodiment, the system of any one of the forty-fifth to forty-fourth embodiments is provided, comprising a plurality (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10) sources of atmospheric or biogenic carbon dioxide, and / or a plurality (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10) of sequestration plants.In a 46th embodiment, there is provided a system of any one of the 40th to 45th embodiments, wherein one or more of the atmospheric or biogenic carbon dioxide sources and one or more of the sequestration plants are all located within a radius of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 700, or 1000 miles. In a 47th embodiment, there is provided a system of the 46th embodiment, wherein one or more of the atmospheric or biogenic carbon dioxide sources and one or more of the sequestration plants are within a radius of 250 miles. In a 48th embodiment, there is provided a system according to the 44th embodiment, optionally comprising a plurality of atmospheric or biogenic carbon dioxide sources and / or a plurality of concrete production plants or a plurality of concrete product processing plants or a plurality of concrete production plants and a plurality of concrete product processing plants, wherein the one or more systems for processing carbon dioxide in each of the concrete production plants or the concrete product processing plants include a system for supplying at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a concrete mix being mixed, a system for supplying at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a wet concrete mix, a system for supplying at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to concrete wash water, a system for supplying at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to recycled concrete aggregate, or a combination thereof, and optionally two or more (e.g., three) or all four of the systems are different from each other. In a 49th embodiment, there is provided a system according to any one of the 40th to 48th embodiments, wherein the system for making carbon dioxide transportable liquefies carbon dioxide. In a 50th embodiment, there is provided a system according to any one of the 40th to 49th embodiments, wherein the one or more systems for making carbon dioxide transportable at the source and the one or more systems for carrying out the one or more processes are owned or controlled by a single entity. In a fifty-first embodiment, there is provided a system of any one of the fortieth to fifty embodiments, further comprising a component for quantifying the net carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere and generating carbon credits.

[0032] In a fifty-second embodiment, there is provided a composition comprising a concrete material, a carbon dioxide reaction product, and one or more pollutants, wherein the one or more pollutants are produced in a process for directly or indirectly removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

[0033] In a fifty-third embodiment, there is provided a method of sequestering carbon dioxide comprising: (i) providing carbon dioxide produced in the production of hydrogen; and (ii) combining the carbon dioxide with the carbon dioxide via one or more reactants, or with a carbon dioxide reaction product and one or more reactants, to produce one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products, thereby sequestering the carbon dioxide.

[0034] In a fifty-fourth embodiment, there is provided a method of sequestering a composition comprising carbon dioxide and one or more impurities, wherein the one or more impurities comprise one or more of organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, halogenated hydrocarbons, other volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, or combinations thereof, and optionally one or more of organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof, the method comprising reacting the composition with one or more concrete products to form one or more compositions in which at least a portion of the carbon dioxide and one or more impurities are permanently sequestered.

[0035] In a fifty-fifth embodiment, a method of carbon removal is provided, the method of carbon removal comprising: (i) providing carbon dioxide from a carbon dioxide-containing gas, the carbon dioxide in the gas being carbon dioxide obtained at a first site by direct or indirect capture from the atmosphere; (ii) optionally processing the carbon dioxide to make it suitable for transport; (iii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a second site; and (iv) subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion, or a reaction product thereof, to a chemical reaction at the second site to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products to sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide. In a fifty-sixth embodiment, the method of the fifty-fifth embodiment is provided, wherein the second site comprises a concrete manufacturing site, and at least a portion of the carbon dioxide is sequestered by carbonation of one or more concrete products. In a 57th embodiment, the method of the 56th embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide portion or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises at least one of (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In a 58th embodiment, the method of the 56th embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide portion or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises at least two of (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate.In a fifty-ninth embodiment, the method of the fifty-sixth embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide portion or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises at least three of (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In a sixtieth embodiment, the method of the fifty-sixth embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide portion or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In a sixtieth embodiment, the method of any one of the fifty-seventh to sixtieth embodiments is provided, wherein at least a portion of the carbonated wash water is used as mixing water in a batch of concrete. In a 62nd embodiment, the method of any one of the 55-61 embodiments is provided, wherein the first site is within 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 700, or 1000 miles of the second site. In a 63rd embodiment, the method of the 62nd embodiment is provided, wherein the first site is within 250 miles of the second site. In a 64th embodiment, the method of any one of the 55-63 embodiments is provided, wherein one or more additional sites of the same type as the first site supply the carbon dioxide to be sequestered to the second site. In a 66th embodiment, the method of the 65th embodiment is provided, wherein one or more further sites, homogenous to the second site, sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion from the first site. In a 66th embodiment, the method of any one of the 55-65th embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide portion of (i) comprises one or more contaminants. In a 67th embodiment, the method of the 66th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide is unsuitable as food-grade carbon dioxide due to the nature and / or concentration of the contaminants. In a 68th embodiment, the method of the 65th or 66th embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants comprise organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof. In a 69th embodiment, the method of the 68th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises 0.01-10% (e.g., w / w) of contaminants. In a seventieth embodiment, the method of any of the sixty-fifth to sixty-ninth embodiments is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants are present at a total concentration of at least 0.001, 0.01, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.49, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 20% (e.g., % w / w), such as at least 0.09% total, or optionally at least 0.49% total, such as optionally at least 0.99% total. In a seventieth embodiment, the method of the sixty-ninth embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises at least 0.09% (e.g., w / w) contaminant. In a 71st embodiment, the method of the 69th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises at least 0.99% (e.g., w / w) of the contaminants. In a 72nd embodiment, the method of the 69th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises at least 2% (w / w) of the contaminants. In a 73rd embodiment, the method of any one of the 66th to 72nd embodiments is provided, wherein at least a portion of the one or more contaminants are sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a 74th embodiment, the method of the 62nd embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants are permanently sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products.In a seventy-fifth embodiment, the method of any one of the sixty-six to seventy-fourth embodiments is provided, in which the one or more contaminants are permanently sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a seventy-sixth embodiment, the method of any one of the fifty-fifth to seventy-fourth embodiments is provided, in which the first site comprises a biogas plant, an ethanol production plant, a direct air capture plant, a hydrogen production plant, or a combination thereof. In a seventy-seventh embodiment, the method of the seventy-sixth embodiment is provided, in which the first site comprises a biogas plant. In a seventy-eighth embodiment, the system of the seventy-seventh embodiment is provided, in which the biogas plant comprises a landfill gas (LFG) biogas plant, an animal manure biogas plant, a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plant, a food waste biogas plant, an agricultural residue biogas plant, a forestry and / or forest product residue biogas plant, an energy crop biogas plant, a municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plant, a renewable power biogas plant, or a combination thereof. A seventy-ninth embodiment provides the method of any of the fifty-fifth to seventy-eighth embodiments, wherein the concrete production site comprises a concrete production plant, a concrete product processing plant, or a combination thereof.

[0036] In an eightieth embodiment, a method is provided that includes (i) providing carbon dioxide derived from a gas comprising carbon dioxide and methane, the gas being produced at a first biogas site, (ii) optionally processing the carbon dioxide to make it suitable for transport, (iii) transporting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a first sequestration site, and (iv) subjecting a portion of the carbon dioxide, or a reaction product thereof, at the first sequestration site to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products to sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion. In an eighty first embodiment, a method is provided of the eightieth embodiment, where the second site includes a concrete manufacturing site, and where at least a portion of the carbon dioxide is sequestered by carbonation of one or more concrete products. In an 82nd embodiment, the method of the 81st embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises at least one of (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In an 83rd embodiment, the method of the 81st embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products comprises at least two of (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In an 84th embodiment, the method of the 81st embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide or a reaction product thereof to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products includes at least three of: (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing; (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix; (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water; and / or (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate.In an 85th embodiment, the method of the 81st embodiment is provided, wherein subjecting the carbon dioxide or a reaction product thereof to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products includes (a) carbonation of the concrete mix during mixing, (b) carbonation of the wet concrete mix, (c) carbonation of concrete wash water to obtain carbonated wash water, and (d) carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate. In an 86th embodiment, the method of any one of the 82-85th embodiments is provided, wherein at least a portion of the carbonated wash water is used as mixing water in a batch of concrete. In an 87th embodiment, the method of any one of the 80-86th embodiments is provided, wherein the first biogas site is within 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 700, or 1000 miles of the first sequestration site. In an 88th embodiment, the method of the 87th embodiment is provided, wherein the first biogas site is within 250 miles of the first sequestration site. In an 89th embodiment, we provide the method of any one of the 80th to 88th embodiments, further comprising the steps of: (v) providing carbon dioxide derived from a gas comprising carbon dioxide and methane, the gas being produced at a second biogas site and, optionally, at a third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth biogas site; (vi) optionally treating the carbon dioxide to make it suitable for transport; (vii) transporting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a first sequestration site; and (viii) subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion, or a reaction product thereof, to a chemical reaction at the first sequestration site to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products and sequestering at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion. In a 90th embodiment, we provide the method of the 89th embodiment, wherein the second biogas site and, optionally, the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth biogas site, if present, are different from each other. In a 91st embodiment, the method of any one of the 80-90 embodiments is provided, further comprising transporting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to the second sequestration site, and optionally further to the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth sequestration sites, and subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide or a reaction product thereof to a chemical reaction at the second sequestration site, and / or the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth sequestration site, if present, to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products, thereby partially sequestrating the carbon dioxide. In a 92nd embodiment, the method of the 91st embodiment is provided, wherein the second sequestration site, and / or the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth sequestration site, if present, comprises a concrete manufacturing site. In a 93rd embodiment, the method of the 91st or 92nd embodiment is provided, wherein the second isolation site and / or, if present, the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and / or tenth isolation sites are different from each other.In a 94th embodiment, the method of any one of the 80-93 embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide portion derived from the gas comprising carbon dioxide and methane comprises one or more contaminants. In a 95th embodiment, the method of the 94th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide is unsuitable as food-grade carbon dioxide due to the nature and / or concentration of the contaminants. In a 96th embodiment, the method of the 94th or 95th embodiment is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants comprise organic matter (e.g., fecal matter), one or more sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S, thiols), ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof. In a 97th embodiment, the method of any one of the 94-96 embodiments is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises 0.01-10% (e.g., % w / w) of contaminants. In a 98th embodiment, the method of at least one of the 94-96th embodiments is provided, wherein the one or more contaminants are present at a total concentration of at least 0.001, 0.01, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.49, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 20% (e.g., % w / w), such as at least 0.09%. In a 99th embodiment, the method of the 98th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises at least 0.99% contaminant. In a 100th embodiment, the method of the 98th embodiment is provided, wherein the carbon dioxide comprises at least 2% (w / w) contaminant. In a 101 embodiment, the method of any one of the 94-100 embodiments is provided, where at least a portion of the one or more contaminants are sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products. In a 102 embodiment, the method of any one of the 94-101 embodiments is provided, where the one or more contaminants are permanently sequestered in one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products.In a 103 embodiment, the method of any one of the 80 to 102 embodiments is provided, wherein the first biogas plant and / or the second, third, fourth biogas plants, if present, comprise a landfill gas (LFG) biogas plant, an animal manure biogas plant, a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plant, a food waste biogas plant, an agricultural residue biogas plant, a forestry and / or forest product residue biogas plant, an energy crop biogas plant, a municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plant, a renewable power biogas plant, or a combination thereof. In a 104 embodiment, the method of any one of the 92 to 103 embodiments is provided, wherein the first concrete production site and / or the second, third, fourth concrete production site comprise a concrete production plant, a concrete product processing plant, or a combination thereof.

[0037] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are merely exemplary. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions can be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. It will be appreciated that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein can be employed in the practice of the present invention. The following claims are intended to define the scope of the present invention and to define the methods and structures within the scope of the claims and their equivalents which are to be encompassed.

Claims

1. A method for removing carbon from the atmosphere, comprising: (i) providing carbon dioxide derived from gases including carbon dioxide and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material at a first site; (a) at least a portion of the carbon dioxide is separated from the methane to produce a carbon dioxide portion and a methane portion, the carbon dioxide portion comprising at least one contaminant; (b) optionally removing some or all of the contaminants from the carbon dioxide portion; and (c) liquefying the carbon dioxide portion to obtain liquid carbon dioxide; (ii) transporting the liquid carbon dioxide to a second site different from the first site; (iii) subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide or its reaction products to a chemical reaction at the second site to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products and sequestering at least a portion of the carbon dioxide portion, wherein the second site is a concrete production site; and thereby removing carbon from the atmosphere.

2. The method described in claim 1, wherein one or more further sites, different from and distinct from the first site, that produce gases including carbon dioxide and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of the organic material supply carbon dioxide to be sequestered to the second site.

3. 3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein one or more additional concrete production sites, distinct from the second site and distinct from each other, sequester at least a portion of the carbon dioxide from the first site.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the one or more contaminants comprise organics, one or more sulfur compounds, ammonia, siloxanes, or combinations thereof.

5. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the carbon dioxide contains 0.01 to 10% (w / w) of contaminants.

6. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the contaminants are present at a total concentration of at least 0.09%.

7. 7. The method of any one of claims 1 and 4-6, wherein at least a portion of the one or more pollutants is sequestered in the one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products.

8. The first site comprises a biogas plant, including a landfill gas (LFG) biogas plant, an animal manure biogas plant, a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plant, a food waste biogas plant, an agricultural residue biogas plant, a forestry and / or forest product residue biogas plant, an energy crop biogas plant, a municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plant, a renewable power biogas plant, or any combination thereof; The method of claim 1.

9. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the carbon dioxide sequestration product comprises carbonated concrete, carbonated concrete wash water, carbonated recycled concrete aggregate, or a combination thereof.

10. The method of claim 1, further comprising quantifying carbon removal.

11. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising earning carbon credits based on the quantitative value of the carbon removed from the atmosphere.

12. (i) a system for processing carbon dioxide produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic material at a first site into a form suitable for transportation; (ii) a sequestration system at a second site to which the carbon dioxide is delivered, the sequestration system comprising one or more systems for subjecting at least a portion of the carbon dioxide or its reaction products to a chemical reaction to form one or more carbon dioxide sequestration products, wherein the second site is a concrete manufacturing site; and 1. A system for removing carbon from the atmosphere, comprising:

13. The system of claim 12 , wherein the first site comprises a biogas plant.

14. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the biogas plant comprises a landfill gas (LFG) biogas plant, an animal manure biogas plant, a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) biogas plant, a food waste biogas plant, an agricultural residue biogas plant, a forestry and / or forest product residue biogas plant, an energy crop biogas plant, a municipal solid waste (MSW) biogas plant, a renewable power biogas plant, or a combination thereof.

15. A system as described in any one of claims 12 to 14, comprising multiple isolation plants at multiple concrete production sites.

16. A system described in any one of claims 12 to 14, wherein the first site and the second site are located within 500 miles of each other.

17. The system described in claim 16, wherein the first site and the second site are located within 250 miles of each other.

18. The system described in claim 12, wherein one or more systems for sequestering at least a portion of the carbon dioxide at the concrete manufacturing site include a system that supplies at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a concrete mix being mixed, a system that supplies at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to a wet concrete mix, a system that supplies at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to concrete wash water, a system that supplies at least a portion of the carbon dioxide to recycled concrete aggregate, or a combination thereof.

19. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the system for making carbon dioxide suitable for transportation liquefies carbon dioxide.

20. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the system for making carbon dioxide suitable for transport and the second on-site sequestration system are owned or controlled by a single entity.

21. 13. The system of claim 12, further comprising a component for quantifying the amount of pure carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere.

22. The method of claim 9, wherein the carbon dioxide sequestration product comprises carbonated concrete.

23. The method of claim 9, wherein the carbon dioxide sequestration product comprises carbonated concrete wash water.

24. The method of claim 9, wherein the carbon dioxide sequestration product comprises carbonated recycled concrete aggregate.

25. A system comprising a plurality of carbon removal systems described in claim 12.

26. A system for removing carbon from the atmosphere as described in claim 12, including multiple systems for processing carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material at multiple sites into a form suitable for transportation.