MODELING OIL AND GAS FIELDS FOR ASSESSMENT AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT

Description

Background

[0001] Subsurface modeling of geological and physical processes is commonly performed in oil and gas exploration, field development, and production especially with regard to the overall understanding of the geological background, scenario evaluation, and quantitative value assessments with subsequent decision making. Field operations in the oil industry are commonly classified into four phases: exploration, appraisal, development and production. However, existing modeling and simulation fails to address all of these phases. Modeling and simulation for the exploration phase generally focuses on basin modeling, i.e., the formation of sedimentary basins, the generation of hydrocarbons in source rocks, the migration of hydrocarbons and the accumulation of hydrocarbons in traps. Production and later stage development are generally supported by higher resolution reservoir modeling that focus on subsurface flow and include processes such as hydrocarbon displacement by water injection. Appraisal and early development, however, have little support by way of modeling and simulation.

[0002] Exploration modeling generally relies on geological timescales of millions of years and are constructed for regional length scales of hundreds of kilometers. Reservoir modeling, in contrast, generally covers production timescales up to decades and field sizes up to a few kilometers. As a result, a substantial gap exists between exploration and reservoir modeling.

[0003] US 2015 / 120262 describes a system and method for modeling a geological structure including, in an initial model, computing a first function for a geological structure including a first set of iso-surfaces, detecting if the first set of iso-surfaces intersect a set of geological markers within a threshold proximity and if not, correcting the initial model using an induced mesh having an increased cell resolution compared to the initial model for computing a second function for the geological structure including a second set of iso-surfaces that intersect the geological markers within the threshold proximity. The second set of iso-surfaces are inserted into a second model to locally increase its resolution relative to the initial model by dividing cells in the second model along the second set of iso-surfaces. For each new geological structure, these steps may be repeated using the second model as the initial model. US 2015 / 247941 describes a method in which seismic data is integrated with downhole fluid analysis to predict the location of heavy hydrocarbons. ZHANGXIN JOHN CHEN ET AL, "Integrated Reservoir Simulation and Basin Models: Reservoir Charging and Fluid Mixing", A NEXT-GENERATION PARALLEL RESERVOIR SIMULATOR FOR GIANT RESERVOIRS, The Woodlands, Texas, 1 January 2009, DOI:10.2118 / 118833-MS, ISBN 978-1-55563-209-0, XP055262966 describes the coupling of compositional fluid mixing simulators with basin modeling. US 2011 / 141851 describes modeling of hydrocarbon reservoirs by integrating mechanical earth models, earth models and basin models. US 2002 / 120429 describes a 3-D geologic basin simulator integrates seismic inversion techniques with other data to predict fracture location and characteristics.Summary

[0004] The present invention resides in a method as defined in claim 1 and in an apparatus as defined in claim 13.

[0005] The features which characterize the invention are set forth in the claims annexed hereto. For a better understanding of the invention, and of the advantages and objectives attained through its use, reference should be made to the Drawings, and to the accompanying descriptive matter, in which there is described examples and embodiments of the invention.Brief Description of the Drawings

[0006] FIGURE 1 is a block diagram of an example hardware and software environment for a data processing system in accordance with implementation of various technologies and techniques described herein. FIGURES 2A-2D illustrate simplified, schematic views of an oilfield having subterranean formations containing reservoirs therein in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. FIGURE 3 illustrates a schematic view, partially in cross section of an oilfield having a plurality of data acquisition tools positioned at various locations along the oilfield for collecting data from the subterranean formations in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. FIGURE 4 illustrates a production system for performing one or more oilfield operations in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. FIGURE 5 is a block diagram illustrating the integration of reservoir fluid geodynamics modeling into an overall oil & gas modeling workflow suitable for use in the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 6 is a block diagram illustrating an example workflow using basin, reservoir fluid geodynamics and reservoir simulators using the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 7 is a block diagram illustrating an example integration of reservoir fluid geodynamics modeling into an integrated subsurface model in the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 8 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of operations for preparing input a reservoir fluid geodynamics simulation in the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 9 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of operations for running a reservoir fluid geodynamics simulation in the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 10 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of operations for interactively calibrating a reservoir fluid geodynamics model in the data processing system of Fig. 1. FIGURE 11 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of operations for running a reservoir simulation using the reservoir fluid geodynamics model generated in Figs. 8-10. FIGURE 12 is a block diagram illustrating an example integrated simulation environment using the data processing system of Fig. 1. Detailed Description

[0007] The herein-described examples and embodiments of the invention utilize a number of techniques to implement reservoir fluid geodynamics modeling for the purpose of supporting appraisal and / or early development workflows in the oil & gas industry, among other applications. Before discussing these techniques, an example hardware and software environment, and an overview of oilfield operations, will first be discussed.Hardware and Software Environment

[0008] Turning now to the drawings, wherein like numbers denote like parts throughout the several views, Fig. 1 illustrates an example data processing system 10 in which the various technologies and techniques described herein may be implemented. System 10 is illustrated as including one or more computers 12, e.g., client computers, each including a central processing unit (CPU) 14 including at least one hardware-based processor or processing core 16. CPU 14 is coupled to a memory 18, which may represent the random access memory (RAM) devices comprising the main storage of a computer 12, as well as any supplemental levels of memory, e.g., cache memories, non-volatile or backup memories (e.g., programmable or flash memories), read-only memories, etc. In addition, memory 18 may be considered to include memory storage physically located elsewhere in a computer 12, e.g., any cache memory in a microprocessor or processing core, as well as any storage capacity used as a virtual memory, e.g., as stored on a mass storage device 20 or on another computer coupled to a computer 12.

[0009] Each computer 12 also generally receives a number of inputs and outputs for communicating information externally. For interface with a user or operator, a computer 12 generally includes a user interface 22 incorporating one or more user input / output devices, e.g., a keyboard, a pointing device, a display, a printer, etc. Otherwise, user input may be received, e.g., over a network interface 24 coupled to a network 26, from one or more external computers, e.g., one or more servers 28 or other computers 12. A computer 12 also may be in communication with one or more mass storage devices 20, which may be, for example, internal hard disk storage devices, external hard disk storage devices, storage area network devices, etc.

[0010] A computer 12 generally operates under the control of an operating system 30 and executes or otherwise relies upon various computer software applications, components, programs, objects, modules, data structures, etc. For example, a petro-technical module or component 32 executing within an exploration and production (E&P) platform 34 may be used to access, process, generate, modify or otherwise utilize petro-technical data, e.g., as stored locally in a database 36 and / or accessible remotely from a collaboration platform 38. Collaboration platform 38 may be implemented using multiple servers 28 in some implementations, and it will be appreciated that each server 28 may incorporate a CPU, memory, and other hardware components similar to a computer 12.

[0011] For example, E&P platform 34 may implemented as the PETREL Exploration & Production (E&P) software platform, while collaboration platform 38 may be implemented as the STUDIO E&P KNOWLEDGE ENVIRONMENT platform, both of which are available from Schlumberger Ltd. and its affiliates. It will be appreciated, however, that the techniques discussed herein may be utilized in connection with other platforms and environments, so the invention is not limited to the particular software platforms and environments discussed herein.

[0012] It will also be appreciated that the functionality disclosed herein may be implemented using various computer architectures. For example, the functionality disclosed herein may be implemented using one or more stand-alone computers or programmable electronic devices, one or more server-based data processing systems, one or more networked data processing systems, one or more client-server data processing systems, one or more peer-to-peer data processing system, one or more cloud-based data processing systems, one or more distributed data processing systems, or combinations thereof.

[0013] In general, the routines executed to implement the examples and embodiments of the invention disclosed herein, whether implemented as part of an operating system or a specific application, component, program, object, module or sequence of instructions, or even a subset thereof, will be referred to herein as "computer program code," or simply "program code." Program code generally comprises one or more instructions that are resident at various times in various memory and storage devices in a computer, and that, when read and executed by one or more hardware-based processing units in a computer (e.g., microprocessors, processing cores, or other hardware-based circuit logic), cause that computer to perform the steps embodying desired functionality. Moreover, while examples and embodiments of the invention have and hereinafter will be described in the context of fully functioning computers and computer systems, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the various examples and embodiments of the invention are capable of being distributed as a program product in a variety of forms, and that the invention applies equally regardless of the particular type of computer readable media used to actually carry out the distribution.

[0014] Such computer readable media may include computer readable storage media and communication media. Computer readable storage media is non-transitory in nature, and may include volatile and non-volatile, and removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Computer readable storage media may further include RAM, ROM, erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), flash memory or other solid state memory technology, CD-ROM, DVD, or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store the desired information and which can be accessed by computer 10. Communication media may embody computer readable instructions, data structures or other program modules. By way of example, and not limitation, communication media may include wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, RF, infrared and other wireless media. Combinations of any of the above may also be included within the scope of computer readable media.

[0015] Various program code described hereinafter may be identified based upon the application within which it is implemented in a specific example or embodiment of the invention. However, it should be appreciated that any particular program nomenclature that follows is used merely for convenience, and thus the invention should not be limited to use solely in any specific application identified and / or implied by such nomenclature. Furthermore, given the endless number of manners in which computer programs may be organized into routines, procedures, methods, modules, objects, and the like, as well as the various manners in which program functionality may be allocated among various software layers that are resident within a typical computer (e.g., operating systems, libraries, API's, applications, applets, etc.), it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited to the specific organization and allocation of program functionality described herein.

[0016] Furthermore, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the instant disclosure that the various operations described herein that may be performed by any program code, or performed in any routines, workflows, or the like, may be combined, split, reordered, omitted, and / or supplemented with other techniques known in the art, and therefore, the invention is not limited to the particular sequences of operations described herein.

[0017] Those skilled in the art will recognize that the example environment illustrated in Fig. 1 is not intended to limit the invention. Indeed, those skilled in the art will recognize that other alternative hardware and / or software environments may be used without departing from the scope of the invention.Oilfield Operations

[0018] Figs. 2A-2D illustrate simplified, schematic views of an oilfield 100 having subterranean formation 102 containing reservoir 104 therein in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. Fig. 2A illustrates a survey operation being performed by a survey tool, such as seismic truck 106.1, to measure properties of the subterranean formation. The survey operation is a seismic survey operation for producing sound vibrations. In Fig. 2A, one such sound vibration, sound vibration 112 generated by source 110, reflects off horizons 114 in earth formation 116. A set of sound vibrations is received by sensors, such as geophone-receivers 118, situated on the earth's surface. The data received 120 is provided as input data to a computer 122.1 of a seismic truck 106.1, and responsive to the input data, computer 122.1 generates seismic data output 124. This seismic data output may be stored, transmitted or further processed as desired, for example, by data reduction.

[0019] Fig. 2B illustrates a drilling operation being performed by drilling tools 106.2 suspended by rig 128 and advanced into subterranean formations 102 to form wellbore 136. Mud pit 130 is used to draw drilling mud into the drilling tools via flow line 132 for circulating drilling mud down through the drilling tools, then up wellbore 136 and back to the surface. The drilling mud may be filtered and returned to the mud pit. A circulating system may be used for storing, controlling, or filtering the flowing drilling muds. The drilling tools are advanced into subterranean formations 102 to reach reservoir 104. Each well may target one or more reservoirs. The drilling tools are adapted for measuring downhole properties using logging while drilling tools. The logging while drilling tools may also be adapted for taking core sample 133 as shown.

[0020] Computer facilities may be positioned at various locations about the oilfield 100 (e.g., the surface unit 134) and / or at remote locations. Surface unit 134 may be used to communicate with the drilling tools and / or offsite operations, as well as with other surface or downhole sensors. Surface unit 134 is capable of communicating with the drilling tools to send commands to the drilling tools, and to receive data therefrom. Surface unit 134 may also collect data generated during the drilling operation and produces data output 135, which may then be stored or transmitted.

[0021] Sensors (S), such as gauges, may be positioned about oilfield 100 to collect data relating to various oilfield operations as described previously. As shown, sensor (S) is positioned in one or more locations in the drilling tools and / or at rig 128 to measure drilling parameters, such as weight on bit, torque on bit, pressures, temperatures, flow rates, compositions, rotary speed, and / or other parameters of the field operation. Sensors (S) may also be positioned in one or more locations in the circulating system.

[0022] Drilling tools 106.2 may include a bottom hole assembly (BHA) (not shown), generally referenced, near the drill bit (e.g., within several drill collar lengths from the drill bit). The bottom hole assembly includes capabilities for measuring, processing, and storing information, as well as communicating with surface unit 134. The bottom hole assembly further includes drill collars for performing various other measurement functions.

[0023] The bottom hole assembly may include a communication subassembly that communicates with surface unit 134. The communication subassembly is adapted to send signals to and receive signals from the surface using a communications channel such as mud pulse telemetry, electro-magnetic telemetry, or wired drill pipe communications. The communication subassembly may include, for example, a transmitter that generates a signal, such as an acoustic or electromagnetic signal, which is representative of the measured drilling parameters. It will be appreciated by one of skill in the art that a variety of telemetry systems may be employed, such as wired drill pipe, electromagnetic or other known telemetry systems.

[0024] Generally, the wellbore is drilled according to a drilling plan that is established prior to drilling. The drilling plan sets forth equipment, pressures, trajectories and / or other parameters that define the drilling process for the wellsite. The drilling operation may then be performed according to the drilling plan. However, as information is gathered, the drilling operation may need to deviate from the drilling plan. Additionally, as drilling or other operations are performed, the subsurface conditions may change. The earth model may also need adjustment as new information is collected

[0025] The data gathered by sensors (S) may be collected by surface unit 134 and / or other data collection sources for analysis or other processing. The data collected by sensors (S) may be used alone or in combination with other data. The data may be collected in one or more databases and / or transmitted on or offsite. The data may be historical data, real time data, or combinations thereof. The real time data may be used in real time, or stored for later use. The data may also be combined with historical data or other inputs for further analysis. The data may be stored in separate databases, or combined into a single database.

[0026] Surface unit 134 may include transceiver 137 to allow communications between surface unit 134 and various portions of the oilfield 100 or other locations. Surface unit 134 is also provided with or functionally connected to one or more controllers (not shown) for actuating mechanisms at oilfield 100. Surface unit 134 may then send command signals to oilfield 100 in response to data received. Surface unit 134 may receive commands via transceiver 137 or may itself execute commands to the controller. A processor is provided to analyze the data (locally or remotely), make the decisions and actuate the controller. In this manner, oilfield 100 may be selectively adjusted based on the data collected. This technique may be used to optimize portions of the field operation, such as controlling drilling, weight on bit, pump rates, or other parameters. These adjustments may be made automatically based on computer protocol, and / or manually by an operator. In some cases, well plans may be adjusted to select optimum operating conditions, or to avoid problems.

[0027] Fig. 2C illustrates a wireline operation being performed by wireline tool 106.3 suspended by rig 128 and into wellbore 136 of Fig. 2B. Wireline tool 106.3 is adapted for deployment into wellbore 136 for generating well logs, performing downhole tests and / or collecting samples. Wireline tool 106.3 may be used to provide another method and apparatus for performing a seismic survey operation. Wireline tool 106.3 may, for example, have an explosive, radioactive, electrical, or acoustic energy source 144 that sends and / or receives electrical signals to surrounding subterranean formations 102 and fluids therein.

[0028] Wireline tool 106.3 may be operatively connected to, for example, geophones 118 and a computer 122.1 of a seismic truck 106.1 of Fig. 2A. Wireline tool 106.3 may also provide data to surface unit 134. Surface unit 134 may collect data generated during the wireline operation and may produce data output 135 that may be stored or transmitted. Wireline tool 106.3 may be positioned at various depths in the wellbore 136 to provide a survey or other information relating to the subterranean formation 102.

[0029] Sensors (S), such as gauges, may be positioned about oilfield 100 to collect data relating to various field operations as described previously. As shown, sensor S is positioned in wireline tool 106.3 to measure downhole parameters which relate to, for example porosity, permeability, fluid composition and / or other parameters of the field operation.

[0030] Fig. 2D illustrates a production operation being performed by production tool 106.4 deployed from a production unit or Christmas tree 129 and into completed wellbore 136 for drawing fluid from the downhole reservoirs into surface facilities 142. The fluid flows from reservoir 104 through perforations in the casing (not shown) and into production tool 106.4 in wellbore 136 and to surface facilities 142 via gathering network 146.

[0031] Sensors (S), such as gauges, may be positioned about oilfield 100 to collect data relating to various field operations as described previously. As shown, the sensor (S) may be positioned in production tool 106.4 or associated equipment, such as christmas tree 129, gathering network 146, surface facility 142, and / or the production facility, to measure fluid parameters, such as fluid composition, flow rates, pressures, temperatures, and / or other parameters of the production operation.

[0032] Production may also include injection wells for added recovery. One or more gathering facilities may be operatively connected to one or more of the wellsites for selectively collecting downhole fluids from the wellsite(s).

[0033] While Figs. 2B-2D illustrate tools used to measure properties of an oilfield, it will be appreciated that the tools may be used in connection with non-oilfield operations, such as gas fields, mines, aquifers, storage, or other subterranean facilities. Also, while certain data acquisition tools are depicted, it will be appreciated that various measurement tools capable of sensing parameters, such as seismic two-way travel time, density, resistivity, production rate, etc., of the subterranean formation and / or its geological formations may be used. Various sensors (S) may be located at various positions along the wellbore and / or the monitoring tools to collect and / or monitor the desired data. Other sources of data may also be provided from offsite locations.

[0034] The field configurations of Figs. 2A-2D are intended to provide a brief description of an example of a field usable with oilfield application frameworks. Part, or all, of oilfield 100 may be on land, water, and / or sea. Also, while a single field measured at a single location is depicted, oilfield applications may be utilized with any combination of one or more oilfields, one or more processing facilities and one or more wellsites.

[0035] Fig. 3 illustrates a schematic view, partially in cross section of oilfield 200 having data acquisition tools 202.1, 202.2, 202.3 and 202.4 positioned at various locations along oilfield 200 for collecting data of subterranean formation 204 in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. Data acquisition tools 202.1-202.4 may be the same as data acquisition tools 106.1-106.4 of Figs. 2A-2D, respectively, or others not depicted. As shown, data acquisition tools 202.1-202.4 generate data plots or measurements 208.1-208.4, respectively. These data plots are depicted along oilfield 200 to demonstrate the data generated by the various operations.

[0036] Data plots 208.1-208.3 are examples of static data plots that may be generated by data acquisition tools 202.1-202.3, respectively, however, it should be understood that data plots 208.1-208.3 may also be data plots that are updated in real time. These measurements may be analyzed to better define the properties of the formation(s) and / or determine the accuracy of the measurements and / or for checking for errors. The plots of each of the respective measurements may be aligned and scaled for comparison and verification of the properties.

[0037] Static data plot 208.1 is a seismic two-way response over a period of time. Static plot 208.2 is core sample data measured from a core sample of the formation 204. The core sample may be used to provide data, such as a graph of the density, porosity, permeability, or some other physical property of the core sample over the length of the core. Tests for density and viscosity may be performed on the fluids in the core at varying pressures and temperatures. Static data plot 208.3 is a logging trace that generally provides a resistivity or other measurement of the formation at various depths.

[0038] A production decline curve or graph 208.4 is a dynamic data plot of the fluid flow rate over time. The production decline curve generally provides the production rate as a function of time. As the fluid flows through the wellbore, measurements are taken of fluid properties, such as flow rates, pressures, composition, etc.

[0039] Other data may also be collected, such as historical data, user inputs, economic information, and / or other measurement data and other parameters of interest. As described below, the static and dynamic measurements may be analyzed and used to generate models of the subterranean formation to determine characteristics thereof. Similar measurements may also be used to measure changes in formation aspects over time.

[0040] The subterranean structure 204 has a plurality of geological formations 206.1-206.4. As shown, this structure has several formations or layers, including a shale layer 206.1, a carbonate layer 206.2, a shale layer 206.3 and a sand layer 206.4. A fault 207 extends through the shale layer 206.1 and the carbonate layer 206.2. The static data acquisition tools are adapted to take measurements and detect characteristics of the formations.

[0041] While a specific subterranean formation with specific geological structures is depicted, it will be appreciated that oilfield 200 may contain a variety of geological structures and / or formations, sometimes having extreme complexity. In some locations, generally below the water line, fluid may occupy pore spaces of the formations. Each of the measurement devices may be used to measure properties of the formations and / or its geological features. While each acquisition tool is shown as being in specific locations in oilfield 200, it will be appreciated that one or more types of measurement may be taken at one or more locations across one or more fields or other locations for comparison and / or analysis.

[0042] The data collected from various sources, such as the data acquisition tools of Fig. 3, may then be processed and / or evaluated. Generally, seismic data displayed in static data plot 208.1 from data acquisition tool 202.1 is used by a geophysicist to determine characteristics of the subterranean formations and features. The core data shown in static plot 208.2 and / or log data from well log 208.3 are generally used by a geologist to determine various characteristics of the subterranean formation. The production data from graph 208.4 is generally used by the reservoir engineer to determine fluid flow reservoir characteristics. The data analyzed by the geologist, geophysicist and the reservoir engineer may be analyzed using modeling techniques.

[0043] Fig. 4 illustrates an oilfield 300 for performing production operations in accordance with implementations of various technologies and techniques described herein. As shown, the oilfield has a plurality of wellsites 302 operatively connected to central processing facility 354. The oilfield configuration of Fig. 4 is not intended to limit the scope of the oilfield application system. Part or all of the oilfield may be on land and / or sea. Also, while a single oilfield with a single processing facility and a plurality of wellsites is depicted, any combination of one or more oilfields, one or more processing facilities and one or more wellsites may be present.

[0044] Each wellsite 302 has equipment that forms wellbore 336 into the earth. The wellbores extend through subterranean formations 306 including reservoirs 304. These reservoirs 304 contain fluids, such as hydrocarbons. The wellsites draw fluid from the reservoirs and pass them to the processing facilities via surface networks 344. The surface networks 344 have tubing and control mechanisms for controlling the flow of fluids from the wellsite to processing facility 354.Reservoir Fluid Geodynamics Modeling for Appraisal and Early Development

[0045] Field operations in the oil industry are commonly classified into the four phases of exploration, appraisal, development and production. About three of these phases are conventionally accompanied by modeling and simulation of relevant processes in the subsurface. For example, exploration models, i.e. basin modeling, focuses on the formation of sedimentary basins, the generation of hydrocarbons in source rocks, the migration of hydrocarbons and the accumulation of hydrocarbons in traps. High resolution reservoir models for production, in contrast, focus on subsurface flow during production, and cover processes such as hydrocarbon displacement by water injection. Reservoir modeling as such is generally set up to evaluate different production scenarios for development and production, i.e. engineering.

[0046] Exploration simulations generally rely on geological timescales of millions of years and are generally constructed for regional length scales of hundreds of kilometers, with a focus on sedimentary basins. Reservoir simulations generally cover production timescales up to decades and field sizes up to a few kilometers, and with a focus on structure with hydrocarbon accumulation. However, while both approaches have become standard workflows in the industry, it has been found that a gap exists in modeling and simulation of the subsurface generally corresponding to the appraisal and early development phases between exploration and production, and with a focus on petroleum system to field with multiple accumulations. Compositional gradients, especially when not in equilibrium, compartmentalization, tar mats, reservoir geochemistry, biodegradation, charging and spilling scenarios, etc. are generally neither accessible with exploration nor reservoir simulators as such processes generally occur on timescales up to 100,000 years, and include lateral extensions covering the nearby geological environment of a field, possibly incorporating its satellite structures. It has also been found that it would be beneficial to support simulations with lateral extends of 10 km or more but with finer resolution than is supported by basin modeling to assist in analyzing the geological background of a subsurface formation for appraisal and early development decisions.

[0047] Embodiments of the invention implement a modeling and simulation approach suitable for appraisal and early development, referred to herein as Reservoir Fluid Geodynamics (RFG) modeling, which may be used to close the modeling gap that conventionally exists between exploration and production. Various embodiments may include modeling of corresponding physical processes in the subsurface, calibration of the models with field data (e.g. from Downhole Fluid Analysis (DFA)), usage of an RFG model for appraisal and / or early development decisions, and / or continuous simulation workflows from exploration to production with the benefit of one integrated database and one consistent set of models from exploration to production for all simulation steps in between.

[0048] RFG modeling may be used to simulate processes such as reservoir diffusion. For example, Wang et al., Differing Equilibration Times of GOR, Asphaltenes and Biomarkers as Determined by Charge History and Reservoir Fluid Geodynamics, PETROPHYSICS, VOL. 56, NO. 5 (2015), , discusses the gap that may occur between basin and reservoir modeling from the perspective of modeling reservoir diffusion, e.g., the modeling of mixing and equilibration of fluids in reservoirs on geological timescales of up to millions of years in duration. Basin simulators generally operate at higher end of such durations; however, conventional basin simulators generally rely on spatial resolutions that are insufficient to describe processes such as in reservoir diffusion. In contrast, while reservoir simulators theoretically possess sufficient resolutions for modeling in reservoir diffusion, such simulators are generally incapable of modeling a duration of time sufficient to model such processes.

[0049] Additional physical and / or geological processes may also occur on time scales within this modeling gap. For example, processes that occur on such time scales include, but are not limited to geochemical reactions such as oil cracking and thermochemical sulfate reduction, biodegradation, biological sulfate reduction, asphaltene precipitation, tar mat formation, fluid rock interactions such as cementation, etc. It has been found that modeling such processes in an environment with compartmentalization and reservoir baffling generally yields information which might strongly influence expectations about oil recovery and thus influence development plans. As shown in Fig. 5, for example, RFG modeling 380 fits well in between, in length scales (or spatial resolutions), timescales, overall geological background and the different phases of an oil field life, with basin modeling 382 and reservoir modeling 384. In particular, RFG modeling may be based upon both intermediate timescales (e.g., in terms of thousands of years, such as about 1000 to about 10,000,000 years, and intermediate dimensions (e.g., in terms of tens of kilometers, such as about 1 km to 100 km. This is generally in contrast with basin modeling, which generally relies on relatively longer geological timescales (e.g., in terms of 100's of millions of years) and regional lateral dimensions (e.g., in terms of 100's of kilometers), and reservoir modeling, which generally relies on development / production timescales (e.g., one year up to a few decades) and localized lateral dimensions (e.g., only a few kilometers). RFG modeling may also differ from basin modeling in terms of vertical dimensions, as basin modeling generally extends to the crust and the source rock, while RFG may focus on the reservoir.

[0050] Further, RFG modeling may be useful in connection with modeling processes in other fields or industries such as CO 2 sequestration or nuclear waste disposal, among others.

[0051] Embodiments of the invention may be used, for example, to close a technical data flow gap between exploration and engineering. Conventionally, reservoir and basin models are distinct in size, resolution and data population, and are, as a result, set up completely independent of one other. In contrast, according to the invention, an integrated subsurface model is used to incorporate basin, RFG, and reservoir modeling data, and each of RFG and reservoir models may effectively be developed based upon refining a cut-out of the model data for an earlier-phase model, i.e., by using a refined cut-out of a portion of a basin model as an RFG model, and using a refined cut-out of a portion of an RFG model as a reservoir model. Thus, a consistent data set may be used for overall geological modeling across each of the four phases of field operations. As such, for example, generated hydrocarbon amounts, captured in a basin simulation, may be used for fluid distribution modeling in an RFG simulator, and then the resulting fluid distribution from the RFG simulation, even in a non-equilibrium case, may be used to define initial conditions for simulating production scenarios.

[0052] It will be appreciated that pre-processing, post-processing and / or visualization tools may be used to manage and visualize this overall modeling process, and essentially with three simulators working one overall integrated database. Doing so may enable new workflows to be developed for modeling from exploration to production, and with iterative refinement of three intermediate models with respective time and length scales. Further, expensive data, such as DFA measurements, may be assessed in all tools simultaneously and used when applicable and appropriate, e.g. for understanding of mixing processes, leading directly to matching initial conditions in reservoir engineering.

[0053] Quantitative assessment of RFG modeling results thus, may effectively provide a gapless integration of subsurface modeling from basin scale to one structure and from geological to production times. Doing so may allow for a new level of understanding of geological processes and enable new contiguous workflows between different domains. It will also be appreciated, however, that an RFG simulation may be run in some examples that do not form part of the present invention, without data from a basin model, and further, in some examples that do not form part of the present invention the output generated from an RFG simulation may not be explicitly generated for use with reservoir or other upstream modeling, e.g., just for calibration purposes, such as calibration of fluid gradients.

[0054] RFG modeling differs from basin modeling in that RFG modeling may generally focus on a reservoir. Source rocks below a reservoir and overburden above a reservoir may not be included into an RFG model as the impact on RFG simulation would generally be minimal but the added complexity may be significant. Additionally, RFG timescales may, in some embodiments, incorporate substantially continuous feeding of an RFG model with hydrocarbons from a source rock from below, and thus may overlap with basin model timescales.

[0055] In addition, while three-dimensional modeling is discussed herein, RFG modeling may be in two dimensions, e.g., in vertical sections, i.e., with a single lateral dimension. Further, two- and three-dimensional modeling may be utilized in connection with the same integrated subsurface modeling described herein.

[0056] Fig. 6, for example, illustrates a simulation environment 400 suitable for generating and using an RFG model 402 and RFG simulator 404 consistent with an example that does not form part of the present invention. It will be appreciated that development of a model and simulator therefor generally incorporates modeling various workflows that may be subdivided into three parts: acquisition and setup of input data, simulation, and output data analysis.

[0057] For RFG model 402, input may include basin data from a basin model 406 (e.g., as may be generated by a basin simulator 408), as many other data sources are generally not available for geological times. However, present day properties or data 410 may also be used in some examples and extrapolated back in geological time (e.g., using an extrapolation module 414) to generate a set of extrapolated properties 414 in case that some or all of the data, e.g. rock composition and properties, may not have changed dramatically over the modeling time range. As represented by convolution module 416, data from different sources may also be convoluted to one data set, e.g. mapped geological formation surfaces may be taken from basin model 406 and corresponding formation rock properties may be refined on the basis of seismic data and its interpretation from extrapolated properties 414. Thus, various data sources may be used for generating an RFG model 402 in different examples, e.g., basin models, seismic surveys with interpretation, well data (e.g. well logs), magnetic data, gravity, measurement data (e.g., from downhole fluid analysis), etc.

[0058] It will be appreciated that a model may be represented as any number of different types of gridded data sets, otherwise referred to herein as spatial arrays, so an RFG model may be configured in some examples to be similar to a basin model or a reservoir model, and represented at least in part as a two- or three-dimensional spatial array. The number of grid points or array elements may be similar, but due to the intermediate size between basin and reservoir models, "rough" basin modeling input data may also be refined by a refinement module 418 to allow for processing at a finer resolution than provided natively by a basin model (i.e., the basin model is at a coarser resolution than that used for RFG modeling). Such refinement may include various interpolation techniques to effectively generate an upsampled representation of at least a portion of the basin model.

[0059] In general, input data for RFG model 402 may include at least subsurface maps of geological formations, and in some instances, faults describing discontinuities between formations may also be provided as additional input to describe the overall geometry of a subsurface region. Additionally, rock properties describing the volumes between mapped surfaces and faults may be used, such as rock type (e.g., sandstone, shale, salt, limestone, etc.), porosity, shale content, etc. Fault properties, e.g., shale gouge content, may also be used.

[0060] In addition, generally the modeled region for RFG model 402 may be a cut-out of a larger environment, typically within a geological basin, and cut-out may be performed, for example, using refinement model 418. For modeling processes within RFG model 402 by RFG simulator 404, in and outflow of energy and / or fluid (water, hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbons such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.), masses, pressures and / or mechanical constraints (e.g., outer stresses from tectonics), may also be used as input data. These values represent boundary data for the RFG simulation and may be retrieved from a basin model in some examples or may be estimated from general geological considerations. In addition, in some instances, hydrocarbon inflow, which may come from a source rock from below, may be provided from a basin model or other data source.

[0061] RFG simulator 404 may use RFG model 402 to model the evolution of mass and energy distributions, which may be described best as differential equations derived from local mass and energy conservation combined with disequilibrium forces of quantities which, according to physics, try to equilibrate. For example, diffusion flux equilibrates concentration gradients or heat flow temperature. Due to the intermediate size and timescale of the RFG model between basin and reservoir models, the processes, which are modeled, may differ from the established methods used for these other modeling techniques.

[0062] Simulations may be performed as forward modeling in time on a grid, similar as simulations performed by basin or reservoir simulators. The corresponding differential equations may approximately be solved with numerical approaches such as Finite Elements, Finite Control Volumes, Finite Differences or any combinations hereof.

[0063] As the RFG grid resolution is finer and the length scales smaller than in a basin model, it may be possible in some examples and, in embodiments of the invention, to realistically model varying fluid compositions within a reservoir or an accumulation but on geological timescales. Doing so may allow for the incorporation of modeling processes in RFG simulator 404 that are currently out of scope of existing tools. In some examples and in embodiments of the invention, for example, a grid resolution finer than about 100 m, e.g., between about 1 and about 100 m, may be used, and a geological timescale of greater than about 100 years, e.g., between about 100 and about 100 million years, may be used.

[0064] In various examples and in embodiments of the invention, RFG simulator 404 may model any combination of the following processes: diffusion of fluid compounds, e.g. compositional grading; fluid phase separation (PVT); separate phase flow, e.g. Darcy flow; biodegradation and biological sulfate reduction; secondary chemical cracking of oil; asphaltene flocculation; tar mat formation; pressure, temperature and stress variations; gas hydrates (fluid solid phase separation); flow baffling up to compartmentalization; thermochemical sulfate reduction; rock compaction, fracturing and rock failure; fluid rock interactions, e.g. cementation, dolomitization, smectite to illite transformations; magmatic intrusions, e.g. heat impact; ground water flow; convection; CO 2 sequestration; and / or impact of nuclear waste disposal on the geological environment, e.g. diffusion of radioactive compounds.

[0065] Moreover, in some examples and in embodiments of the invention, multiple of the aforementioned processes may be modeled in the same model and simulation, and in some embodiments, the combination or interaction of these multiple processes may be modeled. Further, in some examples and in embodiments of the invention, which of multiple processes is modeled may be configurable, thereby providing for substantial flexibility in a simulation. It will be appreciated that the implementation of simulation of the aforementioned processes and the relative interaction therebetween in a grid would be well within the abilities of one of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the instant disclosure.

[0066] An RFG simulation by RFG simulator 404 results in the generation of an RFG data set 420. One target of RFG simulation may be a qualitative insight into the geological environment and the prediction of hydrocarbon related properties within and with its geological environment in the region of study combined with a quantitative assessment, especially of hydrocarbon amounts accessible for production.

[0067] Resulting fluid distributions generated by RFG simulator 404 may also be used for calibration purposes, e.g., by a calibration module 422, which compares simulated fluid distributions with measurement data 424, e.g. fluid samples from downhole fluid analysis (DFA). In case of not matching measurement data with a sufficient degree of accuracy, uncertain model parameters may be adjusted to achieve a better match after re-running the simulation. A calibration workflow may allow for adjusting the RFG model iteratively, achieving high accuracy for matching available data and thus potentially enhancing the predictive capability in regions with sparse data. Further, calibration may also be used to calibrate or otherwise update basin model 406. A separate calibration loop for basin model 406, similar to that for RFG model 402, may also be supported in some examples.

[0068] RFG data set 420 may be visualized and / or otherwise managed, e.g., using a visualization module 426 that enables output data to be visualized and used for further analysis. RFG data set 420 may also be used to populate a reservoir model with data, depending upon the geological environment, and in particular the initial distribution of hydrocarbon compounds in spatial high resolution prior to production modeling. As such, RFG data set 420 may be provided to a reservoir simulator 428 in some examples that do not form part of the invention . Additionally, flow baffles may be discovered and production rate predictions from reservoir simulation may resultantly become more accurate.

[0069] Some examples and embodiments of the invention therefore may provide modeling to be performed with arbitrary geometries and a non-trivial distribution of rock properties in an inhomogeneous geological environment. Further, some examples and embodiments of the invention may also provide an ability to refine models and to continuously incorporate more data from different data sources to achieve more accuracy and thus continuously improve geological analysis. Further, running an RFG simulator with data from a calibrated basin model and using the output for setting up a reservoir model for production will allow for workflows covering geological time and length scales from basin size to field size and from geological times to production times.

[0070] Now turning to Fig. 7, while an RFG model may be maintained separate from basin and / or reservoir models in examples that do not form part of the present invention , in embodiments of the invention , such as illustrated by simulation environment 400', an RFG model 402 is integrated into an integrated database, referred to herein as an integrated subsurface model 430. Integrated subsurface model includes a collection of data representative of a subsurface volume, including data relevant to basin, RFG and reservoir simulation. To support the use of integrated subsurface model 430 by each of basin simulator 408, RFG simulator 404 and reservoir simulator 428, a conversion module 432 is used to extract from integrated subsurface model 430 appropriate data for generating a simulator-specific model (e.g., RFG model 402, basin model 402, or a reservoir model 434) suitable for use with the particular RFG, basin and reservoir simulator 404, 408, 428. The extracted model represents a cut-out of the overall modeled subsurface formation and may be bounded by a timescale in some embodiments. Conversion module 432 may also include functionality for upsampling and / or downsampling data to accommodate the simulation grid used by the respective simulator 404, 408, 428. In addition, complementary functionality is provided in conversion module 432 to incorporate simulation results from each simulator 404, 408, 428 into integrated subsurface model 430.

[0071] Integrated subsurface model 430 may further be accessible by a visualization module 436 suitable for visualizing and otherwise analyzing and managing the model. Visualization may also be supported separately within each simulator in some embodiments.

[0072] In embodiments of the invention, an integrated subsurface model is used to maintain basin data from a basin model, RFG data from an RFG model and upstream data usable in a finer resolution and shorter timescale upstream simulation, e.g., a reservoir simulation. The same overall dataset is used to run basin, RFG and / or upstream simulations, with upsampling, downsampling, refinement, cut-out, extraction, interpolation and / or other processing techniques used to maintain data within the integrated subsurface model and effectively convert that data on-demand to appropriate resolutions and / or formats for use with different types of simulations. Such embodiments therefore enable basin, RFG and upstream simulations to be run sequentially or in different orders, with later simulations incorporating the result data generated by earlier simulations.

[0073] According to the invention the integrated subsurface model is maintained within a database or other accessible storage and integrates basin data generated from basin simulation, RFG data generated from RFG simulation, and reservoir data generated from reservoir simulation. Basin, RFG and upstream simulation are performed sequentially, with each simulation relying on a simulation-specific model extracted from the integrated subsurface model and refined or otherwise formatted with data appropriately formatted for a desired spatial resolution for a particular simulation, and further with simulation-specific models being based at least in part on result data generated from earlier simulation. Thus, a basin model is built from the integrated subsurface model, the basin model is provided for use in a basin simulation at a first spatial resolution and over a first geological timescale, first result data from the basin simulation is stored back into the integrated subsurface model, an RFG model is built from the integrated subsurface model by refining the first result data from the basin simulation to a second spatial resolution that is finer than the first spatial resolution, the RFG model is provided for use in an RFG simulation at the second spatial resolution and over a second geological timescale that is shorter than the first geological timescale; second result data from the RFG simulation is stored back in the integrated subsurface model, and an upstream model is built from the integrated subsurface model by refining the second result data from the RFG simulation to a third spatial resolution that is finer than the second spatial resolution. The upstream model is then provided for use in an upstream simulation at the third spatial resolution and over a development or production timescale that is shorter than the second geological timescale, such that third result data from the upstream simulation is stored back into the integrated subsurface model.

[0074] Now turning to Figs. 8-11 various workflows for use in connection with an RFG model are described in greater detail. The workflows are fully computer-implemented and automated Furthermore, the workflows are premised on the use of an integrated subsurface model such as illustrated in Fig. 7.

[0075] Fig. 8, for example, illustrates a sequence of operations 450 for preparing input for an RFG simulation by RFG simulator 404. First, in blocks 452 and 454, a region of interest is selected and cut out of the integrated subsurface model and the cut out region of interest is refined to the desired scale for the RFG simulation, e.g., using refinement module 418 of Fig. 6. Next, in block 456, present day data is accessed and extrapolated over geological time (e.g., using extrapolation module 412 of Fig. 6) to scale the present day properties to the spatial resolution and timescale to be used for the RFG simulation. Next, the cut out data and the extrapolated data are convoluted into a single data set, e.g., using convolution module 416 of Fig. 6. In addition, boundary data for the cut out region may also be set up in block 460, e.g., in and outflow of energy and fluid such as hydrocarbons and water.

[0076] Fig. 9 illustrates a sequence of operations 470 for running an RFG simulation, e.g., using RFG simulator 404 of Fig. 6. In block 472, a timescale and resolution is applied to configure the duration of time and the resolution to use for the simulation. Next, block 474 forward models one or more processes 476 in time. In some embodiments, block 474 may be parallelized such that a plurality of processes are modeled in parallel, and in some instances, such that the combination or interaction of these processes may also be modeled (as represented by the arrows between blocks 476). Various techniques for parallelizing simulations and accounting for the interaction of different concurrently-modeled processes will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the instant disclosure. Once the simulation is complete, results are output to the integrated subsurface model in block 478, e.g., using conversion module 432 of Fig. 7.

[0077] Fig. 10 illustrates a sequence of operations 480 for calibrating an RFG model, and begins in block 482 by measurement data, e.g., DFA data. Block 484 then accesses fluid distribution data from the RFG model, and block 486 performs a comparison between this data, e.g., using various model validation techniques that will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art. Based upon this comparison, block 488 determines if the model is acceptable, i.e., is sufficiently accurate given the actual measurement data. If so, the sequence of operations is complete. If not, control passes to block 490 to tune the RFG model, e.g., using various tuning techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art such as adjusting uncertain parameters. The simulation is then rerun and control returns to block 484 to re-access the fluid distribution data corresponding to the rerun simulation. Thus, calibration may be performed in an iterative manner until the model has been sufficient tuned to match the actual measurement data.

[0078] Fig. 11 next illustrates a sequence of operations 500 for performing an upstream simulation using an RFG model. In this example, the upstream simulation is a reservoir simulation, although it will be appreciated that other types of simulations may be performed using data from the RFG model. Block 502 first selects a region of interest cuts the selected region out of the integrated subsurface model. In addition, the cut out region of interest may also be refined to the desired scale for the upstream simulation, if appropriate. Next, block 504 applies the timescale and resolution for the simulation, and then in block 406 the simulation is run and in block 508 the results of the simulation are output to the integrated subsurface model, and to a separate simulation output or to a visualization module for display and analysis. Further, as illustrated in block 510, the results of the simulation are used in the performance of an oilfield operation, e.g., to drill a well, determine a field development plan, to configure a surface network, to control a production and / or injection well, etc.

[0079] Fig. 12 illustrates another implementation of an integrated simulation environment 520 suitable for implementing the various techniques disclosed herein in a data processing system such as data processing system 10 of Fig. 1. In this environment, an integrated simulation platform 522 supports basin, RFG and upstream (e.g., reservoir) simulation 524, 526, 528 based upon integrated subsurface data maintained by platform 522. A data module 530 may be used to manage the integrated subsurface data in platform 522, with a refinement and extrapolation module 532 providing for refinement and / or extrapolation of the data, and a visualization module 534 providing for generation of data visualizations from the data in platform 522. Thus, in this embodiment, subsurface formation data, which may include measurement data, rock properties, subsurface maps, fault maps, and any of other types of data discussed above, may be accessed for the purpose of running simulations in each of a basin, RFG, and upstream (e.g., reservoir, surface network, production, etc.) context.

[0080] Although the preceding description has been described herein with reference to particular means, materials, and embodiments, it is not intended to be limited to the particular disclosed herein. By way of further example, embodiments may be utilized in conjunction with a handheld system (i.e., a phone, wrist or forearm mounted computer, tablet, or other handheld device), portable system (i.e., a laptop or portable computing system), a fixed computing system (i.e., a desktop, server, cluster, or high performance computing system), or across a network (i.e., a cloud-based system). As such, embodiments extend to all functionally equivalent structures, methods, uses, program products, and compositions as are within the scope of the appended claims It will therefore be appreciated by those skilled in the art that yet other modifications could be made without deviating from the scope of the invention as defined in the claims

Claims

1. A method of modeling a subsurface formation, the method comprising the following steps executed by a computer processor: maintaining, within an integrated subsurface model (430) in a computer storage device, a collection of data representative of the subsurface formation; extracting appropriate data from the integrated subsurface model (430) to generate a basin model (406) suitable for use with a basin simulator (408), wherein the basin model (406) is organized as a spatial array having a first spatial resolution; running a basin simulation (408) using the basin model (406) to generate first result data at a first geological timescale; storing the first result data in the integrated subsurface model (430) in the computer storage device; extracting and refining (452, 454) a portion of the first result data to generate a Reservoir Fluid Geodynamics (RFG) model (402) of the subsurface formation, wherein the RFG model (402) is organized as a spatial array having a second spatial resolution that is finer than the first spatial resolution, wherein refining the portion of the first result data comprises: interpolating said portion of the first result data to generate data at said second spatial resolution; accessing present day properties (410) of the subsurface formation, the present day properties including rock composition and / or rock properties generated from seismic data and / or well data; and extrapolating said present day properties over the first geological timescale; running (470) an RFG simulation (404) using the refined portion of the first result data at the second spatial resolution and over a second geological timescale that is shorter than the first to generate second result data; storing (478) the second result data in the integrated subsurface model (430) in the computer storage device; extracting and refining (502, 504) a portion of the second result data to generate an upstream model (434), wherein the upstream model (434) is organized as a spatial array having a third spatial resolution that is finer than the second spatial resolution; running (506) an upstream simulation (428) using the refined portion of the second result data at the third spatial resolution and over a development or production timescale that is shorter than the second geological timescale to generate third result data; storing (508) the third result data in the integrated subsurface model (430) in the computer storage device; and outputting the third result data for use in performing an oilfield operation, the oilfield operation comprising one or more of: drilling a well, configuring a surface network and controlling a production and / or an injection well; the method being characterized in that the refining the portion of the first result data further includes convoluting the extracted portion of the first result data with the extrapolated present day properties to generate the refined RFG model.

2. The method of claim 1, further including simulating reservoir diffusion in the subsurface formation at the second spatial resolution but not at the first spatial resolution.

3. The method of claim 1, further comprising generating (460) boundary data for the computer simulation on the RFG model (402), the boundary data including in and outflow of energy, water, hydrocarbons and / or non-hydrocarbons, masses, pressures and / or mechanical constraints.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the RFG model (402) further includes subsurface map data, fault data and rock property data describing volumes between mapped surface defined by the subsurface map data.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein running (404) the RFG simulation (404) includes forward modeling evolution of mass and energy distributions over the geological timescale and at the first spatial resolution using differential equations derived from local mass and energy conservation and disequilibrium forces of quantities that try to equilibrate.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein running (404) the RFG simulation includes modeling one or more processes, each of the one or more processes selected from the group consisting of: diffusion of fluid compounds; fluid phase separation; separate phase flow; biodegradation and biological sulfate reduction; secondary chemical cracking of oil; asphaltene flocculation; tar mat formation; pressure, temperature and stress variations; gas hydrates; flow baffling up to compartmentalization; thermochemical sulfate reduction; rock compaction, fracturing and rock failure; fluid rock interactions; magmatic intrusions; ground water flow; convection; CO2 sequestration; and diffusion of radioactive compounds.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein running (404) the RFG simulation includes modeling a plurality of geological processes and modeling an interaction of at least two of the plurality of geological processes.

8. The method of claim 1, further comprising calibrating (422) the RFG model (402) by comparing simulated fluid distributions generated by running the RFG simulation (404) with downhole fluid analysis (DFA) measurement data and iteratively tuning the RFG model based upon the comparison.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the upstream model comprises a reservoir model (434), and further comprising populating the reservoir model (434) with an initial distribution of hydrocarbon compounds generated from running (404) the RFG simulation (408).

10. The method of claim 1, further comprising performing an oilfield operation based on the third result data (508).

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the second spatial resolution is finer than about 100 meters, and wherein the second geological timescale is greater than about 100 years.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the second spatial resolution is between about 1 and about 100 meters, and wherein the second timescale is between about 100 and about 100 million years.

13. An apparatus, comprising: one or more controllers for actuating mechanisms at an oilfield; at least one processing unit (16); a non-transitory computer-readable medium; and program code stored on the non-transitory computer-readable medium configured upon execution by the at least one processing unit (16) to model a subsurface formation and actuate the one or more controllers according to the method of any preceding claim.