Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine compositions and their use
An RSV mRNA vaccine with a stabilized pre-fusion RSV F glycoprotein in thermostable lipid nanoparticles addresses the challenges of existing vaccines by inducing potent immune responses and improving safety and efficacy, particularly for vulnerable populations.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2025/071741
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2024-08-14
- Filing Date
- 2025-01-10
- Publication Date
- 2025-07-17
AI Technical Summary
Current RSV vaccines face challenges in achieving high efficacy and safety, particularly for vulnerable populations such as infants and older adults, with existing vaccines requiring complex manufacturing processes and being costly for low-and middle-income countries.
Development of an RSV mRNA vaccine encoding a stabilized pre-fusion RSV F glycoprotein with both transmembrane and cytoplasmic tail regions, formulated in thermostable lipid nanoparticles, to induce robust neutralizing antibody responses and balanced Th1/Th2 immune responses.
The RSV mRNA vaccine demonstrates superior neutralizing antibody titers and T cell responses, providing high efficacy and safety with thermostability for convenient storage and distribution, especially in low-and middle-income countries.
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Abstract
Description
RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS VACCINE COMPOSITIONS AND THEIR USE REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONThis application claims priority to and the benefit of the filing dates of International Patent Application No. PCT / CN2024 / 071819, filed on January 11, 2024, and International Patent Application No. PCT / CN2024 / 111992, filed on August 14, 2024, the entire contents of which including all drawings and sequences are incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONHuman respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a contagious virus and a common cause of respiratory illness. Most infected adults only develop mild cold-like symptoms. However, RSV infection can be life-threatening for infants, older adults, and individuals with compromised immunity, through more severe symptoms such as bronchiolitis and pneumonia.In fact, RSV is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI, including bronchiolitis and pneumonia) worldwide in pediatrics. It is estimated that about 33 million episodes of acute LRTI in children (< 5 years old) is caused by RSV globally, which leads to approximately 3.2 million hospitalizations and about 120 thousand of deaths every year, in which about half are infants less than 6 months old, and the vast majority of them are in in low-income and middle-income countries.For the elderly population, RSV is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, and accounts for about 1.5 million episodes of LRTI and contributes to 4%to 10%of mortality rates, especially for those with cardiac or pulmonary diseases.RSV is ubiquitous with relatively homogeneous distribution worldwide. Nearly all children are infected by this virus within the first two years of life. They can then be reinfected repeatedly for a lifetime as the host immunity against RSV wanes over time. The substantial medical burden associated with RSV infection has made the development of RSV vaccine a high priority for public health and government organizations globally.What are needed are RSV vaccines with high efficacy and safety.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONThe invention described herein provides, inter alia, RSV mRNA vaccines with high efficacy and safety to meet the current unmet medical needs for RSV vaccines.One aspect of the invention described herein provides an RSV mRNA vaccine encoding an optimized pre-fusion RSV F glycoprotein with native cytoplasmic tail (CT) at the C-terminus and T4-phage fibritin positioned between ectodomain and transmembrane domain. The antigen encoded by the mRNA vaccine of the invention improves the titers of the neutralizing antibody generated against such antigen upon mRNA vaccine administration, as well as response by host T cells against the antigen. The T4 fibritin can be positioned between the EC domain and the TM domain.Contrary to the common practice of removing either both the TM and CT regions in the RSV vaccines (see the GSK and Pfizer products) , or only the CT region in the RSV mRNA vaccine (such as the ones under development by Moderna) , the data disclosed herein surprisingly show that maintaining both the TM and the CT regions in the RSV pre-fusion F protein antigen structure optimizes the structure for RSV vaccine design. With three rounds of structure-based screening and optimization, RSV mRNA vaccines producing higher neutralizing antibody titers and good T cell responses are identified and described herein.Accordingly, in some aspects, disclosed herein is an engineered polynucleotide (e.g., a ribonucleotide or an RNA) encoding a stabilized pre-fusion form of an RSV F glycoprotein that is immunogenic, wherein the engineered polynucleotide comprises: (a) a first polynucleotide encoding a transmembrane (TM) domain of the RSV F glycoprotein; and (b) a second polynucleotide encoding a cytoplasmic tail (CT) of the RSV F glycoprotein.Also disclosed herein is a composition (e.g., pharmaceutical composition) of a mRNA vaccine that comprises the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an mRNA encoding a membrane-bound, pre-fusion stabilized form of RSV F protein, with substitution of p27-fusion protein domain by a short linker, with an extracellular trimerization domain, with an intact transmembrane domain, and cytoplasmic tail, and complexed to ready-to-use (RTU) thermostable lipid nanoparticles (LNP) .Expression of the trimerized pre-F antigen encoded by the mRNA vaccine of the invention is confirmed through in vitro transfection of human cells. Further, the RSV vaccine of the invention elicits potent RSV-neutralizing antibodies and robust T cell responses against RSV F antigen after administration of the vaccine in vivo. Because of the robust T cell responses, the mRNA vaccine candidates are expected to facilitate complete clearance of RSV.The subject RSV mRNA vaccine described herein is also capable of inducing a higher level of IgG antibody against pre-F antigen, a Th1 / Th2 balanced but not Th2-biased immune response profile. The predominant antigen form expressed by mRNA vaccine of the invention in vivo is trimerized pre-F protein (as opposed to post-F protein) , which was confirmed in a competitive ELISA using epitope-specific antibodies.Compared with a mRNA vaccine encoding the same ORF of mRNA-1345 (such as the first nearly commercialized RSV mRNA vaccine encoding pre-F antigen) , the RSV mRNA vaccine of the invention showed better performance in neutralizing antibody titers. In addition, the subject RSV mRNA vaccine described herein is thermostable at room temperature for at least about one week, thus providing greater convenience for the transport, storage, and vaccination in most Low and Middle Income Countries.Some aspects of the present disclosure provide a composition (e.g., immunizing, immunogenic, and / or vaccine composition) comprising engineered polynucleotide (e.g., a ribonucleotide or an RNA) encoding a stabilized pre-fusion form of an RSV F glycoprotein that is immunogenic, wherein the engineered polynucleotide comprises: (a) a first polynucleotide encoding a transmembrane (TM) domain of the RSV F glycoprotein; and (b) a second polynucleotide encoding a cytoplasmic tail (CT) of the RSV F glycoprotein. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein is at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 or a fragment thereof.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect further comprises a third polynucleotide encoding an extracellular (EC) domain. In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect further comprises a fourth polynucleotide encoding a trimerization domain of T4 fibritin.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein encoded by the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect lacks a p27-fusion protein (p27-FP) domain. The RSV F glycoprotein can have a substitution of p27-fusion protein domain by a short linker (e.g., a GS linker) . Accordingly, in some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein substitutes a linker (e.g., a GS linker) for the p27-FP domain.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S46X (such as S46G) , E92X (such as E92D) , P102X (such as P102A) , S215X (such as S215P) , I379X (such as I379V) , L373X (such as L373R) , M447X (such as M447V) and K465X (such as K465Q) , wherein X is any amino acid other than the original amino acid.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of A149C and Y458C.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S155C and S290C.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S190X (such as S190F) and V207X (such as V207L) .In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises an amino acid substitution F572A relative SEQ ID NO: 1.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises a truncated CT (e.g., a truncated CT consisting essentially of / consisting of a peptide sequence of KAR) . In some embodiments, the truncated CT comprises amino acid position 4-24 of SEQ ID NO: 16.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide is an RNA that comprises a poly (A) tail, optionally, the poly (A) tail is between 50-150 nucleotides in length.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide disclosed herein comprises a nucleic acid sequence at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or a fragment thereof (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 8, 11, 12, 13, 29, 32, 33, or 34) . In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide disclosed herein comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45 or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide disclosed herein consists of the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45 or a fragment thereof.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein is at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, or 22. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46 or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein consists of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46 or a fragment thereof.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a 5’ untranslated region (UTR) that comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, or 43. In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a 3’ UTR that comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises 5’ cap, such as cap-0 or m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) N1mpNp cap.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a chemical modification. In some embodiments, the chemical modification is substitution of a uridine in the polynucleotide by an N1-methylpseudouridine; optionally, all or substantially all uridine in the polynucleotide is substituted by N1-methylpseudouridine.Also disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a vaccine) comprising the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect. In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide formulated in a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) .In some embodiments, the LNP comprises a mixture of lipids that comprise: (1) about 20%-60%, about 30%-50%, or about 40% (molar percentage) of an ionizable cationic lipid; (2) about 30%-70% (such as about 40-60%, or about 50%) (molar percentage) of a sterol lipid; (3) about 5%-30% (such as about 5-15%, or about 10%) (molar percentage) of a phospholipid; or (4) about 0%-5% (such as about 1-3%, or about 2%) (molar percentage) of a stealth lipid or PEG-modified lipid.In some embodiments, the mixture of lipids comprise an ionizable cationic lipid , cholesterol, 1, 2 -distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) , and 1, 2-dimyristoyl-rac-glycero-3-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000 (DMG-PEG2000) , wherein the ionizable cationic lipid is selected from the group consisting of Lipid #2 , Lipid #4 , Lipid #5 , and Lipid #8 with the following structures:In some embodiments, the molar ratio of ionizable cationic lipid, cholesterol, DSPC, and DMG-PEG2000 is about 40 : about 48 : about 10 : about 2.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide is formulated in the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) by mixing the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) with the LNP in a container to reach a final mRNA concentration of about 10 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL, about 20 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL, about 40 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL, about 50 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL, about 60 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL, about 20 μg / mL to about 80 μg / mL, about 40 μg / mL to about 80 μg / mL, about 40 μg / mL to about 60 μg / mL, about 50 μg / mL to about 150 μg / mL, about 100 to about 200 μg / mL, about 150 μg / mL to about 250 μg / mL, about 200 μg / mL to about 300 μg / mL, about 30 μg / mL, about 40 μg / mL, about 50 μg / mL, about 60 μg / mL, about 70 μg / mL, about 80 μg / mL, about 90 μg / mL, about 100 μg / mL, about 120 μg / mL, about 150 μg / mL, about 170 μg / mL, about 200 μg / mL, about 220 μg / mL, about 250 μg / mL, about 270 μg / mL, or about 300 μg / mL, wherein said mixing comprises inverting the container up and down for about 30 seconds of thorough mixing. In some embodiments, the final mRNA concentration is about 50 μg / mL to about 100 μg / mL. In some embodiments, the final mRNA concentration is about 50 μg / mL.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) is equilibrated to room temperature for about 30 minutes, after storage, for example, at about 1 μg / μL, in solution or suspension, or after storage as lyophilized powder at -60℃ ~-80℃, before mixing with the LNP; and wherein the LNP is stored at 4℃ and protected from light exposure. In some embodiments, the mRNA is stored as lyophilized powder before use.In some embodiments, the mixture resulting from mixing the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) with the LNP is incubated at room temperature for about 10 minutes before use for immunization.In some embodiments, the average diameter of the LNP is less than 100 nm, less than 90 nm, less than 80 nm, less than 70 nm, or less than 60 nm; e.g., about 50-70 nm, or about 60 nm.In some embodiments, the LNP has a polydispersity index (PDI) of between about 0.01 -about 0.15, or between about 0.05 –about 0.10.In some embodiments, the LNP has a zeta potential of about 1.00 mV –about 5.00 mV, or about 1.50 mV –about 4.00 mV.Also disclosed herein is a method of treating an RSV infection in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect or the pharmaceutical composition of any preceding aspect.In some embodiments, the subject is immunocompromised. In some embodiments, the subject has a pulmonary disease.In some embodiments, the subject is 5 years of age or younger. In other embodiments, the subject is 60 years of age or older.In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject at least one dose of the composition. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject at least two doses of the composition.In some embodiments, administration of the pharmaceutical composition results in a balanced Th1 / Th2 in the subject.It should be understood that any embodiment of the invention described herein, including embodiments only described in the examples or claims, or embodiments only described under one aspect of the invention, can be combined with any one or more additional embodiments of the invention, unless such combination is expressly disclaimed or is improper.Also disclosed herein is an engineered polynucleotide comprising a 5’ untranslated region (UTR) that comprises a nucleic acid sequence having substantially the same secondary structure as, and is optionally at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to any one of SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, and a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the 5’ UTR comprises a nucleic acid sequence at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO:4. The secondary structure can comprise one or more (e.g., all) of the following characteristics: 1) having a length of about 50 nucleotides; 2) having a binding site for translation initiation factor and ribosome; 3) having a GC-rich hairpin region that stabilizes the secondary structure; 4) having a short AT-rich region for faster pass by ribosomes; 5) having a GC-rich sequence adjacent to the Kozak sequence for efficient ribosome binding to the AUG start condon; and / or, 6) lacking inhibitory domains for translation (such as lacking non-canonical start codons) .In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a 3’ UTR. In some embodiments, the 3’ UTR comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide. In some embodiments, the antigen is a viral antigen (e.g., a hRSV antigen) . In some embodiments, the antigen elicits a higer antibody titer when expressed in a host mammal (e.g., human) , when compared to the same antigen encoded by a control polynucleotide lacking said 5’ UTR.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGSFIG. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the RSV F glycoprotein variants (encoded by mRNA Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, and Lead-2 ΔCT) , wild-type RSV F glycoprotein, and canonical DS-Cav1-T4 foldon recombinant protein.FIG. 2 shows the in vitro cellular expression levels of mRNAs Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, and Lead-2 ΔCT in A549 cells by western blot at 24-hour and 48-hour post transfection. β-actin was used as the loading control. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIG. 3 shows the in vitro cellular expression levels of prefusion F (pre-F) proteins and postfusion F (post-F) proteins for mRNAs Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, and Lead-2 ΔCT in A549 cells by ELISA at 24-hour and 48-hour post transfection. The whole cell lysates were applied for ELISA measurement using D25, a human IgG1 monoclonal antibody specifically recognized site Φ on the pre-F glycoprotein, and 4D7, a mouse IgG2a monoclonal antibody specifically recognized site I on the post-F glycoprotein. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIGS. 4A-4B show the in vitro cell surface expression levels of mRNAs Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, and Lead-2 ΔCT in A549 cells (A) or 293F cells (B) by flow cytometry at 24-hour post transfection. The normalized MFI of pre-F were shown in the lower panel.FIG. 5 shows the schematic diagram of the RSV F glycoprotein variants (encoded by mRNA Lead-2, Lead-5, Lead-6, Lead-7, and MOD-1) , wild-type RSV F glycoprotein, and canonical DS-Cav1-T4 foldon recombinant protein.FIG. 6 shows the in vitro cellular expression levels of mRNAs with different features in A549 cells by western blot at 24-hour post transfection. β-actin was used as the loading control. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIG. 7 shows the in vitro cellular expression levels of pre-F proteins, pre-F protein trimer, and post-F proteins for mRNAs with different features in A549 cells by ELISA at 24-hour post transfection. The whole cell lysates were applied for ELISA measurement. D25, a human IgG1 monoclonal antibody specifically recognized site Φ on the pre-F glycoprotein. AM14, a human IgG1 monoclonal antibody specifically recognized the pre-F glycoprotein trimer. 4D7, a mouse IgG2a monoclonal antibody specifically recognized site I on the post-F glycoprotein. N. D., not detected. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIGS. 8A-8B show the in vitro cell surface expression levels of pre-F proteins, pre-F protein trimer, and post-F proteins for mRNAs with different features in A549 cells by flow cytometry at 24-hour post transfection. The relative MFI of pre-F, pre-F trimer, and post-F, as well as pre-F / post-F relative MFI ratio, trimer pre-F / post-F relative MFI ratio, were shown in FIG. 8B. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIG. 9 shows the anti-pre-F and anti-post-F antibody titers in mouse serum on Day 49 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI.FIG. 10 shows the RSV neutralizing antibody titer against RSV A (A2 substrain) and RSV B (18537 substrain) in mouse serum on Day 49 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. The half maximal neutralization titer (NT50) was calculated by four-parameter curve ■t on plaque counts using GraphPad Prism 8.3.0 software. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI. p values were calculated compared with the DS-Cav1 protein group by multiple t-test.FIG. 11 shows the titer of anti-pre-F IgG subclass (IgG2a and IgG1) in mouse serum on Day 49 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI.FIG. 12 shows the antibody competition ELISA with mouse sera on Day 49 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. Sera obtained 4 weeks following the second dose was assayed for the presence of AM14-competing antibodies or 4D7-competing antibodies. 10 μg / mL of biotin-conjugated AM14 or 4D7 antibodies were also loaded to wells as 100%competition condition. Wells containing neither serum nor antibody were set as 0%competition condition. The OD450 values of mRNA vaccine groups were normalized to that of 100%competition group. The percentage of AM14-competition and 4D7-competition were compared with the DS-Cav1 protein group by multiple t-test using Graph Pad Prism 8.3.0 software. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample.FIGS. 13A-13B show the T cell responses in mouse splenocytes obtained on Day 49 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. The proportion of CD4+ T-cells (A) and CD8+ T-cells (B) with production of IFN-γIL-2 (■) , TNF-α (〓) , or IFN-γ plus TNF-α (〓) upon RSV F peptides stimulation is shown. Each dot represents one mouse spleen sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean calculation for the group ± 95%CI. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, ****p < 0001 compared with the DS-Cav1 protein group by two-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test.FIGS. 14A-14B show the in vitro cell surface expression levels of pre-F proteins, pre-F protein trimer, and post-F proteins for mRNAs with different features in A549 cells by flow cytometry at 24, 48, and 72-hour post transfection. The percentage of pre-F positive (by D25) , pre-F trimer positive (by AM14) , and post-F positive (by 4D7) cells were shown in FIG. 14A.The relative MFI kinetics of pre-F, pre-F trimer, and post-F, normalized to the MFI of each mRNA itself at 24-hour, were shown in FIG. 14B. Control group represented blank A549 cells without transfection.FIG. 15 shows the anti-pre-F and anti-post-F antibody titers in mouse serum on Day 35 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI.FIG. 16 shows the RSV neutralizing antibody titer against RSV A (A2 substrain) and RSV B (18537 substrain) in mouse serum on Day 35 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. The half maximal neutralization titer (NT50) was calculated by four-parameter curve ■t on plaque counts using GraphPad Prism 8.3.0 software. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI. p values were calculated by multiple t-test.FIG. 17 shows the titer of anti-pre-F IgG subclass (IgG2a and IgG1) in mouse serum on Day 35 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. Each dot represents one mouse serum sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean titer for the group ± 95%CI.FIGS. 18A-18B show the T cell responses in mouse splenocytes obtained on Day 35 after the administration of mRNA vaccines with different features to BALB / c mice. The proportion of CD4+ T-cells (A) and CD8+ T-cells (B) with production of IFN-γIL-2 (■) , TNF-α (〓) , or IFN-γ plus TNF-α (〓) upon RSV F peptides stimulation is shown. Each dot represents one mouse spleen sample. The height of the bar in the graph indicates the geometric mean calculation for the group ± 95%CI. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 for comparison between Lead-6 and MOD-1 by two-way ANOVA with Turkey’s multiple comparisons test.FIG. 19 shows scheme of mRNA constructs. Convention mRNA structure including: 5’ cap, 5’ untranslated region (5’ UTR) , gene of interest, 3’ untranslated region and polyA tail.FIG. 20 shows in vivo study Plan. Each mouse received 2ug mRNA by intramuscular injection. Serums were collected on Day 7, 14, and 21.FIG. 21 shows mice antibody titer.FIG. 22 shows relative mice antibody titer fold. Mice antibody titer was normalized with Chi β-G (WT) Day 7 antibody titer.FIGs. 23A-23B show the protection by Lead-6A mRNA RSV vaccine against RSV / A2 challenge in cotton rats. cotton rats were immunized twice (Day 0 and 28) with Lead-6A vaccine at 5 μg (Group 1) or 16 μg (Group 2) mRNA per dose, or twice with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine Lot#100 (Group 3) , or infected once (Day 0) with RSV / A2 (Lot#092215 SSM) at 105 pfu per animal (Group 4) . Two control groups (Groups 5 and 6) were included of unvaccinated cotton rats. All animals, except one of the unvaccinated groups (Group 6), were challenged with RSV / A2 (Lot#092215 SSM) at 105 pfu per animal on Day 49. The RSV viral load was determined by plaque assay in homogenates of the lung (FIG. 23A) or nose tissue (FIG. 23B) isolated 5 days post-challenge and expressed as Log10 of plaque forming units (pfu) per gram of tissue. Viral titers were calculated as geometric mean ± standard error (SE) for all groups.FIG. 24 shows the induction of neutralizing antibodies by Lead-6A mRNA RSV vaccine against RSV A2 in cotton rats. cotton rats were immunized twice (Day 0 and Day 28) with Lead-6A vaccine at 5 μg (Group 1) or 16 μg (Group 2) mRNA per dose; or twice with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine Lot#100 (Group 3) or infected once (Day 0) with RSV / A2 (Lot#092215 SSM) at 105 pfu per animal (Group 4) . Two control groups were included of unvaccinated cotton rats (Groups 5 and 6) . Neutralizing antibodies titers against the strain matched RSV / A2 were determined by 60%plaque reduction neutralizing titer assay (60%PRNT) in sera collected 4 weeks after the first immunization and 3 weeks after the second immunization (Day 28 and Day 49) . The geometric means ± standard error (SE) for all groups at a given time were calculated and expressed as Log2 titers.FIG. 25 shows the pulmonary histopathology scores in cotton rats. cotton rats were immunized twice (Day 0 and Day 28) with Lead-6A vaccine at 5 μg (Group 1) or 16 μg (Group 2) mRNA per dose, or twice with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine Lot#100 (Group 3) or infected once (Day 0) with RSV / A2 (Lot#092215 SSM) at 105 pfu per animal (Group 4) . Two control groups were included of unvaccinated cotton rats (Groups 5 and 6) . All animals, except one of the unvaccinated groups (Group 6) , were challenged with the same RSV / A2 (Lot#092215 SSM) at 105 pfu per animal on Day 49 and sacrificed on Day 54 (5 days post-infection) . Lung histopathology was performed and scored in all animals as described in Endpoint Assays section. Average scores for peribronchiolitis (PB) , perivasculitis (PV) , interstitial pneumonia (IP) and alveolitis (A) ± standard error (SE) are shown for all groups.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTIONThe development of RSV vaccine takes decades, with multiple failures and setbacks. It is not until very recently did new discovery lead researchers back to the right track.Human RSV is an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, which belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family. Currently, RSV exists in two antigenic subgroups, Group A and Group B, which are determined by the genetic differences of G gene and F gene. Both A and B viruses can co-circulate during the same RSV season. The genome of RSV contains 10 genes, encoding 11 proteins. Among those, there are three non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2, and M2-2), and eight structural proteins (SH, G, F, N, P, M, M2-1, L) . Among three surface glycoproteins, G and F mediate the attachment and fusion of virion with the membrane of respiratory epithelium, which are crucial for the infectivity and pathogenesis of the virus. Besides, the F glycoprotein also mediates the coalescence of neighboring cells, leading to formation of the characteristic syncytia.Both RSV G and F proteins possess the antigenic determinants that elicit the production of neutralizing antibodies. However, the G protein is antigenically variable and highly glycosylated, which renders it challenging to be used as a vaccine antigen with broad protective function. By contrast, F protein is highly conserved among RSV A and B subtypes with limited glycosylation sites, and > 90%of high potency neutralizing antibodies in human are targeted against this protein, especially for the siteepitope. The F protein is presented in two conformations on the virion surface: one metastable state named pre-fusion (pre-F) , and another stable state named post-fusion (post-F) . Pre-F is the active form of F protein with six antigenic sites (I, II, III, IV, V) for neutralization, among which siteand V only exist on pre-F protein, and the other sites are shared by pre-F and post-F. During the attachment and fusion of virion on host cell membrane, pre-F protein can be triggered easily to refold to its post-F form to facilitate the membrane-fusion process; however, post-F cannot return to the functional pre-F form. After the structural arrangement, post-F protein loses the top neutralization sensitive sites-and V, and neutralizing antibodies targeting other sites are less potent than those binding to sitesand V. Accordingly, the site-specific monoclonal antibody D25 has 100 folds higher neutralizing activity than Plivizumab. Accumulative preclinical and clinical data have revealed that a stabilized pre-F protein, especially in trimeric state, can induce a potent antibody response in both animal models and humans. Therefore, a trimeric stabilized pre-F protein is a desired antigenic format in RSV vaccine. Several approaches can be taken to stabilize RSV F protein in this pre-fusion state by optimizing the pre-F protein structure. These approaches include: introduction of a short linker, using disulfide bonds; and using cavity-filling substitutions.To stabilize RSV F protein in the prefusion state, a great amount of effort has been made to optimize the pre-F protein structure. Three kinds of strategies have been utilized for stabilization of prefusion state: introduction of short linker, disulfide bonds and cavity-filling substitutions. Due to the Furin cleavage process in peptide 27 (p27) region, hydrophobic fusion peptide (FP) can be subsequently released to trigger the refolding process. Thus, GS short linker is often used to replace p27-FP region between the F1 and F2 subunits of RSV F to prevent this release. Disulfide bonds, including intraprotomer and interprotomer disulfide bonds, are introduced to harden the hinge movements and refolding regions as the additional forces in the prefusion conformation. Moreover, the specific hydrophobic cavities close to the binding site of D25 antibody, which is unique to the prefusion conformation, are other sites to be engineered to enhance the retention of D25 recognition. Therefore, cavity-filling substitutions usually adopt prevalent side-chain conformations with minimal clashes to stabilize the cavities.Although RSV F protein exists in a form of homotrimer, there is an equilibrium between open and closed states for prefusion F protein, which is transient by a breathing motion of the prefusion conformatio. Each protomer can aggregate to form the prefusion F trimer through the transmembrane domain (TM) and cytoplasmic tail (CT) . Moreover, whether prefusion RSV F protein is completely dissociated (monomeric) or not depends on the existence of TM domains. Thus, the metastable prefusion F protein is anchored on the viral membrane by TM and CT. However, it has also been reported that an unaggregated (monomeric) state of prefusion F protein can be secreted by deleting the TM and CT domains..However, even though the anchor TM and CT are lacked in the prefusion F variants design, the protomers can also be tethered by the addition of C-terminal T4-phage fibritin trimerization domain (T4 foldon) . Since the trimerization of T4 foldon can stabilize the trimer conformation and prevent the protomers from dissociation, it is expected to help maintain a more stable and sensitive binding site (antigenic site) of prefusion F proteins, which is unique to the specific antibodies with potent neutralizing capacities.Currently, two RSV vaccines, AREXVY and ABRYSVO for older adults, developed by GSK and Pfizer respectively, have been approved by the US FDA. Moreover, Pfizer’s RSV vaccine has also been approved by FDA for maternal immunization in pregnant women to protect their new-born babies from RSV infection. Both vaccines have used soluble and trimeric stabilized pre-F protein as the antigen, in which T4 foldon is fused to the C-terminus of pre-fusion F protein to maintain the trimeric conformation, and the TM and CT regions of RSV F protein are removed.However, both vaccines are conventional protein subunit vaccines with or without adjuvants, which require complicated protein expression, purification, and analytical procedures during CMC process, and the cost is relatively high for most low-and middle-income countries (LMIC) . mRNA vaccines, which are novel and based on a validated vaccine platform during Covid-19 pandemic, have multiple advantages over protein subunit vaccines, such as flexible antigen design, ability to induce potent humoral and cellular immune responses, quick development speed, and low manufacturing cost. With the proprietary thermostable lipid nanoparticle technology, an RSV mRNA vaccine with high efficacy and safety is developed to meet the unmet medical needs.The present disclosure provides immunizing compositions (e.g., RNA vaccines) that elicit potent neutralizing antibodies against RSV antigens (e.g., respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) antigens) . The term “RSV antigens” herein encompasses RSV antigens (e.g., RSV F glycoproteins) , encoded by the RNA of the present disclosure. It should be understood that the terms “RNA” and “RNA construct” may be used interchangeably herein.In some embodiments, an immunizing composition includes an engineered polynucleotide (e.g., messenger RNA (mRNA) ) encoding a stabilized prefusion form of an RSV F glycoprotein (e.g., an hRSV F glycoprotein) . In certain embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide is an RNA, such as a messenger RNA (mRNA) . In some embodiments, one RNA (e.g., having a 5’ UTR, ORF, 3’ UTR, and poly (A) tail) encodes the prefusion RSV F glycoprotein.The envelope of hRSV contains three surface glycoproteins: F, G, and SH. The G and F proteins are protective antigens and targets of neutralizing antibodies. The F protein, however, is more conserved across hRSV strains and types (Aand B) . hRSV F protein is a type I fusion glycoprotein that is well conserved between clinical isolates, including between the hRSV-Aand hRSV-B antigenic subgroups. The F protein transitions between prefusion and more stable postfusion states, thereby facilitating entry into target cells. hRSV F glycoprotein is initially synthesized as an F0 precursor protein. hRSV F0 folds into a trimer, which is activated by furin cleavage into the mature prefusion protein comprising FI and F2 subunits (Bolt, et al., Vims Res., 68: 25, 2000) . Although targets for neutralizing monoclonal antibodies exist on the postfusion conformation of F protein, the neutralizing Ab response primarily targets the F protein prefusion conformation in people naturally infected with hRSV (Magro M et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012; 109 (8) : 3089-94; Ngwuta JO et al., Sci Transl Med 2015; 7 (309) : 309ral62) . Consistent with this, hRSV F protein stabilized in the prefusion conformation produces a greater neutralizing immune response in animal models than that observed with hRSV F protein stabilized in the post fusion conformation (McLellan et al., Science, 342: 592-598, 2013) . Thus, stabilized prefusion hRSV F proteins are good candidates for inclusion in an hRSV vaccine.As discussed above, contrary to the common practice of removing either both the TM and CT regions in the RSV vaccines, or only the CT region in the RSV mRNA vaccine, the data disclosed herein surprisingly show that maintaining both the TM and the CT regions in the RSV pre-fusion F protein antigen structure optimizes the structure for RSV vaccine design. Accordingly, in some aspects, disclosed herein is an engineered polynucleotide (e.g., a ribonucleotide or an RNA (such as an mRNA) ) encoding a stabilized prefusion form of an RSV F glycoprotein that is immunogenic, wherein the engineered polynucleotide comprises: (a) a first polynucleotide encoding a transmembrane (TM) domain of the RSV F glycoprotein; and (b) a second polynucleotide encoding a cytoplasmic tail (CT) of the RSV F glycoprotein.As used herein, stabilized prefusion form of RSV F proteins, which exist in a labile, high-energy state, are those that comprise mutations (e.g., stabilizing mutations) to prevent the transition of the protein into its post-fusion conformation.For example, in some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S46X (such as S46G) , E92X (such as E92D) , P102X (such as P102A) , S215X (such as S215P) , I379X (such as I379V) , L373X (such as L373R) , M447X (such as M447V) and K465X (such as K465Q) , wherein X is any amino acid other than the original amino acid.As used herein, “other than the original amino acid, ” in the context of representing an amino acid substitution / change from the original amino acid at the specified location, refers to any one of the 19 other proteinegenic amino acids different from the original amino acid. For example, E92X means that X can be any of the 19 proteinogenic amino acids other than the original residue E, at position 92 (of SEQ ID NO: 1) . Thus, necessarily, different X in different mutations may refers to a different set of 19 amino acids, depending on the identity of the original amino acid at the specified position.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of A149C and Y458C. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S155C and S290C. These substitutions to Cys may facilitate to introduction of additional / new intra-polypeptide disulfide bonds.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S190X (such as S190F) and V207X (such as V207L) .In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises a truncated CT. In certain embodiments, the truncated CT consists essentially of or consists of a peptide sequence of KAR. In some embodiments, the truncated CT comprises amino acid position 4-24 of SEQ ID NO: 16.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect further comprises a third polynucleotide encoding an extracellular (EC) domain.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect further comprises a fourth polynucleotide encoding a trimerization domain of T4 fibritin.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein encoded by the engineered polynucleotide of any preceding aspect lacks a p27-fusion protein (p27-FP) domain. The RSV F glycoprotein can have a substitution of the p27-fusion protein domain by a short linker (e.g., a GS linker) . Accordingly, in some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein substitutes a linker (e.g., a GS linker) for the p27-FP domain.Some aspects of the present disclosure provide a composition (e.g., immunizing, immunogenic, and / or vaccine composition) comprising engineered polynucleotide (e.g., a ribonucleotide or an RNA) encoding the stabilized pre-fusion form of RSV F glycoprotein disclosed herein.In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein are superior to conventional vaccines (e.g., recombinant DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant) by a factor of at least 10 fold, 20, fold, 40, fold, 50 fold, 100 fold, 500 fold, or 1, 000 fold when administered intramuscularly (IM) or intradermally (ID) . These results can be achieved even when significantly lower doses of the RNA (e.g., mRNA) are administered in comparison with doses used in conventional vaccines.In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein results in balanced Th1 and Th2 immune responses. The RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein can stimulate balanced Th1 / Th2 cellular responses that help clear RSV infection while avoid induction of VERD (e.g., a decreased amount of Th2 as compared to FI-RSV vaccine that can induce VERD, See J Virol 89:11692–11705. doi: 10.1128 / JVI. 02018-15) . In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein result in a ratio of human antibody IgG1 / IgG4 more than about 1: 1, 2: 1, 3: 1, 4:1, 5: 1, or 10: 1. In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein results in a ratio of mouse antibody IgG2a / IgG1 more than about 1: 1, 2: 1, 3: 1, 4: 1, 5: 1, or 10: 1.It should be understood that the immunizing compositions (e.g., RNA vaccines) of the present disclosure are not naturally-occurring. That is, the RNA polynucleotides encoding RSV antigens, as provided herein, do not occur in nature. It should also be understood that the RNA polynucleotides described herein are isolated from viral proteins and viral lipids as they exist in nature. Thus, as provided herein, an immunizing composition comprising an RNA formulated in a lipid nanoparticle, for example, excludes viruses (i.e., the compositions are not, nor do they contain, viruses) .AntigensAntigens are proteins capable of inducing an immune response (e.g., causing an immune system to produce antibodies against the antigens) . In some embodiments, use of the term “antigen” encompasses immunogenic proteins and immunogenic fragments (an immunogenic fragment that induces (or is capable of inducing) an immune response to RSV (e.g., hRSV) , unless otherwise stated. It should be understood that the term “protein” encompasses peptides and the term “antigen” encompasses antigenic fragments.Exemplary sequences of the RSV antigens and the RNA encoding the RSV antigens of the compositions of the present disclosure are provided in Table 7.In some embodiments, a composition comprises an RNA that encodes a prefusion form of an RSV (e.g., hRSV) F glycoprotein that comprises at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 or a fragment thereof.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S46X (such as S46G) , E92X (such as E92D) , P102X (such as P102A) , S215X (such as S215P) , I379X (such as I379V) , L373X (such as L373R) , M447X (such as M447V) and K465X (such as K465Q) , wherein X is any amino acid other than the original amino acid. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of A149C and Y458C. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S155C and S290C. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S190X (such as S190F) and V207X (such as V207L) .DS-Cav1 is one canonical soluble and disulfide bond-linked double-chain protein that includes intraprotomer disulfide (S155C, S290C) stabilizing mutations, cavity-filing mutations (S190F, V207L) , naturally occurred substitutions (P102A, I379V, M447V) to enhance its expression. The stabilized prefusion form of RSV F proteins disclosed herein comprise one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S46X (such as S46G) , E92X (such as E92D) , S215X (such as S215P) , L373X (such as L373R) , K465X (such as K465Q) , A149C, and Y458C, wherein X is any amino acid other than the original amino acid.In one example, the stabilized prefusion form of RSV F protein disclosed herein comprises S46G, E92D, P102A, A149C, S155C, S190F, V207L, S215P, S290C, Y458C, and / or K465Q (e.g., any combination thereof) . In one example, the stabilized prefusion form of RSV F protein disclosed herein comprises S46G, E92D, P102A, A149C, S155C, S190F, V207L, S215P, S290C, Y458C, K465Q, and / or F572A (e.g., any combination thereof) . In one example, the stabilized prefusion form of RSV F protein disclosed herein comprises S46G, E92D, P102A, A149C, S155C, S190F, V207L, S215P, S290C, L373R, I379V, M447V, Y458C, and / or K465Q (e.g., any combination thereof) . In one example, the stabilized prefusion form of RSV F protein disclosed herein comprises S46G, E92D, P102A, A149C, S155C, S190F, V207L, S215P, S290C, L373R, I379V, M447V, Y458C, and / or K465Q (e.g., any combination thereof) , wherein the RSV F protein further comprises a trimerization domain of T4 fibritin located between the EC and TM domain.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises an amino acid substitution F572A relative SEQ ID NO: 1.In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein is at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, or 22. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO:17. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 18. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 19. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 20. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 21. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 22. In some embodiments, the RSV F glycoprotein comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46.It should be understood that any one of the antigens encoded by the RNA described herein may or may not comprise a signal sequence.Nucleic AcidsThe compositions of the present disclosure comprise a (at least one) RNA having an open reading frame (ORF) encoding a RSV antigen. In some embodiments, the RNA is a messenger RNA (mRNA) . In some embodiments, the RNA (e.g., mRNA) further comprises a 5’ UTR, 3’UTR, a poly (A) tail and / or a 5’ cap analog.Nucleic acids comprise a polymer of nucleotides (nucleotide monomers) . Thus, nucleic acids are also referred to as polynucleotides. Nucleic acids may be or may include, for example, deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs) , ribonucleic acids (RNAs) , threose nucleic acids (TNAs) , glycol nucleic acids (GNAs) , peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) , locked nucleic acids (LNAs, including LNA having a b-D-ribo configuration, a-LNA having an a-L-ribo configuration (adiastereomer of LNA) , 2’ -amino-LNA having a 2’ -amino functionalization, and 2’ -amino-a-LNA having a 2’ -amino functionalization) , ethylene nucleic acids (ENA) , cyclohexenyl nucleic acids (CeNA) and / or chimeras and / or combinations thereof.Messenger RNA (mRNA) is any RNA that encodes a (at least one) protein (anaturally-occurring, non-naturally-occurring, or modified polymer of amino acids) and can be translated to produce the encoded protein in vitro, in vivo, in situ, or ex vivo. The skilled artisan will appreciate that, except where otherwise noted, nucleic acid sequences set forth in the instant application may recite “T” sin a representative DNA sequence but where the sequence represents RNA (e.g., mRNA) , the “T” swould be substituted for “U” s. Thus, any of the DNAs disclosed and identified by a particular sequence identification number herein also disclose the corresponding RNA (e.g., mRNA) sequence reverse complementary or complementary to the DNA, where each “T” of the DNA sequence is substituted with “U” , and vice versa. Any of the RNAs disclosed and identified by a particular sequence identification number herein also disclose the corresponding DNA sequence reverse complementary or complementary to the RNA, where each “U” of the RNA sequence is substituted with “T” .An open reading frame (ORF) is a continuous stretch of DNA or RNA beginning with a start codon (e.g., methionine (ATG or AUG) ) and ending with a stop codon (e.g., TAA, TAG or TGA, or UAA, UAG or UGA) . An ORF typically encodes a protein. It will be understood that the sequences disclosed herein may further comprise additional elements, e.g., 5’a nd 3’ UTRs, but that those elements, unlike the ORF, need not necessarily be present in an RNA polynucleotide of the present disclosure.VariantsIn some embodiments, the compositions of the present disclosure include RNA that encodes an RSV antigen variant. Antigen variants or other polypeptide variants refers to molecules that differ in their amino acid sequence from a wild-type, native, or reference sequence. The antigen / polypeptide variants may possess substitutions, deletions, and / or insertions at certain positions within the amino acid sequence, as compared to a native or reference sequence. Ordinarily, variants possess at least 50%identity to a wild-type, native or reference sequence. In some embodiments, variants share at least 80%, or at least 90%identity with a wild-type, native, or reference sequence.Variant antigens / polypeptides encoded by nucleic acids of the disclosure may contain amino acid changes that confer any of a number of desirable properties, e.g., that enhance their immunogenicity, enhance their expression, and / or improve their stability or PK / PD properties in a subject. Variant antigens / polypeptides can be made using routine mutagenesis techniques and assayed as appropriate to determine whether they possess the desired property. Assays to determine expression levels and immunogenicity are well known in the art and exemplary such assays are set forth in the Examples section. Similarly, PK / PD properties of a protein variant can be measured using art recognized techniques, e.g., by determining expression of antigens in a vaccinated subject over time and / or by looking at the durability of the induced immune response. The stability of protein (s) encoded by a variant nucleic acid may be measured by assaying thermal stability or stability upon urea denaturation or may be measured using in silico prediction. Methods for such experiments and in silico determinations are known in the art. In some embodiments, a composition comprises an RNA or an RNA ORF that comprises a nucleotide sequence of any one of the sequences provided herein (see, e.g., Table 7) , or comprises a nucleotide sequence at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99%identical to a nucleotide sequence of any one of the sequences provided herein.The term “identity” refers to a relationship between the sequences of two or more polypeptides (e. g. antigens) or polynucleotides (nucleic acids) , as determined by comparing the sequences. Identity also refers to the degree of sequence relatedness between or among sequences as determined by the number of matches between strings of two or more amino acid residues or nucleic acid residues. Identity measures the percent of identical matches between the smaller of two or more sequences with gap alignments (if any) addressed by a particular mathematical model or computer program (e.g., “algorithms” ) . Identity of related antigens or nucleic acids can be readily calculated by known methods. “Percent (%) identity” as it applies to polypeptide or polynucleotide sequences is defined as the percentage of residues (amino acid residues or nucleic acid residues) in the candidate amino acid or nucleic acid sequence that are identical with the residues in the amino acid sequence or nucleic acid sequence of a second sequence after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent identity. Methods and computer programs for the alignment are well known in the art. It is understood that identity depends on a calculation of percent identity but may differ in value due to gaps and penalties introduced in the calculation. Generally, variants of a particular polynucleotide or polypeptide (e.g., antigen) have at least 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%but less than 100%sequence identity to that particular reference polynucleotide or polypeptide as determined by sequence alignment programs and parameters described herein and known to those skilled in the art. Such tools for alignment include those of the BLAST suite (Stephen F. Altschul, et al (1997) , “Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs” , Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402) . Another popular local alignment technique is based on the Smith-Waterman algorithm (Smith, T. F. &Waterman, M. S. (1981) “Identification of common molecular subsequences. ” J. Mol. Biol. 147: 195-197) . A general global alignment technique based on dynamic programming is the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm (Needleman, S.B. &Wunsch, C. D. (1970) “Ageneral method applicable to the search for similarities in the amino acid sequences of two proteins. ” J. Mol. Biol. 48: 443-453) . More recently a Fast Optimal Global Sequence Alignment Algorithm (FOGSAA) has been developed that purportedly produces global alignment of nucleotide and protein sequences faster than other optimal global alignment methods, including the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm.As such, polynucleotides encoding peptides or polypeptides containing substitutions, insertions and / or additions, deletions and covalent modifications with respect to reference sequences, in particular the polypeptide (e.g., antigen) sequences disclosed herein, are included within the scope of this disclosure. For example, sequence tags or amino acids, such as one or more lysines, can be added to peptide sequences (e.g., at the N-terminal or C-terminal ends) . Sequence tags can be used for peptide detection, purification, or localization. Lysines can be used to increase peptide solubility or to allow for biotinylation. Alternatively, amino acid residues located at the carboxy and amino terminal regions of the amino acid sequence of a peptide or protein may optionally be deleted providing for truncated sequences. Certain amino acids (e.g., C-terminal or N-terminal residues) may alternatively be deleted depending on the use of the sequence, as for example, expression of the sequence as part of a larger sequence which is soluble or linked to a solid support. In some embodiments, sequences for (or encoding) signal sequences, termination sequences, transmembrane domains, linkers, multimerization domains (such as, e.g., foldon regions) and the like may be substituted with alternative sequences that achieve the same or a similar function. In some embodiments, cavities in the core of proteins can be filled to improve stability, e.g., by introducing larger amino acids. In other embodiments, buried hydrogen bond networks may be replaced with hydrophobic resides to improve stability. In yet other embodiments, glycosylation sites may be removed and replaced with appropriate residues. Such sequences are readily identifiable to one of skill in the art. It should also be understood that some of the sequences provided herein contain sequence tags or terminal peptide sequences (e.g., at the N-terminal or C-terminal ends) that may be deleted, for example, prior to use in the preparation of an RNA (e.g., mRNA) vaccine.As recognized by those skilled in the art, protein fragments, functional protein domains, and homologous proteins are also considered to be within the scope of RSV antigens of interest. For example, provided herein is any protein fragment (meaning a polypeptide sequence at least one amino acid residue shorter than a reference antigen sequence but otherwise identical) of a reference protein, provided that the fragment is immunogenic and confers a protective immune response to the RSV. In addition to variants that are identical to the reference protein but are truncated, in some embodiments, an antigen includes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more mutations, as shown in any of the sequences provided or referenced herein. Antigens / antigenic polypeptides can range in length from about 4, 6, or 8 amino acids to full length proteins.Stabilizing ElementsNaturally-occurring eukaryotic mRNA molecules can contain stabilizing elements, including, but not limited to untranslated regions (UTR) at their 5’ -end (5’ UTR) and / or at their 3’-end (3’ UTR) , in addition to other structural features, such as a 5’ -cap structure or a 3’ -poly (A) tail. Both the 5’ UTR and the 3’ UTR are typically transcribed from the genomic DNA and are elements of the premature mRNA. Characteristic structural features of mature mRNA, such as the 5’ -cap and the 3’ -poly (A) tail are usually added to the transcribed (premature) mRNA during mRNA processing.In some embodiments, a composition includes an RNA polynucleotide having an open reading frame encoding at least one antigenic polypeptide having at least one modification, at least one 5’ terminal cap, and is formulated within a lipid nanoparticle. 5’ -capping of polynucleotides may be completed concomitantly during the in vitro-transcription reaction using the following chemical RNA cap analogs to generate the 5’ -guanosine cap structure according to manufacturer protocols: 3’ -0-Me-m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) G [the ARCA cap] ; G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) A; G(5’ ) ppp (5’ ) G; m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) A; m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) G (New England BioLabs, Ipswich, MA) . 5’ -capping of modified RNA may be completed post-transcriptionally using a Vaccinia Virus Capping Enzyme to generate the “Cap 0” structure: m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) G (New England BioLabs, Ipswich, MA) . Cap 1 structure may be generated using both Vaccinia Virus Capping Enzyme and a 2’ -0 methyl-transferase to generate: m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) G-2’ -0-methyl. Cap 2 structure may be generated from the Cap 1 structure followed by the 2’ -0-methylation of the 5 ‘-antepenultimate nucleotide using a 2’ -0 methyl-transferase. Cap 3 structure may be generated from the Cap 2 structure followed by the 2’ -0-methylation of the 5’ -preantepenultimate nucleotide using a 2’ -0 methyl-transferase. Enzymes may be derived from a recombinant source.The 3’ -poly (A) tail is typically a stretch of adenine nucleotides added to the 3’ -end of the transcribed mRNA. It can, in some instances, comprise up to about 400 adenine nucleotides. In some embodiments, the length of the 3’ -poly (A) tail may be an essential element with respect to the stability of the individual mRNA.In some embodiments, a composition includes a stabilizing element. Stabilizing elements may include for instance a histone stem-loop. A stem-loop binding protein (SLBP) , a 32 kDa protein has been identified. It is associated with the histone stem-loop at the 3’ -end of the histone messages in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Its expression level is regulated by the cell cycle; it peaks during the S-phase, when histone mRNA levels are also elevated. The protein has been shown to be essential for efficient 3’ -end processing of histone pre-mRNA by the U7 snRNP. SLBP continues to be associated with the stem-loop after processing, and then stimulates the translation of mature histone mRNAs into histone proteins in the cytoplasm. The RNA binding domain of SLBP is conserved through metazoa and protozoa; its binding to the histone stem-loop depends on the structure of the loop. The minimum binding site includes at least three nucleotides 5’a nd two nucleotides 3’ relative to the stem-loop.In some embodiments, an RNA (e.g., mRNA) includes a coding region, at least one histone stem-loop, and optionally, a poly (A) sequence or polyadenylation signal. The poly (A) sequence or polyadenylation signal generally should enhance the expression level of the encoded protein. The encoded protein, in some embodiments, is not a histone protein, a reporter protein (e.g. Luciferase, GFP, EGFP, b-Galactosidase, EGFP) , or a marker or selection protein (e. g. alpha-Globin, Galactokinase and Xanthine: guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (GPT)) .In some embodiments, an RNA (e.g., mRNA) includes the combination of a poly (A) sequence or polyadenylation signal and at least one histone stem-loop, even though both represent alternative mechanisms in nature, acts synergistically to increase the protein expression beyond the level observed with either of the individual elements. The synergistic effect of the combination of poly (A) and at least one histone stem-loop does not depend on the order of the elements or the length of the poly (A) sequence.In some embodiments, an RNA (e.g., mRNA) does not include a histone downstream element (HDE) . “Histone downstream element” (HDE) includes a purine-rich polynucleotide stretch of approximately 15 to 20 nucleotides 3’ of naturally occurring stem-loops, representing the binding site for the U7 snRNA, which is involved in processing of histone pre-mRNA into mature histone mRNA. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid does not include an intron.An RNA (e.g., mRNA) may or may not contain an enhancer and / or promoter sequence, which may be modified or unmodified or which may be activated or inactivated. In some embodiments, the histone stem-loop is generally derived from histone genes, and includes an intramolecular base pairing of two neighbored partially or entirely reverse complementary sequences separated by a spacer, consisting of a short sequence, which forms the loop of the structure. The unpaired loop region is typically unable to base pair with either of the stem loop elements. It occurs more often in RNA, as is a key component of many RNA secondary structures, but may be present in single-stranded DNA as well. Stability of the stem-loop structure generally depends on the length, number of mismatches or bulges, and base composition of the paired region. In some embodiments, wobble base pairing (non-Watson-Crick base pairing) may result. In some embodiments, the at least one histone stem-loop sequence comprises a length of 15 to 45 nucleotides.In some embodiments, an RNA (e.g., mRNA) has one or more AU-rich sequences removed. These sequences, sometimes referred to as AURES are destabilizing sequences found in the 3’ UTR. The AURES may be removed from the RNA vaccines. Alternatively, the AURES may remain in the RNA vaccine. Signal PeptidesIn some embodiments, a composition comprises an RNA (e.g., mRNA) having an ORF that encodes a signal peptide fused to the RSV antigen. Signal peptides, comprising the N-terminal 15-60 amino acids of proteins, are typically needed for the translocation across the membrane on the secretory pathway and, thus, universally control the entry of most proteins both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes to the secretory pathway. In eukaryotes, the signal peptide of a nascent precursor protein (pre -protein) directs the ribosome to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and initiates the transport of the growing peptide chain across it for processing. ER processing produces mature proteins, wherein the signal peptide is cleaved from precursor proteins, typically by a ER-resident signal peptidase of the host cell, or they remain uncleaved and function as a membrane anchor. A signal peptide may also facilitate the targeting of the protein to the cell membrane.A signal peptide may have a length of 15-60 amino acids. For example, a signal peptide may have a length of 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or 60 amino acids. In some embodiments, a signal peptide has a length of 20-60, 25-60, 30-60, 35-60, 40-60, 45-60, 50-60, 55-60, 15-55, 20-55, 25-55, 30-55, 35-55, 40-55, 45-55, 50-55, 15-50, 20-50, 25-50, 30-50, 35-50, 40-50, 45-50, 15-45, 20-45, 25-45, 30-45, 35-45, 40-45, 15-40, 20-40, 25-40, 30-40, 35-40, 15-35, 20-35, 25-35, 30-35, 15-30, 20-30, 25-30, 15-25, 20-25, or 15-20 amino acids.Signal peptides from heterologous genes (which regulate expression of genes other than RSV antigens in nature) are known in the art and can be tested for desired properties and then incorporated into a nucleic acid of the disclosure.Fusion ProteinsIn some embodiments, a composition of the present disclosure includes an RNA (e.g., mRNA) encoding an antigenic fusion protein. Thus, the encoded antigen or antigens may include two or more proteins (e.g., protein and / or protein fragment) joined together.Scaffold MoietiesThe RNA (e.g., mRNA) vaccines as provided herein, in some embodiments, encode fusion proteins that comprise RSV antigens linked to scaffold moieties. In some embodiments, such scaffold moieties impart desired properties to an antigen encoded by a nucleic acid of the disclosure. For example, scaffold proteins may improve the immunogenicity of an antigen, e.g., by altering the structure of the antigen, altering the uptake and processing of the antigen, and / or causing the antigen to bind to a binding partner.In some embodiments, the scaffold moiety is protein that can self-assemble into protein nanoparticles that are highly symmetric, stable, and structurally organized, with diameters of 10-150 nm, a highly suitable size range for optimal interactions with various cells of the immune system. In some embodiments, viral proteins or virus-like particles can be used to form stable nanoparticle structures. Examples of such viral proteins are known in the art. For example, in some embodiments, the scaffold moiety is a hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) . HBsAg forms spherical particles with an average diameter of -22 nm and which lacked nucleic acid and hence are non-infectious (Lopez-Sagaseta, J. et al. Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 14 (2016) 58-68) . In some embodiments, the scaffold moiety is a hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) self-assembles into particles of 24-31 nm diameter, which resembled the viral cores obtained from HBV-infected human liver. HBcAg produced in self-assembles into two classes of differently sized nanoparticles of 300 A and 360 A diameter, corresponding to 180 or 240 protomers.In some embodiments, bacterial protein platforms may be used. Non-limiting examples of these self-assembling proteins include ferritin, lumazine and encapsulin.Ferritin is a protein whose main function is intracellular iron storage. Ferritin is made of 24 subunits, each composed of a four-alpha-helix bundle, that self-assemble in a quaternary structure with octahedral symmetry (Cho K. J. et al. J Mol Biol. 2009; 390: 83-98) . Several high-resolution structures of ferritin have been determined, confirming that Helicobacter pylori ferritin is made of 24 identical protomers, whereas in animals, there are ferritin light and heavy chains that can assemble alone or combine with different ratios into particles of 24 subunits (Granier T. et al. J Biol Inorg Chem. 2003; 8: 105-111; Lawson D. M. et al. Nature. 1991; 349: 541-544) . Ferritin self-assembles into nanoparticles with robust thermal and chemical stability. Thus, the ferritin nanoparticle is well-suited to carry and expose antigens.Lumazine synthase (LS) is also well-suited as a nanoparticle platform for antigen display. LS, which is responsible for the penultimate catalytic step in the biosynthesis of riboflavin, is an enzyme present in a broad variety of organisms, including archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and eubacteria (Weber S. E. Flavins and Flavoproteins. Methods and Protocols, Series: Methods in Molecular Biology. 2014) . The LS monomer is 150 amino acids long, and consists of beta-sheets along with tandem alpha-helices flanking its sides. A number of different quaternary structures have been reported for LS, illustrating its morphological versatility: from homopentamers up to symmetrical assemblies of 12 pentamers forming capsids of 150 A diameter. Even LS cages of more than 100 subunits have been described (Zhang X. et al. J Mol Biol. 2006; 362: 753-770) .Encapsulin, a novel protein cage nanoparticle isolated from thermophile Thermotoga maritima, may also be used as a platform to present antigens on the surface of self-assembling nanoparticles. Encapsulin is assembled from 60 copies of identical 31 kDa monomers having a thin and icosahedral T = 1 symmetric cage structure with interior and exterior diameters of 20 and 24 nm, respectively (Sutter M. et al. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2008, 15: 939-947) . Although the exact function of encapsulin in T. maritima is not clearly understood yet, its crystal structure has been recently solved and its function was postulated as a cellular compartment that encapsulates proteins such as DyP (Dye decolorizing peroxidase) and Flp (Ferritin like protein) , which are involved in oxidative stress responses (Rahmanpour R. et al. FEBS J. 2013, 280: 2097-2104) .Linkers and Cleavable PeptidesIn some embodiments, the mRNAs of the disclosure encode more than one polypeptide, referred to herein as fusion proteins. In certain embodiments, the encoded polypeptide comprises two fragments (such as the F1 and F2 fragments) upon post-translational cleavage, wherein the fragments may in turn be linked together by a polypeptide linker. In some embodiments, the mRNA further encodes a linker located between at least one or each domain of the fusion protein. The linker can be, for example, a cleavable linker or protease-sensitive linker. In some embodiments, the linker is selected from the group consisting of F2A linker, P2A linker, T2A linker, E2A linker, and combinations thereof. This family of self-cleaving peptide linkers, referred to as 2 A peptides, has been described in the art (see for example, Kim, J. H. et al. (2011) PLoS ONE 6: el8556) . In some embodiments, the linker is an F2A linker. In some embodiments, the linker is a GGGS linker (which may include 1-20, 1-10, 1-5, 5-15, or 5-10 repeats of this sequence) . In some embodiments, the linker is a GS linker (which may include 1-20, 1-10, 1-5, 5-15, or 5-10 repeats of this sequence) . In some embodiments, the fusion protein contains three domains with intervening linkers, having the structure: domain-linker-domain-linker-domain.Cleavable linkers known in the art may be used in connection with the disclosure. Exemplary such linkers include: F2A linkers, T2A linkers, P2A linkers, E2A linkers (See, e.g., International Publication No. WO2017127750, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) . The skilled artisan will appreciate that other art-recognized linkers may be suitable for use in the RNAs disclosure (e.g., encoded by the nucleic acids of the disclosure) . The skilled artisan will likewise appreciate that other polycistronic RNA (e.g., mRNA encoding more than one antigen / polypeptide separately within the same molecule) may be suitable for use as provided herein.Sequence OptimizationIn some embodiments, an ORF encoding an antigen of the disclosure is codon optimized. Codon optimization methods are known in the art. For example, an ORF of any one or more of the sequences provided herein may be codon optimized. Codon optimization, in some embodiments, may be used to match codon frequencies in target and host organisms to ensure proper folding; bias GC content to increase mRNA stability or reduce secondary structures; minimize tandem repeat codons or base runs that may impair gene construction or expression; customize transcriptional and translational control regions; insert or remove protein trafficking sequences; remove / add post translation modification sites in encoded protein (e.g., glycosylation sites) ; add, remove or shuffle protein domains; insert or delete restriction sites; modify ribosome binding sites and mRNA degradation sites; adjust translational rates to allow the various domains of the protein to fold properly; or reduce or eliminate problem secondary structures within the polynucleotide. Codon optimization tools, algorithms and services are known in the art -non limiting examples include services from GeneArt (Life Technologies) , DNA2.0 (Menlo Park CA) and / or proprietary methods. In some embodiments, the open reading frame (ORF) sequence is optimized using optimization algorithms.In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares less than 95%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence ORF (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) . In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares less than 90%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) . In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares less than 85%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) . In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares less than 80%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) .In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares less than 75%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) .In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares between 65%and 85% (e.g., between about 67%and about 85%or between about 67%and about 80%) sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) . In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence shares between 65%and 75%or about 80%sequence identity to a naturally-occurring or wild-type sequence (e.g., a naturally-occurring or wild-type mRNA sequence encoding a RSV antigen) .In some embodiments, a codon-optimized sequence encodes an antigen that is as immunogenic as, or more immunogenic (e.g., at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 100%, or at least 200%more) , than a RSV antigen encoded by a non-codon-optimized sequence.When transfected into mammalian host cells, the modified mRNAs have a stability of between 12-18 hours, or greater than 18 hours, e.g., 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, or greater than 72 hours and are capable of being expressed by the mammalian host cells.In some embodiments, a codon optimized RNA may be one in which the levels of G / C are enhanced. The G / C-content of nucleic acid molecules (e.g., mRNA) may influence the stability of the RNA. RNA having an increased amount of guanine (G) and / or cytosine (C) residues may be functionally more stable than RNA containing a large amount of adenine (A) and thymine (T) or uracil (U) nucleotides. As an example, International Publication No. WO2002098443 discloses a pharmaceutical composition containing an mRNA stabilized by sequence modifications in the translated region (International Publication No. WO2002098443 is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) . Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, the modifications work by substituting existing codons for those that promote greater RNA stability without changing the resulting amino acid. The approach is limited to coding regions of the RNA.Chemically Modified NucleotidesIn some embodiments, an RNA (e.g., mRNA) is not chemically modified and comprises the standard ribonucleotides consisting of adenosine, guanosine, cytosine, and uridine. In some embodiments, nucleotides and nucleosides of the present disclosure comprise standard nucleoside residues such as those present in transcribed RNA (e. g. A, G, C, or U) . In some embodiments, nucleotides and nucleosides of the present disclosure comprise standard deoxyribonucleosides such as those present in DNA (e. g. dA, dG, dC, or dT) . Chemical ModificationsThe compositions of the present disclosure comprise, in some embodiments, an RNA having an open reading frame encoding a RSV antigen, wherein the nucleic acid comprises nucleotides and / or nucleosides that can be standard (unmodified) or modified as is known in the art. In some embodiments, nucleotides and nucleosides of the present disclosure comprise modified nucleotides or nucleosides. Such modified nucleotides and nucleosides can be naturally-occurring modified nucleotides and nucleosides or non-naturally occurring modified nucleotides and nucleosides. Such modifications can include those at the sugar, backbone, or nucleobase portion of the nucleotide and / or nucleoside as are recognized in the art.In some embodiments, a naturally-occurring modified nucleotide or nucleotide of the disclosure is one as is generally known or recognized in the art. Non-limiting examples of such naturally occurring modified nucleotides and nucleotides can be found, inter alia, in the widely recognized MODOMICS database.In some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring modified nucleotide or nucleoside of the disclosure is one as is generally known or recognized in the art. Non-limiting examples of such non-naturally occurring modified nucleotides and nucleosides can be found, inter alia, in published US application Nos. PCT / US2012 / 058519; PCT / US2013 / 075177;PCT / US2014 / 058897; PCT / US2014 / 058891; PCT / US2014 / 070413; PCT / US2015 / 36773; PCT / US2015 / 36759; PCT / US2015 / 36771; or PCT / IB 2017 / 051367 all of which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.Hence, nucleic acids of the disclosure (e.g., DNA nucleic acids and RNA nucleic acids, such as mRNA nucleic acids) can comprise standard nucleotides and nucleosides, naturally-occurring nucleotides and nucleosides, non-naturally-occurring nucleotides and nucleosides, or any combination thereof.Nucleic acids of the disclosure (e.g., DNA nucleic acids and RNA nucleic acids, such as mRNA nucleic acids) , in some embodiments, comprise various (more than one) different types of standard and / or modified nucleotides and nucleosides. In some embodiments, a particular region of a nucleic acid contains one, two or more (optionally different) types of standard and / or modified nucleotides and nucleosides.In some embodiments, a modified RNA nucleic acid (e.g., a modified mRNA nucleic acid) , introduced to a cell or organism, exhibits reduced degradation in the cell or organism, respectively, relative to an unmodified nucleic acid comprising standard nucleotides and nucleosides. In some embodiments, a modified RNA nucleic acid (e.g., a modified mRNA nucleic acid) , introduced into a cell or organism, may exhibit reduced immunogenicity in the cell or organism, respectively (e.g., a reduced innate response) relative to an unmodified nucleic acid comprising standard nucleotides and nucleosides.Nucleic acids (e.g., RNA, such as mRNA) , in some embodiments, comprise non-natural modified nucleotides that are introduced during synthesis or post-synthesis of the nucleic acids to achieve desired functions or properties. The modifications may be present on internucleotide linkages, purine or pyrimidine bases, or sugars. The modification may be introduced with chemical synthesis or with a polymerase enzyme at the terminal of a chain or anywhere else in the chain. Any of the regions of a nucleic acid may be chemically modified.The present disclosure provides for modified nucleosides and nucleotides of a nucleic acid (e.g., RNA nucleic acids, such as mRNA nucleic acids) . A “nucleoside” refers to a compound containing a sugar molecule (e.g., a pentose or ribose) or a derivative thereof in combination with an organic base (e.g., a purine or pyrimidine) or a derivative thereof (also referred to herein as “nucleobase” ) . A “nucleotide” refers to a nucleoside, including a phosphate group. Modified nucleotides may by synthesized by any useful method, such as, for example, chemically, enzymatically, or recombinantly, to include one or more modified or non-natural nucleosides. Nucleic acids can comprise a region or regions of linked nucleosides. Such regions may have variable backbone linkages. The linkages can be standard phosphodiester linkages, in which case the nucleic acids would comprise regions of nucleotides.Modified nucleotide base pairing encompasses not only the standard adenosine-thymine, adenosine-uracil, or guanosine-cytosine base pairs, but also base pairs formed between nucleotides and / or modified nucleotides comprising non-standard or modified bases, wherein the arrangement of hydrogen bond donors and hydrogen bond acceptors permits hydrogen bonding between a non-standard base and a standard base or between two complementary non-standard base structures, such as, for example, in those nucleic acids having at least one chemical modification. One example of such non-standard base pairing is the base pairing between the modified nucleotide inosine and adenine, cytosine, or uracil. Any combination of base / sugar or linker may be incorporated into nucleic acids of the present disclosure.In some embodiments, modified nucleobases in nucleic acids (e.g., RNA nucleic acids, such as mRNA nucleic acids) comprise 1-methyl-pseudouridine (m 1 y) , 1-ethyl-pseudouridine, 5-methoxy-uridine (mo5U) , 5-methyl-cytidine (m5C) , and / or pseudouridine (y) . In some embodiments, modified nucleobases in nucleic acids (e.g., RNA nucleic acids, such as mRNA nucleic acids) comprise 5-methoxymethyl uridine, 5-methylthio uridine, 1-methoxymethyl pseudouridine, 5-methyl cytidine, and / or 5-methoxy cytidine. In some embodiments, the polyribonucleotide includes a combination of at least two (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more) of any of the aforementioned modified nucleobases, including but not limited to chemical modifications.In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a chemical modification. In some embodiments, the chemical modification is substitution of a uridine in the polynucleotide by an N1-methylpseudouridine; optionally, all or substantially all uridine in the polynucleotide is substituted by N1-methylpseudouridine.In some embodiments, mRNAs are uniformly modified (e.g., fully modified, modified throughout the entire sequence) for a particular modification. For example, all uridines in a polynucleotide can be substituted by N1-methylpseudouridine. Similarly, a nucleic acid can be uniformly modified for any type of nucleoside residue present in the sequence by replacement with a modified residue such as those set forth above.The nucleic acids of the present disclosure may be partially or fully modified along the entire length of the molecule. For example, one or more or all or a given type of nucleotide (e.g., purine or pyrimidine, or any one or more or all of A, G, U, C) may be uniformly modified in a nucleic acid of the disclosure, or in a predetermined sequence region thereof (e.g., in the mRNA including or excluding the poly (A) tail) . In some embodiments, all nucleotides X in a nucleic acid of the present disclosure (or in a sequence region thereof) are modified nucleotides, wherein X may be any one of nucleotides A, G, U, C, or any one of the combinations A+G, A+U, A+C, G+U, G+C, U+C, A+G+U, A+G+C, G+U+C or A+G+C.The nucleic acid may contain from about 1%to about 100%modified nucleotides (either in relation to overall nucleotide content, or in relation to one or more types of nucleotide, i.e., any one or more of A, G, U or C) or any intervening percentage (e.g., from 1%to 20%, from 1%to 25%, from 1%to 50%, from 1%to 60%, from 1%to 70%, from 1%to 80%, from 1%to 90%, from 1%to 95%, from 10%to 20%, from 10%to 25%, from 10%to 50%, from 10%to 60%, from 10%to 70%, from 10%to 80%, from 10%to 90%, from 10%to 95%, from 10%to 100%, from 20%to 25%, from 20%to 50%, from 20%to 60%, from 20%to 70%, from 20%to 80%, from 20%to 90%, from 20%to 95%, from 20%to 100%, from 50%to 60%, from 50%to 70%, from 50%to 80%, from 50%to 90%, from 50%to 95%, from 50%to 100%, from 70%to 80%, from 70%to 90%, from 70%to 95%, from 70%to 100%, from 80%to 90%, from 80%to 95%, from 80%to 100%, from 90%to 95%, from 90%to 100%, and from 95%to 100%) . It will be understood that any remaining percentage is accounted for by the presence of unmodified A, G, U, or C.The mRNAs may contain at a minimum 1%and at maximum 100%modified nucleotides, or any intervening percentage, such as at least 5%modified nucleotides, at least 10%modified nucleotides, at least 25%modified nucleotides, at least 50%modified nucleotides, at least 80%modified nucleotides, or at least 90%modified nucleotides. For example, the nucleic acids may contain a modified pyrimidine such as a modified uracil or cytosine. In some embodiments, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 80%, at least 90%or 100%of the uracil in the nucleic acid is replaced with a modified uracil (e.g., a 5-substituted uracil) . The modified uracil can be replaced by a compound having a single unique structure, or can be replaced by a plurality of compounds having different structures (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more unique structures) . In some embodiments, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 80%, at least 90%or 100%of the cytosine in the nucleic acid is replaced with a modified cytosine (e.g., a 5-substituted cytosine) . The modified cytosine can be replaced by a compound having a single unique structure, or can be replaced by a plurality of compounds having different structures (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more unique structures) .Untranslated Regions (UTRs)The mRNAs of the present disclosure may comprise one or more regions or parts which act or function as an untranslated region. Where mRNAs are designed to encode at least one antigen of interest, the nucleic may comprise one or more of these untranslated regions (UTRs) . Wild-type untranslated regions of a nucleic acid are transcribed but not translated. In mRNA, the 5’UTR starts at the transcription start site and continues to the start codon but does not include the start codon; whereas the 3’ UTR starts immediately following the stop codon and continues until the transcriptional termination signal. There is growing body of evidence about the regulatory roles played by the UTRs in terms of stability of the nucleic acid molecule and translation. The regulatory features of a UTR can be incorporated into the polynucleotides of the present disclosure to, among other things, enhance the stability of the molecule. The specific features can also be incorporated to ensure controlled down-regulation of the transcript in case they are misdirected to undesired organs sites. A variety of 5’ UTR and 3’ UTR sequences are known and available in the art.A 5’ UTR is region of an mRNA that is directly upstream (5’ ) from the start codon (the first codon of an mRNA transcript translated by a ribosome) . A 5’ UTR does not encode a protein (is non-coding) . Natural 5’ UTRs have features that play roles in translation initiation. They harbor signatures like Kozak sequences which are commonly known to be involved in the process by which the ribosome initiates translation of many genes. Kozak sequences have the consensus CCR (A / G) CCAUGG (SEQ ID NO: 15) , where R is a purine (adenine or guanine) three bases upstream of the start codon (AUG) , which is followed by another ‘G’ . 5’ UTRs also have been known to form secondary structures which are involved in elongation factor binding.In some embodiments of the disclosure, a 5’ UTR is a heterologous UTR, i.e., is a UTR found in nature associated with a different ORF. In another embodiment, a 5’ UTR is a synthetic UTR, i.e., does not occur in nature. Synthetic UTRs include UTRs that have been mutated to improve their properties, e.g., which increase gene expression as well as those which are completely synthetic. Exemplary 5’ UTRs include Xcnopus or human derived a-globin or b-globin (8278063; 9012219) , human cytochrome b-245 a polypeptide, and hydroxysteroid (17b) dehydrogenase, and Tobacco etch virus (US8278063, 9012219) . CMV immediate-early 1 (IE1) gene (US20140206753, WO2013 / 185069) , the sequence GGGAUCCUACC (SEQ ID NO: 30) (WO2014144196) may also be used. In another embodiment, 5’ UTR of a TOP gene is a 5’ UTR of a TOP gene lacking the 5’ TOP motif (the oligopyrimidine tract) (e.g., WO / 2015101414, W02015101415, WO / 2015 / 062738, WO2015024667, WO2015024667; 5’ UTR element derived from ribosomal protein Large 32 (L32) gene (WO / 2015101414, W02015101415, WO / 2015 / 062738) , 5’ UTR element derived from the 5’ UTR of an hydroxysteroid (17-b) dehydrogenase 4 gene (HSD17B4) (WO2015024667) , or a 5’ UTR element derived from the 5’ UTR of ATP5A1 (WO2015024667) can be used. In some embodiments, an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) is used instead of a 5’ UTR.In some embodiments, a 5’ UTR of the present disclosure comprises SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, or 43. In some embodiments, a 5’ UTR of the present disclosure comprises SEQ ID NO: 4.Also disclosed herein is an engineered polynucleotide comprising a 5’ untranslated region (UTR) that comprises a nucleic acid sequence having substantially the same secondary structure as, and is optionally at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the 5’ UTR comprises a nucleic acid sequence at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 4. The secondary structure can comprise one or more (e.g., all) of the following characteristics: 1) having a length of about 50 nucleotides; 2) having a binding site for translation initiation factor and ribosome; 3) having a GC-rich hairpin region that stabilizes the secondary structure; 4) having a short AT-rich region for faster pass by ribosomes; 5) having a GC-rich sequence adjacent to the Kozak sequence for efficient ribosome binding to the AUG start condon; and / or, 6) lacking inhibitory domains for translation (such as lacking non-canonical start codons) .In some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a 3’ UTR. In some embodiments, the 3’ UTR comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.It is shown herein that mRNAs with the 5’ UTRs disclosed herein (e.g., Δ1 , Δ4 , Δ6 , and Δ7 5’ UTR) result in higher antibody titers than WT 5’ UTR, indicating that the mRNAs can induce stronger protein (e.g., antigen) expression. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the engineered polynucleotide further comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide (e.g., an antigen) . In some embodiments, the antigen is a viral antigen (e.g., a hRSV antigen) . In some embodiments, the antigen elicits a higer antibody titer when expressed in a host mammal (e.g., human) , when compared to the same antigen encoded by a control polynucleotide lacking said 5’ UTR.A 3’ UTR is region of an mRNA that is directly downstream (3’ ) from the stop codon (the codon of an mRNA transcript that signals a termination of translation) . A 3’ UTR does not encode a protein (is non-coding) . Natural or wild type 3’ UTRs are known to have stretches of adenosines and uridines embedded in them. These AU rich signatures are particularly prevalent in genes with high rates of turnover. Based on their sequence features and functional properties, the AU rich elements (AREs) can be separated into three classes (Chen et al, 1995) : Class I AREs contain several dispersed copies of an AUUUA motif within U-rich regions. C-Myc and MyoD contain class I AREs. Class II AREs possess two or more overlapping UUAUUUA (U / A) (U / A) (SEQ ID NO: 28) nonamers.Most proteins binding to the AREs are known to destabilize the messenger, whereas members of the ELAV family, most notably HuR, have been documented to increase the stability of mRNA. HuR binds to AREs of all the three classes. Engineering the HuR specific binding sites into the 3’ UTR of nucleic acid molecules will lead to HuR binding and thus, stabilization of the message in vivo.Introduction, removal or modification of 3’ UTR AU rich elements (AREs) can be used to modulate the stability of nucleic acids (e.g., RNA) of the disclosure. When engineering specific nucleic acids, one or more copies of an ARE can be introduced to make nucleic acids of the disclosure less stable and thereby curtail translation and decrease production of the resultant protein. Likewise, AREs can be identified and removed or mutated to increase the intracellular stability and thus increase translation and production of the resultant protein. Transfection experiments can be conducted in relevant cell lines, using nucleic acids of the disclosure and protein production can be assayed at various time points post-transfection. For example, cells can be transfected with different ARE-engineering molecules and by using an ELISA kit to the relevant protein and assaying protein produced at 6 hour, 12 hour, 24 hour, 48 hour, and 7 days post-transfection.3’UTRs may be heterologous or synthetic. With respect to 3 UTRs, globin UTRs, including Xenopus b-globin UTRs and human b-globin UTRs are known in the art (8278063, 9012219, US20110086907) . A nucleic acid (e.g., mRNA) encoding a modified b-globin with enhanced stability in some cell types by cloning two sequential human b-globin 3’ UTRs head to tail has been developed and is well known in the art (US2012 / 0195936, WO2014 / 071963) . In addition, a2-globin, al -globin, UTRs and mutants thereof are also known in the art (W02015101415, WO2015024667) . Other 3’ UTRs described in the mRNA in the non-patent literature include CYBA (Ferizi et al., 2015) and albumin (Thess et al., 2015) . Other exemplary 3 UTRs include that of bovine or human growth hormone (wild type or modified) (WO2013 / 185069, US20140206753, WO2014152774) , rabbit b globin and hepatitis B virus (HBV) , a-globin 3’ UTR and Viral VEEV 3 UTR sequences are also known in the art. In some embodiments, the sequence UUUGAAUU (WO2014144196) is used. In some embodiments, 3’ UTRs of human and mouse ribosomal protein are used. Other examples include rps9 3 UTR (W02015101414) , FIG4 (W02015101415) , and human albumin 7 (W02015101415) .In some embodiments, a 3’ UTR of the present disclosure comprises SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that 5’ UTRs that are heterologous or synthetic may be used with any desired 3 UTR sequence. For example, a heterologous 5’ UTR may be used with a synthetic 3 UTR with a heterologous 3 UTR.Non-UTR sequences may also be used as regions or subregions within a nucleic acid. For example, introns or portions of introns sequences may be incorporated into regions of nucleic acid of the disclosure. Incorporation of intronic sequences may increase protein production as well as nucleic acid levels.Combinations of features may be included in flanking regions and may be contained within other features. For example, the ORF may be flanked by a 5’ UTR which may contain a strong Kozak translational initiation signal and / or a 3’ UTR which may include an oligo (dT) sequence for templated addition of a poly-Atail. 5’ UTR may comprise a first polynucleotide fragment and a second polynucleotide fragment from the same and / or different genes such as the 5’UTRs described in US Patent Application Publication No. 20100293625 and PCT / US2014 / 069155, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.It should be understood that any UTR from any gene may be incorporated into the regions of a nucleic acid. Furthermore, multiple wild-type UTRs of any known gene may be utilized. It is also within the scope of the present disclosure to provide artificial UTRs which are not variants of wild type regions. These UTRs or portions thereof may be placed in the same orientation as in the transcript from which they were selected or may be altered in orientation or location. Hence a 5’ or 3’ UTR may be inverted, shortened, lengthened, made with one or more other 5’ UTRs or 3’ UTRs. As used herein, the term “altered” as it relates to a UTR sequence, means that the UTR has been changed in some way in relation to a reference sequence. For example, a 3’ UTR or 5’ UTR may be altered relative to a wild-type or native UTR by the change in orientation or location as taught above or may be altered by the inclusion of additional nucleotides, deletion of nucleotides, swapping or transposition of nucleotides. Any of these changes producing an “altered” UTR (whether 3’ or 5’ ) comprise a variant UTR.In some embodiments, a double, triple, or quadruple UTR such as a 5’ UTR or 3’ UTR may be used. As used herein, a “double” UTR is one in which two copies of the same UTR are encoded either in series or substantially in series. For example, a double beta-globin 3’ UTR may be used as described in US Patent publication 20100129877, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.It is also within the scope of the present disclosure to have patterned UTRs. As used herein “patterned UTRs” are those UTRs which reflect a repeating or alternating pattern, such as ABABAB or AABBAABBAABB or ABCABCABC or variants thereof repeated once, twice, or more than 3 times. In these patterns, each letter, A, B, or C represent a different UTR at the nucleotide level.In some embodiments, flanking regions are selected from a family of transcripts whose proteins share a common function, structure, feature, or property. For example, polypeptides of interest may belong to a family of proteins which are expressed in a particular cell, tissue or at some time during development. The UTRs from any of these genes may be swapped for any other UTR of the same or different family of proteins to create a new polynucleotide. As used herein, a “family of proteins” is used in the broadest sense to refer to a group of two or more polypeptides of interest which share at least one function, structure, feature, localization, origin, or expression pattern.The untranslated region may also include translation enhancer elements (TEE) . As a non-limiting example, the TEE may include those described in US Application No. 20090226470, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, and those known in the art.In vitro Transcription of RNA cDNA encoding the polynucleotides described herein may be transcribed using an in vitro transcription (IVT) system. In vitro transcription of RNA is known in the art and is described in International Publication WO / 2014 / 152027, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.In some embodiments, the RNA transcript is generated using a non-amplified, linearized DNA template in an in vitro transcription reaction to generate the RNA transcript. In some embodiments, the template DNA is isolated DNA. In some embodiments, the template DNA is cDNA. In some embodiments, the cDNA is formed by reverse transcription of a RNA polynucleotide, for example, but not limited to RSV mRNA. In some embodiments, cells, e.g., bacterial cells, e.g., E. coli, e.g., DH-1 cells are transfected with the plasmid DNA template. In some embodiments, the transfected cells are cultured to replicate the plasmid DNA which is then isolated and purified. In some embodiments, the DNA template includes a RNA polymerase promoter, e.g., a T7 promoter located 5’ to and operably linked to the gene of interest. In some embodiments, an in vitro transcription template encodes a 5’ untranslated (UTR) region, contains an open reading frame, and encodes a 3’ UTR and a poly (A) tail. The particular nucleic acid sequence composition and length of an in vitro transcription template will depend on the mRNA encoded by the template.A “5’ untranslated region” (UTR) refers to a region of an mRNA that is directly upstream (i.e., 5’ ) from the start codon (i.e., the first codon of an mRNA transcript translated by a ribosome) that does not encode a polypeptide. When RNA transcripts are being generated, the 5’ UTR may comprise a promoter sequence. Such promoter sequences are known in the art. It should be understood that such promoter sequences will not be present in a vaccine of the disclosure.A “3’ untranslated region” (UTR) refers to a region of an mRNA that is directly downstream (i.e., 3’ ) from the stop codon (i.e., the codon of an mRNA transcript that signals a termination of translation) that does not encode a polypeptide.An “open reading frame” is a continuous stretch of DNA beginning with a start codon (e.g., methionine (ATG) ) , and ending with a stop codon (e.g., TAA, TAG or TGA) and encodes a polypeptide.A “poly (A) tail” is a region of mRNA that is downstream, e.g., directly downstream (i.e., 3’), from the 3’ UTR that contains multiple, consecutive adenosine monophosphates. A poly (A) tail may contain 10 to 300 adenosine monophosphates. For example, a poly (A) tail may contain 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 210, 220, 230, 240, 250, 260, 270, 280, 290 or 300 adenosine monophosphates. In some embodiments, a poly (A) tail contains 50 to 250 adenosine monophosphates. In a relevant biological setting (e.g., in cells, in vivo) the poly (A) tail functions to protect mRNA from enzymatic degradation, e.g., in the cytoplasm, and aids in transcription termination, and / or export of the mRNA from the nucleus and translation.In some embodiments, a nucleic acid includes 200 to 3, 000 nucleotides. For example, a nucleic acid may include 200 to 500, 200 to 1000, 200 to 1500, 200 to 3000, 500 to 1000, 500 to 1500, 500 to 2000, 500 to 3000, 1000 to 1500, 1000 to 2000, 1000 to 3000, 1500 to 3000, or 2000 to 3000 nucleotides) .An in vitro transcription system typically comprises a transcription buffer, nucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) , an RNase inhibitor and a polymerase.The NTPs may be manufactured in house, may be selected from a supplier, or may be synthesized as described herein. The NTPs may be selected from, but are not limited to, those described herein including natural and unnatural (modified) NTPs. Any number of RNA polymerases or variants may be used in the method of the present disclosure. The polymerase may be selected from, but is not limited to, a phage RNA polymerase, e.g., a T7 RNA polymerase, a T3 RNA polymerase, a SP6 RNA polymerase, and / or mutant polymerases such as, but not limited to, polymerases able to incorporate modified nucleic acids and / or modified nucleotides, including chemically modified nucleic acids and / or nucleotides. Some embodiments exclude the use of DNase.In some embodiments, the RNA transcript is capped via enzymatic capping. In some embodiments, the RNA comprises 5’ cap, such as cap-0 or m7G (5’ ) ppp (5’ ) N1mpNp cap.Chemical SynthesisSolid-phase chemical synthesis. Nucleic acids the present disclosure may be manufactured in whole or in part using solid phase techniques. Solid-phase chemical synthesis of nucleic acids is an automated method wherein molecules are immobilized on a solid support and synthesized step by step in a reactant solution. Solid-phase synthesis is useful in site-specific introduction of chemical modifications in the nucleic acid sequences.Liquid Phase Chemical Synthesis. The synthesis of nucleic acids of the present disclosure by the sequential addition of monomer building blocks may be carried out in a liquid phase.Combination of Synthetic Methods. The synthetic methods discussed above each has its own advantages and limitations. Attempts have been conducted to combine these methods to overcome the limitations. Such combinations of methods are within the scope of the present disclosure. The use of solid-phase or liquid-phase chemical synthesis in combination with enzymatic ligation provides an efficient way to generate long chain nucleic acids that cannot be obtained by chemical synthesis alone.Ligation of Nucleic Acid Regions or SubregionsAssembling nucleic acids by a ligase may also be used. DNA or RNA ligases promote intermolecular ligation of the 5’a nd 3 ends of polynucleotide chains through the formation of a phosphodiester bond. Nucleic acids such as chimeric polynucleotides and / or circular nucleic acids may be prepared by ligation of one or more regions or subregions. DNA fragments can be joined by a ligase catalyzed reaction to create recombinant DNA with different functions. Two oligodeoxynucleotides, one with a 5’ phosphoryl group and another with a free 3 hydroxyl group, serve as substrates for a DNA ligase. PurificationPurification of the nucleic acids described herein may include, but is not limited to, nucleic acid clean-up, quality assurance and quality control. Clean-up may be performed by methods known in the arts such as, but not limited to, beads (Beckman Coulter Genomics, Danvers, MA) , poly-T beads, LNA■ oligo-T capture probes (Inc, Vedbaek, Denmark) or HPLC based purification methods such as, but not limited to, strong anion exchange HPLC, weak anion exchange HPLC, reverse phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) , and hydrophobic interaction HPLC (HIC-HPLC) . The term “purified” when used in relation to a nucleic acid such as a “purified nucleic acid” refers to one that is separated from at least one contaminant. A “contaminant” is any substance that makes another unfit, impure, or inferior. Thus, a purified nucleic acid (e.g., DNA and RNA) is present in a form or setting different from that in which it is found in nature, or a form or setting different from that which existed prior to subjecting it to a treatment or purification method.A quality assurance and / or quality control check may be conducted using methods such as, but not limited to, gel electrophoresis, UV absorbance, or analytical HPLC.In some embodiments, the nucleic acids may be sequenced by methods including, but not limited to reverse-transcriptase-PCR.QuantificationIn some embodiments, the nucleic acids of the present disclosure may be quantified in exosomes or when derived from one or more bodily fluid. Bodily fluids include peripheral blood, serum, plasma, ascites, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSL) , sputum, saliva, bone marrow, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, amniotic fluid, cerumen, breast milk, broncheo alveolar lavage fluid, semen, prostatic fluid, cowper’s fluid or pre-ejaculatory fluid, sweat, fecal matter, hair, tears, cyst fluid, pleural and peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid, lymph, chyme, chyle, bile, interstitial fluid, menses, pus, sebum, vomit, vaginal secretions, mucosal secretion, stool water, pancreatic juice, lavage fluids from sinus cavities, bronchopulmonary aspirates, blastocyl cavity fluid, and umbilical cord blood. Alternatively, exosomes may be retrieved from an organ selected from the group consisting of lung, heart, pancreas, stomach, intestine, bladder, kidney, ovary, testis, skin, colon, breast, prostate, brain, esophagus, liver, and placenta.Assays may be performed using antigen-specific probes, cytometry, qRT-PCR, real-time PCR, PCR, flow cytometry, electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, or combinations thereof while the exosomes may be isolated using immunohistochemical methods such as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods. Exosomes may also be isolated by size exclusion chromatography, density gradient centrifugation, differential centrifugation, nanomembrane ultrafiltration, immunosorbent capture, affinity purification, microfluidic separation, or combinations thereof.These methods afford the investigator the ability to monitor, in real time, the level of nucleic acids remaining or delivered. This is possible because the nucleic acids of the present disclosure, in some embodiments, differ from the endogenous forms due to the structural or chemical modifications.In some embodiments, the nucleic acid may be quantified using methods such as, but not limited to, ultraviolet visible spectroscopy (UV / Vis) . A non-limiting example of a UV / Vis spectrometer is aspectrometer (Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA) . The quantified nucleic acid may be analyzed in order to determine if the nucleic acid may be of proper size, check that no degradation of the nucleic acid has occurred. Degradation of the nucleic acid may be checked by methods such as, but not limited to, agarose gel electrophoresis, HPLC based purification methods such as, but not limited to, strong anion exchange HPLC, weak anion exchange HPLC, reverse phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) , and hydrophobic interaction HPLC (HIC-HPLC) , liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS) , capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE) .Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs)In some embodiments, the RNA (e.g., mRNA) of the disclosure is formulated in a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) . Lipid nanoparticles typically comprise ionizable cationic lipid, non-cationic lipid, sterol, and PEG lipid components along with the nucleic acid cargo of interest. The lipid nanoparticles of the disclosure can be generated using components, compositions, and methods as are generally known in the art, see for example PCT / US2016 / 052352; PCT / US2016 / 068300; PCT / US2017 / 037551; PCT / US2015 / 027400; PCT / US2016 / 047406; PCT / US2016000129;PCT / US2016 / 014280; PCT / US2016 / 014280; PCT / US2017 / 038426; PCT / US2014 / 027077;PCT / US2014 / 055394; PCT / US2016 / 52117; PCT / US2012 / 069610; PCT / US2017 / 027492; PCT / US2016 / 059575 and PCT / US2016 / 069491 all of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. In some examples, the lipid nanoparticles disclosed herein can be generated using the components, compositions, and methods described in International Publication Nos. WO2023104114 and WO2022166213, which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.Vaccines of the present disclosure are typically formulated in lipid nanoparticle. In some embodiments, the lipid nanoparticle comprises at least one ionizable cationic lipid, at least one phospholipid, at least one sterol, and / or at least one polyethylene glycol (PEG) -modified lipid. In some embodiments, the LNP comprises a mixture of lipids that comprise: (1) about 10%-50%, about 20%-60%, about 30%-50%, or about 40% (molar percentage) of an ionizable cationic lipid; (2) about 30%-70% (such as about 30%-60%, about 40-60%, or about 50%) (molar percentage) of a sterol lipid; (3) about 5%-30% (such as about 5-15%, or about 10%) (molar percentage) of a phospholipid; or (4) about 0%-5% (such as about 1-3%, or about 2%) (molar percentage) of a stealth lipid or PEG-modified lipid.In some embodiments, the lipid nanoparticle comprises a molar ratio of 40%, 45%, 50%, or 55%ionizable cationic lipid. In some embodiments, the ionizable lipid is one of lipids disclosed in International Patent Publication No. WO2023104114A2, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the ionizable lipid is selected from the group consisting of Lipid #2 , Lipid #4 , Lipid #5 , and Lipid #8 disclosed in International Patent Publication No. WO2023104114A2. In some embodiments, the ionizable cationic lipid is lipid #4.The ionizable cationic lipid #2 has the following structure:the ionizable cationic lipid #4 has the following structure:the ionizable cationic lipid #5 has the following structure:and the ionizable cationic lipid #8 has the following structure:In some embodiments, the sterol lipid is cholesterol. In some embodiments, the phospholipid is 1, 2 -distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) . In some embodiments, the PEG-modified lipid is 1, 2-dimyristoyl-rac-glycero-3-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000 (DMG-PEG2000. In some embodiments, the mixture of lipids comprises ionizable cationic lipid, cholesterol, DSPC, and DMG-PEG2000. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of ionizable cationic lipid, cholesterol, DSPC, and DMG-PEG2000 is about 40 : about 48 : about 10 : about 2.In some embodiments, the average diameter of the LNP is less than 100 nm, less than 90 nm, less than 80 nm, less than 70 nm, or less than 60 nm; e.g., about 40 nm-70 nm, about 50-70 nm, about 55 nm –65 nm, or about 60 nm) .In some embodiments, the LNP has a polydispersity index (PDI) of between about 0.01 -about 0.15, or between about 0.05 –about 0.10.In some embodiments, the LNP has a zeta potential of about 1.00 mV –about 5.00 mV, or about 1.50 mV –about 4.00 mV.Pharmaceutical FormulationsProvided herein are compositions (e.g., pharmaceutical compositions) , methods, kits and reagents for prevention or treatment of RSV in humans and other mammals, for example. The compositions provided herein can be used as therapeutic or prophylactic agents. They may be used in medicine to prevent and / or treat a RSV infection. In some embodiments, the RSV vaccine containing RNA as described herein can be administered to a subject (e.g., a mammalian subject, such as a human subject) , and the RNA polynucleotides are translated in vivo to produce an antigenic polypeptide (antigen) .An “effective amount” of a composition (e.g., comprising RNA) is based, at least in part, on the target tissue, target cell type, means of administration, physical characteristics of the RNA (e.g., length, nucleotide composition, and / or extent of modified nucleosides) , other components of the vaccine, and other determinants, such as age, body weight, height, sex, and general health of the subject. Typically, an effective amount of a composition provides an induced or boosted immune response as a function of antigen production in the cells of the subject. In some embodiments, an effective amount of the composition containing RNA polynucleotides having at least one chemical modification is more efficient than a composition containing a corresponding unmodified polynucleotide encoding the same antigen or a peptide antigen. Increased antigen production may be demonstrated by increased cell transfection (the percentage of cells transfected with the RNA vaccine) , increased protein translation and / or expression from the polynucleotide, decreased nucleic acid degradation (as demonstrated, for example, by increased duration of protein translation from a modified polynucleotide) , or altered antigen specific immune response of the host cell.The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to the combination of an active agent with a carrier, inert or active, making the composition especially suitable for diagnostic or therapeutic use in vivo or ex vivo. A “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, ” after administered to or upon a subject, does not cause undesirable physiological effects. The carrier in the pharmaceutical composition must be “acceptable” also in the sense that it is compatible with the active ingredient and can be capable of stabilizing it. One or more solubilizing agents can be utilized as pharmaceutical carriers for delivery of an active agent. Examples of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier include, but are not limited to, biocompatible vehicles, adjuvants, additives, and diluents to achieve a composition usable as a dosage form. Examples of other carriers include colloidal silicon oxide, magnesium stearate, cellulose, and sodium lauryl sulfate. Additional suitable pharmaceutical carriers and diluents, as well as pharmaceutical necessities for their use, are described in Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences.In some embodiments, the compositions (comprising polynucleotides and their encoded polypeptides) in accordance with the present disclosure may be used for treatment or prevention of a RSV infection. A composition may be administered prophylactically or therapeutically as part of an active immunization scheme to healthy individuals or early in infection during the incubation phase or during active infection after onset of symptoms. In some embodiments, the amount of RNA provided to a cell, a tissue or a subject may be an amount effective for immune prophylaxis.A composition may be administered with other prophylactic or therapeutic compounds. As a non-limiting example, a prophylactic or therapeutic compound may be an adjuvant or a booster. As used herein, when referring to a prophylactic composition, such as a vaccine, the term “booster” refers to an extra administration of the prophylactic (vaccine) composition. A booster (or booster vaccine) may be given after an earlier administration of the prophylactic composition. The time of administration between the initial administration of the prophylactic composition and the booster may be, but is not limited to, 1 minute, 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes, 6 minutes, 7 minutes, 8 minutes, 9 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes 35 minutes, 40 minutes, 45 minutes, 50 minutes, 55 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 9 hours, 10 hours, 11 hours, 12 hours, 13 hours, 14 hours, 15 hours, 16 hours, 17 hours, 18 hours, 19 hours, 20 hours, 21 hours, 22 hours, 23 hours, 1 day, 36 hours, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 1 week, 10 days, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 7 months, 8 months, 9 months, 10 months, 11 months, 1 year, 18 months, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years, 6 years, 7 years, 8 years, 9 years, 10 years, 11 years, 12 years, 13 years, 14 years, 15 years, 16 years, 17 years, 18 years, 19 years, 20 years, 25 years, 30 years, 35 years, 40 years, 45 years, 50 years, 55 years, 60 years, 65 years, 70 years, 75 years, 80 years, 85 years, 90 years, 95 years or more than 99 years. In exemplary embodiments, the time of administration between the initial administration of the prophylactic composition and the booster may be, but is not limited to, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months or 1 year.In some embodiments, a composition may be administered intramuscularly (i.m. ) , intranasally or intradermally, similarly to the administration of inactivated vaccines known in the art.A composition may be utilized in various settings depending on the prevalence of the infection or the degree or level of unmet medical need. As a non-limiting example, the RNA vaccines may be utilized to treat and / or prevent a variety of infectious disease. RNA vaccines have superior properties in that they produce much larger antibody titers, better neutralizing immunity, produce more durable immune responses, and / or produce responses earlier than commercially available vaccines.Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions including RNA and / or complexes optionally in combination with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. The RNA may be formulated or administered alone or in conjunction with one or more other components. For example, an immunizing composition may comprise other components including, but not limited to, adjuvants.In some embodiments, an immunizing composition does not include an adjuvant (they are adjuvant free) .An RNA may be formulated or administered in combination with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable excipients. In some embodiments, vaccine compositions comprise at least one additional active substance, such as, for example, a therapeutic ally-active substance, a prophylactically-active substance, or a combination of both. Vaccine compositions may be sterile, pyrogen-free or both sterile and pyrogen-free. General considerations in the formulation and / or manufacture of pharmaceutical agents, such as vaccine compositions, may be found, for example, in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 21st ed., Lippincott Williams &Wilkins, 2005 (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) .In some embodiments, an immunizing composition is administered to humans, human patients or subjects. For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “active ingredient” generally refers to the RNA vaccines or the polynucleotides contained therein, for example, RNA polynucleotides (e.g., mRNA polynucleotides) encoding antigens.Formulations of the vaccine compositions described herein may be prepared by any method known or hereafter developed in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include the step of bringing the active ingredient (e.g., mRNA polynucleotide) into association with an excipient and / or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if necessary and / or desirable, dividing, shaping and / or packaging the product into a desired single-or multi-dose unit.Relative amounts of the active ingredient, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and / or any additional ingredients in a pharmaceutical composition in accordance with the disclosure will vary, depending upon the identity, size, and / or condition of the subject treated and further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered. By way of example, the composition may comprise between 0.1%and 100%, e.g., between 0.5 and 50%, between 1-30%, between 5-80%, at least 80% (w / w) active ingredient.In some embodiments, an RNA is formulated using one or more excipients to: (1) increase stability; (2) increase cell transfection; (3) permit the sustained or delayed release (e.g., from a depot formulation) ; (4) alter the biodistribution (e.g., target to specific tissues or cell types) ; (5) increase the translation of encoded protein in vivo; and / or (6) alter the release profile of encoded protein (antigen) in vivo. In addition to traditional excipients such as any and all solvents, dispersion media, diluents, or other liquid vehicles, dispersion or suspension aids, surface active agents, isotonic agents, thickening or emulsifying agents, preservatives, excipients can include, without limitation, lipidoids, liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, polymers, lipoplexes, core-shell nanoparticles, peptides, proteins, cells transfected with the RNA (e.g., for transplantation into a subject) , hyaluronidase, nanoparticle mimics and combinations thereof.Dosing / AdministrationProvided herein are immunizing compositions (e.g., RNA vaccines) , methods, kits, and reagents for prevention and / or treatment of RSV infection in humans and other mammals. Immunizing compositions can be used as therapeutic or prophylactic agents. In some embodiments, immunizing compositions are used to provide prophylactic protection from RSV infection. In some embodiments, immunizing compositions are used to treat a RSV infection. In some embodiments, embodiments, immunizing compositions are used in the priming of immune effector cells, for example, to activate peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) ex vivo, which are then infused (re-infused) into a subject.A subject may be any mammal, including non-human primate and human subjects. Typically, a subject is a human subject.In some embodiments, an immunizing composition (e.g., RNA a vaccine) is administered to a subject (e.g., a mammalian subject, such as a human subject) in an effective amount to induce an antigen-specific immune response. The RNA encoding the RSV antigen is expressed and translated in vivo to produce the antigen, which then stimulates an immune response in the subject.The terms “treat” and “treatment” refer to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures, wherein the object is to prevent or slow down (lessen) an undesired physiological change or disorder. For purposes of this invention, beneficial or desired clinical results include, but are not limited to, alleviation of symptoms, diminishment of extent of disease or infection, stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of disease, delay or slowing of disease progression, amelioration or palliation of the disease state (e.g., pulmonary pathology scores) , whether detectable or undetectable. Those in need of treatment include those already with the condition or disorder as well as those prone to have the condition or disorder or those in which the condition or disorder is to be prevented.Prophylactic protection from RSV (e.g., hRSV) can be achieved following administration of an immunizing composition (e.g., an RNA vaccine) of the present disclosure. Immunizing compositions can be administered once, twice, three times, four times or more but it is likely sufficient to administer the vaccine once (optionally followed by a single booster) . It is possible, although less desirable, to administer an immunizing compositions to an infected individual to achieve a therapeutic response. Dosing may need to be adjusted accordingly.A method of eliciting an immune response in a subject against RSV is provided in aspects of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, a method involves administering to the subject an immunizing composition comprising a RNA (e.g., mRNA) having an open reading frame encoding RSV F glycoprotein, thereby inducing in the subject an immune response specific to the respiratory vims antigen, wherein anti-antigen antibody titer in the subject is increased following vaccination relative to anti-antigen antibody titer in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine against the antigen. An “anti-antigen antibody” is a serum antibody the binds specifically to the antigen.A prophylactically effective dose is an effective dose that prevents infection with the virus at a clinically acceptable level. In some embodiments, the effective dose is a dose listed in a package insert for the vaccine. A traditional vaccine, as used herein, refers to a vaccine other than the mRNA vaccines of the present disclosure. For instance, a traditional vaccine includes, but is not limited, to live microorganism vaccines, killed microorganism vaccines, subunit vaccines, protein antigen vaccines, DNA vaccines, virus like particle (VLP) vaccines, etc. In exemplary embodiments, a traditional vaccine is a vaccine that has achieved regulatory approval and / or is registered by a national drug regulatory body, for example the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States or the European Medicines Agency (EMA) .In some embodiments, the anti-antigen antibody titer in the subject is increased 1 log to 10 log following vaccination relative to anti-antigen antibody titer in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine against the RSV or an unvaccinated subject. In some embodiments, the anti-antigen antibody titer in the subject is increased 1 log, 2 log, 3 log, 4 log, 5 log, or 10 log following vaccination relative to anti-antigen antibody titer in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine against the RSV or an unvaccinated subject.A method of eliciting an immune response in a subject against a RSV is provided in other aspects of the disclosure. The method involves administering to the subject an immunizing composition (e.g., an RNA vaccine) comprising a RNA polynucleotide comprising an open reading frame encoding a RSV antigen, thereby inducing in the subject an immune response specific to the RSV, wherein the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine against the RSV at 2 times to 100 times the dosage level relative to the immunizing composition.In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine at twice the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine at three times the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine at 4 times, 5 times, 10 times, 50 times, or 100 times the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine at 10 times to 1000 times the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is equivalent to an immune response in a subject vaccinated with a traditional vaccine at 100 times to 1000 times the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure.In other embodiments, the immune response is assessed by determining antibody titer in the subject. In other embodiments, the ability of serum or antibody from an immunized subject is tested for its ability to neutralize viral uptake or reduce RSV transformation of human B lymphocytes. In other embodiments, the ability to promote a robust T cell response (s) is measured using art recognized techniques.Other aspects the disclosure provide methods of eliciting an immune response in a subject against a RSV by administering to the subject an immunizing composition (e.g., an RNA vaccine) comprising an RNA having an open reading frame encoding a RSV antigen, thereby inducing in the subject an immune response specific to the RSV antigen, wherein the immune response in the subject is induced 2 days to 10 weeks earlier relative to an immune response induced in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine against the RSV. In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is induced in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine at 2 times to 100 times the dosage level relative to an immunizing composition of the present disclosure.In some embodiments, the immune response in the subject is induced 2 days, 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 5 weeks, or 10 weeks earlier relative to an immune response induced in a subject vaccinated with a prophylactically effective dose of a traditional vaccine.An immunizing composition (e.g., an RNA vaccine) may be administered by any route that results in a therapeutically effective outcome. These include, but are not limited, to intradermal, intramuscular, intranasal, and / or subcutaneous administration. The present disclosure provides methods comprising administering RNA vaccines to a subject in need thereof. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the disease, the particular composition, its mode of administration, its mode of activity, and the like. The RNA is typically formulated in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the RNA may be decided by the attending physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific therapeutically effective, prophylactically effective, or appropriate imaging dose level for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors including the disorder being treated and the severity of the disorder; the activity of the specific compound employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex and diet of the patient; the time of administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific compound employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific compound employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts.The effective amount of the RNA, as provided herein, may be as low as 20 μg, administered for example as a single dose or as two 10 μg doses. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the RNA is a total dose of 20 μg-300 μg or 25 μg-300 μg. For example, the effective amount of the RNA may be a total dose of 20 μg, 25 μg, 30 μg, 35 μg, 40 μg, 45 μg, 50 μg, 55 μg, 60 μg, 65 μg, 70 μg, 75 μg, 80 μg, 85 μg, 90 μg, 95 μg, 100 μg, 110 μg, 120 μg, 130 μg, 140 μg, 150 μg, 160 μg, 170 μg, 180 μg, 190 μg, 200 μg, 250 μg, or 300 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the RNA is a total dose of 25 μg-300 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 50 μg-100 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 20 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 25 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 50 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 75 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 100 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 150 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is a total dose of 300 μg.The RNA described herein can be formulated into a dosage form described herein, such as an intranasal, intratracheal, or injectable (e.g., intravenous, intraocular, intravitreal, intramuscular, intradermal, intracardiac, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous) .Vaccine EfficacySome aspects of the present disclosure provide formulations of the immunizing compositions (e.g., RNA vaccines) , wherein the RNA is formulated in an effective amount to produce an antigen specific immune response in a subject (e.g., production of antibodies specific to a RSV antigen) . “An effective amount” is a dose of the RNA effective to produce an antigen-specific immune response. Also provided herein are methods of inducing an antigen-specific immune response in a subject. As used herein, an immune response to a vaccine or LNP of the present disclosure is the development in a subject of a humoral and / or a cellular immune response to a (one or more) RSV protein (s) present in the vaccine. For purposes of the present disclosure, a “humoral” immune response refers to an immune response mediated by antibody molecules, including, e.g., secretory (IgA) or IgG molecules, while a “cellular” immune response is one mediated by T-lymphocytes (e.g., CD4+ helper and / or CD8+ T cells (e.g., CTLs) and / or other white blood cells. One important aspect of cellular immunity involves an antigen-specific response by cytolytic T-cells (CTLs) . CTLs have specificity for peptide antigens that are presented in association with proteins encoded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and expressed on the surfaces of cells. CTLs help induce and promote the destruction of intracellular microbes or the lysis of cells infected with such microbes. Another aspect of cellular immunity involves and antigen-specific response by helper T-cells. Helper T-cells act to help stimulate the function, and focus the activity nonspecific effector cells against cells displaying peptide antigens in association with MHC molecules on their surface. A cellular immune response also leads to the production of cytokines, chemokines, and other such molecules produced by activated T-cells and / or other white blood cells including those derived from CD4+and CD8+ T-cells.In some embodiments, the antigen-specific immune response is characterized by measuring an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject administered an immunizing composition as provided herein. An antibody titer is a measurement of the amount of antibodies within a subject, for example, antibodies that are specific to a particular antigen (e.g., an anti-hRSV F glycoprotein) or epitope of an antigen. Antibody titer is typically expressed as the inverse of the greatest dilution that provides a positive result. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a common assay for determining antibody titers, for example.In some embodiments, an antibody titer is used to assess whether a subject has had an infection or to determine whether immunizations are required. In some embodiments, an antibody titer is used to determine the strength of an autoimmune response, to determine whether a booster immunization is needed, to determine whether a previous vaccine was effective, and to identify any recent or prior infections. In accordance with the present disclosure, an antibody titer may be used to determine the strength of an immune response induced in a subject by an immunizing composition (e.g., RNA vaccine) .In some embodiments, an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject is increased by at least 1 log relative to a control. For example, anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject may be increased by at least 1.5, at least 2, at least 2.5, or at least 3 log relative to a control. In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased by 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 or 3 log relative to a control.In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased by 1-3 log relative to a control. For example, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject may be increased by 1-1.5, 1-2, 1-2.5, 1-3, 1.5-2, 1.5-2.5, 1.5-3, 2-2.5, 2-3, or 2.5-3 log relative to a control.In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject is increased at least 2 times relative to a control. For example, the anti-RSV antigen n antibody titer produced in a subject may be increased at least 3 times, at least 4 times, at least 5 times, at least 6 times, at least 7 times, at least 8 times, at least 9 times, or at least 10 times relative to a control. In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 times relative to a control. In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject is increased 2-10 times relative to a control. For example, the anti-respiratory vims antigen antibody titer produced in a subject may be increased 2-10, 2-9, 2-8, 2-7, 2-6, 2-5, 2-4, 2-3, 3-10, 3-9, 3-8, 3-7, 3-6, 3-5, 3-4, 4-10, 4-9, 4-8, 4-7, 4-6, 4-5, 5-10, 5-9, 5-8, 5-7, 5-6, 6-10, 6-9, 6-8, 6-7, 7-10, 7-9, 7-8, 8-10, 8-9, or 9-10 times relative to a control.A control, in some embodiments, is an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject who has not been administered an immunizing composition (e.g., RNA vaccine) . In some embodiments, a control is an anti-respiratory vims antigen antibody titer produced in a subject administered a recombinant or purified protein vaccine. Recombinant protein vaccines typically include protein antigens that either have been produced in a heterologous expression system (e.g., bacteria or yeast) or purified from large amounts of the pathogenic organism.In some embodiments, the ability of an immunizing composition (e.g., RNA vaccine) to be effective is measured in a murine model. For example, an immunizing composition may be administered to a murine model and the murine model assayed for induction of neutralizing antibody titers. Viral challenge studies may also be used to assess the efficacy of a vaccine of the present disclosure. For example, an immunizing composition may be administered to a murine model, the murine model challenged with virus, and the murine model assayed for survival and / or immune response (e.g., neutralizing antibody response, T cell response (e.g., cytokine response)) .In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein results in balanced Th1 and Th2 immune responses. In some embodiments, the RSV RNA vaccines disclosed herein results in a ratio of IgG2a / IgG1 in mice more than about 1: 2, 1: 1, 4: 1, 5: 1, or 10: 1.In some embodiments, an effective amount of an immunizing composition (e.g., RNA vaccine) is a dose that is reduced compared to the standard of care dose of a recombinant protein vaccine. A “standard of care, ” as provided herein, refers to a medical or psychological treatment guideline and can be general or specific. “Standard of care” specifies appropriate treatment based on scientific evidence and collaboration between medical professionals involved in the treatment of a given condition. It is the diagnostic and treatment process that a physician / clinician should follow for a certain type of patient, illness or clinical circumstance. A “standard of care dose, ” as provided herein, refers to the dose of a recombinant or purified protein vaccine, or a live attenuated or inactivated vaccine, or a VLP vaccine, that a physician / clinician or other medical professional would administer to a subject to treat or prevent RSV infection or a related condition, while following the standard of care guideline for treating or preventing RSV infection or a related condition.In some embodiments, the anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a subject administered an effective amount of an immunizing composition is equivalent to an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in a control subject administered a standard of care dose of a recombinant or purified protein vaccine, or a live attenuated or inactivated vaccine, or a VLP vaccine.Vaccine efficacy may be assessed using standard analyses (see, e.g., Weinberg et al., J Infect Dis. 2010 Jun 1 ; 201 (11 ) : 1607 -10) . For example, vaccine efficacy may be measured by double-blind, randomized, clinical controlled trials. Vaccine efficacy may be expressed as a proportionate reduction in disease attack rate (AR) between the unvaccinated (ARU) and vaccinated (ARV) study cohorts and can be calculated from the relative risk (RR) of disease among the vaccinated group with use of the following formulas: Efficacy = (ARU -ARV) / ARU × 100; and Efficacy = (1-RR) × 100.Likewise, vaccine effectiveness may be assessed using standard analyses (see, e.g., Weinberg et al., J Infect Dis. 2010 Jun 1 ; 201 (11 ) : 1607 -10) . Vaccine effectiveness is an assessment of how a vaccine (which may have already proven to have high vaccine efficacy) reduces disease in a population. This measure can assess the net balance of benefits and adverse effects of a vaccination program, not just the vaccine itself, under natural field conditions rather than in a controlled clinical trial. Vaccine effectiveness is proportional to vaccine efficacy (potency) but is also affected by how well target groups in the population are immunized, as well as by other non-vaccine-related factors that influence the ‘real-world’ outcomes of hospitalizations, ambulatory visits, or costs. For example, a retrospective case control analysis may be used, in which the rates of vaccination among a set of infected cases and appropriate controls are compared. Vaccine effectiveness may be expressed as a rate difference, with use of the odds ratio (OR) for developing infection despite vaccination: Effectiveness = (1 -OR) × 100.In some embodiments, efficacy of the immunizing composition (e.g., RNA vaccine) is at least 60%relative to unvaccinated control subjects. For example, efficacy of the immunizing composition may be at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or 100%relative to unvaccinated control subjects.Sterilizing Immunity. Sterilizing immunity refers to a unique immune status that prevents effective pathogen infection into the host. In some embodiments, the effective amount of an immunizing composition of the present disclosure is sufficient to provide sterilizing immunity in the subject for at least 1 year. For example, the effective amount of an immunizing composition of the present disclosure is sufficient to provide sterilizing immunity in the subject for at least 2 years, at least 3 years, at least 4 years, or at least 5 years. In some embodiments, the effective amount of an immunizing composition of the present disclosure is sufficient to provide sterilizing immunity in the subject at an at least 5-fold lower dose relative to control. For example, the effective amount may be sufficient to provide sterilizing immunity in the subject at an at least 10-fold lower, 15-fold, or 20-fold lower dose relative to a control.Detectable Antigen. In some embodiments, the effective amount of an immunizing composition of the present disclosure is sufficient to produce detectable levels of RSV antigen as measured in serum of the subject at 1-72 hours post administration.Titer. An antibody titer is a measurement of the amount of antibodies within a subject, for example, antibodies that are specific to a particular antigen (e.g., an anti-RSV antigen) . Antibody titer is typically expressed as the inverse of the greatest dilution that provides a positive result. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a common assay for determining antibody titers, for example.In some embodiments, the effective amount of an immunizing composition of the present disclosure is sufficient to produce a 1, 000-10, 000 neutralizing antibody titer produced by neutralizing antibody against the RSV antigen as measured in serum of the subject at 1-72 hours post administration. In some embodiments, the effective amount is sufficient to produce a 1, 000-5,000 neutralizing antibody titer produced by neutralizing antibody against the RSV antigen as measured in serum of the subject at 1-72 hours post administration.In some embodiments, the effective amount is sufficient to produce a 5, 000-10, 000 neutralizing antibody titer produced by neutralizing antibody against the RSV antigen as measured in serum of the subject at 1-72 hours post administration.In some embodiments, the neutralizing antibody titer is at least 100 NT50. For example, the neutralizing antibody titer may be at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 or 1000 NT50. In some embodiments, the neutralizing antibody titer is at least 10, 000 NT50.In some embodiments, the neutralizing antibody titer is at least 100 neutralizing units per milliliter (NU / mL) . For example, the neutralizing antibody titer may be at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 or 1000 NU / mL. In some embodiments, the neutralizing antibody titer is at least 10, 000 NU / mL.In some embodiments, an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased by at least 1 log relative to a control. For example, an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject may be increased by at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 log relative to a control.In some embodiments, an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased at least 2 times relative to a control. For example, an anti-RSV antigen antibody titer produced in the subject is increased by at least 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 times relative to a control.In some embodiments, a geometric mean, which is the nth root of the product of n numbers, is generally used to describe proportional growth. Geometric mean, in some embodiments, is used to characterize antibody titer produced in a subject.A control may be, for example, an unvaccinated subject, or a subject administered a live attenuated viral vaccine, an inactivated viral vaccine, or a protein subunit vaccine.EXAMPLESExample 1 Vaccine design to assess the influence of CTTo enhance the expression and immunogenicity of human RSV F glycoprotein, different modifications were introduced according to previous findings and were evaluated. FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of the different designs among the wild-type RSV F protein and the RSV F variants described herein. DS-Cav1 is one canonical soluble and disulfide bond-linked double-chain protein that includes intraprotomer disulfide (S155C, S290C) stabilizing mutations, cavity-filing mutations (S190F, V207L) , naturally occurred substitutions (P102A, I379V, M447V) to enhance its expression, and one appended C-terminal T4 foldon to form the trimer of RSV F protein, which serves as the prefusion F glycoprotein in in vitro assays and one positive control vaccine with alumina adjuvant in the mouse immunogenicity study. Compared with wild-type RSV F protein, the transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail are deleted in the sequence of DS-Cav1.Based on the site mutation strategy of DS-Cav1 and the outperformance of DS2-Cav1 as well as SC-DM over DS-Cav1 in previous studies, Lead-2 was firstly designed as the vaccine candidate, which was one codon-optimized mRNA chain encoding membrane-bound F protein, with additionally introduced interprotomer (A149C, Y458C) disulfide stabilizing mutations, expression enhancing mutations (S46G, E92D, S215P, K465Q) , and stability increasing mutation (S215P) besides the mutation sites (S155C, S190F, V207L, S290C) of DS-Cav1. Meanwhile, the p27-FP region was replaced by GS linker in Lead-2 to enhance the stability of two subunits of F protein. Although the cytoplasmic tail (CT) of RSV F protein has been reported to be required for the assembly and budding of infectious RSV, the implication of CT on the expression of F protein in eukaryotic cells still lacked investigation. To assess the influence of cytoplasmic tail (CT) on the expression of RSV F protein, CT F572A substitution and CT truncation (leaving KAR 3 residues) were introduced to Lead-2, producing Lead-2 F572A and Lead-2 ΔCT, respectively.Example 2. In vitro screening for the influence of CTLead-2, Lead-2 F572A, and Lead-2 ΔCT were tested in vitro for the influence of CT on F protein expression. A549 cells were transfected with 2 μg of various mRNAs using lipofectamine MessengerMax. 24 hours or 48 hours later, the cells were harvested and lysed, then 10 μg whole cell lysates were subjected to western blotting analysis, using one commercial monoclonal rabbit anti-human RSV (A2) F glycoprotein IgG antibody, which can recognize the total F protein without conformation specificity. As shown in FIG. 2, the result demonstrated that Lead-2 and its variants could induce the expression of RSV F glycoprotein with correct molecular weight. Qualitatively, Lead-2 showed relatively higher expression level of RSV F glycoprotein than Lead-2 F572A and Lead-2 ΔCT.To quantitatively compare their expression levels in A549 cells, whole cell lysates were serial diluted and loaded to ELISA plates precoated with Palivizumab (PVZ) , then the prefusion F glycoprotein and post-fusion F glycoprotein in cell lysates were detected by D25 and 4D7 antibodies, respectively. The results clearly showed that Lead-2 and its variants expressed F proteins only in prefusion stage. Both F572A substitution and CT truncation did not enhance the production of F proteins as previously reported; on the contrary, the Lead-2 with intact CT has a higher expression level in the first 24 h (FIG. 3) . At 48h post transfection, the concentration of F protein in cell lysates was too low to show the differences of different groups.The next experiment measured the expression level of prefusion RSV F and post-fusion RSV F on cell surface for Lead-2 and its variants. Similarly, A549 cells were transfected with the mRNA samples encoding Lead-2 or its variants, then the expression of cell surface prefusion RSV F glycoprotein was measured by flow cytometry at 24 hours post the transfection, using the D25 (specific to prefusion RSV F glycoprotein) , and 4D7 (specific to post-fusion RSV F glycoprotein) antibodies. The data shown in FIG. 4 illustrated that Lead-2 and its variants induced quite low level of post-fusion F proteins on cell surface, consistent with the above ELISA data. Furthermore, neither F572A substitution (Lead-2 F572A) nor CT truncation (Lead-2 ΔCT) could elevate the surface expression level of prefusion F proteins in A549 cells and 293F cells. On the contrary, the Lead-2 with intact CT has a comparable, even higher expression on cell surface of different cell lines.In previous studies by others, the deletion of CT domain for RSV vaccine is a canonical design. However, the above results surprisingly found that the intact CT actually facilitated a higher expression level of RSV pre-F proteins. Therefore, the intact CT was used in the following vaccine design.Example 3. Optimization of mRNA vaccine candidatesPrevious studies have revealed that the expression level of prefusion form of RSV F glycoprotein, especially the level of prefusion trimeric form of RSV F glycoprotein, was positively correlated with the immunogenicity of RSV vaccine in animals. In this example, a variety of mRNA lead designs were screened to evaluate the effects of different features (e.g., mutations, specific modifications, truncations, structural changes) on the expression levels of prefusion F glycoprotein and trimeric prefusion F glycoprotein.Based on the performance of Lead-2 in the above screening, other three vaccine candidates were further designed, named as Lead-5, Lead-6, and Lead-7 for optimization. These three leads were codon-optimized mRNAs encoding membrane-bound, single-chain (Lead-5, Lead-6) or disulfide bond-linked double-chain (Lead-7) F proteins that comprised intraprotomer (S155C, S290C) and interprotomer (A149C, Y458C) disulfide stabilizing mutations, expression enhancing mutations (S46G, E92D, S215P, L373R, K465Q) , stability increasing mutation (S215P) , naturally occurred substitutions (P102A, I379V, M447V) to enhance the expression level, and cavity-filing mutations (S190F, V207L) , in addition to one inserted T4 foldon between the extracellular domain and transmembrane domain (Lead-6) (FIG. 5) .Subsequently, Lead-2, 5, 6, and 7 were tested both in vitro and in vivo to compare the expression and immunogenicity of different candidates, and all of them had the intact CT based on the finding from the above screening. For the in vitro screening, A549 cells were transfected with 1 μg of various mRNAs (Lead-2, 5, 6, 7) using lipofectamine MessengerMax. 24 hours later, the cells were harvested and lysed, then 10 μg whole cell lysates were subjected to western blotting analysis. As shown in FIG. 6, the result demonstrated that all leads could induce the expression of RSV F glycoprotein with correct molecular weight. Qualitatively, Lead-5 and Lead-6 showed relatively higher expression level of RSV F glycoprotein, and Lead-7 displayed two bands due to natural p27 cleavage in cells.To quantitatively compare the expression level of different leads in A549 cells, whole cell lysates were serial diluted and loaded to ELISA plates precoated with Palivizumab (PVZ) , then the prefusion F glycoprotein, trimeric prefusion F glycoprotein, and post-fusion F glycoprotein in cell lysates were detected by D25, AM14, and 4D7 antibodies, respectively. The results showed that Lead-5 elicited the highest level of trimeric prefusion F glycoprotein, followed by Lead-7 and Lead-6, while Lead-2 only showed basal level of prefusion F trimeric glycoprotein as the control (Blank A549 cells without transfection) . For the expression of total prefusion F glycoprotein, Lead-2, 6, and 7 showed similar level, whereas Lead-5 still exhibited higher expression level than them. It was noted that post-fusion F glycoprotein was not detected in any cell lysate samples of these four leads, which indicated all leads can stabilize the prefusion conformation of RSV F glycoprotein in cells (FIG. 7) .The next experiment assessed the expression of prefusion RSV F, prefusion RSV F trimer, and post-fusion RSV F on cell surface for these four leads, which could provide some predicative information for the immunogenicity in animals. Similarly, A549 cells were un-transfected (Control group) or transfected with the mRNA samples encoding Lead-2, 5, 6, and 7, then the expression of cell surface prefusion RSV F glycoprotein was measured by flow cytometry at 24 hours post the transfection, using the D25 (specific to prefusion RSV F glycoprotein) , AM14 (specific to trimeric prefusion RSV F glycoprotein) , and 4D7 (specific to post-fusion RSV F glycoprotein) antibodies. The data are shown in FIG. 8, which demonstrated that all leads induced quite low level of post-fusion F proteins on cell surface, consistent with the above ELISA data. Moreover, Lead-5, Lead-6, and Lead-7 elicited significantly higher level of prefusion F protein than that of Lead-2. Regarding to the surface expression level of prefusion F trimer, one similar pattern as that of prefusion F was observed. The similar expression levels between prefusion F and prefusion F trimer showed that nearly all the prefusion F proteins expressed on the cell surface by Lead-5, 6, 7 were in trimeric conformation. In summary, Lead-5,6, 7 showed satisfactory cell surface expression level of prefusion F and prefusion F trimer, thus all had strong potential for further screening by in vivo immunogenicity study.Example 4. In vivo immunogenicity studies (mice) for optimized vaccine candidatesThe immunogenicity of RSV mRNA vaccine candidates was then evaluated by in vivo assays. The mice were immunized according to the schedule shown in Table 1. Six-week-old BALB / c mice (n = 6 per group) were immunized intramuscularly (IM) with the lead mRNAs formulated in RTU LNP, or DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant as the positive control, or PBS as the negative control. A comparable dose of aluminum adjuvanted DS-Cav1 protein has also been used as one positive control for various RSV mRNA vaccines in one previous study. The lead mRNAs and DS-Cav1 protein plus alumina adjuvant were administered at a 3-week interval (on Day 0 and Day 21) , and mouse sera were collected on Day 0, 21, 35, and 49.Table 1. Mouse immunogenicity study designSerum IgG antibody titers against pre-fusion and post-fusion RSV F glycoproteins were determined by ELISA. As for the serum antibody titer on Day 49 (FIG. 9) , the RSV F leads showed obvious dose-dependent feature. At the high dose (10.0 μg) , all the mRNA leads showed equivalent or 2-3 folds higher level of pre-fusion F-specific antibody titers than the control vaccine of DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant. Furthermore, the post-fusion F-specific antibody titers induced by Lead-5, 6, 7 were significantly higher than that of DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant (FIG. 9) . At the low dose (2.0 μg) , Lead-2, 5, 6 and 7 showed the similar level of pre-fusion F-specific antibody titers, and Lead-5, 6, and 7 showed the similar level of post-fusion F-specific antibody titers (FIG. 9) . Collectively, Lead-2, 5, 6, 7 showed similar potencies on eliciting pre-fusion F specific antibodies, and Lead-5, 6, 7 displayed similar potencies on eliciting post-fusion F specific antibodies, in which Lead-7 exhibited the best performance in serum antibody titers. However, only the antibody levels for pre-fusion or post-fusion proteins can be tested by using ELISA, not the serum neutralizing antibodies solicited by the various mRNA vaccine leads. The neutralizing antibody assays are more comprehensive and more significant for evaluating the efficacy of vaccines.Next, a human RSV microneutralization assay was employed to detect RSV-specific neutralizing antibodies in mouse sera. On RSV A substrain Long, the positive control vaccine only showed the NT50 of 384, while the various mRNA vaccine leads induced significantly higher level of neutralizing antibodies, except for Lead-2, which elicited even lower level of neutralizing antibodies than that of DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant control vaccine. Among Lead-5, 6, 7, Lead-7 showed the highest NT50 (3.6-fold increase) , followed by Lead-6 (2.4-fold increase) and Lead-5 (0.8-fold increase) at low dose; however, at high dose, Lead-6 showed the highest NT50, about 13-fold increase compared with that of DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant control vaccine, followed by Lead-7 which had about 7.7-fold increase and Lead-5 which had about 6.2-fold increase (FIG. 10) . To assess the cross protection of lead vaccines, RSV B substrain 18537 was also used in the microneutralization assay. The data in FIG. 10 demonstrated that Lead-6 exhibited the most potent neutralizing antibodies at both low dose (5.4-fold increase) and high dose (30-fold increase) , followed by the Lead-7 (1.5-fold increase at low dose and 11-fold increase at high dose) and Lead-5 (1.8-fold increase at low dose and 8.2-fold increase at high dose) . It is surprising that Lead-6 outperformed Lead-5 and Lead-7 in neutralizing antibody titer for both RSV A and B substrains. Compared with the total antibody titers, the results of RSV-specific neutralizing antibodies indicated that this new design of Lead-6 can exhibit more epitopes on prefusion F protein or have more stable prefusion F conformation to induce neutralizing antibody. In conclusion, the above data demonstrated that Lead-6 can induce the highest level of neutralizing antibodies for both RSV A and RSV B substrains, which can be selected as the final candidate for RSV mRNA vaccine.Since the proportion of IgG2a and IgG1 serum titers are correlated with the Th1 and Th2 immune response profile, while the Th2-biased immune responses may play a role in the vaccine-enhanced respiratory diseases (VERD) occurred during the early development of RSV vaccines, the serum levels of IgG subclass against RSV Pre-F protein were assessed. The results in FIG. 11 showed that all the mRNA vaccine leads induced similar level of IgG1 and IgG2a titer in mouse sera with obvious dose-dependent features, which indicated that immunization with mRNA vaccine leads resulted in balanced Th1 and Th2 immune responses. However, recombinant DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant predominantly elicited high level of IgG1, indicating a Th2-biased immune response. The IgG subtype analysis data revealed that all the mRNA vaccine leads can induce Th1 and Th2 balanced immune responses, indicating a low risk for VERD.To further determine the binding epitopes of the serum antibodies on RSV F proteins, we evaluated the capacity of immune sera from vaccinated mice to compete with the AM14 or 4D7 monoclonal antibodies for binding to pre-fusion F or post-fusion F protein. 4D7 speci■cally recognized the post-fusion F protein while AM14 recognized pre-fusion F protein trimer. As shown in FIG. 12, all the vaccinated mouse sera showed a high and dose-dependent inhibition capacity against pre-fusion F protein when competing with AM14. At high dose (10 μg) , all the mRNA leads-immunized sera showed significantly stronger competition effects with AM14 when compared to the sera from DS-Cav1 protein plus aluminum adjuvant control group. In contrast, none of the mRNA vaccine-immunized mouse sera showed evident competition effects with 4D7 against post-fusion F protein binding. These data reflected that the antigens expressed in mRNA vaccine-immunized mouse tissues were predominantly in trimeric conformation of pre-fusion F proteins and quite few in the post-fusion conformation. The sera from recombinant DS-Cav1 protein vaccinated mice displayed a weak competition capacity with 4D7 in post-fusion F protein binding, indicating that more post-fusion F-specific antibodies were elicited by the recombinant protein than that by the mRNA vaccine leads. Taken together, all the mRNA vaccine leads expressed RSV F protein antigens predominantly in its trimeric prefusion conformation and induced high level of antibodies with AM14-binding epitopes, serum antibodies against 4D7-binding epitopes were hardly detected.To assess the cellular immune responses after immunization with mRNA vaccines, the frequencies of antigen-specific T-cell subsets were measured by intracellular cytokine staining and flow cytometry in the splenocytes of immunized mice following in vitro restimulation with a peptide pool spanning the RSV F protein, as described in the Material and Methods. As shown in FIG. 13, all mRNA vaccines elicited a dose dependent of RSV F-speci■c CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, as measured by expression of IL-2, IFN-γ or TNF-α in CD4+ and CD8+ T cell sub-populations. In general, the percentage of activated CD8+ T cells was higher than that of CD4+ T cells. In the activated CD4+ T cells, TNF-α was the highest expressed cytokine; however, in CD8+ T cells, the expression levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ were similar. In both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, IL-2 production was weak compared to other cytokines. Among Lead-2, 5, 6, 7, Lead-5 showed relatively higher level of T cell responses than the other leads. In contrast to the mRNA vaccines, animals immunized with aluminum adjuvanted DS-Cav1 protein showed very low to undetectable T cell responses (FIG. 13) . In all, these data indicated that all the mRNA vaccine leads could induce potent T cell responses, which facilitated the complete clearance of RSV virus.In summary, the above data demonstrated that Lead-5, 6, and 7 showed comparable immunogenicity in mice. In consideration of the significance of neutralizing antibody titer for the prophylactic vaccine of RSV, Lead-6 was selected, which had elicited the highest neutralizing antibody titer in animal, as the final vaccine candidate. Although Lead-6 was not superior to Lead-5 and Lead-7 on the pre-F specific antibody titers and pre-F specific IgG subclass titers, neutralizing antibody titer induced by Lead-6 is significantly higher than that induced by Lead-5 and Lead-7, indicating the production of potent neutralizing antibodies targeting new epitopes of F protein by difference of antigen structures.Example 5. The comparison of Lead-6 with commercial RSV vaccineThe third-round screening assessed the differences between final candidate Lead-6 and one commercial RSV mRNA vaccine Moderna mRNA-1345 on the cellular expression level and stability as well as the immunogenicity.To further explore the expression stability of Lead-6, A549 cells were transfected with 1 μg of mRNAs encoding Lead-6, and Moderna’s RSV mRNA vaccine mRNA-1345 (MOD-1: mRNA-1345 F protein sequence combined with the same 5’ UTR, 3’ UTR and polyA used for our mRNA leads as listed in this disclosure. MOD-1 ORF refers to the sequence disclosed in the published patent application WO2021155243A1. ) . At 24-, 48-, and 72-hours post transfection, the expression levels of RSV pre-fusion F, pre-fusion F trimer, and post-fusion F proteins were measured by flow cytometry, respectively. The data in FIG. 14A demonstrated that Lead-6 had similar or better expression kinetics of RSV pre-fusion F and pre-fusion F trimer than that of MOD-1. In terms of post-fusion F expression, Lead-6 showed the lower level but similar kinetics. If normalized to the 24-hour expression level for each mRNA, the relative MFI kinetic data in FIG. 14B showed that Lead-6 had the highest increase at 48-hour and the lowest reduction at 72-hour, especially for pre-fusion F protein trimer, which indicated that Lead-6 might have an advantage over MOD-1 on the expression stability. However, all mRNAs displayed similar decaying speed for F protein from 48-hour to 72-hour.To compare the immunogenicity between Lead-6 and mRNA1345 in vivo, six-week-old BALB / c mice (n = 6 per group) were intramuscularly (IM) immunized with the Lead-6 or MOD-1 mRNAs formulated in RTU LNP, or PBS as the negative control, according to the schedule shown in Table 2. The mRNA vaccines and PBS were administered at a 3-week interval (on Day 0 and Day 21) , and mouse sera were collected on Day 0, 21, and 35.Table 2. Mouse immunogenicity study designSerum IgG antibody titers against pre-fusion and post-fusion RSV F glycoproteins were determined by ELISA, using the same methods as for the second-round screening, which was described in Materials and Methods. As for the serum antibody titer on Day 35 (FIG. 15) , Lead-6 showed obvious dose-dependent feature while MOD-1 showed relatively weaker dose response. At high dose (5.0 μg) , Lead-6 showed a similar level of pre-fusion F-specific antibody titer with MOD-1. Furthermore, the post-fusion F-specific antibody titer induced by Lead-6 was about 2-fold higher than that of MOD-1. At low dose (1.0 μg) , Lead-6 showed a lower level of pre-fusion F-specific antibody titers and a similar level of post-fusion F-specific antibody titers than MOD-1 (FIG. 15) . Collectively, Lead-6 exhibited the similar potency with MOD-1 in serum antibody titers at high dose, especially for the pre-fusion F-specific antibody titers.Next, RSV-specific neutralizing antibody titers in mouse sera were measured using a human RSV microneutralization assay. On RSV A substrain Long, all the mRNA vaccines induced prominently high level of neutralizing antibodies, in which Lead-6 showed relatively higher NT50 than MOD-1 (2.3-fold increase) at low dose (1.0 μg) ; to our surprise, Lead-6 significantly outperformed MOD-1 on the NT50 at high dose (5.0 μg) , with about 5.5-fold increase compared with that of MOD-1 (FIG. 16A) . To evaluate the cross protection of mRNA vaccines, RSV B substrain 18537 was also applied in the microneutralization assay. The data in FIG. 16B demonstrated that Lead-6 induced the most potent neutralizing antibodies at both low dose (1.5-fold increase vs MOD-1) and high dose (4.7-fold increase vs MOD-1) . Taken together, these data showed that Lead-6 could induce higher level of neutralizing antibodies for both RSV A and RSV B strains than MOD-1, which further supported the superiority of Lead-6 as the final candidate for RSV mRNA vaccine.In line with the above in vivo immunogenicity screen, the serum levels of IgG subclass (IgG2a and IgG1) against RSV Pre-F protein were further assessed. The results in FIG. 17 showed that all the mRNA vaccine induced similar levels of IgG1 and IgG2a titer in mouse sera, however, Lead-6 displayed obvious dose-dependent feature while the dose response for MOD-1 was not so evident. It was worthy to be noted that the IgG1 titer was relatively lower than the IgG2a titer for Lead-6 and MOD-1 at low dose, but the differences got much smaller at high dose. In all, the IgG subtype analysis data revealed that Lead-6 and MOD-1 mRNA vaccine could induce Th1 and Th2 balanced immune responses, indicating a low risk for VERD.At last, the cellular immune responses between Lead-6 and MOD-1 were compared using the same method as described in the Material and Methods. As shown in FIG. 18, all mRNA vaccines elicited RSV F-speci■c CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, as measured by expression of IL-2, IFN-γ or TNF-α in CD4+ and CD8+ T cell sub-populations. Nevertheless, the dose responses were not obvious for Lead-6 and MOD-1. Consistently, TNF-α was the highest expressed cytokine in the activated CD4+ T cells, whereas in CD8+ T cells, the expression levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ were similar. In both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, IL-2 production was weak compared to other cytokines. The CD4+ T cell response pattern between Lead-6 and MOD-1 was quite similar, and Lead-6 induced a slightly higher level of TNF-α+ CD4+ T cells (FIG. 18A) . In contrast, the CD8+ T cell responses of Lead-6 were slightly weaker than those of MOD-1, especially at high dose (5.0 μg) (FIG. 18B) . Considering the crucial role of T cells in viral clearance and the progression of immunopathology during RSV infection, as well as the safety profile of mRNA-1345 vaccine in clinical trials (NCT05127434) , it can be concluded that Lead-6 vaccine can provoke strong cellular immunity against RSV while avoid the VERD formation.In summary, the above data demonstrated that Lead-6 had similar or even better performance compared to mRNA vaccine expressing identical antigen ORF with mRNA-1345 on cellular expression stability and immunogenicity in mice. In view of the significance of neutralizing antibody titer for the prophylactic vaccine of RSV, Lead-6 mRNA vaccine can meet with success in future clinical trials. Therefore, Lead-6 was selected as the final candidate for RSV mRNA vaccine and was renamed as Lead-6A, which were used in the subsequent experiments.Example 6. Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of candidate vaccine in the cotton rat model of RSV / A2One challenge study was then performed to test the efficacy of Lead-6A in preventing RSV infection and disease after intranasal RSV / A2 virus challenge in immunized cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) . Female cotton rats (6-8 weeks of age) were randomly assigned into 6 groups (6 animals per group) as described in Table 3.Table 3. Group assignment in the challenge study using cotton rat model of RSV / A2Cotton rats were immunized twice by IM administration, on Day 0 and Day 28 with the low (Group 1) and high (Group 2) dose levels of Lead-6A (5 μg or 16 μg mRNA per dose, respectively) . Group 3 animals were infected once (Day 0) with RSV / A2 strain at 105 pfu per animal by intranasal (IN) administration. Back titration was performed to confirm the infection dose of RSV A2. Group 4 animals were vaccinated with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) Lot#100. Vehicle control (blank LNP) was administered via IM to unvaccinated negative control animals (Groups 5 and 6) .Three weeks after the second immunization (Day 49) animals in Groups 1 through 5 were challenged with RSV / A2 stain at 105 pfu per animal by IN administration. Back titration was performed to confirm the challenge dose of RSV / A2. Blood samples were collected on Days 0, 28, 49 and 54 (terminal bleed) . The lung and nose tissues were collected at the end of the study for viral titration and histopathology analysis. Animals were monitored for morbidity and mortality throughout the study.Animal body weight was monitored on Days 0, 28, 49 and 54. None of the 36 animals lost weight during the entire study. All animals were monitored for appearance and clinical signs (behavioral activity, signs of stress, posture, fur appearance, food intake, excretions, respiratory status, and deaths) . There were no observations of atypical appearance or behavior. Moreover, no deaths nor morbidity occurred. Thus, there was no obvious toxicity associated with the administration of test article in cotton rats using the tested dosing regimen.RSV viral titers in the lung and nose were measured on Day 54 (5 days post-RSV challenge) in samples of all the animals (FIG. 23) . Animals vaccinated with the blank LNP twice and challenged with RSV / A2 (Group 5) were used as control for maximum viral replication and for comparison with other vaccinated groups. Animals previously infected with RSV (Group 3) were used as a positive control for protection. Blank LNP-vaccinated and unchallenged animals (Group 6) showed no viral presence. Animals vaccinated with FI-RSV vaccine (Group 4) showed partial lung protection (areduction of ~1.4 Log10 pfu) . Animals vaccinated with Lead-6A vaccine at two different doses (Group 1 and 2) , showed complete protection (no detectable viral load) of the lung tissue. Animals vaccinated with FI-RSV Lot#100 vaccine showed no protection of the nose (Group 4) . Animals vaccinated with Lead-6A vaccine, showed almost complete protection of the nose when used at the low dose (Group 1, only 1 out of 6 animals with detectable viral load in the nose) , and full protection (no detectable viral load) when it was used at the high dose (Group 2) .Next, RSV neutralizing antibodies against RSV / A2 were measured in serum samples obtained from all animals before vaccine boosting (Day 28) and before RSV / A2 challenge (Day 49). Control animals infected with RSV / A2 on Day 0 (Group 3) developed moderate levels of neutralizing antibodies on Day 28 and remained unchanged on Day 49 (~8 Log2) . Animals vaccinated with FI-RSV (Group 4) , or with blank LNP (Groups 5 and 6) showed no detectable induction of neutralizing antibodies. Animals vaccinated with Lead-6A vaccine showed a dose dependent induction of neutralizing antibodies (Groups 1 and 2) . The levels were comparable to those animals previously infected with RSV when measured on Day 28 (~8-9 Log2) but were further enhanced to the highest levels (12 and 14 Log2 for 5 μg and 16 μg doses, respectively) after the boost immunization (FIG. 24) .Finaly, lung histopathology was scored in all animals in the experiment. Animals vaccinated with the FI-RSV Lot#100 showed the highest score for all the parameters measured (Group 4) . Animals previously infected with RSV / A2 on Day 0 (Group 3) and re-challenged, and animals vaccinated with the blank LNP (Group 5) and challenged with RSV / A2 showed low but detectable peribronchiolitis, perivasculitis, interstitial pneumonia and alveolitis. Animals vaccinated with Lead-6A vaccine (Group 1 and 2) showed the lowest pulmonary pathology, with all scores comparable to those of uninfected animals in Group 6 (FIG. 25) .In summary, immunization with Lead-6A vaccine induced a strong, dose dependent neutralizing antibody response against RSV / A2 in cotton rats. Priming immunization with both 5 μg and 16 μg dose levels of Lead-6A elicited similar neutralizing antibody levels as RSV infection (Day 28 titers for Groups 1, 2 and 3 in 7.9-9.3 Log2 range) , which were further increased post-boost of Lead-6A (Day 49 titers of 12.5 and 14.3 Log2 for Group 1 and 2 on Day 49, respectively) . Lead-6A immunization also provided complete lung protection at both dose levels, complete protection of the nose at the high dose (16 μg) , and almost complete protection (5 out of 6 animals had no detectable virus load in the nose) at the low dose (5 μg) , as demonstrated by viral load inhibition. Vaccination with Lead-6A conferred sterilizing immunity in the lung since the lung histology did not reveal any differences between uninfected control animals and Lead-6A vaccinated cotton rats challenged with RSV / A2 virus. In contrast, FI-RSV Lot#100 vaccine showed pulmonary histopathology consistent with vaccine-enhanced respiratory disease (VERD) . Lead-6A vaccine also showed a good safety profile for no mortality nor morbidity occurred during the study. Thus, there was no obvious toxicity associated with the administration of the vaccine in cotton rats. In summary, the study demonstrated favorable safety, efficacy, and immunogenicity profile of Lead-6A in the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) model of RSV / A2 challenge.This novel design of the vaccine disclosed herein can elicit potent RSV neutralizing antibodies and robust T cell responses against RSV F antigen after administration in vivo. Because of the robust T cell responses, the mRNA vaccine candidates are expected to help the complete clearance of RSV, which is not observed in RSV protein subunit vaccine. Meanwhile, this new design of mRNA vaccine is also capable of inducing a higher level of IgG antibody against pre-F antigen, a Th1 / Th2 balanced but not Th2-biased immune response profile. The predominant antigen form expressed by mRNA vaccine candidates in vivo is trimerized pre-F protein but not post-F protein, that is confirmed in a competitive ELISA using epitope-specific antibodies. Compared with a mRNA vaccine encoding the same ORF of mRNA-1345, which is the first commercialized mRNA RSV vaccine against pre-F antigen, the final candidate from this invention showed better performance in neutralizing antibody titers., which was selected as the final candidate for RSV mRNA vaccine and was internally renamed as Lead-6A. Furthermore, vaccination with Lead-6A in cotton rats induced potent neutralizing antibody, resulting in complete protection of the lung as demonstrated by both viral load inhibition and the absence of pulmonary histopathology, as well as complete protection (high dose) or almost complete protection (low dose) of the nose as demonstrated by the viral load inhibition after intranasal RSV / A2 challenge. In addition, the vaccine of this invention is thermostable at room temperature for at least one week, which can provide great convenience for the transport, storage, and vaccination in the vast number of LMIC.Example 7. The comparison of Lead-6 / 6A with commercial RSV vaccine1.In silico design and optimization 5’ UTR (Untranslated region)The candidate 5’ UTR sequences were designed in silico base on the 5’ UTR sequence of chicken β-globin gene and following the design principles and rules.1.1 Design principles ad rules:1) Length around 50bp;2) Containing binding site for translation initiation factor and ribosome;3) Containing GC rich hairpin region to stabilize the structure;4) Containing short AT rich fragments for ribosome to fast pass;5) Containing GC rich and Kozak sequence for ribosome to efficiently binding to AUG;6) Exclude inhibitory domain such as non-canonical start codon, etc.1.2 Base on the principles and rules, we designed four different 5’ UTR. The candidate 5’ UTR sequences are listed in Table 4:Table 4. Sequences of 5’ UTR.2.Evaluate the function of new designed 5’ UTR2.1 mRNA constructTo evaluate the impact of newly designed 5’ UTR on the protein expression, the UTR was cloned into conventional mRNA expression vector and used spike protein (S2P) as gene of interest (GOI) . The construct designs are listed in FIG. 19.2.2 In Vivo animal studyTo compare the activity of different 5 ‘UTR (Δ1 , Δ4 , Δ6 , Δ7 and WT) on protein expression, lipid nanoparticles (LNP) encapsulated mRNA with different 5’ UTR was injected into mice by intramuscular injection (i. m. ) and tested antibody titer against S2P in mouse serum (FIG. 20 and FIG. 21) .Mouse serum was collected on indicated timepoints and detected antibody titer by ELISA. Overall titers of mRNA with Δ1 , Δ4 , Δ6 , Δ7 5’ UTRs were higher than that of mRNA with WT 5’ UTR (FIG. 21 and Table 5) . To further analyze difference between each group, all the antibody titers of mRNA with Δ1, Δ4, Δ6, Δ7 5’ UTR were normalized against the day7 antibody titer of mRNA with WT 5’ UTR. It was found that the mRNA with Δ4 5’ UTR had overall higher titer than other groups, indicating that the mRNA with Δ4 5’ UTR could induce stronger antigen / protein expression (FIG. 22 and Table 6) .Table 5. Mice antibody titer.Table 6. Mice antibody titer fold over Day 7 WT titer.3. ConclusionBased on the results, we used chicken β-globin Δ4 5’ UTR in mRNA backbone for enhanced gene of interest expression in the above noted examples.Table 7.The following experimental details are provided solely for illustrative purpose, and are not limiting in any respect. On the other hand, details described herein are integral parts of the general description for the embodiments of the invention, and thus are understood to be able to combine with any other aspects or one or more embodiments of the invention generally described herein above.Material and MethodsCell lines, viruses, and animalsA549 and 293F cell lines were obtained from ATCC (Manassas, VA, USA) and maintained according to ATCC’s instructions. They were routinely checked for mycoplasma contamination during the culture process.RSV A strain Long (Cat No: VR-26, ATCC) and B strain 18537 (Cat No: VR-1580, ATCC) were ordered from ATCC and propagated in Hep-2 cells in our BSL-2 lab. Both strains were used in serum neutralization assay.5-7 weeks old female BALB / c mice were obtained from Shanghai Lingchang Biological Technology (Shanghai, China) and used for immunogenicity study. The mice were housed in feeding room under Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) condition of Laboratory Animal Center of Shanghai Jiao Tong University with constant temperature (21-22 ℃) and humidity (40-70 %) . Animals were marked by ear tags for identification. All in vivo experiments were performed in accordance with the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Shanghai Jiao TongUniversity.Vaccine design, Plasmid construction and extractionGene encoding each vaccine lead was designed based on the principle for stabilized RSV pre-fusion F as previously reported
[0018] with further modifications. The additional modifications are described in FIG. 1 and FIG. 5. The vaccine mRNA (including Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, Lead-2 ΔCT, Lead-5, Lead-6, Lead-7, and MOD-1) contains a modified chicken β globin 5’ -untranslated region (UTR) , the codon optimized gene encoding the RSV F antigen, chicken βglobin 3’ -UTR, and a 125 nucleotides polyA tail. Then, the gene DNA was synthesized by Azenta Life Sciences (Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China) and subcloned into pT7-2G-6.0 plasmid vector with the upstream T7 RNA polymerase promoter. Sequence-verified plasmids were expanded in about 100 mL Stbl3 E. coli culture and extracted using one commercial endotoxin-free plasmid extraction kit (Cat No: 740420.50, MN, Germany) following the manufacturer’s instruction.DS-Cav1 and post-fusion recombinant proteinDS-Cav1 recombinant protein fused with a C-terminal trimerization domain of T4 fibritin (T4 foldon) and His tag (amino acid sequence in SEQUENCE LISTING section) , and post-fusion recombinant protein fused with a C-terminal His tag (amino acid sequence in SEQUENCE LISTING section) were expressed in CHO cells and purified by passing through HisTrap FF Crude columns (Cytiva, MA, USA) by GenScript Biotech Corporation (Nanjing, Jiangsu Provine, China) . Both proteins were diluted in 1〓PBS (pH7.2) . The purity was higher than 90%according to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) , and the endotoxin level was controlled below 2 EU / mg. Protein aliquots were stored at -60℃ ~-80℃, avoiding repeated freezing and thawing cycle.To generate DS-Cav1 / Alum Adju (Rehydragel LV, Cat No: 26050, Miragen, USA) recombinant protein vaccine for mouse immunization, 750 μL DS-Cav1 protein (320 μg / mL) was dropwise loaded into 1.65 mL diluted Al (OH) 3 (1164 μg / mL) in one 15 mL tube, accompanied by gentle shaking of the tube. The final concentration of DS-Cav1 and Al (OH) 3 in the adjuvanted vaccine was 100 μg / mL and 800 μg / mL, respectively.Detection antibody productionThe human monoclonal antibodies D25 and AM14, humanized murine monoclonal antibody Palivizumab (PVZ) , and mouse monoclonal antibody 4D7 were generated in Biointron. The heavy chain and light chain variable region sequences were synthesized and subcloned into a eukaryotic expression vector containing the constant region sequences of the heavy chain and light chain. Plasmids encoding both the heavy chain and light chain were co-transfected into the suspension of CHO cells which were cultured in serum-free FreeStyle CHO Expression Medium (GIBCO, Waltham, MA, USA) . The supernatants were harvested after 6 days and subjected to a Protein A Resin FF column (Genscript, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China) for purification. After purification, the buffer for antibodies were exchanged to PBS.After quantification, the D25 and AM14 antibodies were labeled with YF488 (UELandy, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China) or biotin (Invitrogen, Waltham, MA, USA) , and 4D7 was labeled with YF640 (UELandy, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China) or biotin. The labeled antibodies were used in ELISA and flow cytometry analysis.mRNA vaccine productionmRNAs encoding Lead-2, Lead-2 F572A, Lead-2 ΔCT, Lead-5, Lead-6, Lead-7, and MOD-1 were produced by in vitro transcription (IVT) . Briefly, plasmids comprising the 5’ -UTR, open reading frame (ORF) , 3’ -UTR, and polyA were linearized by BspQ-I (NEB, MA, USA) digestion at 50 ℃ for 1.5 hour. After purification, the linearized plasmid DNA was used as the template to generate mRNAs by in vitro transcription (IVT) . The reaction system contained IVT Reaction Buffer, MgCl2 (6 mM) , ribonucleoside triphosphate mix (6 mM each) , yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase (2 U / mL) , RNase inhibitor (1000 U / mL) , and T7 RNA polymerase (5000 U / mL) (all from Hongene Biotech, Shanghai, China) , in which the uridine triphosphate was replaced with N1-methyl-pseudouridine triphosphate (Hongene Biotech, Shanghai, China) to enhance the protein expression of ORF. DNA templates in the reaction system were removed by Turbo DNase (Invitrogen, MA, USA) .The transcribed mRNA was capped using the following components: vaccinia capping system (500 U / ml) , capping buffer, GTP (0.5 mM) , S-adenosylmethionine (0.128 mM) , RNase inhibitor (667 U / ml) , and 2′-O-methyltransferase (2500 U / ml) (all from Hongene Biotech, Shanghai, China) . The capping reaction was carried out by incubating mRNA with Vaccinia virus capping enzyme (Hongene Biotech, Shanghai, China) at 37 ± 2℃ for 90 minutes, which added a 7-methylguanylate cap structure (Cap 0) to the 5’ end of mRNA. Afterwards, mRNA was purified by LiCl (Invitrogen, MA, USA) precipitation, followed by analysis using agarose gel electrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.To formulate mRNA-LNP complex, RTU LNPs were formulated by rapid mixing of ethanol phase and aqueous phase using a microfluidic device (INano■ L system, Micro &Nano) . The aqueous phase contained citrate buffer (pH 6.0, 50 mM) . The ethanol phase comprised ionizable cationic lipid #4 (Immorna Biotechnology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China) , cholesterol (Jiangsu Southeast Nanomaterials, Huaian, Jiangsu Province, China) , 1, 2-diastearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (Jiangsu Southeast Nanomaterials) , and 1, 2-dimyristoyl-rac-glycero-3-methoxypolyethyleneglycol-2000 (SINOPEG, Xiamen, Fujian Province, China) . The RTU LNPs were assembled with these four lipid components mixed at a molar ratio of 40: 48: 10: 2.0, and characterized by the particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. The average diameter of these RTU LNPs was approximately 60 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.05-0.10 and a zeta potential of 1.50-4.00 mV. The ionizable cationic lipid #4 used in RTU LNPs are described in the international patent application PCT / CN2021 / 119577. RTU formulation is described in the international patent application PCT / CN2022 / 137326.After concentration quantification by NanoDrop One C (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA) , mRNA samples were adjusted to 1 μg / μL and stored at -60℃ ~-80℃. The RTU LNPs were stored at 4℃ and protected from light. Before administration, mRNA component (vial A) and RTU LNP dispersion (vial B) were equilibrated to room temperature for about 30 minutes. RTU LNP dispersion was drawn from vial B by a needle-syringe and added into the mRNA vaccine in vial A. The volume of RTU LNP required depended on the amount of mRNA, which was determined by final mRNA complexation efficiency of 50 μg / mL. Then, the vial was inverted up and down for approximately 30 seconds for thorough mixing to obtain the reconstituted vaccine, which appeared as a white to off-white suspension. The suspension was incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes, and then, used for animal immunization.In vitro cell transfectionOne day before transfection, A549 cells or 293F cells were trypsinized or repeatedly pipetted, counted, and seeded in 6 well plates at 5〓105 cells (A549) or 1〓106 cells (293F) per well with 5 mL DMEM medium supplemented with 10%FBS plus 1%Penicillin-Streptomycin (A549) or 5 mL Transpro CD01 medium (Duoning Biotechnology, Shanghai, China) supplemented with 6 mM L-glutamine (GIBCO, Waltham, MA, USA) (293F) . Then the cells were cultured overnight in a humid incubator at 37℃ with 5%CO2.On the day of transfection, mRNA samples were diluted in appropriate volume of Opti-MEM medium (Volume can be scaled up and down based on 1.0 μg mRNA diluted in 125 μL Opti-MEM medium) , and Lipofectamine MessengerMax (Invitrogen, MA, USA; volume can be scaled up and down based on 7.5 μL Lipofectamine for 1.0 μg mRNA diluted in 125 μL Opti-MEM medium) was diluted in another tube with equal volume of Opti-MEM medium. After 10-minute incubation at room temperature, the diluted mRNA was added to diluted MessengerMax reagent and mixed gently. Then the mRNA-lipid complex was incubated at room temperature for 5 minutes, followed by loading to cells and gently swirling of the plate. After that, the cells were cultured for another 24 hours in a humid incubator at 37℃ with 5%CO2.Cell surface staining and flow cytometry analysis24 hours after transfection, A549 cells or 293F cells were harvested for cell surface staining and flow cytometry analysis. Briefly, 5〓105 cells (A549) or 1〓106 cells (293F) were pelleted in a U-bottom 96-well plate, washed by PBS once, and re-suspended in 200 μL PBS. 1 μL Zombie UV■ dye reconstituted in DMSO (Biolegend, San Diego, CA, USA) was added and incubated at room temperature, in the dark, for 30 minutes, which was used to distinguish between live and dead cells. After that, cells were washed twice with 300 μL PBS supplemented with 2%BSA (PBS / 2%BSA) . Cells were re-suspended in 200 μL PBS / 2%BSA and incubated with YF488 conjugated D25 plus YF640 conjugated 4D7, or YF488 conjugated AM14 plus YF640 conjugated 4D7 (each 2 μg / mL) , at 4℃ in the dark for 30 minutes. Cells were then pelleted and washed twice with 300 μL PBS / 2%BSA. At last, the cells were re-suspended in 200 μL PBS / 2%BSA and analyzed by CytoFLEX flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter) . Data were processed with CytoExpert software (version 2.4) .Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)After quantification with Pierce■ BCA Protein Assay Kit (Thermo, USA) , the total protein concentration of different cell lysates was adjusted to the same level, then the expression level of pre-fusion or post-fusion protein in cell lysates were analyzed with standard sandwich ELISA protocols. Briefly, 96-well flat bottom plates (MaxiSorp ELISA plates, NUNC, USA) were coated with 1 μg / mL Palivizumab antibody in 100 μL ELISA coating buffer (35 mM NaHCO3, 15 mM Na2CO3) at 4℃ overnight. After washing with PBS containing 0.5%tween 20 (PBST) for three times, the coated plates were blocked with 100 μL ELISA blocking buffer (PBST + 2%BSA) per well for 1 h at 37℃. After washing with PBS-T for three times, the cell lysate samples were added to indicated wells at 10 μg total protein per well, and standard proteins (DS-Cav1 and post-fusion) were 2-fold serial diluted from 2 μg / mL and transferred to indicated wells, then incubated for 1 h at 37℃. After washing with PBS-T for five times, plates were incubated with biotin-conjugated D25 for pre-fusion F, or biotin-conjugated AM14 for pre-fusion F trimer, or biotin-conjugated 4D7 for post-fusion F (all 2 μg / mL in blocking buffer) , at 37 ℃ for 1 h. After washing for three times, the plates were incubated with HRP-conjugated streptavidin (A0303, Beyotime) for 20 min at 37℃, followed by three times of washing. Next, all plates were incubated with TMB single-component substrate solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) for 7 min at 37℃, then the reaction was stopped by ELISA stop solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) . Absorbance was read at 450 nm (OD450) on a microplate reader (Varioskan■ LUX, Thermo, USA) .Western blottingAfter quantification with Pierce■ BCA Protein Assay Kit (Thermo, USA) , the total protein concentration of different cell lysates was adjusted to the same level, then the expression level of total F protein in cell lysates were analyzed with standard Western blotting protocols. Briefly, cell lysates containing 60 μg total proteins or 1 μg recombinant proteins (DS-Cav1 and post-fusion) were loaded to each lane of SDS-PAGE. After electrophoresis, the proteins in gel were transferred to one PVDF membrane, followed by blocking with 5%defatted milk in PBS-T for 1 h. After rinsing with PBS-T for three times, the PVDF membrane was incubated with rabbit anti-RSV-F protein IgG antibody which can recognize the total F protein without conformation specificity (SinoBiological, Beijing, China) , 1: 1000 diluted in PBS-T, for 2 h at room temperature. After vigorous washing for three times, the PVDF membrane was probed with goat anti-rabbit IgG H&L-HRP (Abcam, Cambridge, UK) , 1: 5000 diluted in PBS-T, for 1 h at room temperature. After washing for three times, the signal was developed by incubating the PVDF membrane with ECL substrate (ShareBio, Shanghai, China) for 1 min and captured byChemoDoc (BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA) .Mouse immunizationsThe animal experiment was conducted by Laboratory Animal Center of Shanghai Jiao Tong University. For the second-round screening, 60 SPF grade female BALB / c mice aged 5-7 weeks were randomly assigned into 10 groups. Mice were immunized twice at a 3-week interval with 10 μg DS-Cav1 protein formulated with Alum Adju or with 2 μg or 10 μg of candidate mRNA vaccines in a LNP formulation, according to the predetermined immunization schedule as shown in Table 1. For the third-round comparison, 30 SPF grade female BALB / c mice aged 5-7 weeks were randomly assigned into 5 groups. Mice were immunized twice at a 3-week interval with 1.0 μg or 5.0 μg of candidate mRNA vaccines in a LNP formulation, according to the predetermined immunization schedule as shown in Table 2.All the procedures related to animal handling, care and the treatment in the study were performed according to the guidelines approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Each animal received two intramuscular immunizations of vaccine on Day 0 and Day 21. Blood samples were collected at Day 0, Day 21, Day 35, and Day 49 for the second-round screening experiment, or at Day 0, Day 21, and Day 35 for the third-screening comparison experiment. Serum preparation was performed as described in the below method. Besides, spleens were harvested from all mice on Day 49 (The second-round screening experiment) or Day 35 (The third-round comparison experiment) for isolating splenocytes for T cell response measurement.All animals were checked for appearance and signs, behavioral activities, posture, diet, fur, irritative reaction, glandular secretions, excretions, respiratory status, and deaths during the whole study. Body weight was also monitored once a week.Serum preparationMouse blood samples were collected in Eppendorf tubes and maintained on ice for 1 hour. After centrifugation at 1, 500 g for 10 min at 4℃, the supernatant was immediately transferred to new tubes and stored at below -70℃.ELISAAntibody titers against RSV F protein were quantified by ELISA. Briefly, 0.5 μg / mL recombinant RSV F protein in prefusion conformation (DS-Cav1) and 3 μg / mL recombinant RSV F protein in postfusion conformation (Post-fusion) diluted in ELISA coating buffer (35 mM NaHCO3, 15 mM Na2CO3) was pre-coated in 96-well clear polystyrene microplate (MaxiSorp ELISA plates, NUNC, USA) overnight at 4℃. After washing with PBST for three times, the coated plates were blocked with 100 μL ELISA blocking buffer (PBST + 2%BSA + 15%goat serum) per well for 1 h at 37℃. Serum samples were 2-fold serially diluted in blocking buffer, transferred to the coated plates, and incubated for 1 h at 37℃. After washing, plates were incubated with HRP-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse IgG (H+L) (Abcam, Cambridge, UK) antibody, goat anti-mouse IgG1 antibody (Jackson Immunoresearch, PA, USA) , or goat anti-mouse IgG2a antibody (Jackson Immunoresearch, PA, USA) for Pre-F and biotinylated rabbit anti-mouse IgG (H+L) antibody (Abcam, Cambridge, UK) for Post-F for 1 h at 37 ℃. All plates were washed for three times with PBST and the plates for Post-F were incubated with HRP-conjugated streptavidin (A0303, Beyotime, Shanghai, China) for 20 min at 37℃. All plate were incubated with TMB single-component substrate solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) for 7 min at 37℃, then the reaction was stopped by ELISA stop solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) . Absorbance was read at 450 nm (OD450) on a microplate reader (Varioskan■ LUX, Thermo, USA) . Endpoint titers were de■ned as the reciprocal of the end point dilution at which the serum sample had an OD450 signal greater than or equal to 2.1 folds of the background signal.RSV virus propagationRSV A long (ATCC VR-26) and RSV B 18537 (ATCC VR-1580) were propagated on sub-confluent Hep-2 cells. 2 × 106 of Hep-2 cells were seeded in a 10 cm petri-dish with 10 mL DMEM medium supplemented with 10%FBS and incubated at 37 ℃ overnight. On the second day, Hep-2 cells were infected with RSV with 0.1–0.01 MOI. Five days after infection, the culture medium was collected and cleared by centrifugation (1, 000 × g) for 10 min. The supernatant was mixed with PEG solution (10%final concentration) and incubated at 4℃ with agitation for 2 h. Subsequently, RSV was precipitated by centrifugation (3, 250 × g) for 45 min at 4℃.The RSV pellet was resuspended in DMEM containing 3%sucrose, aliquoted, and stored in gas phase of liquid nitrogen.RSV plaque assayThe Foci Forming Unit (FFU) of the propagated RSV was measured by plaque assay. Briefly, 2 × 104 per well of Vero-E6 cells were seeded in 96-well microplate and incubated at 37 ℃ in a humid incubator with 5%CO2 overnight. The 2-fold serially diluted RSV sample in PBS containing 5%FBS was incubated at 37℃ for 1 h. Afterwards, the cell culture medium for Vero-E6 cells was replaced by serum-free DMEM medium, followed by adding 100 μL of serially diluted RSV to infect Vero-E6 cells. 2 h later, the medium was replaced by 150 μL of DMEM supplemented with 5%FBS, 1%methyl cellulose and 1%penicillin and streptomycin, then the cells were cultured for another 3 days. The medium was removed, and the cells were fixed in 4%paraformaldehyde for 60 min at room temperature. After that, the fixed cells were washed three times with PBST and blocked with PBST containing 5%BSA. The viral plaques were stained with a biotinylated anti-RSV-F antibody (Cat No: 11049-R302-B, SinoBiological, Beijing, China) by 1: 10, 000 dilution in PBST / 5%BSA for 1 h at 37℃. After washing three times with PBST, the cells were incubated with HRP-conjugated streptavidin (A0303, Beyotime) by 1:40, 000 dilution in PBST / 5%BSA for 20 min at 37℃. Non-binding antibodies were removed by washing three times with PBST. Finally, the plaques were visualized by incubating with TrueBlue peroxidase substrate (KPL, Seracare) for 20 min at room temperature. The plaques in each well with different dilutions were counted by iSpot EliSpot FluoroSpot Reader (AID, Strassberg, Germany) .Microneutralization assaySerum microneutralization assay was conducted similarly as the plaque assay. Brie■y, 2 × 104 per well of Vero cells were seeded in 96-well microplate and incubated at 37 ℃ in a humid incubator with 5%CO2 overnight. Mouse sera were heat inactivated and 3-fold serially diluted. The diluted sera were mixed with RSV at a ■nal concentration of 150 FFU / well and incubated at 37 ℃ for 1 h. Serum-RSV mixtures were added to each well of 96-well microplates with Vero cells growing and the plates were cultured at 37 ℃ for 2 h. Then, the medium was removed. After adding 150 μL of DMEM supplemented with 5%FBS, 1%methyl cellulose and 1%penicillin and streptomycin, the cells were cultured for another 3 days at 37 ℃. Afterwards, cells were then ■xed and stained with biotinylated anti-RSV-F antibody, followed by HRP-conjugated streptavidin, and the plaques were visualized by incubating with TrueBlue peroxidase substrate, which was counted by iSpot EliSpot FluoroSpot Reader, as described in the above RSV plaque assay. The half maximal neutralization titer (NT50) was calculated by four-parameter curve ■t on plaque counts using GraphPad Prism 8.3.0 software.Competition ELISASerum samples were analyzed in a competitive binding assay to pre-fusion or post-fusion F protein with AM14, or 4D7 antibody by ELISA. The following combinations of F protein and antibody were tested: AM14 / pre-fusion, 4D7 / post-fusion. In brief, 100 μL of 2 μg / mL recombinant DS-Cav1 protein (for AM14 antibody) diluted in ELISA coating buffer and 0.125 μg / mL recombinant Post-F protein (for 4D7 antibody) diluted in ELISA coating buffer (35 mM NaHCO3, 15 mM Na2CO3) were pre-coated in 96-well clear polystyrene microplate overnight at 4℃.After washing with PBST for three times, the coated plates were blocked with 100 μL ELISA blocking buffer per well for 1 h at 37℃. Serum samples were 3-fold serially diluted in blocking buffer, transferred to the coated plates (50 μL per well) , and incubated for 1 h at 37℃. 10 μg / mL of biotin-labeled antibodies (biotin-AM14, biotin-4D7) were also loaded to indicated wells as 100%competition control. Wells containing neither serum nor antibody were set as 0%competition control. After washing, plates were incubated with 12.5 ng / mL biotin-AM14, or 6.25 ng / mL biotin-4D7, at 37℃ for 30 min. All plates were washed for three times with PBST and then incubated with HRP-conjugated streptavidin (1: 10, 000 dilution, A0303, Beyotime) for 20 min at 37℃. After washing, the plates were incubated with TMB single-component substrate solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) for 7 min at 37℃, then the reaction was stopped by ELISA stop solution (Solarbio Life Sciences, Beijing, China) . Absorbance was read at 450 nm (OD450) on a microplate reader (Varioskan■ LUX, Thermo, USA) . The percentage of competition was determined by converting raw OD450 values to the signal of 0%and 100%competition control wells.Splenocyte isolationTo isolate splenocytes, fresh spleens were isolated from immunized female SPF BALB / c mice or control mice, and gently mashed through one 70-μm cell strainer (BD Falcon, USA) in 1 mL PBS in a petri dish using the plunger end of the syringe, then the splenocytes were collected in a 15 mL conical centrifuge tube. After washing, the red blood cells were lysed using red blood cell lysate buffer in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions (BasalMedia, Shanghai, China) . After washing twice with PBS, the splenocytes were re-suspended in 0.5 mL RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10%FBS and 1× penicillin-streptomycin, counted, and cultured for intracellular cytokine staining.Intracellular cytokine staining and flow cytometry analysisFresh splenocytes (2×106 in 200 μL medium) were seeded into a 96-well round-bottom microplate and were restimulated using a pool of peptides spanning full length of RSV F protein (apool of 139 15-mer peptides with 11 overlapping amino acids) at 1.25 μg / mL and CD28 monoclonal antibody plus CD49d monoclonal antibody at 1.25 μg / mL. The plate was incubated at 37℃ in a humid incubator with 5%CO2 for 2 h, followed by treatment with a protein transport inhibitor cocktail overnight.Cells were washed with Dulbecco’s Phosphate Buffered Saline (DPBS) and stained with LIVE / DEAD■ fixable aqua dead cell stain for 30 min. Cells were washed with 200 μL fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) wash buffer and incubated with fluorochrome-labeled primary antibodies for 30 min to stain cell surface proteins. Antibodies included anti-mouse CD3 APC-Vio 770 (clone REA641) , anti-mouse CD4 VioBlue (clone REA604) , and anti-mouse CD8 PerCP (clone REA601) (0.5 μL per well) . Afterwards, cells were washed by FACS wash buffer and incubated with fixation / permeabilization working solution (Invitrogen, Waltham, MA, USA) for 30 min in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions. Then, cells were washed twice with permeabilization buffer and incubated with fluorochrome-labeled primary antibodies for 30 min to detect intracellular cytokine expression. Antibodies included anti-mouse IFN-γ FITC (clone REA638) , anti-mouse TNF-α PE (clone REA636) , and anti-mouse IL-2 APC (clone REA665) (0.5 μL per well) . At last, cells were washed with 200 μL permeabilization buffer and resuspended in 200 uL PBS for flow cytometry analysis with CytoFlex flow cytometer (Beckman, CA, USA) . Data were analyzed with CytExpert software (Beckman, CA, USA) .Cotton rat immunizations and RSV challengeThe animal experiment was conducted by Sigmovir Biosystems, Inc. (Rockville, MD, USA) . The study was performed using the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) model of RSV / A2 challenge. Thirty-six (36) inbred female Sigmodon hispidus cotton rats between 6 to 8 weeks of age were maintained and handled under veterinary supervision in accordance with the National Institutes of Health guidelines and Sigmovir Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee’s approved animal study protocol (IACUC Protocol #15) . Cotton rats were housed in clear polycarbonate cages individually and provided with standard rodent chow (Harlan #7004) and tap water ad libitum.Female cotton rats were randomly assigned into 6 groups (Table 3) and were immunized with the candidate vaccine intramuscularly at two different doses (5 μg and 16 μg) on Day 0 and boosted with the same vaccine and doses four weeks later. Control groups consisted of animals infected with RSV / A2 on Day 0, animals vaccinated and boosted with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine on Day 0 and Day 28, or animals mock vaccinated with blank LNP vehicle control on Day 0 and Day 28. Animals were challenged on Day 49 (3 weeks after boosting) with RSV / A2 at an inoculum dose of 105 plaque forming units (pfu) per animal. All animals were sacrificed on Day 54 (5 days post-infection) for analysis of viral load in the nose and lung, pulmonary histopathology, and quantification of serum neutralizing antibodies against RSV / A2.All animals were checked for appearance and signs, behavioral activities, posture, diet, fur, irritative reaction, glandular secretions, excretions, respiratory status, and deaths during the whole study. Body weight was also monitored.RSV lung and nose viral titrationLung and nose homogenates of cotton rat were clarified by centrifugation and diluted in Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium (EMEM) . Confluent Hep-2 monolayers were infected in duplicates with diluted homogenates in 24 well plates. After one hour of incubation at 37℃ in a 5%CO2 incubator, the wells were overlayed with 0.75%Methylcellulose medium. After 4 days of incubation, the overlay was removed, and the cells were fixed with 0.1%crystal violet stain for one hour and then rinsed and air dried. Plaques were counted and virus titer was expressed as plaque forming units per gram of tissue. Viral titers were calculated as geometric mean +standard error for all animals in a group at a given time.RSV neutralizing antibody assay (60%PRNT)Heat-inactivated cotton rat serum samples were diluted 1: 10 with EMEM and serially diluted further 1: 4. Diluted serum samples were incubated with RSV / A2 (25-50 pfu) for 1 hour at room temperature and inoculated in duplicates onto confluent Hep-2 monolayers in 24 well plates. After one hour incubation at 37℃ in a 5%CO2 incubator, the wells were overlayed with 0.75%Methylcellulose medium. After 4 days of incubation, the overlays were removed, and the cells were fixed and stained with 0.1%crystal violet for one hour and then rinsed and air dried. The corresponding reciprocal neutralizing antibody titers were determined at the 60%reduction endpoint of the virus control using the statistics program “plqrd. manual. entry” . The geometric means ± standard error for all animals in a group at a given time were calculated.Pulmonary histopathologyLungs of cotton rats were dissected and inflated with 10%neutral buffered formalin to their normal volume, and then immersed in the same fixative solution. Following fixation, the lungs were embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) . Four parameters of pulmonary inflammation were evaluated: peribronchiolitis (PB, inflammatory cell infiltration around the bronchioles) , perivasculitis (PV, inflammatory cell infiltration around the small blood vessels) , interstitial pneumonia (IP, inflammatory cell infiltration and thickening of alveolar walls) , and alveolitis (A, cells within the alveolar spaces) . Slides were scored blindly on a 0-4 severity scale. The scores were subsequently converted to a 0-100%histopathology scale.Statistical analysisStatistical significance between or among groups was determined by multiple t-test or two-way ANOVA with multiple-comparison test, as described in the brief description of the drawings. All the statistical tests were performed using GraphPad Prism (version 8.3.0, GraphPad Software, Boston, MA) .Reference1.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection (RSV) . www. cdc. gov / rsv / index. html. Updated December 18, 2020.2.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. RSV in Infants and Young Children. www. cdc. gov / rsv / high-risk / infants-young-children. html. Updated December 18, 2020.3.Shi T, McAllister DA, O’ Brien KL, et al. Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: a systematic review and modelling study. Lancet. 2017; 390 (10098) : 946-958. doi: 10.1016 / S0140-6736 (17) 30938-84.Shi T, Denouel A, Tietjen AK, et al. Global Disease Burden Estimates of Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Associated Acute Respiratory Infection in Older Adults in 2015: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Infect Dis. 2020; 222 (Suppl 7) : S577-S583. doi: 10.1093 / infdis / jiz059 5.Glezen WP, Taber LH, Frank AL, Kasel JA. Risk of primary infection and reinfection with respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Dis Child. 1986; 140 (6) : 543-546. doi: 10.1001 / archpedi. 1986.021402000530266.Varga SM, Braciale TJ. The adaptive immune response to respiratory syncytial virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2013; 372: 155-171. doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-642-38919-1_87.Mufson MA, Orvell C, Rafnar B, Norrby E. Two distinct subtypes of human respiratory syncytial virus. J Gen Virol. 1985; 66 (Pt 10) : 2111-2124. doi: 10.1099 / 0022-1317-66-10-2111 8.Heidema J, de Bree GJ, de Graaff PMA, et al. Human CD8 (+) T cell responses against five newly identified respiratory syncytial virus-derived epitopes. J Gen Virol. 2004; 85 (Pt 8) : 2365-2374. doi: 10.1099 / vir. 0.80131-09.Taleb SA, Al Thani AA, Al Ansari K, Yassine HM. Human respiratory syncytial virus: pathogenesis, immune responses, and current vaccine approaches. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018; 37 (10) : 1817-1827. doi: 10.1007 / s10096-018-3289-410. Graham BS. Vaccine development for respiratory syncytial virus. Curr Opin Virol. 2017; 23: 107-112. doi: 10.1016 / j. coviro. 2017.03.01211. McLellan JS, Chen M, Leung S, et al. Structure of RSV fusion glycoprotein trimer bound to a prefusion-specific neutralizing antibody. Science. 2013; 340 (6136) : 1113-1117. doi: 10.1126 / science. 123491412. Krarup A, Truan D, Furmanova-Hollenstein P, et al. A highly stable prefusion RSV F vaccine derived from structural analysis of the fusion mechanism. Nat Commun. 2015; 6: 8143. Published 2015 Sep 3. doi: 10.1038 / ncomms914313. Gilman MS, Castellanos CA, Chen M, et al. Rapid profiling of RSV antibody repertoires from the memory B cells of naturally infected adult donors. Sci Immunol. 2016; 1 (6) : eaaj1879. doi: 10.1126 / sciimmunol. aaj187914. McLellan JS, Chen M, Joyce MG, et al. Structure-based design of a fusion glycoprotein vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus. Science. 2013; 342 (6158) : 592-598. doi: 10.1126 / science. 124328315. Gilman, M. S. A., Furmanova-Hollenstein, P., Pascual, G. et al. Transient opening of trimeric prefusion RSV F proteins. Nat. Commun., 2019, 10, 2105. doi: 10.1038 / s41467-019-09807-5 16.D Martín, LJ Calder, B García-Barreno, JJ Skehel, JA Melero, Sequence elements of the fusion peptide of human respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein required for activity. J Gen Virol. 2006; 87: 1649–1658. doi: 10.1099 / vir. 0.81715-0.17. Chaiwatpongsakorn, S. ; Epand, R. F. ; Collins, P. L. ; Epand, R. M. ; Peeples, M. E. Soluble respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein in the fully cleaved, pretriggered state is triggered by exposure to low-molarity buffer. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 3968–3977. doi: 10.1128 / jvi. 01813-10 18.Joyce MG, Zhang B, Ou L, et al. Iterative structure-based improvement of a fusion-glycoprotein vaccine against RSV. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2016; 23 (9) : 811-820. doi: 10.1038 / nsmb. 326719. Shaikh FY, Cox RG, Lifland AW, et al. A critical phenylalanine residue in the respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein cytoplasmic tail mediates assembly of internal viral proteins into viral filaments and particles. mBio. 2012; 3 (1) : e00270-11. Published 2012 Feb 7. doi: 10.1128 / mBio. 00270-1120. Oomens AG, Bevis KP, Wertz GW. The cytoplasmic tail of the human respiratory syncytial virus F protein plays critical roles in cellular localization of the F protein and infectious progeny production. J Virol. 2006; 80 (21) : 10465-10477. doi: 10.1128 / JVI. 01439-0621. Baviskar PS, Hotard AL, Moore ML, Oomens AG. The respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein targets to the perimeter of inclusion bodies and facilitates filament formation by a cytoplasmic tail-dependent mechanism. J Virol. 2013; 87 (19) : 10730-10741. doi: 10.1128 / JVI. 03086-1222. Espeseth AS, Cejas PJ, Citron MP, et al. Modified mRNA / lipid nanoparticle-based vaccines expressing respiratory syncytial virus F protein variants are immunogenic and protective in rodent models of RSV infection. NPJ Vaccines. 2020; 5 (1) : 16. Published 2020 Feb 14. doi: 10.1038 / s41541-020-0163-zThe mRNA sequences of all leads can combine with the listed 5’ UTR and 3’ UTR without N1-methylpseudouridine, in some cases, in order to reduce the innate immune response against mRNA molecules and to improve the expression of mRNAs, N1-methylpseudouridine will be employed to replace the uridine in mRNA molecules. The variations of RSV vaccine Leads:
Claims
1.An engineered polynucleotide (e.g., a ribonucleotide or an RNA) encoding a stabilized prefusion form of an RSV F glycoprotein that is immunogenic, wherein the engineered polynucleotide comprises:(a) a first polynucleotide encoding a transmembrane (TM) domain of the RSV F glycoprotein; and(b) a second polynucleotide encoding a cytoplasmic tail (CT) of the RSV F glycoprotein.2.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 1, further comprising a third polynucleotide encoding an extracellular (EC) domain.3.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 1 or 2, further comprising a fourth polynucleotide encoding a trimerization domain of T4 fibritin.4.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 3, wherein the T4 fibritin is between the EC domain and the TM domain.5.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein lacks a p27-fusion protein (p27-FP) domain; or wherein the RSV F glycoprotein substitutes a linker (such as a GS linker) for the p27-FP domain.6.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S46X (such as S46G) , E92X (such as E92D) , P102X (such as P102A) , S215X (such as S215P) , I379X (such as I379V) , L373X (such as L373R) , M447X (such as M447V) and K465X (such as K465Q) , wherein X is any amino acid other than the original amino acid.7.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of A149C and Y458C.8.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S155C and S290C.9.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises one or more amino acid substitutions, relative to SEQ ID NO: 1, selected from the group consisting of S190X (such as S190F) and V207X (such as V207L) .10.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises an amino acid substitution F572A relative SEQ ID NO: 1.11.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises a truncated CT (e.g., a truncated CT consisting essentially of / consisting of a peptide sequence of KAR) .12.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 11, wherein the truncated CT comprises amino acid position 4-24 of SEQ ID NO: 16.13.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the engineered polynucleotide is an RNA that comprises a poly (A) tail, optionally, the poly (A) tail is between 50-150 nucleotides in length.14.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-13, comprising a nucleic acid sequence at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or a fragment thereof (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 8, 11, 12, 13, 29, 32, 33, or 34) .15.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 14, comprising the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 45.16.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-15, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein is at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, or a fragment thereof (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 17, 20, 21, or 22) .17.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 16, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46.18.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-17, wherein the RSV F glycoprotein is at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 or a fragment thereof.19.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-18, further comprising a 5’ untranslated region (UTR) that comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, or 43.20.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-19, further comprising a 3’ UTR that comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.21.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-20, further comprising a 5’ cap, such as cap-0 or m7G (5’) ppp (5’) N1mpNp cap.22.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-21, further comprising a chemical modification.23.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 22, wherein the chemical modification is substitution of a uridine in the polynucleotide by an N1-methylpseudouridine; optionally, all or substantially all uridine in the polynucleotide is substituted by N1-methylpseudouridine.24.A polypeptide encoded by the engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-23.25.A pharmaceutical composition comprising the engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-24.26.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 25, comprising the engineered polynucleotide formulated in a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) .27.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 26, wherein the LNP comprises a mixture of lipids that comprise:(1) about 20%-60%, about 30%-50%, or about 40% (molar percentage) of an ionizable cationic lipid;(2) about 30%-70% (such as about 40-60%, or about 50%) (molar percentage) of a sterol lipid;(3) about 5%-30% (such as about 5-15%, or about 10%) (molar percentage) of a phospholipid; or(4) about 0%-5% (such as about 1-3%, or about 2%) (molar percentage) of a stealth lipid or PEG-modified lipid.28.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 27, wherein the mixture of lipids comprises an ionizable cationic lipid, cholesterol, 1, 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) , and 1, 2-dimyristoyl-rac-glycero-3-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000 (DMG-PEG2000) , wherein the ionizable cationic lipid is selected from the group consisting of Lipid #2 , Lipid #4 , Lipid #5 , and Lipid #8 with the following structures: 29.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 26, wherein the molar ratio of ionizable cationic lipid, cholesterol, DSPC, and DMG-PEG2000 is about 40 : about 48 : about 10 : about 2.30.The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 26-29, wherein the average diameter of the LNP is less than 100 nm, less than 90 nm, less than 80 nm, less than 70 nm, or less than 60 nm; e.g., about 50-70 nm, or about 60 nm) .31.The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 26-30, wherein the LNP has a polydispersity index (PDI) of between about 0.01 -about 0.15, or between about 0.05 –about 0.10.32.The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 26-31, wherein the LNP has a zeta potential of about 1.00 mV –about 5.00 mV, or about 1.50 mV –about 4.00 mV.33.The pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 26-32, wherein the engineered polynucleotide is formulated in the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) by mixing the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) with the LNP in a container to reach a final mRNA concentration of about 50 μg / mL, wherein said mixing comprises inverting the container up and down for about 30 seconds of thorough mixing.34.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 33, wherein the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) is equilibrated to room temperature for about 30 minutes, after storage, e.g., at about 1 μg / μL in solution or suspension, or as lyophilized powder at -60℃ ~-80℃, before mixing with the LNP; and wherein the LNP is stored at 4℃ and protected from light exposure.35.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 33 or 34, wherein the mixture resulting from mixing the engineered polynucleotide (e.g., mRNA) with the LNP is incubated at room temperature for about 10 minutes before use for immunization.36.A method of treating an RSV infection in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 1-23 or the pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 25-35.37.The method of claim 36, wherein the subject is a human 5 years of age or younger, or a human 60 years of age or older.38.The method of claim 36 or 37, wherein the subject is immunocompromised or has pulmonary disease.39.The method of any one of claims 36-38, wherein the RSV glycoprotein folds into a stabilized pre-fusion conformation in vivo.40.The method of claim 39, wherein administration of the pharmaceutical composition results in a balanced Th1 / Th2 in the subject.41.The method of any one of claims 36-40, wherein the RSV is hRSV.42.The method of any one of claims 36-41, comprising administering to the subject at least two doses of said engineered polynucleotide or said pharmaceutical composition.43.An engineered polynucleotide comprising a 5’ untranslated region (UTR) that comprises a nucleic acid sequence having substantially the same secondary structure as, and is optionally at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to any one of SEQ ID NO: 4, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, and a fragment thereof.44.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 43, wherein the 5’ UTR comprises a nucleic acid sequence at least about 90%, 92%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.2%, 99.4%, 99.6%, or 99.8%identical to SEQ ID NO: 4.45.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 43 or 44, wherein the secondary structure comprises one or more (e.g., all) of the following characteristics:1) having a length of about 50 nucleotides;2) having a binding site for translation initiation factor and ribosome;3) having a GC-rich hairpin region that stabilizes the secondary structure;4) having a short AT-rich region for faster pass by ribosomes;5) having a GC-rich sequence adjacent to the Kozak sequence for efficient ribosome binding to the AUG start condon; and / or,6) lacking inhibitory domains for translation (such as lacking non-canonical start codons) .46.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 43-45, further comprising a 3’ UTR.47.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 46, wherein the 3’ UTR comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 44.48.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 43-47, further comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide.49.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 48, wherein the polypeptide is an antigen.50.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 49 wherein the antigen is a viral antigen.51.The engineered polynucleotide of claim 50, wherein the viral antigen is a hRSV antigen.52.The engineered polynucleotide of any one of claims 49-51, wherein the antigen elicits a higer antibody titer when expressed in a host mammal (e.g., human) , when compared to the same antigen encoded by a control polynucleotide lacking said 5’UTR.
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