Separator, additive, energy storage device and electrode containing same, and method for manufacturing same

Abstract

Separators and additives (e.g., electrode additives) for use in energy storage devices are disclosed. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises inorganic particles. In certain embodiments, the additive comprises inorganic particles. The additive may be used in an electrode, such as the cathode or anode of a battery. The inorganic particles (whether included in the separator or used in (e.g., as) an additive for, for example, an electrode) may be functional inorganic particles that promote battery performance and / or safety. For example, the functional inorganic particles may act to reduce or eliminate side reactions or mitigate the effects of side reactions during electrochemical cycling of an energy storage device in which they are included (e.g., discharging and / or charging a battery). As another example, the functional inorganic particles can additionally or alternatively promote ionic conductivity.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 395,748, filed August 5, 2022, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0002] Technical Field FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The present disclosure relates generally to separators, electrode additives, and methods of making the same for use in energy storage devices. [Background technology]

[0003] background Energy storage devices, such as electrochemical cells, generally include multiple components, such as electrodes, electrolytes, and separators. Each of these components can contribute to the performance of the energy storage device as a whole. Furthermore, these components together generally result in a complex electrochemical environment. The complex electrochemical environment often leads to undesirable side reactions that reduce the performance and / or safety of the battery. Therefore, there is a need for separator and / or electrode compositions that promote favorable electrochemical reactions in energy storage devices (e.g., during charging and / or discharging of the battery). Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0004] overview Described herein are, among other things, separators and additives (e.g., electrode additives) for use in energy storage devices. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises inorganic particles. In certain embodiments, the additive comprises inorganic particles. The additive may be used in an electrode, such as the cathode or anode of a battery. The inorganic particles (whether included in the separator or used, for example, in an electrode additive (e.g., as an additive)) may be functional inorganic particles that promote battery performance and / or safety. For example, the functional inorganic particles may act to reduce or eliminate side reactions or mitigate the effects of side reactions during electrochemical cycling of an energy storage device in which they are included (e.g., discharging and / or charging a battery). As another example, the functional inorganic particles may additionally or alternatively promote ionic conductivity. In certain embodiments, the separator and / or additive comprise one or more functional materials, each comprising one or more organic ligands, one or more non-metal oxides, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises partially reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphite oxide, or a combination thereof.

[0005] In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a separator for an energy storage device, wherein the separator comprises inorganic particles and, optionally, one or more binders, wherein the one or more binders bind the inorganic particles (e.g., of one type or different types) together.

[0006] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are functional inorganic particles. In some embodiments, the separator is a solid or semi-solid (e.g., gel or gelatinous) layer (e.g., a surface layer). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are at least 50 wt.% of the separator (e.g., at least 60 wt.%, at least 70 wt.%, at least 80 wt.%, at least 90 wt.%, or at least 95 wt.%).

[0007] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles comprise one or more elements selected from the group consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, aluminum, silicon, and phosphorus (e.g., the one or more elements are at least 10 wt.% (e.g., at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of the inorganic particles) [e.g., the one or more elements are 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less) of the inorganic particles). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles comprise one or more metal atoms (e.g., the one or more metal atoms are at least 10 wt.% (e.g., at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of the inorganic particles) [e.g., the one or more metal atoms are 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less) of the inorganic particles). In some embodiments, the one or more metal atoms are selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and the like. The metal is selected from the group consisting of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

[0008] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are porous. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are microporous, mesoporous, macroporous, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a size of less than 2 nm). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a dimension of at least 2 nm and no greater than 50 nm). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a size greater than 50 nm). In some embodiments, each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) ranging from 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. In some embodiments, each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the inorganic particle. In some embodiments, the at least one channel in each of the inorganic particles connects to form a channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system extends across the entire separator [e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side)].

[0009] In some embodiments, the inorganic particle comprises one or more cage structures. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed at the intersection of pores of the inorganic particle. In some embodiments, each of the one or more cage structures has a size (e.g., diameter) ranging from 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 5 Å to 15 Å, 10 Å to 12 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 5 Å to 7 Å, or 6 Å to 7 Å). In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed within a one-dimensional pore. In some embodiments, one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within the one or more cage structures.

[0010] In some embodiments, the one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more pores of the inorganic particle (e.g., on the surface of the one or more pores (e.g., on the interior surface, near the opening, or both) (e.g., the one or more species are not covalently bound to the one or more pores). In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise water. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more gaseous species. In some embodiments, the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more cationic species. In some embodiments, the one or more cationic species are selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and ruthenium. In some embodiments, the one or more species are cationic forms of elements selected from the group consisting of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more anionic species.In some embodiments, the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetalate ions, and combinations thereof.

[0011] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles have a particle size of at least 10 m 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 / g) surface area.

[0012] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are M y Al x Si 1-x The particle or particles have a composition of O2·zH2O, where M is a metal. In some embodiments, x is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5) and y is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1). In some embodiments, x is in the range of 0.5 to 1 and y is in the range of 0 to 1. In some embodiments, z is in the range of 0 to 10,000.

[0013] In some embodiments, the polar sites are located on the surface of the inorganic particles (e.g., on the interior surfaces (e.g., of the pores)). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are crystalline or amorphous. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles have an average particle size (d 50In some embodiments, the inorganic particles comprise one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

[0014] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are prepared by a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30-250°C for 30 days or less. In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds with stirring. In some embodiments, the crystallization reaction is carried out without stirring. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor comprises a silica source and an alumina source. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor comprises a mineralizing agent, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

[0015] In some embodiments, the one or more binders comprise 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR). In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more binders comprises one or more binder additives. In some embodiments, the one or more binder additives comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents.

[0016] In some embodiments, the separator further comprises a conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, propylene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0017] In some embodiments, the separator is coated in situ or ex situ (e.g., by wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, doctor blade coating, dip coating, or a combination thereof) (e.g., by a liquid coating method) onto the electrode (e.g., anode, cathode, or both). In some embodiments, the separator is calendered (e.g., to increase adhesion strength, layer uniformity, or both), annealed, or both.

[0018] In some embodiments, the separator has a thickness in the range of 5 μm to 500 μm, hi some embodiments, the separator is a free-standing film.

[0019] The separator may be included in the energy storage device along with the two electrodes, the separator being disposed between the two electrodes such that the separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes. In some embodiments, the energy storage device further includes a second separator disclosed herein, the second separator being disposed between the two electrodes such that the second separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes.

[0020] In some embodiments, the energy storage device further includes an electrolyte (e.g., a solid or liquid (e.g., aqueous) electrolyte) (e.g., an ion-conducting matrix) disposed between the two electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a solid polymer electrolyte selected from the group consisting of: (i) a polymer including one or more repeating units of ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, analizarin, alginate, quinone, hydroxyquinone, hydroxyquinoline, silicon, silicate, and asulfone; (ii) a cellulosic, natural or modified natural polymer; and (iii) a synthetic fluorinated polymer (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)). In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a polymeric solid electrolyte, each of which is selected from the group consisting of M1 1- x N1 p or M1 2+ x N1 p or M1 3+ x N1 p or M1 4+ x N1 p or M1 1+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 3+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 4+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 3+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 4- y N1p or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y N1 p or M1 2+ x M2 4+ y N1 p or M1 3+ x M2 4+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 3+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 4+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M24+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 3+ x M2 4+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z N1p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 4+ z N1 p or M1 2+ x M2 3+y M3 4+ z N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 4- z N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y M3 4+ z N1 p N2 q or M1 1 +x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z M4 4+ s N1 p or M1 1 + xM2 2+ y M3 3+ z M4 4+ s N1 p N2 qwherein each M (e.g., M1, M2, M3, M4) is a monovalent or polyvalent atom, and each N (e.g., N1, N2) is a functional group (e.g., selected from the group consisting of hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite, sulfide, carbonate, phosphate, phosphide, and halide). In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises one or more of a salt, an acid, and a base. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises (i) a salt, the salt being an oxide, hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrous acid, sulfate, sulfurous acid, sulfide, carbonate, or the like of one or more of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, and copper. (ii) comprising an acid, wherein the acid is selected from the group consisting of phosphoric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfurous acid, triflic acid, hydrofluoric acid, peracetic acid, boric acid, uric acid, citric acid, hydroiodic acid, carbonic acid, oxalic acid, bromic acid, chromic acid, formic acid, ascorbic acid, and acetic acid; (iii) comprising a base, wherein the base is selected from the group consisting of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, cerium, tin, titanium, aluminum, ammonium, iron, indium, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, palladium, ruthenium, silver, vanadium, and copper; or (iv) any combination of (i), (ii), and (iii).In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises one or more ceramics selected from the group consisting of aluminum oxide, antimony ammonium tungstate oxide, barium titanate, strontium titanate, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, boron oxide, boron nitride, ferrite, lead zirconate titanate, magnesium diboride, porcelain, sialon, silicon, silicate, carbide, nitride, titanium carbide, uranium oxide, yttrium barium copper oxide, zinc oxide, cesium oxide, cerium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, tin oxide, iron oxide, tungsten oxide chloride, beryllium oxide, bismuth oxide, lithium oxide, lead oxide, manganese oxide, magnesium oxide, nickel oxide, titanium oxide, cadmium oxide, copper oxide, indium oxide, and silicon oxide. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a free-standing film or is applied to the separator and / or at least one of the two electrodes.

[0021] In some embodiments, at least one of the two electrodes comprises an electroactive material comprising an oxide, suboxide, sulfide, oxysulfide, phosphate, phosphide, carbide, or elemental form of an element selected from the group consisting of silicon, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, rhenium, tantalum, tungsten, bismuth, titanium, tin, antimony, manganese, nickel, aluminum, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, cobalt, chromium, indium, lanthanum, cerium, strontium, iron, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the electroactive material is modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements. In some embodiments, the one or more elements comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, iodine, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, arsenic, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, tellurium, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, and bismuth. In some embodiments, the one or more elements represent less than 50 wt.% (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the electroactive material.

[0022] In some embodiments, one of the two electrodes is disposed on a substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate is a carbon or metal structure. In some embodiments, the substrate is a foam, paper, aerogel, foil, fiber, nanostructure (e.g., nanoparticles), sheet, mesh, or stock. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises a polymeric material. In some embodiments, the polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPyr), polystyrene (PS), and polythiophene (PT).

[0023] In some embodiments, at least one of the two electrodes comprises a binder selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), and copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, at least one of the two electrodes comprises a conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerene, carbon aerogel, metal flakes, metal fibers, or metal particles, and conductive polymers. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0024] In some embodiments, at least one of the two electrodes comprises an additive material, and the additive is selected from the group consisting of metals, oxides, suboxides, hydroxides, oxidehydroxides, oxychlorides, sulfides, oxysulfides, oxynitrates, carbonates, nitrides, phosphates, phosphites, carbides, and polymers containing one or more members selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, and bismuth.

[0025] In some embodiments, the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell, or a capacitor. In some embodiments, the energy storage device is an aqueous battery (e.g., an aqueous secondary battery or an aqueous primary battery).

[0026] In some aspects, the present disclosure relates to a method for making inorganic particles for use in separators or as additives in energy storage devices, comprising conducting a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30-250°C for 30 days or less. In some embodiments, the method includes stirring the chemical precursor during the crystallization reaction. In some embodiments, the crystallization reaction is conducted without stirring. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor includes a silica source and an alumina source. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor further includes a mineralizer, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

[0027] In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a method of operating an energy storage device, the method comprising providing an energy storage device disclosed herein and trapping gas within the pores of the inorganic particles during charging and / or discharging of the energy storage device.

[0028] In some aspects, the present disclosure relates to methods of operating and / or preparing an energy storage device, the method comprising: providing an energy storage device, the energy storage device comprising inorganic particles comprising one or more members selected from the group consisting of silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, and combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) (e.g., in stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) form); reacting the one or more members with one or more species in the energy storage device (e.g., one or more portions thereof) to form one or more reaction products; and passivating a surface of a material in the energy storage device with the one or more reaction products (e.g., thereby inhibiting one or more undesired side reactions). In some embodiments, the reacting occurs during an electrochemical cycle (e.g., during charging and / or discharging) of the energy storage device (e.g., where the energy storage device is a primary or secondary battery). In some embodiments, the reacting occurs before complete assembly of the energy storage device (e.g., during a preconditioning process for the energy storage device). In some embodiments, the one or more reaction products include a polymeric species (e.g., polysilicate and / or polyphosphate). In some embodiments, the method includes reacting the one or more reaction products with a surface of the material. In some embodiments, reacting one or more members includes dissolving at least a portion of the inorganic particles (e.g., in an electrolyte of the energy storage device). In some embodiments, passivating the surface of the material includes precipitating polysilicate and / or polyphosphate on the surface. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the inorganic particles are included in a separator of the energy storage device. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the inorganic particles are included in an additive included in an electrode of the energy storage device (e.g., where the electrode is the anode or cathode, or the additive is included in both the anode and cathode).In some embodiments, the material is a metal. In some embodiments, the material is an electroactive material.

[0029] In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to an energy storage device (e.g., the inorganic particles are included in a separator and / or an electrode) comprising a material comprising one or more members selected from the group consisting of silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, and combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) [e.g., stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) forms], and a passivated surface passivated by one or more species derived from the one or more members (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) (e.g., reaction products of the one or more members) [e.g., the one or more species include one or more polymeric species (e.g., one or more polysilicates and / or one or more polyphosphates)].

[0030] In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to an additive (e.g., an electrode additive) for an energy storage device, the additive comprising inorganic particles (e.g., of one type or different types).

[0031] In some embodiments, inorganic particle is functional inorganic particle.In some embodiments, inorganic particle comprises one or more elements selected from the group consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, aluminum, silicon and phosphorus (for example, one or more elements are at least 10 wt.% (for example, at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of inorganic particle) (for example, one or more elements are 80 wt.% or less (for example, 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less) of inorganic particle). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles comprise one or more metal atoms (e.g., the one or more elements are at least 10 wt.% (e.g., at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of the inorganic particles) [e.g., the one or more elements are at least 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 50 wt.% or less) of the inorganic particles). In some embodiments, the one or more metal atoms are selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and the like. The metal is selected from the group consisting of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

[0032] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are porous. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are microporous, mesoporous, macroporous, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a size of less than 2 nm). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a dimension of at least 2 nm and no greater than 50 nm). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a size greater than 50 nm). In some embodiments, each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) ranging from 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. In some embodiments, each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the inorganic particle.

[0033] In some embodiments, at least one channel for each inorganic particle is connected to form a channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system extends across the entire separator (e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side)).

[0034] In some embodiments, the inorganic particle comprises one or more cage structures. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed at the intersection of pores of the inorganic particle. In some embodiments, each of the one or more cage structures has a size (e.g., diameter) ranging from 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 5 Å to 15 Å, 10 Å to 12 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 5 Å to 7 Å, or 6 Å to 7 Å). In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed within a one-dimensional pore.

[0035] In some embodiments, one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more cage structures. In some embodiments, one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more pores of the inorganic particle (e.g., on the surface of one or more pores (e.g., on the interior surface, near the opening, or both)). In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise water. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more gaseous species. In some embodiments, the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more cationic species. In some embodiments, the one or more cationic species are selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and ruthenium. In some embodiments, the one or more species are cationic forms of elements selected from the group consisting of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more anionic species.In some embodiments, the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetalate ions, and combinations thereof.

[0036] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles have a particle size of at least 10 m 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 / g) surface area.

[0037] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are M y Al x Si 1-x The particle or particles have a composition of O2·zH2O, where M is a metal. In some embodiments, x is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5) and y is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1). In some embodiments, x is in the range of 0.5 to 1 and y is in the range of 0 to 1. In some embodiments, z is in the range of 0 to 10,000.

[0038] In some embodiments, the polar sites are located on the surface of the inorganic particles (e.g., on the interior surfaces (e.g., of the pores)). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are crystalline or amorphous. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles have an average particle size (d 50 diameter).

[0039] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles comprise one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

[0040] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are prepared by a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30-250°C for 30 days or less. In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds with stirring. In some embodiments, the crystallization reaction is carried out without stirring. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor comprises a silica source and an alumina source. In some embodiments, the chemical precursor comprises a mineralizer, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

[0041] The additive may be included in an electrode that further comprises an electroactive material. In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises a current collector, on which the electroactive material and the additive are coated.

[0042] In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises one or more binders. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

[0043] In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises a conductive additive. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.%, 60 wt.%, 50 wt.%, 40 wt.%, 30 wt.%, 20 wt.%, or 10 wt.% or less) of the electrode. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerene, carbon aerogel, metal flakes, metal fiber, metal particle, and conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0044] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are 1 vol.% to 50 vol.% (eg, 5 vol.% to 30 vol.% or 10 vol.% to 20 vol.%) of the active layer (eg, coating or film) of the electrode.

[0045] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are disposed on one or more surfaces of the electroactive material (e.g., the surface of a micro- and / or nanostructure, such as a particle (e.g., rod and / or sphere), film, tube, and / or fiber). In some embodiments, the inorganic particles and the electroactive material together form one or more core-shell structures, each having a core comprising at least a portion of the electroactive material and a shell comprising that of the inorganic particles. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are disposed in a layer (e.g., a uniform or non-uniform layer) disposed on the surface (e.g., the entire periphery) of one or more particles comprising the electroactive material. In some embodiments, the layer has a thickness of 2 μm or less. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are adhered to one or more surfaces by electrostatic potential. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles and / or the electroactive material are surface-modified (e.g., to alter electrostatic potential and / or hydrophobicity).

[0046] In some embodiments, electroactive materials (e.g., particles (e.g., rods and / or spheres), surfaces of micro- and / or nanostructures such as films, tubes and / or fibers) and inorganic particles are dispersed throughout the electrode.

[0047] The electrodes may be included in an energy storage device. In some embodiments, the energy storage device further includes a separator disposed between the two electrodes such that the separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes. In some embodiments, the energy storage device further includes an electrolyte disposed between the two electrodes. In some embodiments, the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell, or a capacitor. In some embodiments, the energy storage device is an aqueous battery (e.g., an aqueous secondary battery or an aqueous primary battery).

[0048] In some aspects, the present disclosure relates to a separator or electrode additive for an energy storage device, the separator or electrode additive comprising a functional material comprising: (i) one or more organic ligands, one or more non-metal oxides, or a combination thereof; or (ii) partially reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphite oxide, or a combination thereof.

[0049] In some embodiments, the functional material comprises one or more organic ligands. In some embodiments, the one or more organic ligands are doped. In some embodiments, the one or more organic ligands comprise one or more elements selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, the one or more organic ligands include one or more water molecules (eg, coordinated and / or bonded to the backbone ligands).

[0050] In some embodiments, the functional material comprises one or more non-metal oxides. In some embodiments, the one or more non-metal oxides are doped. In some embodiments, the one or more non-metal oxides comprise one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

[0051] In some embodiments, the functional material comprises partially reduced graphene oxide. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphene oxide is doped. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphene oxide comprises one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphene oxide is coordinated and / or bonded (e.g., hydrogen bonded) to one or more water molecules.

[0052] In some embodiments, the functional material comprises partially reduced graphite oxide. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphite oxide is doped. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphite oxide comprises one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, the partially reduced graphite oxide is coordinated and / or bonded (eg, hydrogen bonded) to one or more water molecules.

[0053] In some embodiments, the functional material is crystalline or amorphous.

[0054] In some embodiments, the functional material is contained in particles. In some embodiments, the particles include one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

[0055] In some embodiments, the functional material is porous (e.g., contained in porous particles). In some embodiments, the functional material has microporosity, mesoporosity, macroporosity, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of greater than 50 nm. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the functional material. In some embodiments, the at least one channel is connected to form a channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional channel system. In some embodiments, the channel system extends throughout the functional material (e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side)).

[0056] In some embodiments, one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more pores of the functional material (e.g., on the surface of the one or more pores (e.g., on the interior surface, near the openings, or both)). In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise water. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more gaseous species. In some embodiments, the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more cationic species. In some embodiments, the one or more cationic species are selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and ruthenium. In some embodiments, the one or more species are cationic forms of elements selected from the group consisting of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. In some embodiments, the one or more species comprise one or more anionic species.In some embodiments, the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetalate ions, and combinations thereof.

[0057] In some embodiments, the functional material is at least 10 m 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 In some embodiments, the functional material is contained in particles, and the particles have an average particle size (D) of 100 nm to 30 μm. 50 )

[0058] The additive may be included in a separator that further includes one or more binders. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR). In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more binders includes one or more binder additives. In some embodiments, the one or more binder additives comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents. In some embodiments, the separator further comprises a conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.% or less, 60 wt.% or less, 50 wt.% or less, 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, or 10 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, propylene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0059] In some embodiments, the separator is coated in situ or ex situ (e.g., by wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, doctor blade coating, dip coating, or a combination thereof) (e.g., by a liquid coating method) onto the electrode (e.g., anode, cathode, or both). In some embodiments, the separator is calendered (e.g., to increase adhesion strength, layer uniformity, or both), annealed, or both.

[0060] In some embodiments, the separator has a thickness in the range of 5 μm to 500 μm, hi some embodiments, the separator is a free-standing film.

[0061] The additive may be included in an electrode that further comprises an electroactive material. In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises a current collector, and the electroactive material and additive are coated on the current collector. In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises one or more binders. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR). In some embodiments, the electrode further comprises a conductive additive. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.%, 60 wt.%, 50 wt.%, 40 wt.%, 30 wt.%, 20 wt.%, or 10 wt.% or less) of the electrode. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerene, carbon aerogel, metal flakes, metal fiber, metal particle, and conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0062] In some embodiments, the functional material is 1 vol.% to 50 vol.% (eg, 5 vol.% to 30 vol.% or 10 vol.% to 20 vol.%) of the active layer (eg, coating or film) of the electrode.

[0063] In some embodiments, the functional material is disposed on one or more surfaces of the electroactive material (e.g., the surface of a micro- and / or nanostructure, such as a particle (e.g., rod and / or sphere), film, tube, and / or fiber). In some embodiments, the functional material and the electroactive material together form one or more core-shell structures, each having a core comprising at least a portion of the electroactive material and a shell comprising the functional material. In some embodiments, the functional material is disposed in a layer (e.g., a uniform or non-uniform layer) disposed on the surface (e.g., the entire periphery) of one or more particles comprising the electroactive material. In some embodiments, the layer has a thickness of 2 μm or less. In some embodiments, the functional material is adhered to one or more surfaces by an electrostatic potential. In some embodiments, the functional material and / or the electroactive material are surface-modified (e.g., to alter the electrostatic potential and / or hydrophobicity).

[0064] Any two or more of the features described herein, including in this Summary section, may be combined to form implementations of, for example, energy storage devices, not specifically and explicitly described herein.

[0065] The drawings are presented herein for purposes of illustration and not limitation. The foregoing and other objects, aspects, features and advantages of the present disclosure will become more apparent and may be better understood by referring to the following description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0066] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1A shows a particle having a one-dimensional channel system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0067] [Figure 1B] FIG. 1B shows a particle having a two-dimensional channel system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0068] [Figure 1C] FIG. 1C shows a particle having a one-dimensional channel system and a cage structure according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0069] [Figure 2] FIG. 2 is a cross-section of a battery including two electrode layers and a separator layer, each containing particles, according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0070] [Figure 3] FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a coin cell assembly according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0071] Schematic drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0072] Detailed Description of Certain Embodiments In this application, unless otherwise clear from the context or otherwise expressly indicated, (i) the term "a" may be understood to mean "at least one," (ii) the term "or" may be understood to mean "and / or," (iii) the terms "comprising" and "including" may be understood to encompass the listed element or step, whether presented alone or with one or more additional elements or steps, (iv) the terms "about" and "approximately" may be understood to allow for standard variations understood by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art, and (v) when ranges are provided, the endpoints are included.

[0073] The systems, devices, methods, and processes of the present disclosure are intended to encompass variations and adaptations developed using information from the embodiments described herein. Adaptations and / or modifications of the systems, devices, methods, and processes described herein may be performed by those skilled in the relevant art. Throughout this specification, when articles, devices, and systems are described as having, including, or comprising certain components, or when processes and methods are described as having, including, or comprising certain steps, it is further intended that there are articles, devices, and systems according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure that consist essentially of, or consist of, the referenced components, and that there are processes and methods according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure that consist essentially of, or consist of, the referenced processing steps. It should be understood that the order of steps or the order for performing certain actions is immaterial, provided operability is not lost. Furthermore, two or more steps or actions may occur simultaneously. As will be understood by those skilled in the art, the terms "top," "bottom," "upper," "lower," "under," and "on" are relative terms and may be interchangeable with respect to different orientations of layers, elements, and substrates included in the present disclosure. For example, in some embodiments, a first layer over a second layer refers to a first layer that is directly over and in contact with the second layer. In other embodiments, a first layer over a second layer may include another layer therebetween. Headings are provided for the convenience of the reader and are not intended to be limiting with respect to the claimed subject matter.

[0074] Described herein are, among other things, separators and additives (e.g., electrode additives) for use in energy storage devices. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises inorganic particles. In certain embodiments, the additive comprises inorganic particles. The additive may be used in an electrode, such as the cathode or anode of a battery. The inorganic particles (whether included in the separator or used in (e.g., as) an additive for, for example, an electrode) may be functional inorganic particles that promote the performance and / or safety of the battery. For example, the functional inorganic particles may act to reduce or eliminate side reactions or mitigate the effects of side reactions during the electrochemical cycle of an energy storage device in which they are included (e.g., discharging and / or charging a battery). As another example, the functional inorganic particles may additionally or alternatively promote ionic conductivity. In certain embodiments, the separator and / or additive each include one or more functional materials, each including one or more organic ligands, one or more non-metal oxides, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises partially reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphite oxide, or a combination thereof.

[0075] An energy storage device may include a separator disclosed herein, an additive disclosed herein (e.g., included in an electrode), or both. The energy storage device may be, for example, a battery, a fuel cell, or a capacitor. The battery may be a primary battery or a secondary battery. Whether primary or secondary, the battery may be aqueous or non-aqueous (e.g., including a solid electrolyte). The battery may be an ion battery, such as, for example, an aluminum ion, sodium ion battery, potassium ion battery, proton battery, calcium ion battery, manganese ion battery, lithium ion battery, air battery, or a combination of one or more. The energy storage device need not have a specific cell structure, cathode composition, anode composition, electrolyte composition, or other electrode composition. Separator

[0076] In some embodiments, a separator for an energy storage device (e.g., an electrochemical cell) includes inorganic particles. The separator may also include one or more binders for binding the inorganic particles together. The inorganic particles may be functional inorganic particles. The separator is a solid or semi-solid (e.g., gel or gelatinous) layer. For example, a semi-solid layer may be, for example, a surface layer formed in situ or ex situ (e.g., by coating while in contact with a mixture (e.g., a solution)). Such a surface layer can act as a separator when placed between two electrodes in an electrochemical cell. A solid separator may be, for example, a free-standing film formed ex situ and then placed between two electrodes. The following description provides, among other things, inorganic particles of different types (e.g., different compositions, sizes, morphologies, porosities, or combinations thereof). The separator may include only one type or different types of inorganic particles mixed together.

[0077] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are at least 50 wt.% (e.g., at least 60 wt.%, at least 70 wt.%, at least 80 wt.%, at least 90 wt.%, or at least 95 wt.%) of the separator. The inorganic particles can include oxygen, hydrogen, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, metal atoms, or combinations thereof. Usable metal atoms include aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and the like. Examples of metals that may be present in the inorganic particles include ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. The one or more elements contained in the inorganic particles may represent at least 10 wt.% (e.g., at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of the inorganic particles. Alternatively or additionally, the one or more metal atoms contained in the inorganic particles may represent 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less) of the inorganic particles. Inorganic particles are M y Al x Si 1-x The inorganic particles may have a composition of O2·zH2O (where M is a metal). X may range from 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5), and y may range from 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1). X may range from 0.5 to 1, and y may range from 0 to 1. Z may range from 0 to 10,000. The inorganic particles may be crystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof. The inorganic particles may have an average particle size (D) ranging from 100 nm to 30 μm.50 The inorganic particles may have the shape of spheres, rods, needles, flakes, platelets, cubes, discs, or tubes.

[0078] The inorganic particles may be porous. The porosity may be microporous, mesoporous, macroporous, or a combination thereof. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of more than 50 nm. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. The inorganic particles may, for example, have a pore size (e.g., diameter) of at least 10 nm as a result of their porosity. 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 / g).

[0079] One or more pores of an inorganic particle may connect to form one or more channels. One or more channels of one or more inorganic particles may intersect to form one or more channel systems, for example, extending through the particle or, in some embodiments, through a separator (e.g., through multiple particles). The channel systems may be one-, two-, or three-dimensional channel systems. FIG. 1A shows an example of one-dimensional pores forming a one-dimensional channel system through a particle. FIG. 1B shows an example of two-dimensional pores forming a two-dimensional channel system. While the pores are shown as straight lines in FIGS. 1A-1B, this is not necessarily a straight line, and the pores can follow complex (non-linear) paths within and / or through the particle. (FIGS. 1A-1B do not depict three-dimensional channel systems that include pores in a third dimension (e.g., into or out of the plane of the paper with respect to FIG. 1B). In some embodiments, one or more cage structures are present at the intersection of two or more pores. A cage structure can be located at the intersection of pores. A cage structure can be located within one or more one-dimensional pores. FIG. 1C shows an example of a cage structure located within one or more one-dimensional pores.

[0080] In certain embodiments, one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures have one or more species disposed therein. For example, the one or more species may be absorbed into one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures and not covalently bonded to the inorganic particles. The one or more species disposed within the pores and / or cage structures may, for example, be adsorbed onto the surface (e.g., an interior surface or opening) of the pores and / or cage structures, absorbed within the pores and / or cage structures, or both. The size, shape, dimensions, and hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of the pores and / or cage structures may determine which one or more species are suitable for, can be contained within, and / or can be absorbed within such pores. For example, larger pores may be used to accommodate larger species, while smaller pores are used for smaller species. Similarly, a separator may include a first type of inorganic particles containing hydrophobic pores and having hydrophobic species adsorbed thereon, and a second type of inorganic particles containing hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) pores and having hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) species adsorbed thereon. The hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of the inorganic particles can be adjusted, for example, by modifying the particle's chemical composition and / or by surface treatment. The incorporation of different species (e.g., different atomic and / or ionic species) can change the overall polarity of the surface and thus alter the hydrophobic / hydrophilic nature.

[0081] The one or more species disposed within the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures may be or include water, olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations thereof. One or more gaseous species may be contained within (e.g., on the surface of) the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures. The one or more gaseous species may include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides (e.g., carbon dioxide), nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides (e.g., nitrogen dioxide), sulfur oxides (e.g., sulfur dioxide), or combinations thereof. One or more cationic species may be contained within (e.g., on the surface of) the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures. The one or more cationic species may be lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, The anionic species may comprise a cationic form of ruthenium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praesidium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, or a combination thereof. The one or more anionic species may be located in one or more cage structures and / or one or more pores (e.g., disposed on the surface). The one or more anionic species may comprise a polyatomic anion.The one or more anionic species may comprise hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite, phosphate, phosphide, fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, chlorate, bromate, iodate, polyoxymetalate, or combinations thereof. Suitable methods for inserting and substituting species into the pores and / or cage structure of inorganic particles are known to those skilled in the art.

[0082] Examples of inorganic particles (e.g., functional inorganic particles) include those having the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0 to 0.1, y is in the range of 0 to 0.1, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is one of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 4 to 5 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 6 to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 100m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300m 2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0083] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0 to 0.5, y is in the range of 0 to 0.5, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is one of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have three-dimensionally interconnected pores that define a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably 7 to 8 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably 11 to 12 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 700m 2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0084] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) is M y Al x Si 1-xIt has a general chemical composition of O2·zH2O, where x ranges from 0.5 to 1, y ranges from 0 to 1, and z ranges from 0 to 10,000. M can be any of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 4 to 5 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 10 to 12 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 500m2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0085] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) is M y Al x Si 1-xIt has a general chemical composition of O2·zH2O, where x ranges from 0.01 to 0.5, y ranges from 0 to 0.5, and z ranges from 0 to 10,000. M can be any of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 2 to 6 Å, and more preferably from 3 to 4 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 7 to 8 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 500m2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0086] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0.01 to 0.5, y is in the range of 0 to 0.5, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is one of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles contain one-dimensional pores. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 1 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 1 to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a size of at least 10 m. 2 / g, preferably at least 150m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300m 2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0087] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-x The structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0.01 to 0.5, y is in the range of 0 to 0.5, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (rhodium), Pd (palladium), Ag (silver), Cd (cadmium), Hf (hafnium), Ta (tantalum), W (tungsten), Re (rhenium), Os (osmium), Ir (iridium), Pt (platinum), Au (gold), Hg (mercury), La (lanthanum), Ce (cerium), Pr (praseodymium), Nd (neodymium), Sm (samarium), Eu (europium) The inorganic particles may be any one of the following: fluorine (Ga), Gd (Gadolinium), Tb (Terbium), Dy (Dysprosium), Ho (Holmium), Er (Erbium), Th (Thulium), Yb (Ytterbium), Lu (Lutetium), Ac (Actinium), Th (Thorium), Pa (Protactinium), U (Uranium), Np (Neptunium), and Pu (Plutonium). The inorganic particles have a two-dimensional interconnected pore structure. These pores have openings with sizes ranging from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 1 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 1 to 5 Å. These two-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 5 to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm.2 / g, preferably at least 150m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300m 2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the separator, for example, bound together by one or more binders.

[0088] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has a structure having the general chemical composition MxOy, where x ranges from 0 to 2 and y ranges from 0 to 5. M can be any one or more of the following: Mg (magnesium), Al (aluminum), Si (silicon), Ti (titanium), Mn (manganese), Ca (calcium), Zn (zinc), Sr (strontium), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Sn (tin), Sb (antimony), Ba (barium), La (lanthanum), Ce (cerium), Ta (tantalum), and Bi (bismuth). In some embodiments, the inorganic particle can include secondary particles. In some embodiments, the inorganic particle is non-porous. In some embodiments, the inorganic particle is amorphous. In other embodiments, the inorganic particle is partially or completely crystalline. These inorganic particles typically have a surface area of at least 0.1 m / g and less than 1000 m / g. The inorganic particles may be prepared via a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor under static or stirred conditions at 30-250°C for 0-30 days. The chemical precursor may include one or more of the following components: a silica source, an alumina source, a mineralizer, an acid or base medium, and one or more templating agents or structure directing agents (SDAs). The inorganic particles may also be synthesized by mineral extraction, flame pyrolysis, or other methods known to those skilled in the art.

[0089] In some embodiments, in addition to the inorganic particles, the separator includes one or more binders. The one or more binders may account for 50 wt.% or less, preferably 20 wt.% or less, of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders account for 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. The one or more binders may include polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or a combination thereof. If necessary, the binder may contain one or more additives. pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents may be used as additives. In some embodiments, the separator may also contain a conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer accounts for 80 wt.% or less, preferably 50 wt.% or less, of the separator. The separator may contain one or more of the following conductive polymers: polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, propylene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0090] The separator may be coated ex situ directly onto one or more electrodes (e.g., the anode or cathode, or both the anode and cathode). Coating techniques may include, but are not limited to, one or more or a combination of wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, and doctor blade coating. When the separator is coated using one or more liquid coating methods, the coating may be prepared using any mixing method known to those skilled in the art. The coating may be an aqueous or solvent-based coating containing inorganic particles and one or more binders. The wet coating layer may be disposed on the electrode at a thickness ranging from 5 μm to 500 μm. The coating layer may be dried in air at any temperature ranging from 25°C to 200°C. The coating layer may be further subjected to a calendaring process to enhance adhesion strength, layer uniformity, or both. Temperature treatments such as annealing may also be utilized. Additionally, the separator may or may not be used with a liquid electrolyte (eg, it may be used with a solid electrolyte).

[0091] Separators containing inorganic particles may also be prepared by dip-coating electrodes with a coating formulation containing inorganic particles. When the separator is coated using a dip-coating method, the coating may be prepared using any mixing method known to those skilled in the art. The coating may be an aqueous or solvent-based coating containing inorganic particles and one or more binders.

[0092] In certain embodiments, separators containing inorganic particles may be disposed on the surface of an electrode by in situ synthesis. In one example, this may be achieved by crystallization of a mixture of chemical precursors on the surface of an electrode (e.g., an anode). Crystallization of the chemical precursors at 30-250°C for 0-30 days under static or stirred conditions can be used. The chemical precursors may include one or more of the following components: a silica source, an alumina source, a mineralizer, an acid or basic medium, one or more templating agents, or a structure-directing agent (SDA).

[0093] In some embodiments, the separator may be prepared as a free-standing film. Free-standing films may be prepared in any number of ways. In one example, a free-standing film may be prepared by coating an inorganic particle separator onto a release layer, which is then dissolved. The release layer may then be dissolved in a suitable solvent. Free-standing films may also be produced by extruding a film containing inorganic particles and one or more binders (e.g., binding polymers). The one or more binders may include binding polymers such as polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), or styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or a combination thereof.

[0094] In some embodiments, a separator containing inorganic particles and, optionally, one or more binders may be used with a second separator, e.g., a second separator containing inorganic particles and one or more binders, in an energy storage device such as a battery. The second separator may be placed between two electrodes (e.g., an anode or a cathode), for example, on the anode side of the first separator or the cathode side of the first separator, or both. Alternatively, the first separator may be placed on one or both sides of the second separator, and then the second separator may be placed between the two electrodes.

[0095] In some embodiments, the inorganic particle separator may be applied (e.g., coated) to or part of a current collector substrate. The inorganic particle mixture may also include one, more, or a combination of polymers as binders, polymers as conductive additives, carbon as conductive additives, other conductive additives such as metals and metal oxides, and other additives necessary to stabilize the coating in the electrochemical environment.

[0096] Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, inorganic particles in separators can provide one or more of several functions. The particles can provide ionic conductivity, allowing the passage of ionic charge carriers to and from electrodes (e.g., anode and cathode) (e.g., via an electrolyte), thereby facilitating the intercalation and deintercalation of ions in one or more electroactive materials in the electrodes. Ion conduction can be facilitated by the presence of pores and polar sites on the surfaces (e.g., interior surfaces) of the inorganic particles. Additionally or alternatively, the inorganic particles can act as absorbents. Species from undesired side reactions may be collected in the inorganic particles, e.g., their pores and cage structures. Additionally or alternatively, the inorganic particles can provide protection from undesired side reactions, including, but not limited to, irreversible surface reactions, active material mass loss, corrosion, embrittlement, and shattering. These reactions can occur, for example, within the electrode, on the surface of the electrode, on the surface of the current collector, or within the bulk of the current collector. Reactants for one or more side reactions may be present in the electrolyte, for example by migrating from the electrodes where they are formed.

[0097] In one such example, according to some embodiments, silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof that form part of the structure of inorganic particles can dissolve and deposit as one or more polymeric species (e.g., polysilicates and / or polyphosphates) on the surfaces of one or more materials in the energy storage device, passivating them from unwanted side reactions (e.g., further unwanted side reactions). The energy storage device may include inorganic particles comprising silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates), for example, in an electrode additive and / or separator. The silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof (e.g., silicates and / or phosphates) may be in stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) form. The silicate, phosphate, sulfate, oxide, hydride, or combinations thereof (e.g., silicate and / or phosphate) may react with one or more species (e.g., in the electrolyte and / or electrode) (e.g., one or more portions of the species), and the one or more species may be reactants in one or more undesired side reactions of the energy storage device. In some embodiments, the reacting includes dissolving at least a portion of the inorganic particles. After the reaction, the one or more reaction products may passivate the surface of the material of the energy storage device, such as a metal surface and / or a surface of an electroactive material. The surface may be passivated by forming or depositing one or more polymeric species (e.g., including polysilicates and / or polyphosphates) on the surface. Thus, the passivated surface can prevent one or more undesired side reactions from occurring or even occurring.The reacting and / or passivating may occur during the electrochemical cycling of the energy storage device (e.g., during charging and / or discharging of a battery) or prior to complete assembly of the energy storage device (e.g., during a preconditioning process of the electrodes of the energy storage device).

[0098] The separator may include a plurality of these inorganic particle embodiments, e.g., inorganic particles having a surface area of less than 10 m / g interspersed among particles having a surface area of greater than 100 m / g. In one embodiment, a separator constructed from these inorganic particles can resist perforation by dendrites formed on an adjacent electrode. In a further embodiment, a protective separator layer is formed on the surface of a first electrode prior to assembly of the first electrode into a cell opposite a second electrode constructed from a metal. In yet a further embodiment, the separator physically compresses the second electrode, minimizing dendrite growth and preventing dendrites from penetrating through the separator into the first electrode. additives

[0099] In some embodiments, an additive for an energy storage device (e.g., an electrochemical cell) comprises inorganic particles. The additive may be used in an electrode (e.g., an anode and / or cathode of an electrochemical cell). The electrode comprises an electroactive material and, optionally, in addition to the electroactive material and inorganic particles, may also comprise one or more binders for binding the inorganic particles together, one or more conductive additives, or both. The inorganic particles may be functional inorganic particles. The one or more additives may be included in the electrode during its fabrication. In some embodiments, the electrode is prepared by coating a mixture (e.g., a solution) comprising one or more additives and one or more electroactive materials onto a substrate, such as a current collector. The following description provides, among other things, inorganic particles of different types (e.g., different compositions, sizes, morphologies, porosities, or combinations thereof). The additive may comprise only one type or different types of inorganic particles mixed together.

[0100] In some embodiments, the inorganic particles are at least 50 wt.% (e.g., at least 60 wt.%, at least 70 wt.%, at least 80 wt.%, at least 90 wt.%, or at least 95 wt.%) of the additive. The inorganic particles may include oxygen, hydrogen, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, metal atoms, or combinations thereof. Usable metal atoms include aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and the like. Examples of metals that may be present in the inorganic particles include ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. The one or more elements contained in the inorganic particles may represent at least 10 wt.% (e.g., at least 20 wt.%, at least 30 wt.%, or at least 50 wt.%) of the inorganic particles. Alternatively or additionally, the one or more metal atoms contained in the inorganic particles may represent 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 50 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less) of the inorganic particles. Inorganic particles are M y Al x Si 1-x It may have a composition of O2·zH2O (wherein M is a metal). X may range from 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5), and y may range from 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1). X may range from 0.5 to 1, and y may range from 0 to 1. Z may range from 0 to 10,000.

[0101] The inorganic particles may be crystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof. The inorganic particles have an average particle size (D) in the range of 100 nm to 30 μm. 50 ). The inorganic particles may have the shape of spheres, rods, needles, flakes, platelets, cubes, disks, or tubes. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles of the electrode additive are 1 vol.% to 50 vol.% (e.g., 5 vol.% to 30 vol.% or 10 vol.% to 20 vol.%), preferably 5 vol.% to 30 vol.%, and more preferably 10 vol.% to 20 vol.% of the electrode active layer (e.g., coating or film) of the electrode (e.g., excluding any current collector).

[0102] The inorganic particles may be porous. The porosity may be microporous, mesoporous, macroporous, or a combination thereof. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm. The inorganic particles may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of more than 50 nm. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. The inorganic particles may, for example, have a pore size (e.g., diameter) of at least 10 nm as a result of their porosity. 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 / g).

[0103] One or more pores of an inorganic particle may connect to form one or more channels. One or more channels of one or more inorganic particles may intersect to form one or more channel systems, for example, extending through the particle or, in some embodiments, through an electrode (e.g., through multiple particles). The channel system may be a one-, two-, or three-dimensional channel system. FIG. 1A shows an example of one-dimensional pores forming a one-dimensional channel system through a particle. FIG. 1B shows an example of two-dimensional pores forming a two-dimensional channel system. While the pores are shown as straight lines in FIGS. 1A-1B, this is not necessarily a straight line, and the pores can follow complex (non-linear) paths within and / or through the particle. (FIGS. 1A-1B do not depict three-dimensional channel systems that include pores in a third dimension (e.g., into or out of the plane of the paper with respect to FIG. 1B). In some embodiments, one or more cage structures are present at the intersection of two or more pores. A cage structure may be located at the intersection of pores. A cage structure may be located within one or more one-dimensional pores. FIG. 1C shows an example of a cage structure located within one or more one-dimensional pores.

[0104] In certain embodiments, one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures have one or more species disposed therein. For example, the one or more species may be absorbed into one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures and not covalently bonded to the inorganic particles. The one or more species disposed within the pores and / or cage structures may, for example, be adsorbed onto the surfaces (e.g., interior surfaces or openings) of the pores and / or cage structures, absorbed within the pores and / or cage structures, or both. The size, shape, dimensions, and hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of the pores and / or cage structures can determine which one or more species are suitable for, can be contained within, and / or can be absorbed within such pores. For example, larger pores may be used to accommodate larger species, and smaller pores are used for smaller species. Similarly, the additive may include a first type of inorganic particles containing hydrophobic pores and having hydrophobic species adsorbed thereon, and a second type of inorganic particles containing hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) pores and having hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) species adsorbed thereon. The hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of the inorganic particles may be adjusted, for example, by modifying the chemical composition of the particles and / or by surface treatment. The incorporation of different species (e.g., different atomic and / or ionic species) can change the overall polarity of the surface and thus alter the hydrophobic / hydrophilic properties.

[0105] The one or more species disposed within the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures may be or may include water, olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations thereof. One or more gaseous species may be contained within (e.g., on the surface of) the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures. The one or more gaseous species may include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides (e.g., carbon dioxide), nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides (e.g., nitrogen dioxide), sulfur oxides (e.g., sulfur dioxide), or combinations thereof. One or more cationic species may be contained within (e.g., on the surface of) the one or more pores and / or one or more cage structures. The one or more cationic species may be lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, The anionic species may include cationic forms of ruthenium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praesidium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, or combinations thereof. The one or more anionic species may be located within (e.g., disposed on) one or more cage structures and / or one or more pores. The one or more anionic species may include polyatomic anions.The one or more anionic species may comprise hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite, phosphate, phosphide, fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, chlorate, bromate, iodate, polyoxymetalate, or combinations thereof. Suitable methods for inserting and substituting species into the pores and / or cage structure of inorganic particles are known to those skilled in the art.

[0106] An example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0 to 0.1, y is in the range of 0 to 0.1, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is one of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 4 to 5 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 6 to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 m. 2 / g, preferably at least 100m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300m 2 / g。 A plurality of these inorganic particles may be included in the additive or in the electrode, for example, bound together by one or more binders in the electrode.

[0107] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0 to 0.5, y is in the range of 0 to 0.5, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is one of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have three-dimensionally interconnected pores that define a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably 7 to 8 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably 11 to 12 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 700m 2It has a surface area of / g. A plurality of these inorganic particles may be bound together by one or more binders as necessary and may be included in an additive, for example, in an electrode.

[0108] Another example of inorganic particles (e.g., functional inorganic particles) is M y Al x Si 1-xIt has a general chemical composition of O2·zH2O, where x ranges from 0.5 to 1, y ranges from 0 to 1, and z ranges from 0 to 10,000. M can be any of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 3 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 4 to 5 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 10 to 12 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 500m2 It has a surface area of / g. A plurality of these inorganic particles may be bonded together by one or more binders as needed and may be included in an additive, for example, in an electrode.

[0109] Another example of inorganic particles (e.g., functional inorganic particles) is M y Al x Si 1-xIt has a general chemical composition of O2·zH2O, where x ranges from 0.01 to 0.5, y ranges from 0 to 0.5, and z ranges from 0 to 10,000. M can be any of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), and N. (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (Rhodium), Pd (Palladium), Ag (Silver), Cd (Cadmium), Hf (Hafnium), Ta (Tantalum), W (Tungsten), Re (Rhenium), Os (Osmium), Ir (Iridium), Pt (Platinum), Au (Gold), Hg (Mercury), La (Lanthanum), Ce (Cerium), Pr (Praseodymium), Nd (Neodymium), Sm (Samarium), Eu (Europium), The inorganic particles may be any one or more of Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thulium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), and Pu (plutonium). The inorganic particles have a three-dimensional interconnected pore structure that defines a three-dimensional channel system. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 2 to 6 Å, and more preferably from 3 to 4 Å. These three-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 7 to 8 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 250m 2 / g, more preferably at least 500m2 It has a surface area of / g. A plurality of these inorganic particles may be bound together by one or more binders as needed and may be included in an additive, for example, in an electrode.

[0110] Another example of inorganic particles (e.g., functional inorganic particles) has a general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xIt has a structure with O2·zH2O, where x ranges from 0.01 to 0.5, y ranges from 0 to 0.5, and z ranges from 0 to 10,000. M is one or more of the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (rhodium), Pd (palladium), Ag (silver), Cd (cadmium), Hf (hafnium), Ta (tantalum), W (tungsten), Re (rhenium), Os (osmium), Ir (iridium), Pt (platinum), Au (gold), Hg (mercury), La (lanthanum), Ce (cerium), Pr (praseodymium), Nd (neodymium), Sm (samarium), Eu (europium), Gd (gadolinium), Tb (terbium), Dy (dysprosium), Ho (holmium), Er (erbium), Th (thorium), Yb (ytterbium), Lu (lutetium), Ac (actinium), Th (thorium), Pa (protoactinium), U (uranium), Np (neptunium), Pu (plutonium). These inorganic particles contain one-dimensional pores. These pores have openings with sizes in the range of 1 to 10 Å, preferably 1 Å to 8 Å, more preferably 1 Å to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a surface area of at least 10 m 2 / g, preferably at least 150 m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300 m 2 / g. A plurality of these inorganic particles may be bonded together by one or more binders as needed and included in an additive, for example, in an electrode.

[0111] Another example of an inorganic particle (e.g., a functional inorganic particle) has the general chemical composition M y Al x Si 1-xThe structure has O2·zH2O, where x is in the range of 0.01 to 0.5, y is in the range of 0 to 0.5, and z is in the range of 0 to 10,000. M is the following: Li (lithium), Na (sodium), K (potassium), Rb (rubidium), Cs (cesium), Be (beryllium), Mg (magnesium), Ca (calcium), Sr (strontium), Ba (barium), B (boron), Ga (gallium), In (indium), Tl (thallium), C (carbon), Ge (germanium), Sn (tin), Pb (lead), N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), As (arsenic), Sb (antimony), Bi (bismuth), Sc (scandium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Cr (chromium), Mn (manganese), Fe (iron), Co (cobalt), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Nb (niobium), Mo (molybdenum), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (rhodium), Pd (palladium), Ag (silver), Cd (cadmium), Hf (hafnium), Ta (tantalum), W (tungsten), Re (rhenium), Os (osmium), Ir (iridium), Pt (platinum), Au (gold), Hg (mercury), La (lanthanum), Ce (cerium), Pr (praseodymium), Nd (neodymium), Sm (samarium), Eu (europium) The inorganic particles may be any one of the following: fluorine (Ga), Gd (Gadolinium), Tb (Terbium), Dy (Dysprosium), Ho (Holmium), Er (Erbium), Th (Thulium), Yb (Ytterbium), Lu (Lutetium), Ac (Actinium), Th (Thorium), Pa (Protactinium), U (Uranium), Np (Neptunium), and Pu (Plutonium). The inorganic particles have a two-dimensional interconnected pore structure. These pores have openings ranging in size from 1 to 10 Å, preferably from 1 to 8 Å, and more preferably from 1 to 5 Å. These two-dimensional pores intersect to create cage structures with diameters ranging from 1 to 20 Å, preferably from 5 to 15 Å, and more preferably from 5 to 7 Å. These inorganic particles typically have a diameter of at least 10 mm. 2 / g, preferably at least 150m 2 / g, more preferably at least 300m 2It has a surface area of / g. A plurality of these inorganic particles may be bound together by one or more binders, if necessary, and may be included in an additive, for example, in an electrode.

[0112] The inorganic particles may be prepared by a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30 - 250 °C for 0 - 30 days under static or stirring conditions. The chemical precursor may include one or more of the following components: one kind of silica source, alumina source, mineralizer, acidic or basic medium, one or more of one or more kinds of template agents or structure-directing agents (SDA).

[0113] One or more inorganic particles of the electrode additive may be added directly to the mixture (e.g., solution and / or coating formulation) used to deposit the electrode active layer on the current collector to form the electrode. The mixture may contain any combination of one or more electroactive materials, one or more conductive additives, one or more binders, and one or more additives. Examples of electroactive materials that can be used in the electrode include the oxides, suboxides, sulfides, oxysulfides, phosphates, phosphides, and carbides, as well as elemental forms, of silicon, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, rhenium, tantalum, tungsten, bismuth, titanium, tin, antimony, manganese, nickel, aluminum, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, cobalt, chromium, indium, lanthanum, cerium, strontium, and iron, as well as combinations thereof. The electroactive material of the electrode may be modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements. The one or more elements may be any of the following: hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, or bismuth. The electrode active layer, including the one or more electroactive materials and the one or more additives, may be a free-standing film or may be present (e.g., coated) on a substrate such as a current collector. The substrate may include carbon materials such as foams, paper, aerogels, foils, fibers, or nanostructures (e.g., nanoparticles), or metal foils, foams, sheets, mesh, or stock.

[0114] In some embodiments, an electrode for an energy storage device includes one or more binders. Each of the one or more binders may be, for example, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, an electrode for an energy storage device includes one or more conductive additives in addition to one or more additives including inorganic particles. Each of the one or more conductive additives may be selected from the following: carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerenes, carbon aerogels, metal flakes, metal fibers, metal particles, and conductive polymers. The conductive polymer used in the electrodes of the energy storage device may be, for example, polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), or PEDOT.

[0115] The inorganic particles of the electrode additive may be disposed on the surface of the electroactive material. For example, the inorganic particles may be disposed on one or more surfaces of micro- and / or nanostructures formed by the electroactive material, such as particles (of any shape, such as spheres or rods), films, tubes, and / or fibers. The inorganic particles of the electrode additive may be disposed on the surface of the conductive additive. For example, the inorganic particles may be disposed on one or more surfaces of micro- and / or nanostructures formed by the conductive additive, such as particles (of any shape, such as spheres or rods), films, tubes, and / or fibers.

[0116] In some embodiments, inorganic particles of the additive in the electrode may form a core-shell structure with the electroactive material, e.g., where the electroactive material is present as particles (e.g., micro- and / or nanoparticles) and the inorganic particles are disposed on the electroactive material particles. The inorganic particles may form a layer of uniform or non-uniform thickness on (e.g., around) the electroactive material (e.g., electroactive material particles). Figure 2 is a cross-section of a battery having such an arrangement, in which both electrode layers (anode and cathode) and the separator layer comprise particles (e.g., additives) disclosed herein. In some embodiments, an energy storage device according to the present disclosure may be a battery having a standard 2023 coin cell form factor, for example, as shown in Figure 3. In some embodiments, the battery may include a first electrode, a second electrode, and a separator disclosed herein disposed therebetween. 3, battery 300 includes a top 310, a spring 320, a first spacer 330, a cathode 340, a separator 350 (e.g., as disclosed herein), an anode 360, a second spacer 370, an electrolyte (not labeled), and a base 380. As discussed further below, other form factors of batteries having the same or similar components may also be used. In some embodiments, the layer of additive inorganic material is 2 μm or less in thickness.

[0117] Inorganic particles may be adhered to the surface of an electroactive material by electrostatic potential. Such electrostatic potential can arise when the inorganic particles and the electroactive material have opposite charges. The inorganic particles and the electroactive material (e.g., electroactive particles) may be dry blended or combined in an aqueous slurry. One or more surfactants and one or more surface modifiers known to those skilled in the art may be used to modify the surface chemistry of the electroactive material or inorganic particles to achieve the desired electrostatic potential. Alternatively or additionally, inorganic particles may be deposited on the surface of the electroactive material by chemical reaction. Sol-gel synthesis is one example of a method that can be used to deposit inorganic particles on the surface of an electroactive material. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles may be uniformly distributed throughout the active layer of an electrode, for example, deposited on a current collector. For example, additive inorganic particles and electroactive material particles may be dispersed throughout the electrode (e.g., its active layer).

[0118] Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the inorganic particles in the additive in the electrode can provide one or more of several functions. The inorganic particles can provide ionic conductivity, allowing the passage of non-electronic charge carriers into and out of one or more electroactive materials, for example, thereby facilitating the intercalation and deintercalation of ions in the electroactive materials. Ion conduction can be facilitated by the presence of pores and polar sites on one or more surfaces of the inorganic particles in the additive. Such increased conduction can improve the performance of the electrochemical cell by reducing its resistance and / or improving its quantum efficiency. Alternatively or additionally, the inorganic particles in the additive can act as absorbents. One or more species from one or more undesired side reactions may be collected in the inorganic particles (e.g., within their pores). Sequestration of these by-products maintains the integrity of the energy storage device, for example, by preventing poisoning of one or more electrodes to which the additive is added. This improves the overall cycle life of the energy storage device. The inorganic particles may also provide protection from undesired side reactions, including, but not limited to, irreversible surface reactions, active material mass loss, corrosion, embrittlement, and crushing. These reactions may occur within one or more electrodes, on one or more surfaces of one or more electrodes, on one or more surfaces of one or more current collectors, or in the bulk of the current collectors. Preventing one or more undesired side reactions may help maintain the quantum efficiency and overall performance of the energy storage device.

[0119] In one such example, according to some embodiments, silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof that form part of the structure of inorganic particles can dissolve and deposit as one or more polymeric species (e.g., polysilicates and / or polyphosphates) on the surfaces of one or more materials in the energy storage device, passivating them from unwanted side reactions (e.g., further unwanted side reactions). The energy storage device may include inorganic particles comprising silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates), for example, in an electrode additive and / or separator. The silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, or combinations thereof (e.g., silicates and / or phosphates) may be in stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) form. The silicate, phosphate, sulfate, oxide, hydride, or combinations thereof (e.g., silicate and / or phosphate) may react with one or more species (e.g., in the electrolyte and / or electrode) (e.g., one or more portions of the species), and the one or more species may be reactants in one or more undesired side reactions of the energy storage device. In some embodiments, the reacting includes dissolving at least a portion of the inorganic particles. After the reaction, the one or more reaction products may passivate the surface of the material of the energy storage device, such as a metal surface and / or a surface of an electroactive material. The surface may be passivated by forming or depositing one or more polymeric species (e.g., including polysilicates and / or polyphosphates) on the surface. Thus, the passivated surface can prevent one or more undesired side reactions from occurring or even occurring.The reacting and / or passivating may occur during the electrochemical cycling of the energy storage device (e.g., during charging and / or discharging of a battery) or prior to complete assembly of the energy storage device (e.g., during a preconditioning process of the electrodes of the energy storage device). Additional separator and additive materials: organic ligands, non-metal oxides and partially reduced carbon (graphite and graphene)

[0120] The separator may include a functional material. The functional material may be used as an additive in an electrode of an energy storage device, such as a secondary battery. The functional material may include one or more organic ligands. Additionally or alternatively, the functional material may include one or more non-metal oxides. Additionally or alternatively, the functional material may include partially reduced carbon, such as partially reduced graphene, partially reduced graphite, or both.

[0121] The functional material may be modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements. The one or more elements may be one or more of the following: sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The functional material may further include one or more water molecules. For example, one or more water molecules may be coordinated and / or bonded, e.g., hydrogen bonded, to the functional material (e.g., to a backbone ligand if one or more ligands are included in the functional material, or to a partially reduced carbon if a partially reduced carbon is included in the functional material).

[0122] In some embodiments, the functional material is porous. The porosity may be microporous, mesoporous, macroporous, or a combination thereof. The functional material may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm. The functional material may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm. The functional material may include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of greater than 50 nm. In some embodiments, the functional material includes one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)]. The functional material may have a porosity of at least 10 nm, for example, as a result of its porosity and / or structure (e.g., if in the form of particles). 2 / g (e.g., at least 100m 2 / g, at least 250m 2 / g, at least 300m 2 / g, at least 500m 2 / g, or at least 700m 2 / g).

[0123] One or more pores in the functional material may connect to form one or more channels. One or more channels in one or more portions of the functional material may intersect to form one or more channel systems extending, for example, through a separator. The channel systems may be one-, two-, or three-dimensional channel systems.

[0124] In certain embodiments, one or more pores have one or more species disposed therein. For example, the one or more species may be absorbed into the one or more pores and not covalently bonded to the inorganic particles. The one or more species disposed within the pores and / or cage structure may, for example, be adsorbed onto the surface of the pores and / or cage structure (e.g., interior surfaces or openings), absorbed within the pores and / or cage structure, or both. The size, shape, dimensions, and hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of the pores and / or cage structure can determine which one or more species are suitable for, contained within, and / or can be absorbed within such pores. For example, larger pores may be used to accommodate larger species, while smaller pores are used for smaller species. Similarly, a separator may include a first type of inorganic particles containing hydrophobic pores and may have hydrophobic species adsorbed thereon, and a second type of inorganic particles containing hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) pores may have hydrophilic (or less hydrophobic) species adsorbed thereon. The hydrophobic / hydrophilic environment of inorganic particles may be adjusted, for example, by modifying the chemical composition of the particles and / or by surface treatment. The incorporation of different species (e.g., different atomic and / or ionic species) can change the overall polarity of the surface and thus the hydrophobic / hydrophilic nature.

[0125] The one or more species disposed within the one or more pores may be or include water, olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations thereof. One or more gaseous species may be contained within (e.g., on) the one or more pores. The one or more gaseous species may include hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, carbon dioxide gas, nitrogen gas, argon gas, hydrogen disulfide gas, ammonia gas, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, or combinations thereof. One or more cationic species may be contained within (e.g., on) the one or more pores. The one or more cationic species may be lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, The anionic species may comprise a cationic form of ruthenium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praesidium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, or a combination thereof. The one or more anionic species may be located within (e.g., disposed on) the one or more cage structures and / or one or more pores. The one or more anionic species may comprise a polyatomic anion. The one or more anionic species may include hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetalate ions, or combinations thereof.Suitable methods for inserting and substituting species into the pores and / or cage structure of inorganic particles are known to those skilled in the art.

[0126] In some embodiments, the functional material is at least 50 wt.% of the separator (e.g., at least 60 wt.%, at least 70 wt.%, at least 80 wt.%, at least 90 wt.%, or at least 95 wt.%). The functional material may be crystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof. The functional material may be arranged in a plurality of discrete structures (e.g., particles). Thus, the functional material may have an average size (D) in the range of 100 nm to 30 μm. 50 ) (e.g., particle size). Accordingly, the functional material may additionally or alternatively have the shape of a sphere, rod, needle, flake, platelet, cube, disk, or tube.

[0127] In some embodiments, in addition to the functional material, the separator includes one or more binders. The one or more binders may comprise 50 wt.% or less, preferably 20 wt.% or less, of the separator. In some embodiments, the one or more binders comprise 50 wt.% or less (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the separator. The one or more binders may include polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or a combination thereof. If necessary, the binder may contain one or more additives. Additives that may be used include pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents. In some embodiments, the separator may also contain a conductive polymer, for example, in addition to one or more binders (and functional materials). In some embodiments, the conductive polymer accounts for 80 wt.% or less, preferably 50 wt.% or less, of the separator. The separator may include one or more of the following conductive polymers: polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, propylene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

[0128] The separator containing the functional material may be coated ex situ directly onto one or more electrodes (e.g., the anode or cathode, or both the anode and cathode). Coating techniques may include, but are not limited to, one or more or a combination of wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, and doctor blade coating. When the separator is coated using one or more liquid coating methods, the coating may be prepared using any mixing method known to those skilled in the art. The coating may be an aqueous or solvent-based coating containing the functional material and one or more binders. A wet coating layer may be disposed on the electrode at a thickness ranging from 5 μm to 500 μm. The coating layer may be dried in air at any temperature ranging from 25°C to 200°C. The coating layer may be further subjected to a calendaring process to enhance adhesion strength, layer uniformity, or both. Temperature treatments such as annealing may also be utilized. Additionally, the separator may or may not be used with a liquid electrolyte (eg, it may be used with a solid electrolyte).

[0129] Separators containing functional materials may also be prepared by dip-coating electrodes in a coating formulation containing the functional material (e.g., in particulate form). When the separator is coated using a dip-coating method, the coating may be prepared using any mixing method known to those skilled in the art. The coating may be an aqueous or solvent-based coating containing the functional material and one or more binders.

[0130] In certain embodiments, a separator containing a functional material may be disposed on the surface of an electrode by in situ synthesis. In one example, this can be achieved by crystallization of a mixture of chemical precursors on the surface of an electrode (e.g., an anode). A crystallization reaction of the chemical precursors at 30-250°C for 0-30 days under static or stirred conditions can be used. The chemical precursors may include one or more of the following components: a silica source, an alumina source, a mineralizer, an acid or basic medium, one or more templating agents, or a structure-directing agent (SDA).

[0131] In some embodiments, the separator may be prepared as a free-standing film. Free-standing films may be prepared in any number of ways. In one example, a free-standing film may be prepared by coating an inorganic particle separator onto a release layer, which is then dissolved. The release layer may then be dissolved in a suitable solvent. Free-standing films may also be produced by extruding a film containing a functional material and one or more binders (e.g., binding polymers). The one or more binders may include binding polymers such as polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), or styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or a combination thereof.

[0132] In some embodiments, a separator comprising a functional material and one or more binders may be used with a second separator, e.g., a second separator comprising a functional material and one or more binders, in an energy storage device such as a battery. The second separator may be placed between two electrodes (e.g., an anode or a cathode), e.g., on the anode side of the first separator, or on the cathode side of the first separator, or both. Alternatively, the first separator may be placed on one or both sides of the second separator, and then the second separator may be placed between the two electrodes. Energy storage devices comprising the materials, separators and / or additives disclosed herein

[0133] An energy storage device may include a separator disclosed herein, an additive disclosed herein (e.g., contained in an electrode), or both. An energy storage device may be an electrochemical cell (e.g., a half cell) or may include an electrochemical cell. An energy storage device may be, for example, a battery, a fuel cell, or a capacitor. A battery may be a primary battery or a secondary battery. Whether primary or secondary, a battery may be aqueous or non-aqueous (e.g., containing a solid electrolyte). A battery may be an ion battery, such as, for example, an aluminum ion, sodium ion, potassium ion, proton, calcium ion, manganese ion, lithium ion, air battery, or a combination of one or more. An energy storage device need not have a specific cell structure, cathode composition, anode composition, electrolyte composition, or other electrode composition. The following are exemplary, but non-limiting, examples of energy storage devices contemplated for use with the materials, separators, additives, or combinations thereof disclosed herein.

[0134] In some embodiments, separators disclosed herein (e.g., comprising inorganic particles, one or more organic ligands, and / or partially reduced carbon (e.g., graphite or graphene)) are used in electrochemical cells (e.g., batteries). Such separators may comprise inorganic particles disclosed herein. In some embodiments, separators disclosed herein are used in electrochemical cells as an ionically conductive material disposed between two electrodes (e.g., an anode and a cathode). In some embodiments, use of separators disclosed herein in electrochemical cells increases electrolyte wettability. In some embodiments, separators disclosed herein are used in capacitors, e.g., as an ionically conductive material disposed between two electrodes and / or to increase electrolyte wettability. In some embodiments, separators disclosed herein are used in fuel cells.

[0135] In some embodiments, an energy storage device includes a cathode, an anode, an electrolyte, and a separator disclosed herein. The separator is disposed between the anode and the cathode, thereby preventing direct physical contact between the cathode and the anode. The cathode, the anode, or both may include an additive disclosed herein (e.g., different additives for the anode and the cathode). In some embodiments, an energy storage device includes a cathode, an anode, an electrolyte, and a separator, and the anode, the cathode, or both include an additive disclosed herein. The use of the separators disclosed herein enables high energy density, extended cell life, and stability, one or more of which may be realized in an energy storage device including such a separator. The separators disclosed herein may be very thin, for example, less than 100 microns, less than 50 microns, or less than 25 microns.

[0136] The inorganic particles described herein may have ion-conducting properties. In some embodiments, the inorganic particle separator can trap gases generated from one or more undesired side reactions within the pores and / or cage structures formed by the inorganic particles. In some embodiments, the inorganic particle separator provides protection from one or more undesired side reactions, including, but not limited to, irreversible surface reactions, loss of active material mass, corrosion, embrittlement, crushing, and passivation of the electrode surface. In some embodiments, the inorganic particles can also provide a scaffold for byproducts of one or more electrochemical reactions occurring within an energy storage device (e.g., an electrochemical cell), thereby extending the usable device life (e.g., cell life).

[0137] The separators disclosed herein may be used with electrodes (e.g., cathodes or anodes) that include electroactive materials that are oxides, suboxides, sulfides, oxysulfides, phosphates, phosphides, and carbides of silicon, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, rhenium, tantalum, tungsten, bismuth, titanium, tin, antimony, manganese, nickel, aluminum, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, cobalt, chromium, indium, lanthanum, cerium, strontium, iron, combinations thereof, or elemental forms. The electroactive material may be modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements, including hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, bismuth, or combinations thereof. Electrodes comprising the electroactive material may be free-standing or may be present on a substrate (e.g., a current collector). (An electrode may be said to be disposed on a current collector, or an electrode may be considered to include a current collector.) Substrates include, but are not limited to, carbon materials such as foams, paper, aerogels, foils, fibers or nanostructures (e.g., nanoparticles, nanorods, nanopillars), or metal foils, foams, sheets, mesh or stock.

[0138] The electroactive materials used in electrodes in combination with the separators disclosed herein may be further modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements. Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory, further modification (e.g., doping) can change the conductivity, chemical reactivity, and / or electrochemical reactivity of the electroactive material. In some embodiments, when doped, the elemental dopant replaces less than 50 wt.% of the metal in the electroactive material, preferably less than 20 wt.% of the metal in the electroactive material. In some embodiments, the one or more elements represent less than 50 wt.% of the electroactive material (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less). The one or more elements (eg, dopants) may be selected from carbon, boron, nitrogen, iodine, phosphorus, antimony, indium, arsenic, gallium, tungsten, cadmium, and tellurium.

[0139] The energy storage device may include an anode. The anode may be modified by a milling process. The milling process may be used to reduce or expand the particle size distribution (e.g., of additive particles in an electrode such as an anode). Additionally or alternatively, the milling process may be used to alloy or chemically implant one or more conductive additives. Examples of such additives include carbon, metal grit, and metal flakes. The carbon may be in the form of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerenes, or carbon aerogel. Milling processes that can be used include, but are not limited to, horizontal ball milling, vertical agitator milling, planetary ball milling, and jet milling.

[0140] In some embodiments, an electrode for an energy storage device includes one or more binders. Each of the one or more binders may be, for example, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), or copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, an electrode for an energy storage device includes one or more conductive additives. Each of the one or more conductive additives may be selected from the following: carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerene, carbon aerogel, metal flakes, metal fibers, metal particles, and conductive polymers. The conductive polymer used in the electrodes of the energy storage device may be, for example, polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), or PEDOT.

[0141] In some embodiments, the separator may be used with an electrode that includes a conductive substrate. The substrate may include one or more carbon materials, such as foam, paper, aerogel, foil, fiber, particles, conductive polymers, nanostructures, or metal foil, foam, sheet, mesh, or stock, or a combination thereof. The substrate may include a conductive film applied to a physical support. The physical support may include one or more carbon materials, such as foam, paper, aerogel, foil, fiber, or nanostructures, or metal foil, foam, sheet, mesh, or stock. The physical support may alternatively or additionally comprise one or more polymeric materials such as, for example, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPyr), polystyrene (PS), polythiophene (PT), or copolymers thereof.

[0142] The polymer used in the electrode (e.g., anode or cathode) may be incorporated into the electrode during electrode synthesis or assembly, may be chemically or electrochemically deposited onto the electrode during cycling, or may be incorporated by some combination thereof.

[0143] The electrode substrate (e.g., current collector) may contain active or inactive materials. These potential materials include metals, oxides, suboxides, hydroxides, oxide hydroxides, oxychlorides, sulfides, oxysulfides, oxynitrates, carbonates, nitrides, phosphates, phosphites, carbides, and polymers containing one or more of hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, and bismuth. Additionally, the material may also include inorganic particles as described herein. The physical forms of these materials can include, but are not limited to, flakes, pellets, powders, particles, tubes, cubes, or fibers.

[0144] In certain embodiments, an energy storage device includes a separator disclosed herein that is immersed in or otherwise surrounded by an electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte solution).

[0145] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte is a solid electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the electrolyte is a solid polymer electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the solid polymer electrolyte comprises one or more polymers selected from the group consisting of: (i) polymers containing one or more repeating units of ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, analizarin, alginate, quinone, hydroxyquinone, hydroxyquinoline, silicon, silicate, and asulfone; (ii) cellulosic, natural or modified natural polymers; and (iii) synthetic fluorinated polymers (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)).

[0146] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte is M1 1+ x N1p or M1 2+ x N1 p or M1 3+ x N1 p or M1 4+ x N1 p or M1 1+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 3+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 4+ x N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 3+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 4+ y N1 p or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y N1 p or M1 2+ x M2 4+ y N1 p or M1 3+ x M2 4+ y N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 3+ y N1 pN2 q or M1 1+ x M2 4+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M24+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 3+ x M2 4+ y N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z N1p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 4+ z N1 p or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y M3 4+ z N1 p or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z N1 p N2 q or M1 1+ x M2 2+ y M3 4+ z N1 p N2 q or M1 2+ x M2 3+ y M3 4+ z N1 p N2q or M1 1 +x M2 2+ y M3 3+ z M4 4+ s N1 p or M1 1 + xM2 2+ y M3 3+ z M4 4+ s N1 p N2 q wherein each M (e.g., M1, M2, M3, M4) is a monovalent or polyvalent atom, and each N (e.g., N1, N2) is a functional group (e.g., selected from the group consisting of hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite, sulfide, carbonate, phosphate, phosphide, and halide). In certain embodiments, the one or more materials included in the electrolyte form an ion-conducting matrix.

[0147] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte comprises (e.g., further comprises) one or more of a salt, an acid, and a base. In certain embodiments, the electrolyte comprises (i) a salt, the salt being an oxide, hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrous acid, sulfate, sulfurous acid, sulfide, carbonate, or salt of one or more of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, and copper. (ii) comprising an acid, wherein the acid is selected from the group consisting of phosphoric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfurous acid, triflic acid, hydrofluoric acid, peracetic acid, boric acid, uric acid, citric acid, hydroiodic acid, carbonic acid, oxalic acid, bromic acid, chromic acid, formic acid, ascorbic acid, and acetic acid; (iii) comprising a base, wherein the base is selected from the group consisting of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, cerium, tin, titanium, aluminum, ammonium, iron, indium, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, palladium, ruthenium, silver, vanadium, and copper; or (iv) any combination of (i), (ii), and (iii).

[0148] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte comprises one or more ceramics selected from the group consisting of aluminum oxide, antimony tungstate ammonium oxide, barium titanate, strontium titanate, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, boron oxide, boron nitride, ferrite, lead zirconate titanate, magnesium diboride, porcelain, sialon, silicon, silicate, carbide, nitride, titanium carbide, uranium oxide, yttrium barium copper oxide, zinc oxide, cesium oxide, cerium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, tin oxide, iron oxide, tungsten oxide chloride, beryllium oxide, bismuth oxide, lithium oxide, lead oxide, manganese oxide, magnesium oxide, nickel oxide, titanium oxide, cadmium oxide, copper oxide, indium oxide, and silicon oxide. In certain embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises water molecules (e.g., water of hydration) arranged in the crystal structure.

[0149] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte is a free-standing film or is applied to the separator, anode, cathode, or a combination thereof.

[0150] An energy storage device including a separator disclosed herein, an additive disclosed herein, or both, may be an electrochemical cell, such as a battery, having any one or more of a variety of form factors. For example, the electrochemical cell may be a pouch cell, a coin cell, a cylindrical cell, or a prismatic cell.

[0151] Certain specific embodiments of the present disclosure have been described above. However, it is expressly stated that the present disclosure is not limited to these embodiments, but rather additions and modifications to those explicitly described in this disclosure are also intended to be within the scope of the present disclosure. Furthermore, it should be understood that the features of the various embodiments described in this disclosure are not mutually exclusive and may exist in various combinations and permutations without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, even if such combinations or permutations are not explicitly stated. Although the present disclosure has been described in detail with particular reference to certain embodiments thereof, it will be understood that variations and modifications can be made within the spirit and scope of the claimed invention.

Claims

1. A separator for an energy storage device, the separator comprising inorganic particles.

2. 10. The separator of claim 1, comprising one or more binders, said one or more binders binding said inorganic particles (e.g., one type or different types) together.

3. The separator according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the inorganic particles are functional inorganic particles.

4. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the separator is a solid or semi-solid (e.g., gel or gelatinous) layer (e.g., a surface layer).

5. 10. The separator of claim 1, wherein the inorganic particles are at least 50 wt. % of the separator (e.g., at least 60 wt. %, at least 70 wt. %, at least 80 wt. %, at least 90 wt. %, or at least 95 wt. % of the separator).

6. 10. The separator of claim 1, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more elements selected from the group consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, aluminum, silicon, and phosphorus (e.g., the one or more elements are at least 10 wt. % (e.g., at least 20 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. %) of the inorganic particles) (e.g., the one or more elements are 80 wt. % or less (e.g., 50 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less) of the inorganic particles).

7. 10. The separator of claim 1, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more metal atoms (e.g., the one or more metal atoms are at least 10 wt. % (e.g., at least 20 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. %) of the inorganic particles) (e.g., the one or more metal atoms are 80 wt. % or less (e.g., 50 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less) of the inorganic particles).

8. The one or more metal atoms are selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, and rhodium.

8. The separator of claim 7, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of: cerium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

9. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the inorganic particles are porous.

10. The separator of claim 9 , wherein the inorganic particles have microporosity, mesoporosity, macroporosity, or a combination thereof.

11. 11. The separator of claim 9 or claim 10, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size of less than 2 nm).

12. 12. The separator of claim 9, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a dimension of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm).

13. 13. The separator of claim 9, wherein the inorganic particles include one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles includes one or more pores having a size greater than 50 nm).

14. 14. The separator of claim 9, wherein each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)].

15. 15. The separator of any one of claims 9 to 14, wherein each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the inorganic particle.

16. 16. The separator of claim 9, wherein the at least one channel for each of the inorganic particles is connected to form a channel system.

17. 17. The separator of claim 16, wherein the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional channel system.

18. 18. The separator of claim 16 or claim 17, wherein the channel system extends throughout the separator, e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side).

19. 19. The separator of any one of claims 9 to 18, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more cage structures.

20. 20. The separator of claim 19, wherein at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed at an intersection of pores of the inorganic particles.

21. 21. The separator of claim 19 or claim 20, wherein each of the one or more cage structures has a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 5 Å to 15 Å, 10 Å to 12 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 5 Å to 7 Å, or 6 Å to 7 Å).

22. 22. The separator of any one of claims 19 to 21, wherein at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed within a one-dimensional pore.

23. 23. The separator of any one of claims 19 to 22, wherein one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within the one or more cage structures.

24. 24. The separator of claim 9, wherein one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more pores of the inorganic particle (e.g., on a surface (e.g., an interior surface, near an opening, or both) of the one or more pores) (e.g., the one or more species are not covalently bound to the one or more pores).

25. 25. The separator of claim 23 or claim 24, wherein the one or more species comprises a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

26. 26. The separator of any one of claims 23 to 25, wherein the one or more species comprises water.

27. 27. The separator of any one of claims 23 to 26, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more gaseous species.

28. 28. The separator of claim 27, wherein the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides.

29. 29. The separator of any one of claims 23 to 28, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more cationic species.

30. The one or more cationic species may be selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, and para 30. The separator of claim 29, wherein the cation form of an element selected from the group consisting of rhenium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

31. 31. The separator of any one of claims 23 to 30, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more anionic species.

32. 32. The separator of claim 31 , wherein the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetalate ions, and combinations thereof.

33. The inorganic particles are at least 10 m ２ / g (e.g., at least 100 m ２ / g, at least 250m ２ / g, at least 300m ２ / g, at least 500m ２ / g, or at least 700 m ２ 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, having a surface area of 0.15 wt. / g.

34. The inorganic particles are ｙ Al ｘ Si １－ｘ O ２ ・zH ２ 2. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, comprising one or more particles having a composition of: O, where M is a metal.

35. 35. The separator of claim 34, wherein x is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5) and y is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1).

36. 35. The separator of claim 34, wherein x is in the range of 0.5 to 1 and y is in the range of 0 to 1.

37. 37. The separator of any one of claims 34 to 36, wherein z is in the range of 0 to 10,000.

38. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein polar sites are located on the surface (e.g., on the internal surface (e.g., of the pores)) of the inorganic particles.

39. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the inorganic particles are crystalline or amorphous.

40. The inorganic particles have an average particle size (d ５０ 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, having a diameter of 1 / 2 mm.

41. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

42. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the inorganic particles are prepared by a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30 to 250°C for 30 days or less.

43. 43. The separator of claim 42, wherein the reaction proceeds under agitation.

44. 44. The separator of claim 42 or claim 43, wherein the crystallization reaction is carried out without stirring.

45. 45. The separator of any one of claims 42 to 44, wherein the chemical precursors include a silica source and an alumina source.

46. 46. The separator of any one of claims 42 to 45, wherein the chemical precursor comprises a mineralizer, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

47. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the one or more binders comprise 50 wt. % or less (e.g., 40 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less, 10 wt. % or less, 5 wt. % or less, or 1 wt. % or less) of the separator.

48. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

49. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein at least one of the one or more binders comprises one or more binder additives.

50. 50. The separator of claim 49, wherein the one or more binder additives comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents.

51. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, further comprising a conductive polymer.

52. 52. The separator of claim 51, wherein the conductive polymer is 80 wt. % or less (e.g., 50 wt. % or less) of the separator.

53. 53. The separator of claim 51 or claim 52, wherein the conductive polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

54. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the separator is coated in situ or ex situ (e.g., by wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, doctor blade coating, dip coating, or a combination thereof) onto an electrode (e.g., anode, cathode, or both) (e.g., by a liquid coating method).

55. 55. The separator of claim 54, wherein the separator is calendered (e.g., to increase adhesive strength, layer uniformity, or both), annealed, or both.

56. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the separator has a thickness in the range of 5 μm to 500 μm.

57. 10. The separator of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the separator is a free-standing film.

58. 10. An energy storage device comprising the separator of any one of the preceding claims and two electrodes, the separator being disposed between the two electrodes such that the separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes.

59. 59. The energy storage device of claim 58, further comprising a second separator according to any one of claims 1 to 57, wherein the second separator is disposed between the two electrodes such that the second separator prevents direct physical contact of the two electrodes.

60. 60. The energy storage device of claim 58 or claim 59, further comprising an electrolyte (e.g., a solid or liquid (e.g., aqueous) electrolyte) (e.g., an ion-conducting matrix) disposed between the two electrodes.

61. 61. The energy storage device of claim 60, wherein the electrolyte is a solid polymer electrolyte selected from the group consisting of: (i) polymers comprising one or more repeat units of ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, analizarin, alginate, quinone, hydroxyquinone, hydroxyquinoline, silicon, silicate, and asulfone; (ii) cellulosic, natural or modified natural polymers; and (iii) synthetic fluorinated polymers (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)).

62. The electrolytes are each M1 １＋ ｘ N1 ｐ or M1 ２＋ ｘ N1 ｐ or M1 ３＋ ｘ N1 ｐ or M1 ４＋ ｘ N1 ｐ or M1 １＋ ｘ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ２＋ ｘ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ３＋ ｘ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ４＋ ｘ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ４＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M2 ４＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 ３＋ ｘ M2 ４＋ ｙ N1 ｐ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ４＋ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M24+ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ３＋ ｘ M2 ４＋ ｙ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ３＋ ｚ N1p or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ４＋ ｚ N1 ｐ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ M3 ４＋ ｚ N1 ｐ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ３＋ ｚ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １＋ ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ４－ ｚ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 ２＋ ｘ M2 ３＋ ｙ M3 ４＋ ｚ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ or M1 １ ＋ｘ M2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ３＋ ｚ M4 ４＋ ｓ N1 ｐ or M1 １ ＋ xM2 ２＋ ｙ M3 ３＋ ｚ M4 ４＋ ｓ N1 ｐ N2 ｑ wherein each M (e.g., M1, M2, M3, M4) is a monovalent or polyvalent atom, and each N (e.g., N1, N2) is a functional group (e.g., selected from the group consisting of hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite, sulfide, carbonate, phosphate, phosphide, and halide).

63. 63. The energy storage device of any one of claims 60 to 62, wherein the electrolyte comprises one or more of a salt, an acid, and a base.

64. The electrolyte (i) comprises the salt, and the salt is an oxide, hydroxide, alkoxide, peroxide, superoxide, nitrate, nitrous acid, sulfate, sulfurous acid, sulfide, carbonate, carbide, phosphate, phosphide, or the like of one or more of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, and copper. and halide salts thereof; (ii) comprising an acid, wherein the acid is selected from the group consisting of phosphoric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfurous acid, triflic acid, hydrofluoric acid, peracetic acid, boric acid, uric acid, citric acid, hydroiodic acid, carbonic acid, oxalic acid, bromic acid, chromic acid, formic acid, ascorbic acid, and acetic acid; (iii) comprising a base, wherein the base is selected from the group consisting of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, cerium, tin, titanium, aluminum, ammonium, iron, indium, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, palladium, ruthenium, silver, vanadium, and copper; or (iv) any combination of (i), (ii), and (iii).

65. 65. The energy storage device of any one of claims 60 to 64, wherein the electrolyte comprises one or more ceramics selected from the group consisting of aluminum oxide, antimony ammonium tungstate oxide, barium titanate, strontium titanate, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, boron oxide, boron nitride, ferrite, lead zirconate titanate, magnesium diboride, porcelain, sialon, silicon, silicates, carbides, nitrides, titanium carbide, uranium oxide, yttrium barium copper oxide, zinc oxide, cesium oxide, cerium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, tin oxide, iron oxide, tungsten oxide chloride, beryllium oxide, bismuth oxide, lithium oxide, lead oxide, manganese oxide, magnesium oxide, nickel oxide, titanium oxide, cadmium oxide, copper oxide, indium oxide, and silicon oxide.

66. 66. The energy storage device of any one of claims 60 to 65, wherein the electrolyte is a free-standing film or is applied to the separator and / or at least one of the two electrodes.

67. 67. The energy storage device of any one of claims 58-66, wherein at least one of the two electrodes comprises an electroactive material comprising an oxide, suboxide, sulfide, oxysulfide, phosphate, phosphide, carbide, or elemental form of an element selected from the group consisting of silicon, magnesium, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, rhenium, tantalum, tungsten, bismuth, titanium, tin, antimony, manganese, nickel, aluminum, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, cobalt, chromium, indium, lanthanum, cerium, strontium, iron, and combinations thereof.

68. 68. The energy storage device of claim 67, wherein the electroactive material is modified (e.g., doped) with one or more elements.

69. 69. The energy storage device of claim 68, wherein the one or more elements comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, iodine, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, arsenic, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, tellurium, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, and bismuth.

70. 70. The energy storage device of claim 68 or claim 69, wherein the one or more elements are less than 50 wt.% (e.g., 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, 10 wt.% or less, 5 wt.% or less, or 1 wt.% or less) of the electroactive material.

71. 71. The energy storage device of any one of claims 58 to 70, further comprising a substrate (e.g., a current collector), one of the two electrodes being disposed on the substrate.

72. 72. The energy storage device of claim 71, wherein the substrate is a carbon structure or a metal structure.

73. 73. The energy storage device of claim 71 or claim 72, wherein the substrate is a foam, paper, aerogel, foil, fiber, nanostructures (e.g., nanoparticles), sheet, mesh, or stock.

74. 74. The energy storage device of any one of claims 71 to 73, wherein the substrate comprises a polymeric material.

75. 75. The energy storage device of claim 74, wherein the polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPyr), polystyrene (PS), and polythiophene (PT).

76. 76. The energy storage device of any one of claims 58 to 75, wherein at least one of the two electrodes comprises a binder selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), and copolymers thereof.

77. 77. The energy storage device of any one of claims 58 to 76, wherein at least one of the two electrodes comprises a conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerenes, carbon aerogels, metal flakes, metal fibers, or metal particles and a conductive polymer.

78. 78. The energy storage device of claim 77, wherein the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

79. 79. The energy storage device of any one of claims 58-78, wherein at least one of the two electrodes comprises an additive material, the additive being selected from the group consisting of metals, oxides, suboxides, hydroxides, oxidehydroxides, oxychlorides, sulfides, oxysulfides, oxynitrates, carbonates, nitrides, phosphates, phosphites, carbides, and polymers containing one or more members selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, gold, lead, and bismuth.

80. 10. The separator or energy storage device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell or a capacitor.

81. 10. The separator or energy storage device of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the energy storage device is an aqueous battery.

82. 82. The separator or energy storage device of claim 81, wherein the aqueous battery is an aqueous secondary battery.

83. 1. A method for making inorganic particles for use in separators or as additives in energy storage devices, said method comprising conducting a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30-250°C for not more than 30 days.

84. 84. The method of claim 83, comprising agitating the chemical precursor during the crystallization reaction.

85. 84. The method of claim 83, wherein the crystallization reaction is carried out without stirring.

86. 86. The method of any one of claims 83 to 85, wherein the chemical precursors comprise a silica source and an alumina source.

87. 87. The method of claim 86, wherein the chemical precursor further comprises a mineralizer, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

88. 1. A method of operating an energy storage device, the method comprising: Providing an energy storage device according to any one of claims 58 to 79; Trapping gas in the pores of the inorganic particles during charging and / or discharging of the energy storage device; A method comprising:

89. 1. A method of operating and / or preparing an energy storage device, said method comprising: providing the energy storage device, the energy storage device comprising inorganic particles comprising one or more members selected from the group consisting of silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, and combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) [e.g., in stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) form]; reacting the one or more members with one or more species within (e.g., one or more portions thereof) of the energy storage device to form one or more reaction products; passivating the surface of the material of the energy storage device with the one or more reaction products (e.g., thereby inhibiting one or more undesired side reactions); A method comprising:

90. 90. The method of claim 89, wherein the reacting occurs during an electrochemical cycle (e.g., during charging and / or discharging) of the energy storage device (e.g., the energy storage device is a primary or secondary battery).

91. 90. The method of claim 89, wherein the reacting occurs prior to complete assembly of the energy storage device (e.g., during a preconditioning process of the energy storage device).

92. 92. The method of any one of claims 89 to 91, wherein the one or more reaction products comprise polymeric species (e.g., polysilicates and / or polyphosphates).

93. 93. The method of any one of claims 89 to 92, comprising reacting the one or more reaction products with the surface of the material.

94. 94. The method of any one of claims 89 to 93, wherein reacting the one or more members comprises dissolving at least a portion of the inorganic particles (e.g., in an electrolyte of the energy storage device).

95. 95. The method of any one of claims 89 to 94, wherein passivating the surface of the material comprises precipitating a polymeric species (e.g., polysilicate and / or polyphosphate) on the surface.

96. 96. The method of any one of claims 89 to 95, wherein at least a portion of the inorganic particles are included in a separator of the energy storage device.

97. 97. The method of any one of claims 89 to 96, wherein at least a portion of the inorganic particles are included in an additive included in an electrode of the energy storage device (e.g., the electrode is the anode or the cathode, or the additive is included in both the anode and the cathode).

98. 98. The method of any one of claims 89 to 97, wherein the material is a metal.

99. 98. The method of any one of claims 89 to 97, wherein the material is an electroactive material.

100. An energy storage device (e.g., the inorganic particles are included in a separator and / or an electrode) comprising a material comprising a passivated surface passivated by inorganic particles comprising one or more members selected from the group consisting of silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oxides, hydrides, and combinations thereof (e.g., one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) [e.g., in stable (e.g., salt) and / or ionic (e.g., anionic) form], and one or more species derived from said one or more members (e.g., said one or more silicates and / or one or more phosphates) (e.g., reaction products of said one or more members) [e.g., said one or more species comprise one or more polymeric species (e.g., one or more polysilicates and / or one or more polyphosphates)].

101. 1. An additive for an energy storage device (e.g., an electrode additive), the additive comprising inorganic particles (e.g., of one or different types).

102. The additive of claim 101, wherein the inorganic particles are functional inorganic particles.

103. 103. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 102, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more elements selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, hydrogen, aluminum, silicon, and phosphorus (e.g., the one or more elements are at least 10 wt. % (e.g., at least 20 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. %) of the inorganic particles) (e.g., the one or more elements are 80 wt. % or less (e.g., 50 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less) of the inorganic particles).

104. 104. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 103, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more metal atoms [e.g., the one or more elements are at least 10 wt. % (e.g., at least 20 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. %) of the inorganic particles] [e.g., the one or more elements are 80 wt. % or less (e.g., 50 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 50 wt. % or less) of the inorganic particles].

105. The one or more metal atoms are selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, and rhodium.

105. The additive of claim 104, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of: rhenium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

106. 106. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 105, wherein the inorganic particles are porous.

107. 107. The additive of claim 106, wherein the inorganic particles have microporosity, mesoporosity, macroporosity, or a combination thereof.

108. The additive described in claim 106 or claim 107, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size of less than 2 nm).

109. 109. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 108, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a dimension of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm).

110. 110. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 109, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) greater than 50 nm (e.g., each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size greater than 50 nm).

111. 111. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 110, wherein each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)].

112. 112. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 111, wherein each of the inorganic particles comprises one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the inorganic particle.

113. 113. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 112, wherein the at least one channel for each of the inorganic particles is connected to form a channel system.

114. 114. The additive of claim 113, wherein the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional channel system.

115. 115. The additive of claim 113 or claim 114, wherein the channel system extends throughout the separator (e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side)).

116. 116. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 115, comprising one or more cage structures.

117. The additive of claim 116, wherein at least one of the one or more cage structures is positioned at an intersection of pores of the inorganic particle.

118. 118. The additive of claim 116 or claim 117, wherein each of the one or more cage structures has a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 5 Å to 15 Å, 10 Å to 12 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 5 Å to 7 Å, or 6 Å to 7 Å).

119. 119. The additive of any one of claims 116 to 118, wherein at least one of the one or more cage structures is disposed within a one-dimensional pore.

120. 120. The additive of any one of claims 116 to 119, wherein one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within the one or more cage structures.

121. 121. The additive of any one of claims 106 to 120, wherein one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) within one or more pores of the inorganic particle, such as on the surface (e.g., on the interior surface, near the opening, or both) of the one or more pores.

122. 122. The additive of claim 120 or claim 121, wherein the one or more species comprises a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

123. 123. The additive of any one of claims 120 to 122, wherein the one or more species comprises water.

124. 124. The additive of any one of claims 120 to 123, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more gas species.

125. 125. The additive of claim 124, wherein the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides.

126. 126. The additive of any one of claims 120 to 125, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more cationic species.

127. The one or more cationic species may be selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium.

127. The additive of claim 126, which is a cationic form of an element selected from the group consisting of radium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

128. 128. The additive of any one of claims 120 to 127, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more anionic species.

129. 129. The additive of claim 128, wherein the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetallate ions, and combinations thereof.

130. The inorganic particles are at least 10 m ２ / g (e.g., at least 100 m ２ / g, at least 250m ２ / g, at least 300m ２ / g, at least 500m ２ / g, or at least 700 m ２ 130. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 129, having a surface area of 1 / g.

131. The inorganic particles are ｙ Al ｘ Si １－ｘ O ２ ・zH ２ 10. The additive of any one of the preceding claims, comprising one or more particles having a composition of: O, where M is a metal.

132. 132. The additive of claim 131, wherein x is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1 or 0.01 to 0.5) and y is in the range of 0 to 0.5 (e.g., 0 to 0.1).

133. 132. The additive of claim 131, wherein x is in the range of 0.5 to 1 and y is in the range of 0 to 1.

134. 134. The additive of any one of claims 131 to 133, wherein z ranges from 0 to 10,000.

135. 135. The additive of any one of claims 131 to 134, wherein the polar sites are located on the surface of the inorganic particles (e.g., on the internal surface (e.g., of the pores)).

136. 136. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 135, wherein the inorganic particles are crystalline or amorphous.

137. The inorganic particles have an average particle size (d ５０ 137. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 136, having a diameter

138. 138. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 137, wherein the inorganic particles comprise one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

139. The additive of any one of claims 101 to 138, wherein the inorganic particles are prepared by a crystallization reaction of a chemical precursor at 30 to 250°C for 30 days or less.

140. 140. The additive of claim 139, wherein the reaction proceeds under stirring.

141. 141. The additive of claim 139 or claim 140, wherein the crystallization reaction is carried out without stirring.

142. 142. The additive of any one of claims 139 to 141, wherein the chemical precursor comprises a silica source and an alumina source.

143. 143. The additive of any one of claims 139 to 142, wherein the chemical precursor comprises a mineralizer, an acidic or basic medium, a templating agent, a structure directing agent (SDA), or a combination thereof.

144. 144. An electrode comprising an electroactive material and an additive according to any one of claims 101 to 143 (e.g., comprising multiple electroactive materials and / or multiple additives).

145. 145. The electrode of claim 144, further comprising a current collector, wherein the electroactive material and the additive are coated on the current collector.

146. 146. The electrode of claim 144 or claim 145, further comprising one or more binders.

147. 147. The electrode of claim 146, wherein the one or more binders are 50 wt. % or less (e.g., 40 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less, 10 wt. % or less, 5 wt. % or less, or 1 wt. % or less) of the separator.

148. 148. The electrode of claim 146 or claim 147, wherein the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

149. 149. The electrode of any one of claims 144 to 148, further comprising a conductive additive.

150. 150. The electrode of claim 149, wherein the conductive additive is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.% or less, 60 wt.% or less, 50 wt.% or less, 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, or 10 wt.% or less) of the electrode.

151. 151. The electrode of claim 149 or claim 150, wherein the conductive additive is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerenes, carbon aerogels, metal flakes, metal fibers, metal particles, and conductive polymers.

152. 154. The electrode of claim 153, wherein the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

153. 153. The electrode of any one of claims 144 to 152, wherein the inorganic particles are 1 vol. % to 50 vol. % (e.g., 5 vol. % to 30 vol. % or 10 vol. % to 20 vol. %) of an active layer (e.g., coating or film) of the electrode.

154. 154. An electrode according to any one of claims 144 to 153, wherein the inorganic particles are disposed on one or more surfaces of the electroactive material (e.g., the surfaces of micro- and / or nanostructures such as particles (e.g., rods and / or spheres), films, tubes, and / or fibers).

155. 155. The electrode of any one of claims 144 to 154, wherein the inorganic particles and the electroactive material together form one or more core-shell structures, each having a core comprising at least a portion of the electroactive material and a shell comprising that of the inorganic particles.

156. 156. An electrode as described in claim 154 or claim 155, wherein the inorganic particles are arranged in a layer (e.g., a uniform layer or a non-uniform layer) disposed on the surface (e.g., the entire periphery) of one or more particles comprising the electroactive material.

157. 157. The electrode of claim 156, wherein the layer has a thickness of 2 μm or less.

158. 158. An electrode according to any one of claims 154 to 157, wherein the inorganic particles are adhered to the one or more surfaces by an electrostatic potential.

159. 159. An electrode according to any one of claims 154 to 158, wherein the inorganic particles and / or the electroactive material have been surface modified (e.g., to alter electrostatic potential and / or hydrophobicity).

160. 160. The electrode of any one of claims 144 to 159, wherein the electroactive material (e.g., the surface of a micro- and / or nanostructure, such as a particle (e.g., rod and / or sphere), film, tube and / or fiber) and the inorganic particles are dispersed throughout the electrode.

161. 161. An energy storage device comprising two electrodes, wherein at least one of the two electrodes is an electrode according to any one of claims 144 to 160.

162. 162. The energy storage device of claim 161, further comprising a separator (e.g., as described in any one of the preceding claims) disposed between the two electrodes such that the separator prevents direct physical contact of the two electrodes.

163. 163. The energy storage device of claim 161 or claim 162, further comprising an electrolyte disposed between the two electrodes.

164. 164. The additive or electrode or energy storage device of any one of claims 101 to 163, wherein the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell or a capacitor.

165. 165. The additive or electrode or energy storage device of any one of claims 101 to 164, wherein the energy storage device is an aqueous battery (e.g., an aqueous secondary battery or an aqueous primary battery).

166. A separator or electrode additive for an energy storage device, the separator or electrode additive comprising: (i) one or more organic ligands, one or more non-metal oxides, or a combination thereof; or (ii) partially reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphite oxide, or a combination thereof A separator or electrode additive for an energy storage device, comprising a functional material comprising:

167. 167. The separator or electrode additive of claim 166, wherein the functional material comprises the one or more organic ligands.

168. 168. The separator or electrode additive of claim 167, wherein the one or more organic ligands are doped.

169. 169. The separator or electrode additive of claim 167 or claim 168, wherein the one or more organic ligands comprise one or more elements selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

170. 170. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 167 to 169, wherein the one or more organic ligands comprise one or more water molecules (e.g., coordinated and / or bonded to a backbone ligand).

171. 10. The separator or electrode additive of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the functional material comprises the one or more non-metal oxides.

172. 172. The separator or electrode additive of claim 171, wherein the one or more non-metal oxides are doped.

173. 173. The separator or electrode additive of claim 172, wherein the one or more non-metal oxides comprise one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

174. 167. The separator or electrode additive of claim 166, wherein the functional material comprises the partially reduced graphene oxide.

175. 175. The separator or electrode additive of claim 174, wherein the partially reduced graphene oxide is doped.

176. 176. The separator or electrode additive of claim 175, wherein the partially reduced graphene oxide comprises one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

177. 177. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 174 to 176, wherein the partially reduced graphene oxide is coordinated and / or bonded (e.g., hydrogen bonded) to one or more water molecules.

178. 178. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 and 174-177, wherein the functional material comprises the partially reduced graphite oxide.

179. 179. The separator or electrode additive of claim 178, wherein the partially reduced graphite oxide is doped.

180. 180. The separator or electrode additive of claim 179, wherein the partially reduced graphite oxide comprises one or more dopants selected from the group consisting of sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, cesium, scandium, cadmium, magnesium, iron, manganese, lithium, zinc, zirconium, niobium, yttrium, molybdenum, hafnium, osmium, nickel, cobalt, germanium, beryllium, mercury, tungsten, platinum, rubidium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, antimony, tellurium, bismuth, arsenic, lead, lanthanum, europium, gadolinium, cerium, tin, chromium, vanadium, titanium, aluminum, tantalum, gallium, indium, silver, gold, copper, carbon, hydrogen, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

181. 181. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 178 to 180, wherein the partially reduced graphite oxide is coordinated and / or bonded (e.g., hydrogen bonded) to one or more water molecules.

182. 182. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 to 181, wherein the functional material is crystalline or amorphous.

183. 183. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 to 182, wherein the functional material is contained in particles.

184. 184. The separator or electrode additive of claim 183, wherein the particles comprise one or more particles having a spherical shape, one or more particles having a rod shape, one or more particles having a needle shape, one or more particles having a flake shape, one or more particles having a platelet shape, one or more particles having a cubic shape, one or more particles having a disc shape, one or more particles having a tubular shape, or a combination thereof.

185. 185. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 to 184, wherein the functional material is porous (e.g., contained in porous particles).

186. 186. The separator or electrode additive of claim 185, wherein the functional material has microporosity, mesoporosity, macroporosity, or a combination thereof.

187. 187. The separator or electrode additive of claim 185 or claim 186, wherein the functional material comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of less than 2 nm.

188. 188. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 187, wherein the functional material comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) of at least 2 nm and no more than 50 nm.

189. 189. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 188, wherein the functional material comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) greater than 50 nm.

190. 190. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 189, wherein the functional material comprises one or more pores having a size (e.g., diameter) in the range of 1 Å to 20 Å (e.g., 1 Å to 10 Å, 3 Å to 8 Å, 4 Å to 5 Å) [e.g., 1.5 Å (e.g., 1.56 Å) to 16.5 Å (e.g., 16.45 Å)].

191. 191. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 190, wherein the functional material comprises one or more pores that connect to form at least one channel through the functional material.

192. 192. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 191, wherein the at least one channel is connected to form a channel system.

193. 193. The separator or electrode additive of claim 192, wherein the channel system is a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional channel system.

194. 194. The separator or electrode additive of claim 192 or claim 193, wherein the channel system extends throughout the functional material (e.g., from a first surface of the separator to a second surface of the separator opposite the first surface (e.g., from the anode side to the cathode side)).

195. 195. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 185 to 194, wherein one or more species are disposed (e.g., adsorbed) on one or more pores of the functional material (e.g., on the surface (e.g., the interior surface, near the opening, or both) of the one or more pores).

196. 200. The separator or electrode additive of claim 195, wherein the one or more species comprises a member selected from the group consisting of olefinic hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons.

197. 197. The separator or electrode additive of claim 195 or claim 196, wherein the one or more species comprises water.

198. 200. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 195 to 197, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more gaseous species.

199. 200. The separator or electrode additive of claim 198, wherein the one or more gaseous species are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon oxides, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen disulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides.

200. 200. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 194 to 199, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more cationic species.

201. The one or more cationic species may each be selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, carbon, germanium, tin, lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, 201. The separator or electrode additive of claim 200, which is a cationic form of an element selected from the group consisting of silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.

202. 202. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 194 to 201, wherein the one or more species comprises one or more anionic species.

203. 203. The separator or electrode additive of claim 202, wherein the one or more anionic species are selected from the group consisting of hydroxide ions, alkoxide ions, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, sulfate ions, sulfite ions, phosphate ions, phosphide ions, fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, iodide ions, chlorate ions, bromate ions, iodate ions, polyoxymetallate ions, and combinations thereof.

204. The functional material is at least 10 m ２ / g (e.g., at least 100 m ２ / g, at least 250m ２ / g, at least 300m ２ / g, at least 500m ２ / g, or at least 700 m ２ 204. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 to 203, having a surface area of 0.15 .mu.m / g.

205. The functional material is contained in particles, and the particles have an average particle size (D ５０ 205. The separator or electrode additive of any one of claims 166 to 204, having a

206. A separator comprising the separator or electrode additive of any one of the preceding claims and one or more binders.

207. 207. The separator of claim 206, wherein the one or more binders are 50 wt. % or less (e.g., 40 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less, 10 wt. % or less, 5 wt. % or less, or 1 wt. % or less) of the separator.

208. 208. The separator of claim 206 or 207, wherein the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

209. 209. The separator of any one of claims 206 to 208, wherein at least one of the one or more binders comprises one or more binder additives.

210. 210. The separator of claim 209, wherein the one or more binder additives comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of pH adjusters, pH buffers, rheology modifiers, defoamers, antifoaming agents, adhesion promoters, and leveling agents.

211. 211. The separator of any one of claims 206 to 210, further comprising a conductive polymer.

212. 212. The separator of claim 211, wherein the conductive polymer is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.% or less, 60 wt.% or less, 50 wt.% or less, 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, or 10 wt.% or less) of the separator.

213. 213. The separator of claim 211 or claim 212, wherein the conductive polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

214. 214. The separator of any one of claims 206 to 213, wherein the separator is coated in situ or ex situ (e.g., by wet chemical reaction, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, sintering, pressing, hot pressing, extrusion, die casting, slot die coating, doctor blade coating, dip coating, or a combination thereof) on an electrode (e.g., an anode, a cathode, or both) (e.g., by a liquid coating method).

215. 215. The separator of claim 214, wherein the separator is calendered (e.g., to increase adhesive strength, layer uniformity, or both), annealed, or both.

216. 216. The separator of any one of claims 206 to 215, wherein the separator has a thickness in the range of 5 μm to 500 μm.

217. 217. The separator of any one of claims 206 to 216, wherein the separator is a free-standing film.

218. 206. An electrode comprising one or more electrode additives according to any one of claims 166 to 205 and an electroactive material.

219. 219. The electrode of claim 218, further comprising a current collector, wherein the electroactive material and the additive are coated on the current collector.

220. 220. The electrode of claim 218 or claim 219, further comprising one or more binders.

221. 221. The electrode of claim 220, wherein the one or more binders are 50 wt. % or less (e.g., 40 wt. % or less, 30 wt. % or less, 20 wt. % or less, 10 wt. % or less, 5 wt. % or less, or 1 wt. % or less) of the separator.

222. 222. The electrode of claim 220 or claim 221, wherein the one or more binders are selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

223. 223. The electrode of any one of claims 218 to 222, further comprising a conductive additive.

224. 224. The electrode of claim 223, wherein the conductive additive is 80 wt.% or less (e.g., 70 wt.% or less, 60 wt.% or less, 50 wt.% or less, 40 wt.% or less, 30 wt.% or less, 20 wt.% or less, or 10 wt.% or less) of the electrode.

225. 225. The electrode of claim 223 or claim 224, wherein the conductive additive is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, fullerenes, carbon aerogels, metal flakes, metal fibers, metal particles, and conductive polymers.

226. 226. The electrode of claim 225, wherein the conductive additive is a conductive polymer selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polyacetylene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, polyfluorene, polypyrene, polyazulene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and PEDOT.

227. 227. The electrode of any one of claims 218 to 226, wherein the functional material is 1 vol. % to 50 vol. % (e.g., 5 vol. % to 30 vol. % or 10 vol. % to 20 vol. %) of an active layer (e.g., coating or film) of the electrode.

228. 228. An electrode according to any one of claims 218 to 227, wherein the functional material is disposed on one or more surfaces of the electroactive material (e.g., the surfaces of micro- and / or nanostructures such as particles (e.g., rods and / or spheres), films, tubes, and / or fibers).

229. 229. The electrode of any one of claims 218 to 228, wherein the functional material and the electroactive material together form one or more core-shell structures, each having a core comprising at least a portion of the electroactive material and a shell comprising the functional material.

230. 230. An electrode according to any one of claims 218 to 229, wherein the functional material is disposed in a layer (e.g., a uniform or non-uniform layer) disposed on the surface (e.g., the entire periphery) of one or more particles comprising the electroactive material.

231. 231. The electrode of claim 230, wherein the layer has a thickness of 2 μm or less.

232. 232. An electrode according to any one of claims 228 to 231, wherein the functional material is adhered to one or more surfaces by an electrostatic potential.

233. 233. An electrode according to any one of claims 228 to 232, wherein the functional material and / or the electroactive material have been surface modified (e.g., to alter electrostatic potential and / or hydrophobicity).

234. An energy storage device including a separator and two electrodes, the separator being disposed between the two electrodes such that the separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes; (i) the separator is a separator according to any one of claims 206 to 217; or (ii) at least one of the two electrodes is an electrode according to any one of claims 218 to 233; or (iii) both (i) and (ii); Energy storage devices.

235. 235. The energy storage device of claim 234, further comprising a second separator as described in any one of claims 206 to 217, wherein the second separator is disposed between the two electrodes such that the second separator prevents direct physical contact between the two electrodes.

236. 236. The energy storage device of claim 234 or claim 235, further comprising an electrolyte [e.g., a solid or liquid (e.g., aqueous) electrolyte] (e.g., an ion-conducting matrix) disposed between the two electrodes.

237. 237. The energy storage device of any one of claims 234 to 236, wherein the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell, or a capacitor.

238. 238. The separator or electrode or energy storage device of any one of claims 206 to 237, wherein the energy storage device is a primary battery, a secondary battery, a rechargeable battery, a fuel cell or a capacitor.

239. 239. The separator or electrode or energy storage device of any one of claims 206 to 238, wherein the energy storage device is an aqueous battery (e.g., an aqueous secondary battery or an aqueous primary battery).

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