Cholinergic immunotherapy for the treatment of liver cancer
Patent Information
- Authority / Receiving Office
- EP · EP
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG
- Filing Date
- 2024-06-17
- Publication Date
- 2026-04-22
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Figure PCTCN2024099579-FTAPPB-I100001 
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Figure PCTCN2024099579-FTAPPB-I100003
Abstract
Description
CHOLINERGIC IMMUNOTHERAPY FOR THE TREATMENT OF LIVER CANCER
[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0002] This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 521,663, filed June 17, 2023. Application No. 63 / 521,663, filed June 17, 2023, is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
[0003] REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING
[0004] The Sequence Listing XML submitted as a file named “UHK_01385_PCT_ST26, ” created on June 13, 2024, and having a size of 61, 389 bytes is hereby incorporated by reference pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.834 (c) (1) .FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0005] The present invention generally relates to cancer immunosurveillance technology. More specifically, the present invention relates to tumor-specific cholinergic T lymphocytes guide immunosurveillance of liver cancer.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0006] Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver malignancy in humans and the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Risk factors for HCC include infection with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) , excessive alcohol consumption, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and aflatoxins. These extrinsic risk factors cause chronic hepatitis which cooperates with intrinsic factors, particularly the progressive accumulation of certain genetic mutations, to drive aggravated inflammation and inflict oxidative stress and DNA damage on hepatocytes, setting the stage for HCC development.
[0007] The immune system plays a dual role in liver cancer. Although it can sense and eliminate preneoplastic and malignant hepatocytes, it can also promote the selection of tumor cells and favor cancer progression in situations of chronic inflammation or immunosuppression. This duality renders current immunotherapies that target immune checkpoints suboptimal for the treatment of liver cancer. Further exploration of the molecular determinants of immune responses in liver cancer is necessary to understand HCC biology and guide the design of novel, more effective therapeutic strategies.
[0008] The nervous system is involved in the development of cancer in multiple tissues. For example, cholinergic fibers infiltrate prostate tumors, promoting their invasion and metastasis. As well, vagal innervation promotes gastric tumorigenesis through the muscarinic acetylcholine M3 receptor. Extensive efforts have been directed at delineating the anatomical, molecular, and functional aspects of neuronal regulation in the liver. Despite some discrepancies among studies, sympathetic and parasympathetic neural markers have been detected in regions of the hepatic artery, portal vein and bile ducts in the majority of species investigated. However, the liver parenchyma of rodents and humans appear to be devoid of vagal or cholinergic innervation as analyzed by immunochemistry, retrograde tracing and advanced 3D imaging. Thus, whether and how cholinergic signaling plays a role in HCC regulation remains an open question.
[0009] Any discussion of documents, acts, materials, devices, articles or the like which has been included in the present specification is not to be taken as an admission that any or all of these matters form part of the prior art base or were common general knowledge in the field relevant to the present disclosure as it existed before the priority date of each claim of this application.
[0010] Throughout this specification the word “comprise, ” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising, ” will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps.
[0011] BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0012] It has been discovered that subpopulations of CD4+ T cells expressing choline acetyltransferase (Chat) , the rate-limiting enzyme governing acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis, are induced during the development of liver cancer in mice. Importantly, it was discovered that genetic ablation of Chat in T cells impairs HCC immunosurveillance. Examination of data from human HCC samples revealed parallels to the mouse findings. The results demonstrate a novel aspect of the regulation of cancer immunosurveillance by an immune cell-derived neurotransmitter and shed light on its role in supporting cells mounting anti-tumor responses.
[0013] Disclosed are methods of treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a subject in need thereof. Generally, the methods involve treating the subject with a therapy effective to increase the level of acetylcholine in T cells.
[0014] In some forms, the therapy increases choline acetyltransferase (Chat) expression in T cells. In some forms, the therapy increases the activity choline acetyltransferase (Chat) in T cells. In some forms, the therapy comprises administering to the subject a Chat agonist. In some forms, the therapy comprises administering to the subject a cholinergic agonist (e.g., cevimeline, carbamoylcholine, bethanechol, arecoline, acetylcholine) . In some forms, the cholinergic agonist is a muscarinic cholinergic agonist (e.g., cevimeline, carbamoylcholine, bethanechol) .
[0015] In some forms, the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) expression in T cells. In some forms, the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in T cells (e.g., tacrine, galantamine, pyridostigmine, donepezil, rivastigmine) . In some forms, the therapy increases the population of Chat-expressing T cells in the subject.
[0016] In some forms, the therapy increases the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject. In some forms, increasing the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject comprises infusing into the subject autogeneic cholinergic T cells. In some forms, the autogeneic cholinergic T cells were developed ex vivo into cholinergic T cells from allogenic T cells.
[0017] In some forms, the method further comprises determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.
[0018] In some forms, the method further comprises treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.
[0019] In some forms, the methods involve determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject and then treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is high or refraining from treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is low.
[0020] Additional advantages of the disclosed method and compositions will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be understood from the description, or can be learned by practice of the disclosed method and compositions. The advantages of the disclosed method and compositions will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0021] The accompanying drawings illustrate several embodiments of the disclosed method and compositions and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosed method and compositions.
[0022] Figures 1A-1D show immunosurveillance is present in CRISPR-and transposon-induced hepatocellular carcinoma in mice. Figure 1A: Schematic diagrams of the plasmids used to induce (top) CRISPR / Cas9-mediated deletion of Trp53 and Pten, and (bottom) transposon-mediated overexpression of Myc in mouse livers. Arrowheads indicate tumor nodules. Figure 1B: Distribution of immunostained liver tumor nodules from the histological sections of tumor-burdened livers immunostained to detect MYC, P53 and PTEN. Numbers of tumor nodules with the indicated immunostaining patterns are labeled in the pie plot, which is a summary of two independent experiments. Sections were resected from 3 mice / group on day 25 of HCC induction. Figure 1C: Representative flow cytometry results showing changes in the percentages of the indicated immune cell populations during the development of liver cancer in mice. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Significance was assessed by unpaired, two-tailed t-test; *p<0.05 and **p<0.01, representative of three independent experiments. Control group received transposase vector only. Histological sections from HCC-bearing livers were immunostained to detect MYC or CD3 in areas of either preneoplastic cells or HCCs (data not shown) . Figure 1D: Survival of immunodeficient (NSG) and control WT mice (n=10 / group) following injection of Trp53 / Pten CRISPR and Myc overexpression plasmids to induce HCC development. p=0.001 by log-rank test.
[0023] Figures 2A-2E show Chat-expressing T cells are induced during HCC development. Figure 2A: Representative flow cytometry results of GFP expression in the indicated T cell subsets during HCC progression in Chat-GFP reporter mice. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test, representative of three independent experiments. Figures 2B and 2C: The transcriptional landscape of Chat-GFP+and Chat-GFP-CD4+ T cells in livers from control and HCC mice. UMAP representation of total hepatic CD4+ T cells (Figure 2B) , and split according to GFP expression and HCC conditions (Figure 2C) , based on scRNAseq analysis. Chat-GFP+ and Chat-GFP-CD4+ T cells were sorted from 4 HCC mice and 4 control mice. Cells from each mouse were stained with unique barcoded antibodies. Figure 2D: Bubble plot comparing expression of Chat and the indicated marker genes across the 11 clusters in Figures 2B and 2C. Figure 2E: Heatmap depicting the relative expression of the indicated genes in cluster C3 (Cxcr6+Pdcd1+) and cluster C7 (Cxcr6+Pdcd1-) .
[0024] Figures 3A-3E show tregs and PD-1+CD4+ T cells are over-represented among HCC-induced Chat-expressing T cells. Figures 3A-3C: Representative flow results of the percentages of the indicated CD4+ T cell subsets expressing Foxp3 and / or GFP in livers that were isolated on the indicated days from control or HCC-bearing Chat-GFP reporter mice. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test, representative of three independent experiments. Figures 3C and 3D: Representative flow cytometric results of the percentages of the indicated CD4+ T cell subsets expressing PD-1 and / or GFP in livers from the control (n=5) or HCC-bearing (n=7) Chat-GFP reporter mice. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test, summary of three independent experiments. Figure 3E: Quantitation of flow cytometric determination of Ki67 expression in Chat-GFP+ and Chat-GFP-Tconvs (Foxp3-) and Tregs (Foxp3+) in livers from HCC-bearing Chat-GFP mice. Each set of dots represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by paired two-tailed t-tests, representative of three independent experiments.
[0025] Figures 4A-4J show accumulation of Chat-expressing CD4+ T cells in HCC-bearing liver is coupled with clonal expansion and driven by tumor antigens. Figures 4A and 4B: Circos plots showing the distribution of TCR types among GFP+ and GFP-T cells from control (a) and HCC-bearing (b) mice. T cells of the same TCR type are those sharing the same TCR-α chain and TCR-β chain in amino acid sequences. The top 30 TCRs are numbered and highlighted with different colors. Figure 4C: CDR3 sequences of clonotypes encoding TCR #1.
[0026] TCR-β CDR3 of TCR #1 nucleotide sequence of Clone 1 is SEQ ID NO: 1; Clone 3 is SEQ ID NO: 2; Clone 5 is SEQ ID NO: 3; Clone 10 is SEQ ID NO: 4; Clone 14 is SEQ ID NO: 5; Clone 21 is SEQ ID NO: 6; Clone 22 is SEQ ID NO: 7; Clone 25 is SEQ ID NO: 8; Clone 32 is SEQ ID NO: 9; Clone 42 is SEQ ID NO: 10; Clone 49 is SEQ ID NO: 11; Clone 54 is SEQ ID NO: 12; Clone 63 is SEQ ID NO: 13; Clone 64 is SEQ ID NO: 14; Clone 83 is SEQ ID NO: 15; Clone 124 is SEQ ID NO: 16; Clone 133 is SEQ ID NO: 17; Clone 134 is SEQ ID NO: 18; Clone 140 is SEQ ID NO: 19; Clone 209 is SEQ ID NO: 20; Clone 222 is SEQ ID NO: 21; Clone 248 is SEQ ID NO: 22; Clone 266 is SEQ ID NO: 23; Clone 461 is SEQ ID NO: 24; and Clone 862 is SEQ ID NO: 25.
[0027] TCR-α CDR3 of TCR #1 nucleotide sequence of Clone 1 is SEQ ID NO: 42; Clone 3 is SEQ ID NO: 43; Clone 5 is SEQ ID NO: 44; Clone 10 is SEQ ID NO: 45; Clone 14 is SEQ ID NO: 46; Clone 21 is SEQ ID NO: 47; Clone 22 is SEQ ID NO: 48; Clone 25 is SEQ ID NO: 49; Clone 32 is SEQ ID NO: 50; Clone 42 is SEQ ID NO: 51; Clone 49 is SEQ ID NO: 52; Clone 54 is SEQ ID NO: 53; Clone 63 is SEQ ID NO: 54; Clone 64 is SEQ ID NO: 55; Clone 83 is SEQ ID NO: 56; Clone 124 is SEQ ID NO: 57; Clone 133 is SEQ ID NO: 58; Clone 134 is SEQ ID NO: 59; Clone 140 is SEQ ID NO: 60; Clone 209 is SEQ ID NO: 61; Clone 222 is SEQ ID NO: 62; Clone 248 is SEQ ID NO: 63; Clone 266 is SEQ ID NO: 64; Clone 461 is SEQ ID NO: 65; and Clone 862 is SEQ ID NO: 66.
[0028] TCR-β CDR3 of TCR #1 amino acid sequence is Ala Ser Ser Leu Asp Arg Gly Gln Asp Thr Gln Tyr (SEQ ID NO: 67) . TCR-α CDR3 of TCR #1 amino acid sequence is Ile Leu Arg Gly Thr Gly Gly Asn Asn Lys Leu Thr (SEQ ID NO: 68) .
[0029] Figure 4D: The composition of Chat-GFP+ and Chat-GFP-cells in the indicated T cell clonotypes of TCR #1, color-coded by cell clusters. Each bar represents an individual clonotype and is labeled with the Clone ID as shown in (c) . Horizontal axis labels indicate cell numbers. Figure 4E: Percentages of Chat-GFP+ cells among CD4+ T cells isolated from normal or HCC-bearing livers of uninjected control or plasmids-injected Chat-GFP mice or Chat-GFP; OT-II mice. Each dot represents an individual animal. Statistical significance was assessed using one-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons test, representative of three independent experiments. Figures 4F and 4G: Representative flow cytometry plots (Figure 4F) and quantification (Figure 4G) of the percentages of Chat-GFP+ cells in CD4+ T cells expressing TCR vβ5+ (transgenic TCR) or TCR vβ5- (natural TCRs) in livers of Chat-GFP; OT-II mice. In (g) , each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by two-way ANOVA with Sidak's multiple comparisons test. Figure 4H: Schematic diagrams of the plasmids used to induce simultaneous CRISPR / Cas9-mediated deletion of Trp53 and Pten plus overexpression of Myc and Tet-On inducible OVA. Figure 4I: Schematic diagram of the experimental protocol used to induce OVA expression. Doxycycline (Dox) was added to mouse drinking water following palpable HCC onset. Figure 4J: Representative flow cytometry results of the percentages of Chat-GFP+ cells among CD4+ T cells expressing TCR vβ5+ (transgenic TCR) or TCR vβ5- (natural TCRs) in livers of mice that were left untreated or treated with Dox-containing drinking water following HCC onset. Each dot represents an individual mouse, summary of two independent experiments. P values were determined by two-way ANOVA with Sidak's multiple comparisons test.
[0030] Figures 5A-5L show ablation of Chat in T cells inhibits the immunosurveillance of liver cancer in mice. Figure 5A: Curves showing (left, black lines) latency to palpable HCC development, and (right, grey lines) survival to humane endpoint, of Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice following induction of HCC. P values were determined by Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test, representative of two independent experiments. Figures 5B-5D: Representative numbers of tumor nodules (Figure 5B) , liver weights (Figure 5C) and ratios of liver weight to body weight (Figure 5D) of Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on day 35 of standard HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse, representative of five independent experiments. Figure 5E: Representative quantification of tumor incidence in mice fed for 15 months on a Western diet (WD) . P values were determined by Fisher's exact test. Figure 5F: Representative results of immunostaining to detect MYC+ preneoplastic cells in non-tumor areas of liver sections from the mice in (b-e) . Each dot represents an individual mouse. Inset box in (h) shows a higher magnification view of the smaller boxed area. Arrowheads, immune cell clusters. Figures 5G and 5H: Quantification of the number (Figure 5G) and size (Figure 5H) of immune cell clusters in H&E-stained sections of livers from the mice in Figures 5B-5D. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figure 5I: Percentage of CD3+ T cells among mononuclear cells (MNCs) isolated from HCC-bearing livers from Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice as assessed by flow cytometry, representative of three independent experiments. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figures 5J and 5K: Representative flow cytometry results of IFN-γ+ CD4+ T cells (Figure 5J) and IL-17A+ CD4+ T cells (Figure 5K) in HCC-bearing livers, representative of two independent experiments. In Figures 5J and 5K, each dot represents an individual mouse. Figure 5L: qPCR determination of mRNA levels (relative to Actb) of the indicated cytotoxicity genes and NK cell marker genes in HCC-bearing livers. Each dot represents an individual mouse, representative of two independent experiments. For Figures 5B-5D, 5F-5I, and 5J-5L, p values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test.
[0031] Figures 6A-6G show T cell-specific loss of Chat causes alterations to Tregs that are linked to compromised anti-tumor immunity. Figures 6A and 6B: Representative flow cytometry results of the percentages of Foxp3+CD4+ T cells expressing CD25 (Figure 6A) , and the CD25 mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) (Figure 6B) in HCC-bearing livers from Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on day 35 of HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test, representative of two independent experiments. Figure 6C: Schematic diagram of the experimental protocol used to deplete CD25-expressing Tregs in vivo in Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice subjected to HCC induction starting on day 0. Figure 6D: Representative quantification of numbers of tumor nodules / mm2 in histological images of H&E-stained sections of livers from Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice treated as in Figure 6C. Each dot represents an individual mouse. The “X” symbols indicate animals who reached humane endpoint prior to Day 20. *p<0.05 by two-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons test. Figure 6E: Schematic diagram of the experimental protocol used to deplete CD4+ T cells and NK cells in vivo in Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice subjected to HCC induction starting on day 0. Each mouse received with 100 μg depleting antibodies per injection. The mice in control group received either 100 μg rat IgG (n=7) or PBS (n=8) . Figures 6F and 6G: Quantification of numbers of tumor nodules / mm2 in H&E-stained sections (Figure 6F) , and ratios of liver weight to body weight (Figure 6G) , of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice treated as in Figure 6E. “X” symbols indicate animals who reached humane endpoint prior to Day 20. P values in Figure 6F were determined by paired two-tailed t-tests. P values in Figure 6G were determined by the Mann-Whitney test because the Chatfl / flgroup didn’t pass the normality test.
[0032] Figures 7A-7E show PD-1 inhibitory activity is unleashed in the absence of Chat in T cells in HCC. Figures 7A and 7B: Representative flow cytometry histogram overlay plot (Figure 7A) and quantification of the percentages of Foxp3-CD4+ conventional T cells expressing PD-1 (Figure 7B) in HCC-bearing livers from Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. P value was determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Figure 7C: Correlation of PD-1 expression in conventional T cells with HCC grade in Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. HCC grade is represented by the ratio of liver weight (LW) to body weight (BW) . r, Pearson correlation coefficient. Figure 7D: Schematic diagram of the experimental protocol used for PD-1 blockade in vivo in Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice subjected to standard HCC induction. Figure 7E: Representative quantification of numbers of tumor nodules / mm2 in histological images of H&E-stained sections of livers from Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice treated as in Figure 7D. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by two-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons test.
[0033] Figures 8A-8F show TCR-induced Ca2+ / NFAT signaling is restrained by cholinergic activity in T cells. Figures 8A-8C: Representative overlaid kinetics plot of flow cytometry curves (Figure 8A) ; quantification of Ca2+ influx peaks (Figure 8B) ; and “area under curve” (AUC) (Figure 8C) , for the calcium flux in Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre CD4+ T cells. Purified pan-CD4+ T cells were loaded with 1 μM Indo-1 calcium indicators, stained with 1 μg / ml hamster anti-CD3 (clone 145-2C11) , and stimulated with 10 μg / ml anti-hamster antibody to achieve CD3 ligation at the indicated time point. CD4+CD44-CD62L+ T cells were gated for the analysis. In Figures 8B and 8C, each dot represents T cells from an individual mouse. The Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre littermates of different sexes and ages were paired for analysis, with at least two measurements taken for each mouse. P values were determined by paired, two-tailed t-test, summary of two independent experiments.
[0034] Figure 8D: Representative results of NFAT immunofluorescent staining of CD4+ T cells purified from spleens of Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. CD4+ T cells were stimulated with or without 100 μM of the indicated cholinergic agonist for 15 min and activated with anti-CD3 / 28 microbeads for another 15 min at a 1: 1 cell-to-bead ratio. Ratios of nuclear NFAT to cytoplasmic NFAT are statistically compared in Figure 8E. P values were determined by one-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons test, representative of two independent experiments. Figure 8E: qPCR determination of mRNA levels (relative to Actb) of the indicated alpha nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (Chrna1-Chrna9) and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (Chrm1-Chrm5) genes in Tconv and Treg CD4+ T cells sorted from the livers of HCC-bearing Foxp3-YFP mice (n=4) , representative of three independent experiments. Figure 8F: Schematic diagram summarizing the work in this study and the model of Chat function in T cells as supported by the data. In wild type mice, HCC antigen induces the expression of Chat in T cells. Autocrine / paracrine cholinergic signaling by Chat-expressing T cells influences T cell calcium homeostasis and regulates TCR-induced calcium signaling. Without such cholinergic modulation (as occurs in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice) , TCR-induced calcium signaling is hyperactivated, leading to T cell exhaustion, overexpression of PD-1 in Tconvs and CD25 in Tregs. PD-1’s inhibitory activity is unleashed and Treg-mediated suppression is enhanced, compromising anti-tumor responses mounted by NK cells and Tconvs. In the absence of Chat, HCC progression proceeds unabated.
[0035] Figures 9A-9C, which are related to Figure 1, show the immunosurveillance of murine liver cancer. Figure 9A: Schematic diagrams of the plasmids used to simultaneously induce CRISPR / Cas9-mediated deletion of Trp53 and Pten, Cre expression, and Myc overexpression in Rosa26Confetti / +reporter mice. Figure 9B: Quantification of monoclonal and polyclonal tumors expressing the indicated fluorescent markers in livers from the mice in Figure 9A. Numbers of tumor nodules expressing the indicated fluorescent marker (s) are labeled in the pie plot. Data are from examination of 113 tumor nodules in liver sections from 10 Rosa26Confetti reporter mice. Figure 9C: Percentage of OX40+ CD4+ T cells in livers on the indicated days of liver cancer development. Each dot represents an individual mouse. ***p<0.001 by unpaired, two-tailed t-test.
[0036] Figures 10A-10G, which are related to Figure 2, show Identification of cholinergic cells in liver cancer. Figure 10A: Percentage of GFP+ cells among the indicated cell subsets in livers of Chat-GFP mice at the indicated time points following HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. n.s., not significant, representative of three independent experiments. Unpaired, two-tailed t-test was performed. Figure 10C: qPCR determinations of Chat mRNA levels (relative to Actb) in hepatic mononuclear cells of Chat-GFP mice at the indicated time points following standard HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. *p<0.05, and **p<0.01 by unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Figure 10C: Expression of Foxp3 in CD4+ T cells from control and HCC-bearing livers as determined in the scRNAseq UMAP plot shown in Figure 2B. Figure 10D: Volcano plot comparing transcripts between Foxp3 mRNA-expressing cells from cluster 4 and those from cluster 9. Gene-set analysis (GSA) was performed to identify sets of differentially expressed genes. Figure 10E: Percentages of Foxp3 mRNA+ cells among Chat mRNA+ CD4+ T cells and Chat mRNA-CD4+ T cells from HCC-bearing livers as determined from scRNAseq data. Cells from each mouse were identified using antibody barcodes. Each dot represents an individual mouse. p values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Figures 10F and 10G: Violin plots showing the expression of CHAT in the indicated clusters of T cells that were isolated from tumor tissue (Figure 10F) and adjacent liver tissue (Figure 10G) of HCC patients. Data are from a published single-cell RNAseq dataset on immune cells of HCC patients (GSE140228) .
[0037] Figures 11A-11E, which are related to Figure 5, show analysis of the efficiency of vector delivery and T cell activities in HCC. Figure 11A: Representative quantification of the proportion of hepatocytes positive for the Rosa26Confetti RFP marker, in liver sections from Rosa26Confetti / +; Chatfl / fl and Rosa26Confetti / +; Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on the indicated days following plasmid injection. Each dot represents a microscopy image (images were collected from 2-4 mice / group) . Figure 11B: qPCR determination oftransposon-derived Myc mRNA expression (relative to Actb) in livers of Chatfl / fl and CD4-Cre; Chatfl / fl mice at the indicated time points following HCC induction. The forward primer used was within the Myc ORF, with the reverse primer in the transposon vector. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figures 11C and 11D: Percentages of CD4+ T cells (Figure 11C) and CD8+ T cells (Figure 11D) among mononuclear cells (MNCs) isolated from HCC-bearing livers of Chatfl / fl and CD4-Cre; Chatfl / fl mice as assessed by flow cytometry, representative of three independent experiments. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figure 11E: Percentage of IFN-γ+CD8+T cells in HCC-bearing livers of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice as analyzed by flow cytometry. Each dot represents an individual mouse. *p<0.05 by two-way ANOVA with Sidak's multiple comparisons test (Figures 11A and 11B) , or unpaired, two-tailed t-test (Figures 11C-11E) .
[0038] Figures 12A-12M, which are related to Figure 6, show delineating the role of the adaptive immune response in HCC development. Figure 12A: Schematic diagrams of (left) the plasmids used to induce simultaneous CRISPR / Cas9-mediated deletion of Trp53 and Pten plus overexpression of Myc and chicken ovalbumin (OVA) , and (right) the experimental protocol for OVA immunization and OVA-HCC induction in mice. See main text for details. Figures 12B and 12C: Curves showing the latency to palpable HCC development (Figure 12B) , and survival to humane endpoint (Figure 12C) , in Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice that were left unimmunized (Figure 12B) or immunized as depicted in panel a (Figure 12C) , and subjected to OVA-HCC induction. p values were determined by log-rank test. Figures 12D and 12E: Percentage of CD8+ T cells among MNCs (Figure 12D) , and number of tumor nodules observed in histological sections (Figure 12E) , in HCC-bearing livers of mice treated with anti-CD8 antibodies (α-CD8) or IgG control. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figures 12F and 12G: Number of HCC tumor nodules (Figure 12F) , and weights (Figure 12G) of livers from mice of the indicated genotypes on day 23 of HCC induction. P values were determined by paired, two-tailed t-test. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Figure 12H: Percentage of Foxp3+ Tregs among CD4+ T cells in HCC-bearing livers of Chatfl / fl and CD4-Cre; Chatfl / fl mice, representative of three independent experiments. Each dot represents an individual animal. Figures 12I and 12J: Representative quantification of the percentages of CTLA-4+ cells among Tregs (Figure 12I) and Tconvs (Figure 12J) , in HCC-bearing livers from Chatfl / fland Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on day 16 of HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Figure 12K: Quantification of the percentages of induced CD25+ cells among Foxp3+CD4+ Tregs and Foxp3-CD4+ Tconvs isolated from purified splenic CD4+CD25-T cells of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. The CD4+CD25-T cells were enriched with negative selection microbeads and stimulated with the indicated ratios of anti-CD3 / 28 microbeads. CD25 expression was analyzed by flow cytometry at the indicated time points. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test, three replicates for each condition, representative of two independent experiments. Figures 12L and 12M: Percentage of CD4+ T cells (n) and NK cells (o) among MNCs from HCC-bearing livers of mice treated with anti-CD4 antibodies (α-CD4) , anti-NK1.1 antibodies (α-NK1.1) or IgG / PBS control. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test.
[0039] Figures 13A-13H, which are related to Figure 7, show elucidating the effects of cholinergic signaling on T cell activities. Figures 13A and 13B: Quantification of numbers of tumor nodules / mm2 in H&E-stained sections (Figure 13A) , and percentages of CD25+ Tregs in HCC-bearing livers (Figure 13B) , ofFoxp3Cre and Chatfl / fl; Foxp3Cre mice on day 22 of HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Figures 13C-13H: Expression levels of the immune inhibitory receptors PD-1, Tim-3 and Lag-3 in CD4+ T cells (Figures 13C-13E) , and in CD8+ T cells (Figures 13F-13H) , from HCC-bearing livers of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on day 35 of HCC induction. Each dot represents an individual mouse. P values were determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test.
[0040] Figures 14A-14F show cholinergic signaling associated with human HCC. Figure 14A: Violin plots showing the expression of CHAT and the indicated muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha subunits) in T cells isolated from patient HCC samples (GSE98638) . Figures 14B-14D: Survival of HCC patients with high expression of CHRM3 (Figure 14B) , CHRM5 (Figure 14C) , and both CHRM3 and CHRM5 (Figure 14D) . Data are from the TCGA database. Figures 14E and 14F: Ratios of liver weight to body weight (Figure 14E) and numbers of tumor nodules (Figure 14F) of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice on day 20 of HCC induction with standard vectors or plus vectors carrying gRNAs for Chrm3 and Chrm5. Each dot represents an individual mouse. n.s., not significant, determined by unpaired, two-tailed t-test.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0041] The disclosed method and compositions can be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of particular embodiments and the Example included therein and to the Figures and their previous and following description.
[0042] Cholinergic nerves are involved in tumor progression and dissemination. In contrast to other visceral tissues, cholinergic innervation in hepatic parenchyma is poorly detected. It remains unclear whether there is any form of cholinergic regulation of liver cancer. It was discovered that cholinergic T cells curtail the development of liver cancer by supporting anti-tumor immune responses. In a murine multi-hit model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) , activation of the adaptive immune response and induction of two populations of choline acetyltransferase (Chat) -expressing CD4+ T cells, including Tregs and dysfunctional PD-1+ T cells was observed. Tumor antigens drove the clonal expansion of these cholinergic T cells in HCC. Genetic ablation of Chat in T cells led to an increased prevalence of preneoplastic cells and exacerbated liver cancer due to compromised anti-tumor immunity. Mechanistically, the cholinergic activity intrinsic in T cells constrained calcium / NFAT signaling induced by TCR engagement. Without this cholinergic modulation, hyperactivated CD25+ Tregs and dysregulated PD-1+ T cells impaired HCC immunosurveillance. The results unveil a previously unappreciated role for cholinergic T cells in liver cancer immunobiology.
[0043] This disclosure pertains to a new immunotherapy treatment for liver cancer that uses cholinergic immune cells. These cells are activated by tumor antigens and help to fight against liver cancer. When cholinergic T cells are removed, the body's ability to fight against liver cancer is compromised. The cholinergic activity that is intrinsic in T cells helps to limit T cell receptor signaling, which is essential for fighting against liver cancer. In patients with high levels of acetylcholine receptors, there was a positive correlation with a better prognosis. Overall, the disclosed methods and materials offer a new approach to treating liver cancer that could help improve patient outcomes.
[0044] The disclosed methods and materials provide a solution to a long-felt need in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) , which is the most common primary liver malignancy in humans and the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The immune system plays a dual role in liver cancer, and current immunotherapies that target immune checkpoints have proven suboptimal in treating the disease. The immune milieu of the liver favors tolerance over immune responses, which makes it difficult for the immune system to fight HCC effectively. The disclosed methods and materials address this issue by utilizing the cholinergic activity of T cells to counteract the tolerogenic immune milieu. By doing so, it curtails the activity of regulatory T cells and invigorates the dysfunctional effector T cells, leading to an improved immune response against HCC. This approach offers a promising solution to the long-standing challenge of treating HCC and could help improve patient outcomes.
[0045] This disclosure establishes that both the Tregs and dysfunctional effector T cells expressing choline acetyltransferase (Chat) , the rate-limiting enzyme governing acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis, are induced during the development of liver cancer in mice. Tumor antigens induce the expansion of Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+ dysfunctional effector T cells. ACh produced by these T cells modulate TCR-induced Ca2+ signaling to prevent hyperactivity of this pathway. In the absence of such cholinergic modulation, the Ca2+ / NFAT pathway becomes hyperactivated so as to increase immunosuppression by Tregs and imposes the dysfunction of Tconvs, resulting in compromised anti-tumor immunity. The genetic ablation of Chat in T cells impairs HCC immunosurveillance. Examination of data from human HCC samples revealed parallels to our mouse findings. In this way, the disclosed methods and materials offer a new approach to treating HCC by utilizing cholinergic activity in T cells to overcome the tolerogenic immune milieu.
[0046] The disclosed methods and materials provide new approaches regarding cholinergic immunotherapy for liver cancer. Acetylcholine, the first identified neurotransmitter, is a phylogenetically ancient molecule. In addition to mediating neural signaling, ACh plays roles in non-neural cell-cell communication that are shared by organisms in all domains of life. As noted above, a role for cholinergic signaling in regulating the development of several cancers has been established. For example, engagement of nAChRs mediates human lung cancer growth, and cholinergic nerves fuel metastasis via the M1 mAChR in prostate cancer. In gastric cancer, cholinergic innervation promotes oncogenesis via stimulation of Wnt signaling through an M3 mAChR-dependent pathway. However, whether cholinergic signaling functions in liver cancer has been largely unexplored. A substantial number of Chat-expressing lymphocytes were identified in liver, especially in those bearing HCC nodules. This work uncovers the functions of Chat-expressing T cells in modulating the activity of immune cells against liver cancer.
[0047] Several unexpected discoveries were made. The inventors identified T and B lymphocytes expressing Chat and producing ACh in the context of liver cancer in mice and humans. The inventors found that cholinergic T cells are driven by tumor antigens during HCC development, as determined through the use of single-cell TCR profiling and an HCC model with inducible antigen expression. The inventors discovered that ablation of Chat in T cells dampens HCC immunosurveillance in mice and that high expression of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, including CHRM3 and CHRM5 in HCC patient samples, is positively correlated with a favorable prognosis. The inventors identified T cell cholinergic activity as a biomarker of response to immune checkpoint blockade in liver cancer, as evidenced by the finding that anti-PD-1 immunotherapy has a more significant effect on mice bearing Chat deficient T cells than on those with wild-type T cells. This is particularly important given the partial response of HCC patients to immune checkpoint monotherapy using PD-1 inhibitors and the lack of biomarkers to predict prognosis.
[0048] Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver malignancy in humans and the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Risk factors for HCC include infection with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) , excessive alcohol consumption, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and aflatoxins. These extrinsic risk factors cause chronic hepatitis which cooperates with intrinsic factors, particularly the progressive accumulation of certain genetic mutations, to drive aggravated inflammation and inflict oxidative stress and DNA damage on hepatocytes, setting the stage for HCC development. The immune system plays a dual role in liver cancer. Although it can sense and eliminate preneoplastic and malignant hepatocytes, it can also promote the selection of tumor cells and favor cancer progression in situations of chronic inflammation or immunosuppression. This duality renders current immunotherapies that target immune checkpoints suboptimal for the treatment of liver cancer.
[0049] To mimic the multi-stage and multi-hit process of human liver carcinogenesis, we generated a duplex CRISPR vector with guide RNAs targeting the second exon of Trp53 and first exon of Pten, and a Sleeping Beauty transposon vector in which the Myc coding sequence was driven by a CAG promoter. A combination of these vectors was delivered to mice via hydrodynamic injection, allowing for specific plasmid delivery to hepatocytes. Due to a synergistic effect between Myc expression and combined Trp53 and Pten ablation, we observed rapid development of HCC in injected mice.
[0050] We found that hepatic CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells expanded as HCC development progressed, whereas the percentage of NKT cells was reduced. We induced HCC in severely immunodeficient NSG mice. Compared with immunocompetent animals, NSG mice developed a more severe disease, with a shorter survival, showing that immune cells participate in protection against liver cancer development in this setting. Flow cytometric analysis of the co-expression of Chat and various immune cell markers by these cells showed that the Chat-GFP+CD4+ T cells in HCCs were comprised mainly of a subset of CD44+ activated T cells that significantly increased in number during HCC progression. The percentages of Chat-GFP-expressing CD8+ T cells and NKT cells were also significantly elevated upon induction of HCC but to a lesser extent. By single-cell transcriptome profiling and flow cytometric analysis, these Chat-GFP+ CD4+ T cells were found mainly belong to Tregs and dysfunction effector T cells, whose expansions were driven by tumor antigens during HCC development.
[0051] We then evaluated the relevance of our observations to human HCC. Examination of a published single-cell RNAseq dataset derived from immune cells isolated from HCC patients showed that CHAT-expressing T cells, including CD4+FOXP3+ Tregs, PDCD1+, GZMK+ and proliferating CD8+ T cells, were indeed present in liver tumor tissues. In contrast, no CHAT-expressing T cells were detected in adjacent normal liver tissues of these patients. Thus, the existence and phenotypes of human CHAT-expressing T cells are consistent with our scRNAseq data on T cells from mouse HCC, indicating that a similar induction program of CHAT-expressing T cells also occurs in human HCCs.
[0052] To determine the role of Chat-expressing T cells in the onset of liver cancer, we deleted Chat specifically in T cells by crossing mice carrying the conditional Chatfl allele to mice expressing the CD4-Cre transgene, thereby obtaining Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre progeny. When we subjected these animals (and Chatfl / fl controls) to our standard HCC induction protocol, we found that Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice developed liver cancer much faster than their Chatfl / fl littermates. The numbers of tumor nodules and liver weights were also significantly increased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. To further substantiate the role of Chat-expressing T cells in liver tumorigenesis, we employed an alternative disease model in which Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre and Chatfl / fl mice were fed long-term on a Western diet (high fat, high cholesterol and high sugar) to induce non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) . NASH sets the stage for liver cirrhosis, which eventually progresses to spontaneous HCC. After 15 months on the Western diet, we found that the incidence of NASH-derived HCC was significantly higher in mice bearing T cells lacking Chat. The consistency of our results from two models of HCC development establish that a deficiency of Chat in T cells renders mice susceptible to liver tumorigenesis.
[0053] The infiltration of T cells into HCC-bearing livers was significantly decreased in the absence of Chat. IFN-γ production is a hallmark of the Th1 adaptive immune response, and this cytokine has a pivotal function in anti-tumor immunity. We found that IFN-γ production by HCC-associated T cells was decreased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. In addition to the adaptive immune responses, innate cytotoxic NK cells play a crucial role in anti-tumor immune response in HCC. We observed that the mRNA levels of IFN-γ, granzymes and perforin, cytotoxic effectors shared by cytotoxic T cells and NK cells, were significantly decreased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. These deficits correlated with reduced expression of NK cell marker genes. Therefore, both adaptive and innate anti-tumor immune responses are hampered by the ablation of Chat in T cells. The expression level of CD25 by Foxp3+ Tregs in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice was substantially increased compared to controls. To determine the role of Tregs in our HCC model, we employed anti-CD25 antibodies to deplete CD25-expressing Tregs. We observed that the enhanced tumor burden in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice was partially rescued upon Treg depletion. Together, these results point toward the involvement of Tregs in the suppression of anti-tumor immune responses that occurs in the absence of Chat in T cells. When we used anti-NK1.1-depleting antibodies to deplete NK cells from our model, HCC development was promoted in Chatfl / fl mice but not in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, essentially eliminating the differences in tumor progression. Thus, NK cells are indispensable for HCC immunosurveillance in our model and in the absence of cholinergic T cells, the anti-tumor functions of NK cells are impeded.
[0054] Chat-expressing Tconvs induced in HCC are primarily PD-1+ T cells that co-express inhibitory immunoreceptors such as Tim-3, Lag-3, CTLA-4, and other molecules characteristic of T cell exhaustion and dysfunction. Our examination of Foxp3-CD4+ Tconvs showed that PD-1 expression was significantly higher in cells of Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice than in those from Chatfl / fl mice. Notably, PD-1 levels strongly correlated with HCC grade in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice but not in Chatfl / fl mice. Both CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells in HCC-bearing livers showed a broad trend of upregulation of these inhibitory receptors in the absence of cholinergic T cells. Thus, in the absence of cholinergic signaling in T cells, an unleashing of PD-1 inhibitory activity occurs that may restrict the functions of anti-tumor Tconvs, allowing HCC progression. we applied PD-1 blockade antibodies to Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cremice during HCC development. As reported for previously described pre-clinical models of NASH-induced HCC, we did not observe a therapeutic effect of PD-1 blockade on control Chatfl / fl mice. However, PD-1 blockade significantly reduced HCC development in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, substantially eliminating the differences in tumor progression. We did observe two tumor-free animals among anti-PD-1-treated Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, a status rarely seen for this genotype. These data suggest that Chat-expressing Tconvs invigorate anti-tumor immune responses by preventing dysregulation of the inhibitory activity of PD-1. HCC patients show a partial response to immune checkpoint monotherapy using PD-1 inhibitors, and there is still a lack of biomarkers to predict prognosis. We have shown that cholinergic activity in T cells controls dysfunctional PD-1+ Tconvs, and that anti-PD-1 immunotherapy has a more significant effect on mice bearing Chat deficient T cells than on those with wild-type T cells. Therefore, T cell cholinergic activity may serve as a biomarker of response to immune checkpoint blockade in liver cancer.
[0055] In an effort to initiate the translation of our mouse model findings to the human situation, we examined the expression of relevant molecules in human HCCs. In scrutinizing data on gene expression patterns by T cells from HCC patients, we noted that these cells not only expressed CHAT but also a similar array of mAChRs and nAChRs. To further study this association between cholinergic signaling and human HCC pathology, we examined HCC cases profiled by TCGA. We observed that high expression of CHRM3 or CHRM5 in HCC patient samples was positively correlated with a favorable prognosis. It is likely that a cholinergic program in T cells plays a protective role against liver tumorigenesis in both humans and mice.
[0056] The disclosure focuses on the use of cholinergic T cells to invigorate the anti-tumor immune responses in liver cancer. The difference in cholinergic activity in liver cancer contributes to the advantageous effect achieved by the disclosed methods and materials. Through our analysis of both mouse models and data from HCC patients, we have found that cholinergic activity in liver cancer has an inhibitory effect on cancer progression. This discovery allows for the development of therapeutic strategies that aim to increase cholinergic activity in T cells, increase the lifespan of acetylcholine locally by using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and explore the function of different cholinergic agonists. Overall, this difference in cholinergic activity provides a new avenue for the development of immunotherapies for liver cancer. By targeting cholinergic activity in T cells, we are able to invigorate the anti-tumor immune responses and potentially achieve better outcomes for liver cancer patients.
[0057] The disclosure focuses on the specific role of Chat-expressing T cells in regulating the expression of PD-1 in liver cancer. Chat is expressed by PD-1+ dysfunctional T cells and plays a role in negatively regulating the expression of PD-1. The disclosed methods and materials provide a new approach to immunotherapy in liver cancer that targets the regulation of PD-1 expression by Chat-expressing T cells, overcoming the limitations of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in non-viral HCC and NASH-HCC. In the disclosed work, PD-1 expression was significantly higher in T cells of Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice than in those from Chatfl / fl mice. Notably, PD-1 levels strongly correlated with HCC grade in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice but not in Chatfl / flmice. Importantly, both CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells in HCC-bearing livers showed a broad trend of upregulation of the inhibitory receptors, including PD-1, Tim-3, and Lag-3 in the absence of cholinergic T cells. Therefore, the cholinergic modulation intrinsically restricts the T cell dysfunction program, rather than targeting specific inhibitory checkpoint molecules.
[0058] It is to be understood that the disclosed method and compositions are not limited to specific synthetic methods, specific analytical techniques, or to particular reagents unless otherwise specified, and, as such, can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.
[0059] The term “hit” refers to a test compound that shows desired properties in an assay. The term “test compound” refers to a chemical to be tested by one or more screening method (s) as a putative modulator. A test compound can be any chemical, such as an inorganic chemical, an organic chemical, a protein, a peptide, a carbohydrate, a lipid, or a combination thereof. Usually, various predetermined concentrations of test compounds are used for screening, such as 0.01 micromolar, 1 micromolar and 10 micromolar. Test compound controls can include the measurement of a signal in the absence of the test compound or comparison to a compound known to modulate the target.
[0060] The terms “high, ” “higher, ” “increases, ” “elevates, ” or “elevation” refer to increases above basal levels, e.g., as compared to a control. The terms “low, ” “lower, ” “reduces, ” or “reduction” refer to decreases below basal levels, e.g., as compared to a control.
[0061] The term “modulate” as used herein refers to the ability of a compound to change an activity in some measurable way as compared to an appropriate control. As a result of the presence of compounds in the assays, activities can increase or decrease as compared to controls in the absence of these compounds. Preferably, an increase in activity is at least 25%, more preferably at least 50%, most preferably at least 100%compared to the level of activity in the absence of the compound. Similarly, a decrease in activity is preferably at least 25%, more preferably at least 50%, most preferably at least 100%compared to the level of activity in the absence of the compound. A compound that increases a known activity is an “agonist. ” One that decreases, or prevents, a known activity is an “antagonist. ”
[0062] The term “inhibit” means to reduce or decrease in activity or expression. This can be a complete inhibition of activity or expression, or a partial inhibition. Inhibition can be compared to a control or to a standard level. Inhibition can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100%.
[0063] The term “monitoring” as used herein refers to any method in the art by which an activity can be measured.
[0064] The term “providing” as used herein refers to any means of adding a compound or molecule to something known in the art. Examples of providing can include the use of pipettes, pipettemen, syringes, needles, tubing, guns, etc. This can be manual or automated. It can include transfection by any mean or any other means of providing nucleic acids to dishes, cells, tissue, cell-free systems and can be in vitro or in vivo.
[0065] The term “preventing” as used herein refers to administering a compound prior to the onset of clinical symptoms of a disease or conditions so as to prevent a physical manifestation of aberrations associated with the disease or condition.
[0066] The term “in need of treatment” as used herein refers to a judgment made by a caregiver (e.g. physician, nurse, nurse practitioner, or individual in the case of humans; veterinarian in the case of animals, including non-human mammals) that a subject requires or will benefit from treatment. This judgment is made based on a variety of factors that are in the realm of a care giver's expertise, but that include the knowledge that the subject is ill, or will be ill, as the result of a condition that is treatable by the disclosed compounds.
[0067] As used herein, “subject” can be a vertebrate, more specifically a mammal (e.g., a human, horse, pig, rabbit, dog, sheep, goat, non-human primate, cow, cat, guinea pig or rodent) , a fish, a bird or a reptile or an amphibian. The term does not denote a particular age or sex. A patient refers to a subject afflicted with a disease or disorder. The term “patient” includes human and veterinary subjects.
[0068] By “treatment” and “treating” is meant the medical management of a subject with the intent to cure, ameliorate, stabilize, or prevent a disease, pathological condition, or disorder. This term includes active treatment, that is, treatment directed specifically toward the improvement of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder, and also includes causal treatment, that is, treatment directed toward removal of the cause of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder. In addition, this term includes palliative treatment, that is, treatment designed for the relief of symptoms rather than the curing of the disease, pathological condition, or disorder; preventative treatment, that is, treatment directed to minimizing or partially or completely inhibiting the development of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder; and supportive treatment, that is, treatment employed to supplement another specific therapy directed toward the improvement of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder. It is understood that treatment, while intended to cure, ameliorate, stabilize, or prevent a disease, pathological condition, or disorder, need not actually result in the cure, amelioration, stabilization or prevention. The effects of treatment can be measured or assessed as described herein and as known in the art as is suitable for the disease, pathological condition, or disorder involved. Such measurements and assessments can be made in qualitative and / or quantitative terms. Thus, for example, characteristics or features of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder and / or symptoms of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder can be reduced to any effect or to any amount.
[0069] By the term “effective amount” of a compound as provided herein is meant a nontoxic but sufficient amount of the compound to provide the desired result. As will be pointed out below, the exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the disease that is being treated, the particular compound used, its mode of administration, and the like. Thus, it is not possible to specify an exact “effective amount. ” However, an appropriate effective amount can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation.
[0070] The dosages or amounts of the compounds described herein are large enough to produce the desired effect in the method by which delivery occurs. The dosage should not be so large as to cause adverse side effects, such as unwanted cross-reactions, anaphylactic reactions, and the like. Generally, the dosage will vary with the age, condition, sex and extent of the disease in the subject and can be determined by one of skill in the art. The dosage can be adjusted by the individual physician based on the clinical condition of the subject involved. The dose, schedule of doses and route of administration can be varied.
[0071] The efficacy of administration of a particular dose of the compounds or compositions according to the methods described herein can be determined by evaluating the particular aspects of the medical history, signs, symptoms, and objective laboratory tests that are known to be useful in evaluating the status of a subject in need of treatment of HCC. These signs, symptoms, and objective laboratory tests will vary, depending upon the particular disease or condition being treated or prevented, as will be known to any clinician who treats such patients or a researcher conducting experimentation in this field. For example, if, based on a comparison with an appropriate control group and / or knowledge of the normal progression of the disease in the general population or the particular individual: (1) a subject’s physical condition is shown to be improved (e.g., a tumor has partially or fully regressed) , (2) the progression of the disease or condition is shown to be stabilized, or slowed, or reversed, or (3) the need for other medications for treating the disease or condition is lessened or obviated, then a particular treatment regimen will be considered efficacious.
[0072] By “pharmaceutically acceptable” is meant a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, i.e., the material can be administered to a subject along with the selected compound without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained.
[0073] Any of the compounds having the formula I can be used therapeutically in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The compounds described herein can be conveniently formulated into pharmaceutical compositions composed of one or more of the compounds in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. See, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, latest edition, by E.W. Martin Mack Pub. Co., Easton, PA, which discloses typical carriers and conventional methods of preparing pharmaceutical compositions that can be used in conjunction with the preparation of formulations of the compounds described herein. These most typically would be standard carriers for administration of compositions to humans. In one aspect, humans and non-humans, including solutions such as sterile water, saline, and buffered solutions at physiological pH. Other compounds will be administered according to standard procedures used by those skilled in the art.
[0074] The disclosed compositions and methods can be further understood through the following numbered paragraphs.
[0075] 1. A method of treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising treating the subject with a therapy effective to increase the level of acetylcholine in T cells.
[0076] 2. The method of paragraph 1, wherein the therapy increases choline acetyltransferase (Chat) expression in T cells.
[0077] 3. The method of paragraph 1 or 2, wherein the therapy increases the activity choline acetyltransferase (Chat) in T cells.
[0078] 4. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-3, wherein the therapy comprises administering to the subject a Chat agonist.
[0079] 5. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-4, wherein the therapy comprises administering to the subject a cholinergic agonist.
[0080] 6. The method of paragraph 5, wherein the cholinergic agonist is a muscarinic cholinergic agonist.
[0081] 7. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-6, wherein the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) expression in T cells.
[0082] 8. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-7, wherein the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in T cells.
[0083] 9. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-8, wherein the therapy increases the population of Chat-expressing T cells in the subject.
[0084] 10. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-9, wherein the therapy increases the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject.
[0085] 11. The method of paragraph 10, wherein increasing the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject comprises infusing into the subject autogeneic cholinergic T cells.
[0086] 12. The method of paragraph 11, wherein the autogeneic cholinergic T cells were developed ex vivo into cholinergic T cells from allogenic T cells.
[0087] 13. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-12 further comprising determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.
[0088] 14. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-13 further comprising treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.
[0089] 15. A method of treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising:
[0090] determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject;
[0091] treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is high; and
[0092] refraining from treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is low.
[0093] Examples
[0094] Cholinergic nerves are involved in tumor progression and dissemination. In contrast to other visceral tissues, cholinergic innervation in hepatic parenchyma is poorly detected. It remains unclear whether there is any form of cholinergic regulation of liver cancer. Here the inventors show that cholinergic T cells curtail the development of liver cancer by supporting anti-tumor immune responses. In a murine multi-hit model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) , the inventors observed activation of the adaptive immune response and induction of two populations of choline acetyltransferase (Chat) -expressing CD4+ T cells, including Tregs and dysfunctional PD-1+ T cells. Tumor antigens drove the clonal expansion of these cholinergic T cells in HCC. Genetic ablation of Chat in T cells led to an increased prevalence of preneoplastic cells and exacerbated liver cancer due to compromised anti-tumor immunity. Mechanistically, the cholinergic activity intrinsic in T cells constrained calcium / NFAT signaling induced by TCR engagement. Without this cholinergic modulation, hyperactivated CD25+ Tregs and dysregulated PD-1+ T cells impaired HCC immunosurveillance. The results unveil a previously unappreciated role for cholinergic T cells in liver cancer immunobiology.
[0095] Methods
[0096] Mice. Chat-GFP (B6. Cg-Tg (RP23-268L19-EGFP) 2Mik / J) , Chat-flox (B6.129-Chattm1Jrs / J) , CD4-Cre (Tg (Cd4-cre) 1Cwi / BfluJ) , Il21r- / - (B6.129-Il21rtm1Kopf / J) , OT-II (B6. Cg-Tg (TcraTcrb) 425Cbn / J) , Confetti (Gt (ROSA) 26Sortm1 (CAG-Brainbow2.1) Cle / J) , Foxp3YFP / Cre (B6.129 (Cg) -Foxp3tm4 (YFP / icre) Ayr / J) , NSG (NOD. Cg-Prkdcscid Il2rgtm1Wjl / SzJ) and control NOD / ShiLtJ mice were all purchased from the Jackson Laboratory and bred in the animal facility at the Princess Margaret Cancer Centre. All animal experiments were approved by the University Health Network Animal Care Committee.
[0097] CRISPR and transposon vectors. sgRNAs targeting Trp53 and Pten were as previously described. The following guide oligos were designed to express (1) mouse Pten sgRNA: forward primer 5’-CACCGCTAACGATCTCTTTGATGA-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 26) and reverse primer 5’-AAACTCATCAAAGAGATCGTTAGC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 27) ; and (2) mousep53 sgRNA: forward primer 5’-CACCGCCTCGAGCTCCCTCTGAGCC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 28) and reverse primer 5’-AAACGGCTCAGAGGGAGCTCGAGGC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 29) . The annealed double-stranded guide oligos were cloned into theBbsIcut sites of pX330 vector. The p53 sgRNA cassette in pX330-p53 was amplified by PCR with primers 5’-GCTTCTAGACATGTGAGGGCCTATTTC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 30) and 5’-TACAGCTAGCGCCATTTGTCTGCAGAATTGG-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 31) . This additional sgRNA cassette was then cut withNheI andXbaI and subcloned into NheI site of pX330-Pten to obtain the duplex CRISPR vector pX330-p53-Pten.
[0098] The transposon system with SB100X and pT2 / BH was described previously. The mouse c-Myc CDS was cloned into pT2 / BH with EcoR1 andNotI restriction enzymes to obtain the pT2-Myc plasmid.
[0099] A modified Puromycin-T2A-NLS-Cre version of the pX330 vector was generated. In brief, this vector contained an additional expression cassette under the control of the mouse PGK promoter driving expression of the puromycin-resistance gene, followed by a T2A self-cleaving peptide flanked by flexible GSG linkers, followed by a P1 bacteriophage Cre recombinase engineered with an N-terminal nuclear localization site (NLS) , and terminating with an HSVpA signal. This vector was further modified to express both mouse Pten and p53 U6 promoter-driven guide RNAs following the process used to build pX330-p53-Pten.
[0100] For the pT2-OVA-P2A-Myc plasmid, a 660bp fragment of the cytosolic region (aa173-386, containing both MHC class I-and II-restricted epitopes) of the chicken ovalbumin (OVA) cDNA was amplified by PCR and engineered with a kozak consensus methionine and EcoRI and NheI cloning sites using the following primers: OVA_ERI_U1 5'-GAATTCGCCGCCATGGTTCTGGTTAATGCCATTGTCTTC-3' (SEQ ID NO: 32) and OVA_Nhe1_L15'-GCTAGCAGGGGAAACACATCTGCCAAAGAAGAGAAC-3' (SEQ ID NO: 33) . A P2A self-cleaving 2A peptide cassette, flanked by a flexible GSG linker region, was then added in-frame to the 3' end of the OVA region using NheI and XhoI restriction sites. Finally, the mouse c-Myc cDNA was sublconed in-frame 3’ of the P2A cassette using the following PCR primers: Cmyc_XhoI_LE_U1 5'-CTCGAGCCCCTCAACGTGAACTTCACCAAC-3' (SEQ ID NO: 34) and Cmyc_BstB1_L15'-CAATTAGTTCGAAGTTTATGCACCAGAGTTACGAAGCTGTTCG AGTTTGTGTTTC-3' (SEQ ID NO: 35) . This primer set removed the mouse c-Myc start methionine and engineered an additional BstB1 site at the 3’ end of mouse c-Myc that allowed subcloning of the entire Kozak OVA-P2A-Myc cassette into the pT2 / BH-CAG-GS-Myc plasmid using EcoRI and BstBI restriction enzyme cloning sites.
[0101] For the pT2-EF1a-rtTA-P2A-Myc+TRE-OVA plasmid, the entire ~1700bp CAG-CMV promoter and enhancer region in the pT2-OVA-P2A-Myc plasmid was removed and replaced with the 289bp human elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1α) core promoter to create the pT2-EF1a-OVA-P2A-Myc plasmid. The pT2-EF1a-OVA-P2A-Myc plasmid was then digested with EcoRI and NheI to remove the chicken ovalbumin (OVA) region and replace it with a reverse tetracycline-controlled Trans-Activator (rtTA) coding sequence (rtTA-Advanced) to create the pT2-EF1a-rtTA-P2A-Myc plasmid. TRE tight Promoter from pTRE-Tight caspase-3 (p12) : : nz [TU#817] (a gift from Martin Chalfie, Addgene plasmid #16084) was subcloned upstream of the BGH 3’UTR and PolyA signal of pcDNA3.1-Zeo (Invitrogen) via XhoI and EcoRI restriction sites to generate pcDNA3.1 (-) Zeo-TRE-BGHpA. Next, OVA cDNA was subcloned into pcDNA3.1 (-) Zeo-TRE-BGHpA usingEcoRI and HindIII restriction sites to generate pcDNA3.1 (-) Zeo-TRE-OVA-BGHpA. The entire 1256 bp TRE-OVA-BGHpA fragment was PCR amplified using the following primers: BGHpA_IF_Fwd: 5’-CCTGCAGCCCAAGCTTGTTCTTTCCGCCTCAGAAGCC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 36) and TRE_IF_Rev: 5’-AGCCTTCCACAAGCTTCTCGAGTTTACTCCCTATCAGTG-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 37) . The amplified fragment was then cloned in the reverse “trans” orientation into HindIII linearized pT2-EF1a-rtTA-P2A-Myc plasmid using (Takara Bio USA) , generating the final pT2-EF1a-rtTA-P2A-Myc+TRE-OVA plasmid.
[0102] To induce m3KOm5KO HCC, the following guide oligos were designed to express mouse Chrm3 sgRNA: forward primer 5’-CACCgaccaagacattgccgacaa-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 38) and reverse primer 5’-AAACttgtcggcaatgtcttggtc-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 39) ; and mouse Chrm5 sgRNA: forward primer 5’-CACCGcgccgtgccgaaggtgatgg-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 40) and reverse primer 5’-AAACccatcaccttcggcacggcgC-3’ (SEQ ID NO: 41) . The annealed double-stranded guide oligos were cloned into the BbsI cut sites of a modified version of pX330 vector from which the Cas9 cassette had been removed. The Chrm3 and Chrm5 sgRNA expression vectors were combined with pX330-p53-Pten, SB100X and pT2-Myc for HCC induction; in this way, the Chrm3 and Chrm5 sgRNA only targeted the cells receiving the pX330-p53-Pten vector.
[0103] Hydrodynamic injections to induce HCC. For delivery of transposon and CRISPR vectors, mice (8-20 weeks old) were injected with a volume of 100 ml / kg body weight containing 25 μg pX330-p53-Pten (or its modified form) plus 0.66 μg SB100X and 5 μg pT2-Myc (or its modified forms) . The molar ratio of SB100X to pT2-Myc was 1: 5. Hydrodynamic injection into the lateral tail vein took 5-7 seconds. Blinding was achieved during injection by putting littermates of different genotypes into new cages lacking mouse information.
[0104] To evaluate and quantify HCC development, mice were monitored daily for the appearance of palpable tumors, which were defined as a discernable enlargement of the abdomen. Humane endpoints were defined as mortality or liver weight above 5 grams. The exact dates of when mice reached humane endpoints were determined after euthanizing mice bearing significant HCC. Livers collected at this stage were 3-7g in weight, and the exact endpoints were adjusted by one day per gram live weight. Early mortalities (< 5 days) were considered to be due to injection-associated death and removed from the analysis. The number of liver tumors was quantified by counting tumor nodules on the surface of liver or by normalizing the number of tumor clones to the area of liver sections. Blinding was performed in quantification of liver sections but not surface tumor nodules.
[0105] Antibodies and treatments. Antibodies used to deplete mice of NK cells, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, or CD25+ Tregs, or used for PD-1 blockade (and isotype control antibodies) were from BioXCell. Briefly, anti-NK1.1 (clone PK136) , anti-CD4 (clone GK1.5) antibodies were i.p. -injected at 100 μg per mouse on day -1, 2, 7, 12, 16, 21 of standard HCC induction. Anti-CD8 antibody (clone 2.43) was i.p. -injected at 100 μg per mouse on day -1, 2, 7, 12, 16, 21 of standard HCC induction. Anti-CD25 antibody (clone PC-61.5.3) was i.p. -injected at 150 μg per mouse on day 1, 6, 11 and 11 of standard HCC induction. For analyzing the efficiency of Treg depletion, Foxp3-YFP mice were injected at the same time and anti-mouse CD25 (clone 7D4) AF647 (BD) was used for flow cytometry. Anti-PD-1 antibody (clone RMP1-14) was i.p. -injected at 100 μg per mouse on day 3, 7, 11, 15 of standard HCC induction.
[0106] To induce NASH-derived HCC, mice were fed with a Western diet (Research Diets) for 15 months. The diet contained 40 kcal%fat, 20 kcal%fructose and 2%cholesterol. For immunization of mice with OVA, mice were injected into the base of their tails with 50 μl OVA / CFA emulsion (Cat. EK-0301, Hooke Laboratories) .
[0107] To induce the OVA expression in HCC, HCC was induced with pT2-EF1a-rtTA-P2A-Myc+TRE-OVA. When mice showed a discernable enlargement of the abdomen, they received doxycycline (Sigma) -containing drinking water (600 mg / L) for 15 days, followed by euthanasia and FACS analysis of liver cells.
[0108] Hepatic mononuclear cell isolation. Mice were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation and immediately subjected to whole-body perfusion with ice cold PBS containing 10 mM EDTA. Liver tissues were collected, disrupted, and passed through 70-μm sieves to obtain single-cell suspensions. Mononuclear cells (MNCs) were enriched by centrifugation through a 40 / 80%Percoll gradient for 20 min at 2000 rpm.
[0109] Flow cytometry. Antibodies and tetramers used to stain hepatic MNCs included anti-mouse CD4 BUV737, anti-mouse CD8 PerCP-Cy5.5, anti-mouse CD45 Alexa Fluor 700, anti-mouse CD19 BUV395, anti-mouse NK1.1 BV605, anti-mouse CD11b BV510, anti-mouse CD44 Alexa Fluor 700, anti-mouse OX40 PE, anti-mouse CD4 BV510, anti-mouse CD62L BUV737, anti-mouse CD45 PerCP-Cy5.5, TCRvβ5.1 / 5.2 PE-Cy7, anti-mouse CD25 (clone PC61) PE-Cy7, anti-mouse CD4 BV510, anti-mouse CD4 PE, anti-mouse CD62L FITC, anti-mouse CD44 APC, anti-mouse CD8 APC-Cy7, anti-mouse PD-1 APC, anti-mouse Tim-3 PE, anti-mouse Lag-3 PerCP-Cy5.5, anti-mouse PD-L1 PE-Cy7, anti-mouse CTLA-4 PE, anti-mouse IFN-γ APC, and anti-mouse IL-17A BV605 (all from BioLegend) ; anti-mouse FOXP3 (clone FJK-16S) PE from Thermo Fisher; and mouse CD1d PBS-57 BV421-labeled tetramer from the NIH Tetramer Facility.
[0110] For intracellular cytokine staining, MNCs were stimulated with 1 mg / ml ionomycin plus 25 μg / ml PMA in the presence of BD GolgiPlug for 4 hrs. Cytokine staining was performed with Cytofix / Cytoperm kits (BD) following the manufacturer’s instructions. For staining of transcription factors, the eBioscience Foxp3 / Transcription Factor Staining Buffer Set was used following the manufacturer’s instructions. Anti-GFP Alexa Fluor 488 (A21311, Thermo Fisher) were used to label GFP in intracellular staining analyses.
[0111] Flow cytometric analyses were carried out using BD LSRFortessa cell analyzers at the Princess Margaret Flow Facility.
[0112] Single-cell RNA-seq and data analysis. HCC was induced in Chat-GFP mice using pX330-p53-Pten plus SB100X and pT2-Myc. HCC livers (from two male and two female mice) and control livers (from sex-matched littermates) were collected for hepatic MNC isolation on day 26 of HCC induction. Hepatic MNC were stained with antibodies for CD4, CD8, CD19, TCR-β, NK1.1, CD45 and CD1d tetramer, as well as with barcode antibodies (TotalSeq-C0304, C0305, C0306, or C0307) to hashtag cells from individual mice of the HCC or control group. CD45+DAPI-NK1.1-CD1dTetramer-CD19-TCR-β+CD4+CD8-GFP+ (Chat-GFP+ CD4+ T cells) and CD45+DAPI-NK1.1-CD1dTetramer-CD19-TCR-β+CD4+CD8-GFP- (Chat-GFP-CD4+ T cells) populations were sorted on a FACSAriaTM Fusion cell sorter (BD) at the Princess Margaret Flow Facility, with the two CD4+ T cell compartments individually sorted from each mouse. The same CD4+ T cell compartments from mice receiving the same treatment were pooled into 4 samples: control Chat-GFP+, control Chat-GFP-, HCC Chat-GFP+ and HCC Chat-GFP-. After sorting and pooling, the samples were immediately submitted to the Princess Margaret Genomics Centre for downstream processing. The 4 samples were loaded on to a 10x Chromium Controller and libraries were prepared using a Chromium Next GEM Single Cell 5' HT Reagent Kits v2 (Dual Index) (10x Genomics) . The libraries were sequenced on an Illumina NovaSeq 6000 instrument. The sequencing depths were GEX ~50,000 reads / cell, TCR ~5000 reads per cell, and cell hashing TotalSeq C ~2000 reads / cell.
[0113] For single-cell RNA-seq data analysis, sequencing data were processed using Cell Ranger (version 7.0.0) and aligned to the annotated mouse genome (mm10) . The Cell Ranger VDJ pipeline was used to call TCR sequences. The clonotype analysis was performed on the merged contig annotations of four samples. The junctions of the V, D, and J segments were determined with the IMGT database. The filtered feature barcode matrices in the Hierarchical Data Format (. h5 files) and . csv files of filtered contig annotations from the 4 samples were analyzed with Partek Flow software (version 10.0.23.0214, license from CPOS Bioinformatics Core) and analyzed together. With the Split by feature type tool, the single cell counts were split into two data nodes: Gene Expression and Antibody Capture. After excluding low-quality cells (counts < 30,000; %mitochondrial counts < 30) , Gene Expression was normalized using the recommended CPM (counts per million) method. Antibody Capture was normalized with the recommended method (add 1.0, divide by geometric-mean, add 1.0, and Log 2.0) , and then the multiplets and cells with ambiguous hashing were filtered out. These two sets of data were then merged with the Merge matrices tool to obtain the filtered, uniquely hashtagged, and normalized counts. This counts data node was re-split to generate new Gene Expression and Antibody Capture nodes. Dimensionality reduction and visualization were performed on the new Gene Expression data node using PCA (Number of principal components: 100, Features contribute: by variance, and Split by sample: No) , Graph-based clusters (with default parameters except the Resolution was set to 1.0) , and UMAP (with default parameters) tools. Compute biomarkers was performed on graph-based clustering result to identify marker genes of each cell cluster. Differential analyses were performed using GSA and visualized with heatmap and volcano plot.
[0114] Immunohistological analyses. Sections cut from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) blocks of mouse livers were used for immunohistochemistry (IHC) . After dewaxing and rehydration, endogenous peroxidase was deactivated in 3%H2O2 (20 ml 30%H2O2 + 180 ml PBS) for 15 min at RT. Antigen retrieval with 10 mM sodium citrate buffer (pH 6.0) was performed prior to immunostaining.
[0115] Primary antibodies used for IHC included goat anti-GFP (NB100-1678, Novus) , rat anti-Foxp3 (clone FJK-16s, Thermo Fisher) , rabbit anti-CD3 (ab5690, Abcam) , rabbit anti-CD11b (ab133357, Abcam) , rabbit anti-p53 (VP-P956, Vector Labs) , rabbit anti-c-Myc (#5605, Cell Signaling) , and rabbit anti-Pten (#9559, Cell Signaling) . Polymer-conjugated secondary antibodies included AP goat anti-rat IgG (MP-544415) , HRP goat anti-rat IgG (MP-5444) , HRP horse anti-goat IgG (MP-7405) , HRP horse anti-rabbit IgG (MP-7405) , and AP horse anti-rabbit IgG (MP-5401) (all from Vector Laboratories) . ImmPACT Vector Red Substrate Kits, including alkaline phosphatase substrate (SK-5105) and DAB peroxidase substrate (SK-4100) (both from Vector Laboratories) , were used for chromogenic detection.
[0116] Immunostained histological sections were scanned using a NanoZoomer 2.0-HT slide scanner from Hamamatsu. Quantifications of immune cell clusters in scans of H&E-stained liver sections, and determinations of c-Myc, p53 and PTEN expression in tumor clones of scans of IHC-stained liver sections, were performed with NDP. view2 (Hamamatsu) in a blinded fashion. For analysis of c-Myc expression in liver sections, random 20X non-tumor fields of the c-Myc IHC scans from liver sections of individual mice were output using NDP. view2 and blindly analyzed using ImageJ (Internet site imagej. nih. gov / ij / ) with the plugin of “IHC Profiler” .
[0117] For the immunofluorescent staining shown inFig. 9B, Alexa Fluor 568-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (A-11036, Thermo Fisher) was used.
[0118] For detection of the fluorescent proteins in the livers ofRosa26Confetti mice, frozen liver sections were fixed with 2%paraformaldehyde for 8 min at RT and directly observed using an Olympus FLUOVIEW FV1000 confocal laser scanning microscope.
[0119] Measurement of calcium flux. CD4+ T cells were purified from spleens of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice using the CD4+ T Cell Isolation Kit (Miltenyi Biotec) and autoMACS following the manufacturer’s instructions. Purified CD4+ T cells were loaded with 1 μM Indo-1 calcium indicator (Thermo Fisher) in a 37℃ water bath for 45 min. After washing, CD4+ T cells were stained with anti-CD4 PE, anti-CD62L FITC, and anti-CD44 APC in 4℃ for 30 min, and then stained with 1 μg / ml hamster anti-CD3 (clone 145-2C11) in 4℃ for 30 min. To activate TCR signaling, rabbit anti-Hamster (Jackson ImmunoResearch) antibody was added at 10 μg / ml at the indicated time during flow cytometric analysis. CD4+CD62L+CD44- CD4+ T cells were gated for comparison.
[0120] Analysis of NFAT nuclear translocation. CD4+ T cells were purified from splenocytes of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice using the CD4+ T Cell Isolation Kit (Miltenyi Biotec) and autoMACS following the manufacturer’s instructions. The purified CD4+ T cells were resuspended in serum-free RPMI medium at 5 x 105 / ml. The CD4+ T cell suspensions were supplemented with ACh (Sigma) , nicotine (Tocris Bioscience) or Oxotremorine M (Tocris Bioscience) at 100 μM and incubated at 37℃ for 15 min. Anti-CD3 / 28 microbeads (Thermo Fisher) were then added to the T cell suspensions at a 1: 1 bead-to-cell ratio, and the cells were cultured for another 15 min. After removing the anti-CD3 / 28 microbeads with magnetic block, CD4+ T cells were fixed and prepared for cytospins with Cytocentrifuge (Thermo Fisher) . The cytospins were permeabilized with 1%Triton-X100 for 30 min, blocked with 3%FBS, 1%BSA, and 0.3%Triton-X100 in PBS for 30 min, and stained with 1: 50 Alexa Fluor 488 conjugated anti-NFAT1 (clone D43B1, Cell Signaling) overnight at 4℃. After washing and counterstaining with DAPI, the cytospins were mounted with cover slides and examined with a Nikon A1R confocal microscope. The fluorescence micrograms were acquired using a 40X objective lens. The consecutive images across the diameter of each cytospin (about 16 shots) were collected and quantified. CellProfiler (v4.2.1) was used for the quantification of NFAT nuclear translocation. The Minimum Cross-Entropy thresholding method was used to identify the objects. The MeasureObjectIntensityDistribution module was used for the analysis of NFAT distribution. Briefly, the radial distribution of NFAT staining was measured with 3 concentric rings (bins) starting from the center of DAPI staining. The ratio of the fraction of total NFAT intensity (FracAtD) in the first bin (innermost ring) versus the third bin (outermost ring) was designated as the parameter for NFAT nuclear translocation. The CellProfiler project file will be shared upon inquiry.
[0121] Analysis of human HCC datasets. Expression levels of CHAT in various clusters of T cells isolated from tumor tissue and adjacent liver tissue of HCC patients were determined by examining the single-cell RNAseq dataset on immune cells of human HCC previously published by Zhang et al. Violin plots were generated using their interactive web-based tool (http: / / cancer-pku. cn: 3838 / HCC / ) . Expression levels of CHAT, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha subunits) in T cells from patient HCC samples were determined by extracting data from a published single-cell RNAseq dataset (GSE98638) on T cells from HCC patients. Survival curves of HCC patients with high expression of CHRM3 [cut-off was set to Log2 (FPKM-UQ + 1) = 11] and CHRM5 [cut-off was set to Log2 (FPKM-UQ + 1) = 9.6] were generated using data obtained from the TCGA Research Network (https: / / www. cancer. gov / tcga) and analyzed with UCSC Xena (http: / / xena. ucsc. edu / ) .
[0122] Statistical analyses. Pair-wise comparisons were assessed using the two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-test unless otherwise denoted in the Figure Legends. p values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Data are shown as the mean ± SEM unless otherwise indicated.
[0123] Data availability. The single-cell RNA sequencing data of mouse HCC reported in this paper were deposit in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database under the accession code: GSE231322. The single-cell RNA sequencing datasets of human HCC analyzed in this study include those published by Zheng et al. and Zhang et al.. The accession code of Zheng et al. is GSE98638; The accession codes of Zhang et al. are GSE140228 and EGAS00001003449.
[0124] Results
[0125] Induction of HCC using CRISPR and transposon technology
[0126] The inventors sought to model HCC in mice by combining genetic alterations recurrently observed in the human disease. These changes included mutation of the TP53 and PTEN tumor suppressor genes and overexpression of the MYC oncogene. TP53 is commonly altered in human liver cancer, whereas PTEN protein is reduced or absent in about 40%of HCC patients. Hepatocyte-specific deletion of Pten in mice similarly leads to HCC development. Chromosomal amplifications involving MYC are among the most frequent DNA copy number changes in human HCC, and activation of MYC transcription is a central signature associated with the conversion of preneoplastic lesions to HCC.
[0127] With respect to the engineering of the above mutations, CRISPR-mediated somatic knockout of tumor suppressor genes, as well as transposon-based expression of oncogenes, have been shown to induce HCC in mice. To mimic the multi-stage and multi-hit process of human liver carcinogenesis, the inventors combined these two approaches by ablating Trp53 and Pten using CRISPR, and over-expressing Myc using a transposon vector. To this end, the inventors generated a duplex CRISPR vector with guide RNAs targeting the second exon of Trp53 and first exon ofPten, and a Sleeping Beauty transposon vector in which the Myc coding sequence was driven by a CAG promoter (Fig. 1A) . A combination of these vectors was delivered to mice via hydrodynamic injection, allowing for specific plasmid delivery to hepatocytes. Due to a synergistic effect between Myc expression and combined Trp53 and Pten ablation, the inventors observed rapid development of HCC in injected mice. Neoplasms were visible on the liver surface by 15 days post-injection, and by day 25, significant tumor nodules were present (data not shown) . Immunostaining confirmed that the majority of these tumor clones were negative for p53 and PTEN and positive for MYC (Fig. 1B) .
[0128] To delineate the clonality of these cancers, the inventors engineered the existing CRISPR vector to also express Cre recombinase (Fig. 9A) . The transposon and Cre-encoding CRISPR vectors were injected into Rosa26Confetti / + mice, animals in which cells stochastically express one of four fluorescent proteins upon Cre-mediated recombination. The inventors found that most of the tumor nodules developing in the plasmid-injected mice expressed a single fluorescent marker, suggesting that these malignancies are monoclonal (Fig. 9B) .
[0129] Immunosurveillance is elicited in the novel HCC model
[0130] The immune microenvironment imposes selective pressure on the clonal expansion of tumor cells. To investigate whether immune responses were evoked during tumorigenesis in the model, the inventors investigated tumor-infiltrating immune cells during HCC development. The inventors found that hepatic CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells expanded as HCC development progressed, whereas the percentage of NKT cells was reduced (Figs. 1C and 1B) . Analysis of OX40, a transient marker of T cell receptor (TCR) activation, showed that antigen-stimulated CD4+ T cells were increased (Fig. 9C) . Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that the infiltrating immune cells were positioned around MYC+ preneoplastic cells as well as in established HCCs (data not shown) . CD11b+ cells (including myeloid cells and NK cells) and CD3+ T cells were also present in such immune cell clusters (data not shown) . Therefore, immune responses, particularly those mediated by T cells, are activated in the HCC model.
[0131] To determine if the immune system actively shaped tumorigenesis in the model, the inventors induced HCC in severely immunodeficient NSG mice. Compared with immunocompetent animals, NSG mice developed a more severe disease, with a shorter survival, and their tumor cells were diffusely present throughout the liver instead of confined in discrete nodules (Fig. 1D) . These results show that immune cells participate in protection against liver cancer development in this setting.
[0132] Chat-expressing T cells are induced during HCC development
[0133] The group has been studying the function of cholinergic T cells in various contexts, and the inventors were interested in exploring their function in liver cancer. To determine whether cholinergic signaling plays a role during HCC development, the inventors analyzed the expression pattern of Chat in liver tissues of Chat-GFP reporter mice. In contrast to the extensive cholinergic neural fibers and plexuses in the mucosa and muscular layer of the small intestine, the inventors found no Chat-expressing neural fibers in either the parenchyma of normal liver or in HCCs (data not shown) , findings in line with earlier reports. However, the inventors did observe accumulations of lymphocyte-like Chat-expressing cells in HCC of Chat-GFP mice (data not shown) . Flow cytometric analysis of the co-expression of Chat and various immune cell markers by these cells showed that the Chat-GFP+ CD4+ T cells in HCCs were comprised mainly of a subset of CD44+ activated T cells that significantly increased in number during HCC progression (Fig. 2A) . The percentages of Chat-GFP-expressing CD8+ T cells and NKT cells were also significantly elevated upon induction of HCC but to a lesser extent (Fig. 2A) . In comparison, the percentage of Chat-GFP+ B cells did not differ between control and HCC-bearing livers, and the expression of Chat-GFP by NK cells and CD11b+myeloid cells was negligible (Fig. 10A) . Consistent with these data, the overall level of Chat mRNA in bulk intrahepatic mononuclear cells from HCC-bearing livers was enhanced, reflecting the induction of Chat-expressing T cells (Fig. 10B) .
[0134] The transcriptional landscape of Chat-expressing CD4+ T cells in HCC
[0135] To delineate the heterogeneity and complexity of cholinergic CD4+ T cells and elucidate the induction of these cells in HCC, the inventors conducted single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) on sorted Chat-GFP+ and Chat-GFP-CD4+ T cells from 4 control and 4 HCC-bearing livers. To preserve the entire CD4+ T cell repertoire while enriching for Chat-expressing cells, the inventors sorted the Chat-GFP+ and Chat-GFP-cells for single-cell analysis. The cells from individual mice were labeled with distinct antibody barcodes to enable sample de-convolution, pooled, and processed for CITE-seq coupled with TCR-seq. In total, eleven clusters of CD4+ T cells were identified: clusters C1 and C8 are two T cell clusters; C2 comprised Th17 cells and cells expressing IL18 receptor genes; C3 cells co-expressed Cxcr6 and Pdcd1; C4 contained follicular T helper cells (Tfh) and follicular regulatory T cells (Tfr) ; C5 cells were actively cycling; C6 cells expressed Ccl5 and Nkg7 but few other markers; C7 cells expressed Cxcr6 but were negative for Pdcd1; C9 cells were canonical Tregs; C10 cells showed strong expression of Eomes, Prf1, Gzmk, Fasl, Gzmb and other cytotoxic genes; and C11 was a minor cluster exhibiting high expression of interferon-stimulated genes (Figs. 2B-2D) . When these clusters were compared between control and HCC-bearing livers, the inventors observed a marked shift from T cells to effector T cells in the presence of HCC, and particularly induction of the C3 cluster.
[0136] Compared to Chat-GFP-cells, the Chat-GFP+ population lacked clusters C1 and C8 ( T cells) plus C7, with C2 cells also under-represented (Fig. 2C) . Cells in the C3, C4, C9, and C10 clusters were over-represented among HCC Chat-GFP+ T cells (Fig. 2C) . The inventors identified two subsets of Foxp3-expressing T cells, one in C4 and the other in C9. Comparing their transcriptomes, the inventors discerned that the Foxp3+ cells in C4 were Tfr cells that overexpressed Bcl6, Tcf7, Gpm6b and other Tfr-associated genes, and underexpressed Itgae and Gzmb (Figs. 10C and 10D) ; this signature is consistent with previous reports. Across all 4 HCC-bearing mice, Foxp3+ cells were significantly enriched among Chat-expressing T cells (Fig. 10E) .
[0137] Cxcr6, a marker for resident T cells in the liver, was enriched primarily in the C3 and C7 clusters. In HCC livers, the Chat-GFP+ compartment contains a substantial number of C3 (Cxcr6+Pdcd1+) cells but is devoid of C7 (Cxcr6+Pdcd1-) cells (Fig. 2C) . These C3 cells showed high expression of inhibitory immunoreceptors and exhaustion marker genes such as Pdcd1, Havcr2, Ptpn11, Lag3, Tox, and Tigit. The inventors noted that these Pdcd1+ T cells also expressed PD-L1 (CD247) , potentially providing an autologous ligand for PD-1 binding in addition to the PD-L1 expressed on antigen-presenting cells and HCC cells (Figs. 2E) . In contrast, the C7 cells strongly expressed differentiation, cytotoxicity-related, and other functional genes such as Il2ra, Il4, Il2, Fasl, Gzmb, and Csf2. These results suggest that Chat expression is associated with the appearance of dysfunctional Pdcd1+ T cells.
[0138] The inventors then evaluated the relevance of the observations to human HCC. Examination of a published single-cell RNAseq dataset derived from immune cells isolated from HCC patients showed that CHAT-expressing T cells, including CD4+FOXP3+ Tregs, PDCD1+, GZMK+ and proliferating CD8+ T cells, were indeed present in liver tumor tissues (Fig. 10F) . In contrast, no CHAT-expressing T cells were detected in adjacent normal liver tissues of these patients (Fig. 10G) . Thus, the existence and phenotypes of human CHAT-expressing T cells are consistent with the scRNAseq data on T cells from mouse HCC, indicating that a similar induction program of CHAT-expressing T cells also occurs in human HCCs.
[0139] Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+CD4+ T cells are induced in HCC
[0140] Based on the scRNAseq results, the inventors further explored the fates of Chat-expressing T cells by flow cytometry. The accumulation of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is an immune hallmark of liver cancer. In the model, Foxp3+ Tregs increased significantly during tumor progression, and the inventors observed a marked expansion of Foxp3+Chat-GFP+ T cells and Tregs alongside with the expansion of Tregs during HCC development (Figs. 3A and 3B) .
[0141] HCC livers also exhibited a significant increase in the percentage of Foxp3-Chat-GFP+CD4+ T cells (Fig. 3C) . The percentage of PD-1+CD4+ T cells was higher in HCC-bearing livers than in control livers, and these cells preferentially expressed Chat-GFP (data not shown) . As a result, PD-1+Chat-GFP+CD4+ T cells were also elevated in HCCs (Fig. 3D) . Furthermore, the inventors observed significantly higher expression of Ki67 in Chat-expressing Foxp3+ Tregs and Chat-expressing Foxp3+ conventional T cells (Tconvs) (Fig. 3E) , suggesting that proliferation underlies the induction of Chat-expressing T cells in liver cancer.
[0142] Histologically, Chat-GFP+ Foxp3+ Tregs and Chat-GFP+ Tconvs accumulated at the border between a tumor and adjacent healthy liver tissue, and were also present in immune cell clusters associated with neoplastic hepatocytes (data not shown) . Collectively, these results indicate that lymphocytes are the dominant cholinergic cells in both healthy and HCC-bearing livers, and that Chat-expressing T cells, especially Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+ Tconvs, are induced during tumor development.
[0143] Tumor antigens drive clonal expansion of Chat-expressing CD4+ T cells in liver cancer
[0144] The proliferation characteristic of Chat-expressing T cells in HCC liver led us to investigate the driving force behind their expansion. Single-cell TCR-seq revealed repeated TCR types across all animals (as defined by shared amino acid sequences for both the TCR-α and TCR-β chains) (Figs. 4A and 4B) . Among the top 30 most prevalent TCR types, only 5 were present in control mice, while the remaining 25 were observed in their HCC-bearing littermates. Intriguingly, the prevalent TCRs in control mice preferentially belonged to Chat-GFP-T cells, while those in HCC-bearing mice were more commonly found on Chat-GFP+ T cells (Figs. 4A and 4B) . These results demonstrate a TCR-specific expansion of Chat-GFP+ T cells in liver cancer.
[0145] The most dominant TCR type in HCC was TCR #1, which was encoded by 25 clonotypes (as defined by shared mRNA sequences for both the TCR-α and TCR-β chains) . These clonotypes consisted of synonymous mRNA variants using the same combination of V, D, and J genes. The variations arose from distinct junctions of the V, D, and J segments occurring in different HCC-bearing mice, but the resulting amino acid sequence was identical due to codon redundancy (Fig. 4C) . **The V, D, J segments and N-nucleotides and P- nucleotides at V (D) J junctions as well as the mismatched nucleotides between clonotypes are indicated in Tables 1 and 2. The majority of clonotypes were predominantly observed in Chat-GFP+ cells (Fig. 4D) . This TCR convergence across HCC-bearing mice suggests that TCRs specific for HCC antigens elicit the expansion of CD4+ T cells, particularly within the Chat-GFP+CD4+ T cell compartment.
[0146] Table 1. TCR-β CDR3 of TCR #1 Sequence Components
[0147] Table 2. TCR-β CDR3 of TCR #1 Sequence Components
[0148] The inventors next examined the nature of the cells bearing particular TCR types. T cells carrying TCR #1 were mainly from the C3 cluster that harbored Chat-expressing Pdcd1+ Tconvs (Fig. 4D) . In contrast, T cells carrying TCR #22 were chiefly Chat-expressing Foxp3+ Tregs (data not shown) . These results support the clonal expansion of Chat-expressing PD-1+Tconvs and Foxp3+ Tregs in mice. Pertinently, clonal expansion of Tregs has also been revealed by TCR usage analysis at the single-cell level in human HCC.
[0149] Exceptionally, T cells bearing TCR #3 were exclusively Chat-GFP-cells in HCC (Fig. 4B) . The inventors found that these T cells belonged primarily to cluster C7. They expressed Cxcr6 but were negative for Pdcd1 and Foxp3 (data not shown) . A comparison of the abundance of Chat-GFP+ cells expressing TCR #3 versus other TCR types could suggest that the induction of Chat-expressing T cells is conjugated with the T cell phenotype and could be due to the expansion of T cells carrying certain TCRs. However, the inventors also found that, among the 25 clonotypes of TCR #1, clone14 and clone25 were predominantly C3 cells but negative for Chat-GFP, although they carried the same TCR and shared a similar composition of cell clusters with many other Chat-GFP+ clonotypes of TCR #1. The inventors postulate that this clonal divergence in Chat expression could reflect the complexity of the tumor microenvironment, in line with the observation of aggregations of T cells and antigen-presenting cells in various regions of liver sections (data not shown) .
[0150] To determine the role of the tumor antigens in the induction of Chat-expressing T cells in the HCC model, the inventors crossed Chat-GFP mice with transgenic OT-II mice expressing an OVA-specific TCR. First, the inventors subjected Chat-GFP; OT-II mice to the standard HCC induction protocol, which does not involve OVA expression. The inventors found that Chat-GFP+ T cells did not become significantly elevated (Fig. 4E) . Most Chat-GFP+ cells in these Chat-GFP; OT-II mice belonged to the CD4+ T cell subset and expressed a natural repertoire of TCRs that are negative for Vβ5 (Figs. 4F and 4G) . Thus, the induction of Chat does not occur in T cells whose TCRs recognize non-tumor antigens.
[0151] Next, the inventors used chicken ovalbumin (OVA) to mimic a tumor antigen and devised a vector allowing the inducible expression of cytosolic OVA with constitutive expression of Myc. The inventors introduced this vector alongside the CRISPR Trp53 / Pten deletion vector into Chat-GFP; OT-II mice (Fig. 4H) . When HCCs were palpable, doxycycline (Dox) was administered to these mice through their drinking water to induce OVA expression (Fig. 4I) . When the inventors compared Chat expression in Dox-treated and untreated mice, the inventors found that about 40%of OVA-specific (TCR Vβ5+) CD4+ T cells expressed Chat upon the induction of OVA expression in HCCs (Fig. 4J) . In the untreated mice, only about 2%of TCR Vβ5+CD4+ T cells expressed Chat, comparable to the percentage in Chat-GFP; OT-II mice bearing OVA-negative HCC (Figs. 4F, 4F, and 4J) . Interestingly, the inventors also observed an elevation in the percentage of Chat-GFP+ cells among CD4+ T cells carrying natural TCRs (TCR Vβ5-) (Fig. 4J) , suggesting that Chat expression in T cells can also be induced through “antigen spreading” .
[0152] The inventors then investigated the characteristics of various subsets of OVA-specific Chat+ T cells in the HCC model with inducible OVA expression. The inventors found that Tregs were markedly induced upon the activation of OVA expression by Dox, especially among OVA-specific T cells (TCR Vβ5+) (data not shown) . There was also an induction of Chat-GFP+ T cells among both Foxp3+ Tregs and Foxp3-Tconvs harboring OVA-specific TCRs (data not shown) . PD-1 was highly expressed by these OVA-specific Tconvs and about 40%of these cells were Chat-GFP+ (data not shown) . Taken together, these data confirm that tumor antigens are capable of inducing Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+ Tconvs, and demonstrate that the expansion of Chat-expressing T cells in liver cancer is dependent on TCR activation by tumor antigens.
[0153] Ablation of Chat in T cells dampens HCC immunosurveillance in mice
[0154] To determine the role of Chat-expressing T cells in the onset of liver cancer, the inventors deleted Chat specifically in T cells by crossing mice carrying the conditional Chatfl allele to mice expressing the CD4-Cre transgene, thereby obtaining Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre progeny. When the inventors subjected these animals (and Chatfl / fl controls) to the standard HCC induction protocol, the inventors found that Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice developed liver cancer much faster than their Chatfl / fl littermates (Fig. 5A) . The numbers of tumor nodules and liver weights were also significantly increased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Figs. 5B-5D) .
[0155] To further substantiate the role of Chat-expressing T cells in liver tumorigenesis, the inventors employed an alternative disease model in which Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre and Chatfl / fl mice were fed long-term on a Western diet (high fat, high cholesterol and high sugar) to induce non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) . NASH sets the stage for liver cirrhosis, which eventually progresses to spontaneous HCC. After 15 months on the Western diet, the inventors found that the incidence of NASH-derived HCC was significantly higher in mice bearing T cells lacking Chat (Fig. 5E) . The consistency of the results from two models of HCC development establish that a deficiency of Chat in T cells renders mice susceptible to liver tumorigenesis.
[0156] Before overt tumor nodules appeared, preneoplastic cells could be identified by their high Myc expression (data not shown) , reflecting successful transfection and oncogene expression. The proportion of preneoplastic hepatocytes showing high Myc expression was significantly elevated in livers of Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, and this increase was not due to a difference in vector delivery (Figs. 5F, 11A, and 11B) . Immune cells are critical for clearing preneoplastic cells from the liver, thereby restraining malignant transformation. In control Chatfl / fl mice, the inventors observed immune cell clusters around MYC-expressing preneoplastic cells (data not shown) . These clusters were reduced in frequency and size in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Figs. 5G and 5H) , suggesting a defect in T cell-mediated immunosurveillance of preneoplastic cells. Consistent with this finding, the infiltration of T cells into HCC-bearing livers was significantly decreased in the absence of Chat (Figs. 5I, 11C, and 11D) .
[0157] IFN-γ production is a hallmark of the Th1 adaptive immune response, and this cytokine has a pivotal function in anti-tumor immunity. The inventors found that IFN-γ production by HCC-associated T cells was decreased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Figs. 5J-5L and 11E) . In addition to the adaptive immune responses, innate cytotoxic NK cells play a crucial role in anti-tumor immune response in HCC. The inventors observed that the mRNA levels of IFN-γ, granzymes and perforin, cytotoxic effectors shared by cytotoxic T cells and NK cells, were significantly decreased in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. These deficits correlated with reduced expression of NK cell marker genes (Fig. 5L) . Therefore, both adaptive and innate anti-tumor immune responses are hampered by the ablation of Chat in T cells.
[0158] Tregs participate in the dampening of anti-tumor immunity in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice
[0159] To delve more deeply into the mechanism of anti-tumor immunity mediated by Chat-expressing T cells, the inventors devised a vector mediating co-expression of cytosolic OVA alongside Myc. The inventors introduced this vector plus the CRISPR Trp53 / Pten deletion vector into OVA-immunized and non-immunized mice (Fig. 12A) . In non-immunized control mice, tumor progression to endpoint was significantly accelerated by Chat ablation in T cells (Figs. 12B and 12C) , consistent with the previous observations shown in Fig. 5A. However, OVA-immunized Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice were equally protected against HCC development (Figs. 12B and 12C) . These results showed that the anti-tumor immune response elicited by a potently immunogenic tumor antigen was not compromised in the absence of Chat in T cells. In addition, depletion of CTLs by anti-CD8 antibodies had little effect on the liver tumor burden (Figs. 12D and 12E) . Thus, CTLs do not play a non-redundant role in the immunosurveillance of liver cancer in this setting.
[0160] To determine if loss of adaptive immune cells in general would compromise anti-tumor immunity in the model, the inventors compared the onset of HCC in lymphocyte-deficient Rag1- / -mice with that in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. In contrast to the significantly increased tumor burden in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, the progression of HCC was not exacerbated in Rag1- / -mice but instead was alleviated (Figs. 12F and 12G) . The inventors reasoned that this unexpected observation could be attributed to the absence of Tregs and dysfunctional effector T cells in Rag1- / -mice. This loss of control by adaptive immune cells (especially Tregs) causes Rag1- / -mice to exhibit an excessive innate immune response by NK cells. The fact that HCC progression was aggravated in NSG mice [which lack both adaptive immune cells and NK cells (Fig. 1D) ] bolsters the contention that the anti-tumor activity of NK cells in the model is curbed by adaptive immune cells, particularly Tregs.
[0161] To investigate the hypothesis that the accelerated tumor onset seen in mice with T cell-specific Chat ablation could be due to suppression of anti-tumor responses by elevated Treg activity and / or dysfunction of Tconvs, the inventors examined how Tregs modulated the anti-tumor activity of Chat-expressing T cells. The inventors observed no difference in the abundance of Foxp3+ Tregs in liver tumors of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Fig. 12H) . However, the expression level of CD25 by Foxp3+ Tregs in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice was substantially increased compared to controls (Figs. 6A and 6B) . In contrast, the expression of CTLA-4, another essential effector molecule of Tregs was similar in T cells from HCC-bearing livers of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Figs. 12I and 12J) . To further clarify the cholinergic regulation of CD25 expression by Tregs, the inventors purified CD25-CD4+ T cells from spleens of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice and analyzed CD25 induction following TCR stimulation by anti-CD3 / 28 beads. CD25 expression in Foxp3+ Tregs from Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice was significantly higher than in Tregs from Chatfl / fl mice (Fig. 12K) . This induction of CD25 by TCR activation was much stronger on Tregs than on Tconvs, and only a minor elevation of CD25 expression was noticeable on Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre Tconvs compared to Chatfl / fl Tconvs (Fig. 12K) . Therefore, TCR-induced expression of CD25 in Tregs is modulated by intrinsic cholinergic signaling in T cells.
[0162] To determine the role of Tregs in the HCC model, the inventors employed anti-CD25 antibodies to deplete CD25-expressing Tregs (Fig. 6C) . The inventors observed that the enhanced tumor burden in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice was partially rescued upon Treg depletion (Fig. 6D) . Together, these results point toward the involvement of Tregs in the suppression of anti-tumor immune responses that occurs in the absence of Chat in T cells.
[0163] CD25-expressing Tregs inhibit the anti-tumor activities of cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice showed significantly increased expression of CD25 on Tregs (Figs. 6A and 6B) and reduced numbers of IFN-γ+CD4+ T cells and NK cells (Figs. 5J-5L) . To specifically interrogate the anti-tumor roles of cytotoxic CD4+ T cells and NK cells in the model, the inventors removed CD4+ T cells or NK cells during HCC induction using anti-CD4-or anti-NK1.1-depleting antibodies (Figs. 6E, 12L, and 12M) . CD4+ T cell depletion did not affect HCC progression in Chatfl / fl mice but tended to reduce it in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Figs. 6F and 6G) . This result suggested that the collective functions of Tregs and Tconvs in HCC are neutral in Chatfl / fl mice. In contrast, Chat deletion in T cells tilted the balance towards HCC promotion due to increased Treg activity and potential Tconv dysfunction. Because the depletion of CD4+ T cells abolished the difference between Chatfl / fl mice and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice with respect to HCC development, it appears that the independent contributions to HCC from other Chat-expressing T lineage cells, including CD8+ T cells and NKT cells, are minor. Notably, the inventors observed that the depletion of NK cells significantly promoted HCC development in Chatfl / fl mice but not in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, essentially eliminating the differences in tumor progression (Figs. 6F and 6G) . Thus, NK cells are indispensable for HCC immunosurveillance in the model. In the absence of cholinergic T cells, a deficit that elevates Tregs activity, the anti-tumor functions of NK cells are impeded.
[0164] Absence of Chat in T cells leads to dysregulated PD-1 activity that impairs HCC immunosurveillance
[0165] To specifically investigate the role of Chat in Tregs, the inventors crossed Chatfl / fl mice with Foxp3Cre mice and applied the HCC model to Foxp3Cre and Foxp3Cre; Chatfl / fl littermates. The inventors found that specifically deleting Chat in Tregs had a milder effect on HCC progression than did deleting Chat in total T cells (Figs. 7A and 7B) . This result suggests that Chat-expressing Tconvs are indispensable for a full-fledged anti-HCC immune response. As demonstrated above, Chat-expressing Tconvs induced in HCC are primarily PD-1+ T cells (Fig. 3D) that co-express inhibitory immunoreceptors such as Tim-3 (Havcr2) , Lag-3, CTLA-4, and other molecules characteristic of T cell exhaustion and dysfunction (Fig. 2E) . The examination of Foxp3-CD4+ Tconvs showed that PD-1 expression was significantly higher in cells of Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice than in those from Chatfl / fl mice (Figs. 7A and 7B) . Notably, PD-1 levels strongly correlated with HCC grade in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice but not in Chatfl / fl mice (Fig. 7C) . The inventors previously reported that loss of Chat in T cells promotes the expression of PD-1, Tim-3, and Lag-3 during chronic viral infection. In the present study, both CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells in HCC-bearing livers showed a broad trend of upregulation of these inhibitory receptors in the absence of cholinergic T cells (Figs. 13C-13H) . Thus, in the absence of cholinergic signaling in T cells, an unleashing of PD-1 inhibitory activity occurs that may restrict the functions of anti-tumor Tconvs, allowing HCC progression.
[0166] To test this hypothesis, the inventors applied PD-1 blockade antibodies to Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice subjected to the standard HCC induction protocol (Fig. 7D) . As reported for previously described pre-clinical models of NASH-induced HCC, the inventors did not observe a therapeutic effect of PD-1 blockade on control Chatfl / fl mice. This could be due to the expression of Chat by PD-1+ Tconvs and the negative effects of cholinergic activity on PD-1 expression in the model. However, PD-1 blockade significantly reduced HCC development in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice, substantially eliminating the differences in tumor progression (Fig. 7E) . The inventors did observe two tumor-free animals among anti-PD-1-treated Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice (Fig. 7E) , a status rarely seen for this genotype. These data indicate that Chat-expressing Tconvs invigorate anti-tumor immune responses by preventing dysregulation of the inhibitory activity of PD-1.
[0167] TCR-induced Ca2+ / NFAT signaling is attenuated by cholinergic activity in T cells
[0168] CD25 expression is controlled by the transcription factor NFAT, which is regulated by calcium signaling. TCR-induced Ca2+ / NFAT signaling is indispensable to T cell exhaustion and induces the expression of inhibitory surface receptors such as PD-1, Lag-3 and Tim-3. Several recent reports suggest that NFAT-induced transcription factors, including NR4A and TOX, drive T cell exhaustion and dysfunction. The inventors therefore sought to determine if cholinergic activity affects calcium signaling in T cells. The inventors purified CD4+ T cells from spleens of Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice and subjected them to TCR stimulation via CD3 ligation. The inventors observed that the calcium influx elicited by TCR engagement was significantly stronger in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre T cells than in their Chatfl / flcounterparts (Figs. 8A-8C) . Furthermore, the TCR activation-induced nuclear translocation of NFAT was higher in Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre T cells than in Chatfl / flT cells (Fig. 8D) . Interestingly, when Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre T cells were pre-stimulated with ACh, the nuclear translocation of NFAT was no longer inducible by TCR activation (Fig. 8D) . Thus, cholinergic activity in T cells constrains TCR-induced calcium / NFAT signaling.
[0169] Acetylcholine regulates intracellular calcium levels by binding to its nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) and muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs) . The inventors found that Tregs and Tconvs in livers of HCC-bearing mice expressed similar arrays of AChRs (Fig. 8E) . To decipher the effects of the differing AchR classes on TCR signaling, the inventors applied either a nicotinic agonist or a muscarinic agonist to Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre T cells in vitro. Nicotine, which activates nAChRs, had no detectable influence on TCR-induced NFAT translocation. In contrast, oxotremorine methiodide (Oxo-M) , a mAChR agonist, induced an elevation of NFAT nuclear translocation by itself, and abolished subsequent TCR-induced NFAT translocation (Fig. 8D) .
[0170] It has been established that the Gq / 11-coupled m1, m3 and m5 mAChRs elicit Ca2+release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by activating the downstream PLC / IP3 / IP3R cascade, the same pathway triggered by TCR signaling. The mobilization of Ca2+ in T cells is a biphasic event divided into the initial releasing of intracellular ER Ca2+ stores and the subsequent extracellular Ca2+ influx from “calcium release-activated calcium” (CRAC) channels. The CRAC channels can also be triggered by muscarinic agonist or activation of the m1 AChR in T cells. However, the activation of this muscarinic receptor depletes the IP3-sensitive Ca2+ pool (ER Ca2+) and renders the T cells unresponsive to further CRAC channel-dependent stimulation. In line with these findings, the results indicate that cholinergic signaling via muscarinic receptors desensitizes T cells to TCR-induced Ca2+ / NFAT signaling.
[0171] Parallels to human HCC
[0172] In an effort to initiate the translation of the mouse model findings to the human situation, the inventors examined the expression of relevant molecules in human HCCs. In scrutinizing data on gene expression patterns by T cells from HCC patients, the inventors noted that these cells not only expressed CHAT but also a similar array of mAChRs and nAChRs (Fig. 14A) . To further study this association between cholinergic signaling and human HCC pathology, the inventors examined HCC cases profiled by TCGA. The inventors observed that high expression of CHRM3 or CHRM5 in HCC patient samples was positively correlated with a favorable prognosis (Figs. 14B-14D) . To determine if CHRM3 and CHRM5 play a direct HCC suppressive role in HCC cells, the inventors designed CRISPR vectors to target m3 and m5 receptors and induced m3KOm5KO HCC. The inventors found that the knockout of m3 and m5 AChRs in HCC cells did not significantly affect HCC development (Figs. 14E and 14F) . Therefore, the data do not support a direct suppressive role on HCC by CHRM3 and CHRM5 in HCC cells. It is likely that a cholinergic program in T cells plays a protective role against liver tumorigenesis in both humans and mice.
[0173] Collectively, the results of the study support a model (Fig. 8F) whereby tumor antigens induce the expansion of Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+ Tconvs. ACh produced by these T cells modulate TCR-induced Ca2+ signaling to prevent hyperactivity of this pathway. In the absence of such cholinergic modulation, the Ca2+ / NFAT pathway becomes hyperactivated so as to increase immunosuppression by Tregs and imposes the dysfunction of Tconvs, resulting in compromised anti-tumor immunity.
[0174] Discussion
[0175] Acetylcholine, the first identified neurotransmitter, is a phylogenetically ancient molecule. In addition to mediating neural signaling, ACh plays roles in non-neural cell-cell communication that are shared by organisms in all domains of life. As noted above, a role for cholinergic signaling in regulating the development of several cancers has been established. For example, engagement of nAChRs mediates human lung cancer growth, and cholinergic nerves fuel metastasis via the M1 mAChR in prostate cancer. In gastric cancer, cholinergic innervation promotes oncogenesis via stimulation of Wnt signaling through an M3 mAChR-dependent pathway. However, whether cholinergic signaling functions in liver cancer has been largely unexplored. In this study, the inventors devised a novel genetic model of HCC development in mice and observed that neither healthy nor HCC-bearing livers harbored cholinergic nerves, corroborating previous results. However, the inventors did find a substantial number of Chat-expressing lymphocytes in liver, especially in those bearing HCC nodules. Although ACh was originally isolated from spleen back in 1929, its contribution to immune regulation has only recently been appreciated. Subsets of both T and B lymphocytes have been found to express Chat and produce ACh. To date, Chat-expressing T cells have been described as: relaying neural signals in the spleen to modulate immune responses regulating blood pressure, and promoting anti-viral immune responses. This study adds to the expanding view of the multifaceted functions of Chat-expressing T cells by uncovering their role in liver cancer immunosurveillance.
[0176] The immune milieu of the liver of a mammal at steady-state favors tolerance over immune responses in order to prevent over-reaction to harmless antigens from food, microbial substances, or by-products of metabolism. Liver Tregs have a crucial function in the maintenance of this peripheral tolerance state. In the livers of HCC patients, Treg infiltration is prominently elevated, alongside the exhaustion and impaired function of CD8+ T cells. The expansion of Tregs and exhausted T cells in HCC patients is clonal in nature, as has been revealed by scRNAseq. Using scRNAseq and flow cytometric analysis, the inventors confirmed the induction of Foxp3+ Tregs and PD-1+ Tconvs in the HCC model and showed that Chat-expressing T cells predominantly belong to these two populations.
[0177] The clonal expansion of the Chat-expressing Tregs and PD-1+ Tconvs in the model appears to be driven by tumor antigens. It should be stressed that the HCC model does not involve viral vectors or mutant proteins, so that the tumor antigens involved here are “self” proteins. Such proteins are generally considered to be weakly immunogenic, particularly within the tolerogenic immune milieu in liver. In this situation, the T cell immune response to weak tumor antigens tends to be dysfunctional and unreactive to the cancer. Such a molecular program of dysfunction is able to be detected as early as in premalignant HCC. The data indicate that Chat deficiency in T cells exacerbates the dysfunction of Tconvs and reinforces the immunosuppressive function of Tregs, resulting in significantly compromised immunosurveillance against liver cancer. The inventors also use OVA as a foreign tumor antigen to induce OVA-HCC in immunized mice. In this situation, the HCC onset will induce potent anti-tumor immune responses rather than accumulation of dysfunctional Tconvs and Tregs. Indeed, OVA-HCC development was effectively prevented in both Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre mice. Taken together, these data indicate that the cholinergic activity of T cells is most relevant when triggered by “self” tumor antigens.
[0178] Many actions of ACh in the nervous system are mediated through calcium signaling via either G protein-coupled mAChRs or ionotropic nAChRs. nAChRs are ACh-gated ionic channels with a variable range of permeability to calcium. Members of the M1-type family (m1, m3, and m5) mAChRs are coupled with Gq / 11 and elicit the PLC / IP3 / IP3R cascade to trigger ER Ca2+ release. Members of the M2-type family (m2 and m4) mAChRs are generally linked via Gi / o to cAMP production. The inventors demonstrated that these three classes of AChRs are expressed by both Tconvs and Tregs in HCC-bearing livers. Premack et al. elegantly showed that, in T lymphocytes, m1 receptor activation and TCR engagement rely on the same molecular pathway to trigger Ca2+ influx, and that, due to this overlap, their calcium signaling are mutually exclusive. In their study, the maximal cholinergic stimulation mediated by overexpressed m1 receptor completely emptied the ER Ca2+ store, the Ca2+ pool essential for TCR-induced calcium signaling. Moreover, the cholinergic signaling-mediated ER Ca2+release occurred in a quantal manner: a submaximal concentration of cholinergic agonist rapidly released a fraction of the Ca2+ store, followed by a slower or terminated Ca2+ release. Certain mechanisms, including the inactivation of IP3 receptors, can be triggered to attenuate ER Ca2+ release. During persistent submaximal cholinergic stimulation, the ER Ca2+ release elicited by other IP3-dependent agonist is dampened. Due to the modest expression levels of AChRs by T cells and the ubiquitous presence of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) , the inventors realized that the autocrine / paracrine ACh signaling by T cells can operate in such a submaximal way. Accordingly, although the inventors did not observe significant differences in basal levels of Ca2+ influx and NFAT nuclear translocation between Chatfl / fl and Chatfl / fl; CD4-Cre T cells, both TCR-induced Ca2+ influx and NFAT nuclear translocation were elevated in the absence of cholinergic activity in T cells. Moreover, ACh pretreatment inhibited TCR-induced NFAT nuclear translocation. Collectively, these data lead to a model in which autocrine / paracrine ACh produced by Chat-expressing T cells affects their calcium homeostasis. This altered Ca2+ status restrains the expression of CD25 by Tregs and the expression of PD-1 and other exhaustion markers by Tconvs. In the absence of Chat in T cells, hyper-immunosuppressive Tregs and dysfunctional Tconvs interfere with adaptive and innate anti-tumor responses and permit HCC progression.
[0179] HCC patients show a partial response to immune checkpoint monotherapy using PD-1 inhibitors, and there is still a lack of biomarkers to predict prognosis. The inventors have shown that cholinergic activity in T cells controls dysfunctional PD-1+ Tconvs, and that anti-PD-1 immunotherapy has a more significant effect on mice bearing Chat deficient T cells than on those with wild-type T cells. Therefore, T cell cholinergic activity can be used as a biomarker of response to immune checkpoint blockade in liver cancer.
[0180] In conclusion, the study shows that lymphocytes are the dominant cholinergic cells in HCC-bearing livers, and Chat-expressing T cells orchestrate immune responses against HCC. The studies indicate that lymphocyte-mediated cholinergic regulation of liver carcinogenesis can be exploited to enhance anti-tumor immune responses in liver cancer patients.
[0181] It is understood that the disclosed method and compositions are not limited to the particular methodology, protocols, and reagents described as these can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention which will be limited only by the appended claims.
[0182] Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the word “comprise” and variations of the word, such as “comprising” and “comprises, ” means “including but not limited to, ” and is not intended to exclude, for example, other additives, components, integers or steps.
[0183] “Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event, circumstance, or material may or may not occur or be present, and that the description includes instances where the event, circumstance, or material occurs or is present and instances where it does not occur or is not present.
[0184] Unless the context clearly indicates otherwise, use of the word “can” indicates an option or capability of the object or condition referred to. Generally, use of “can” in this way is meant to positively state the option or capability while also leaving open that the option or capability could be absent in other forms or embodiments of the object or condition referred to. Unless the context clearly indicates otherwise, use of the word “may” indicates an option or capability of the object or condition referred to. Generally, use of “may” in this way is meant to positively state the option or capability while also leaving open that the option or capability could be absent in other forms or embodiments of the object or condition referred to. Unless the context clearly indicates otherwise, use of “may” herein does not refer to an unknown or doubtful feature of an object or condition.
[0185] Ranges can be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and / or to “about” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, also specifically contemplated and considered disclosed is the range from the one particular value and / or to the other particular value unless the context specifically indicates otherwise. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about, ” it will be understood that the particular value forms another, specifically contemplated embodiment that should be considered disclosed unless the context specifically indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint unless the context specifically indicates otherwise. It should be understood that all of the individual values and sub-ranges of values contained within an explicitly disclosed range are also specifically contemplated and should be considered disclosed unless the context specifically indicates otherwise. Finally, it should be understood that all ranges refer both to the recited range as a range and as a collection of individual numbers from and including the first endpoint to and including the second endpoint. In the latter case, it should be understood that any of the individual numbers can be selected as one form of the quantity, value, or feature to which the range refers. In this way, a range describes a set of numbers or values from and including the first endpoint to and including the second endpoint from which a single member of the set (i.e. a single number) can be selected as the quantity, value, or feature to which the range refers. The foregoing applies regardless of whether in particular cases some or all of these embodiments are explicitly disclosed.
[0186] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of skill in the art to which the disclosed method and compositions belong. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present method and compositions, the particularly useful methods, devices, and materials are as described. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention. No admission is made that any reference constitutes prior art. The discussion of references states what their authors assert, and applicants reserve the right to challenge the accuracy and pertinency of the cited documents. It will be clearly understood that, although a number of publications are referred to herein, such reference does not constitute an admission that any of these documents forms part of the common general knowledge in the art.
[0187] Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the method and compositions described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.
Claims
1.A method of treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising treating the subject with a therapy effective to increase the level of acetylcholine in T cells.2.The method of claim 1, wherein the therapy increases choline acetyltransferase (Chat) expression in T cells.3.The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the therapy increases the activity choline acetyltransferase (Chat) in T cells.4.The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the therapy comprises administering to the subject a Chat agonist.5.The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the therapy comprises administering to the subject a cholinergic agonist.6.The method of claim 5, wherein the cholinergic agonist is a muscarinic cholinergic agonist.7.The method of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) expression in T cells.8.The method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the therapy decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in T cells.9.The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the therapy increases the population of Chat-expressing T cells in the subject.10.The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the therapy increases the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject.11.The method of claim 10, wherein increasing the population of cholinergic T cells in the subject comprises infusing into the subject autogeneic cholinergic T cells.12.The method of claim 11, wherein the autogeneic cholinergic T cells were developed ex vivo into cholinergic T cells from allogenic T cells.13.The method of any one of claims 1-12 further comprising determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.14.The method of any one of claims 1-13 further comprising treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy after the therapy has had sufficient time to have effect.15.A method of treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising:determining the level of cholinergic T cells in the subject;treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is high; andrefraining from treating the subject with anti-PD-1 / PD-L1 immunotherapy when the determined level of cholinergic T cells in the subject is low.