Permanent magnets containing incorporated phase change material

Abstract

A permanent magnet (PM) for use in an electric machine includes at least one cavity containing a phase change material (PCM) incorporated into the PM, the PCM preferably having a phase transition temperature between about 80°C and about 200°C and a latent heat of at least 50 kJ / kg, in which the PM each cavity is a dead-end elongated chamber extending from one side of the PM having relatively shorter dimensions in two dimensions, the relatively longer dimensions of each cavity being oriented in substantially the same direction, the PM includes a hard magnetic phase and a binder phase, the PM has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 150 megapascals (MPa), the PM is mounted to a rotor of the electric machine, and is formed by cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM).

Description

[Technical field]

[0001]

[0001] The present disclosure relates generally to permanent magnets for use in electric machines. In particular, the present disclosure relates to permanent magnets for use in electric machines that include a phase change material incorporated therein. [Background technology]

[0002]

[0002] Canadian Patent Application No. 2,118,539 to Muhlberger et al. teaches an AC generator that includes in some embodiments a phase change material mixed into insulating rings of a rotor adjacent to permanent magnet (PM) material. The rotor includes alternating rings of PM and a housing for the PCM. Applicant considers "phase change material" to be synonymous with phase change material (PCM herein). The problems of mixing PCM directly into PM are not, and cannot be, solved by Muhlberger et al., resulting in substantially less effective cooling. Large surface area direct contact to a heat dissipating member is significantly superior for cooling purposes to bonded, spaced contact.

[0003]

[0003] This section is intended to introduce various aspects of the art that are believed to be related to the present disclosure. This description is believed to be helpful to a deeper understanding of certain aspects of the present disclosure. Accordingly, it should be understood that this section is to be read in this light, and not as admissions of prior art.

[0004]

[0004] It is known that the magnetic performance of permanent magnets, such as NdFeB permanent magnets, used in electric motors degrades rapidly as operating temperature increases. This limits the power output of the motor as the operating temperature of the motor increases rapidly with increasing power demand. This is particularly problematic for applications where high peak power is required for a relatively short period of time, such as during acceleration on a highway or during takeoff of an aircraft.

[0005]

[0005] It is well known that higher grade magnets - typically containing a higher percentage of heavy rare earth elements (e.g. Dy or Tb) - are relatively less susceptible to demagnetization and therefore can withstand higher maximum operating temperatures. Higher grade magnets are more expensive and the price of higher grade magnets is unstable. Furthermore, even the highest grade NdFeB magnets have a maximum operating temperature of about 170°C. Therefore, it is desirable to use temperature rise limiting (TRL) techniques in electric machines. Since it is impractical to deliver liquids into rotor components that operate at various speeds up to several thousand RPM, TRL techniques typically involve a cooling system realized by a characteristically limited thermal fluid circulation (typically liquid) in the stator of the electric machine. TRL techniques for rotor members usually rely on natural heat transfer between the rotor and the cooled stator. As mentioned above, it is known to use PCMs to prevent rotor overheating, but the incorporation of PCMs into PMs is not known.

[0006]

[0006] As a result, the manufacturing cost of a motor is heavily influenced by the material cost of the magnets. Design possibilities are limited by the magnet shapes and arrangements that can be realized by the manufacturing technology. Traditionally, PMs are manufactured by metallurgical forming and sintering of powders, but these methods do not allow for forming in the rotor, so a separate step of mounting the PMs to the rotor is typically required, which is typically achieved by adhesives, slotting, or screws. Handling, aligning, joining, and machining PMs are limited by their mechanical properties.

[0007]

[0007] For present purposes, the primary disadvantage of PM materials formed by powder metallurgy is the combination of low ultimate tensile strength, brittleness, and low ductility of PM materials, referred to herein as brittleness. The brittleness of typical high-grade PM materials poses many practical and cost limitations on the design and feature sizes and shapes that can be built into rotors in a low-cost, high-speed, quality-assured process. Thus, manufacturing costs, machining limitations, and mechanical integrity requirements lead to relatively simple, somewhat stubby and short PM shapes.

[0008]

[0008] These geometric limitations make designing an integrated TRL system very problematic, regardless of the method of assembly of the PM components. TRLs inherently and unavoidably create localized temperature gradients within the PM, which can exacerbate thermal stresses. Providing cavities and depressions in the PCM that provide the closest contact with the PM material (where thermal control is most needed) can create thin necks in the PM material that increase the risk of fracture.

[0009]

[0009] The use of additive manufacturing (AM) and especially cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) to form PM parts can solve many problems. CSAM can layer together metals (or their alloys), e.g. Cu or Al, with PM powder at a rate of several kg / hour. Metal mixed into the material improves deposition efficiency and produces PMs with improved thermal conductivity and greatly reduced brittleness. CSAM can build PM parts directly onto the rotor, achieving high bond strength and therefore high reliability. Deposition onto the rotor itself avoids complex assembly steps. All the problems with adhesives or assemblies that can limit heat transfer from the PM to the rotor or that can penetrate into the cavities of the PCM are avoided. PM designs can allow for more strategic placement of PM materials with less risk of delamination or separation of the PM from the rotor. With these less brittle and more reliably bonded PMs, many of the assembly risks, most of the workload, and design limitations can be avoided. The use of PM materials with higher resilience to stress is highly desirable for more efficiently incorporating placed PCMs within the PM and reducing the use of expensive PM materials.

[0010]

[0010] Thus, there remains a need for alternative approaches to TRL in general, and more effective localized cooling of PM in electric machines, and in rotating elements in particular. Summary of the Invention

[0011]

[0011] In an aspect of the present disclosure, a permanent magnet (PM) for use in an electric machine is provided, the PM including a phase change material (PCM) incorporated within the PM, the PCM having a phase transition temperature between about 80°C and about 200°C.

[0012]

[0012] In each embodiment, the PCM may be characterized by having a phase transition temperature between 150°C and about 250°C, having a latent heat of at least 50 kJ / kg, or including paraffin, erythritol, or a combination thereof.

[0013] In one embodiment, the permanent magnet includes a hard magnetic material having a hard magnetic phase and a binder phase. In one embodiment, the hard magnetic material consists essentially of an AlNiCo alloy, a NdFeB alloy, a SmCo alloy, a SmFeCo alloy, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the hard magnetic material consists essentially of a NdFeB, a NdFeB alloy, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the binder consists essentially of Al, Cu, Ti, Zn, Fe, Ni, Ag, Au, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof, preferably the binder includes more Al, Cu, Zn, Ni, or Fe than any other element. In one embodiment, the binder is Al, or an alloy thereof.

[0014] In one embodiment, the permanent magnet comprises at least about 34 vol.% hard magnetic phase and at least 10 vol.% binder, with at least 70% of the composition being binder and hard magnetic phase. At least 51 vol.% hard magnetic phase is required for most applications, and about 75 vol.% has been demonstrated in a reasonably effective process, but higher volume fractions of hard magnetic phase, for example as high as 85 vol.%, are possible using some deposition processes. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the volume fraction of hard magnetic phase can be increased to improve the remanence of the magnet, possibly at the expense of mechanical properties provided by the metallic binder. Furthermore, technological improvements are envisioned to provide higher volume fractions of hard magnetic phase with higher deposition efficiency.

[0015] In each embodiment, the PM includes one or more cavities, for example a 1:10 or 5:10 cavity, in which a phase change material is embedded.

[0016] In one embodiment, each of the cavities is a dead-end elongated chamber extending from one side of the PM, with shorter dimensions in two dimensions and a longer dimension in one dimension, the longer dimensions of each cavity being oriented substantially parallel to one another, or each may be locally perpendicular (within + / - 15°) to the surface of the PM. Each cavity may have a cylindrical or frustum shape suitable for creation by drilling of the PM.

[0017] In another embodiment, each of the cavities, whether surface or subsurface, extends a substantially constant distance (eg, + / - 15%) from the surface of the PM.

[0018] In one embodiment, the PM is mounted to a rotor for an electric machine. As long as the cavities are elongated, they may preferably run parallel to the rotor axis or azimuthally (circumferentially) around the axis rather than radially. The PM is preferably suitable for formation by AM and may be suitable for formation using CSAM. The rotor may be mounted to an axle and to a stator to generate an electric machine.

[0019] In one embodiment, the permanent magnet is made by additive manufacturing, for example cold spray additive manufacturing.

[0020]

[0020] Another aspect of the present disclosure is a method of manufacturing a permanent magnet, the method including the steps of providing a permanent magnet material, forming a permanent magnet by additive manufacturing using the permanent magnet material directly on a substrate, finishing the PM and creating or finishing a cavity in the PM to hold the phase change material, incorporating the phase change material into the permanent magnet, and enclosing the cavity.

[0021]

[0021] In one embodiment of the method, creating or finishing the cavity includes forming the cavity in the permanent magnet. In one embodiment, additive manufacturing further includes depositing the phase change material in a solid form, or depositing the phase change material in a powder form followed by hardening the powder, or pouring the phase change material in a liquid form followed by solidifying the liquid form. In one embodiment of the method, forming the permanent magnet includes sequentially building up the permanent magnet using the permanent magnet material to define the cavity.

[0022] In one embodiment, enclosing the cavity further includes closing the cavity using a machined press-fit or threaded cap.

[0023]

[0023] Other aspects and features of the present disclosure will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon consideration of the following description of specific embodiments in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0024]

[0024] Embodiments of the present disclosure are now described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: [Figure 1a] FIG. 1 shows a 2D schematic representation of one half of a permanent magnet motor for an electric vehicle that may be constructed in accordance with the present invention, the motor including 10 rotor poles and 12 windings. [Figure 1b] FIG. 1 shows a 3D model of one half of a permanent magnet motor for an electric vehicle that may be constructed in accordance with the present invention, the motor including 10 rotor poles and 12 windings. [Figure 2a] FIG. 2 illustrates the torque-speed curves of the motor of FIG. 1 and different motor operating points corresponding to different driving conditions. [Figure 2b] FIG. 1 illustrates different motor loss components versus operating point. [Figure 3a]FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of one half of a motor assembly according to an embodiment of the invention including the main motor components, the schematic labeled to identify the different heat transfer assumptions and gap dimensions used in a simulation of an embodiment of the invention; and a 3D model of the motor assembly. [Figure 3b] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of one half of a motor assembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention including the main motor components, the schematic diagram being labeled to identify the different heat transfer assumptions and gap dimensions used in a simulation of an embodiment of the present invention; and a top view of the motor assembly. [Figure 3c] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of one half of a motor assembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention including the main motor components, the schematic diagram being labeled to identify the different heat transfer assumptions and gap dimensions used in a simulation of an embodiment of the present invention; and a side view of the motor assembly. [Figure 4a] FIG. 2 is a schematic typical heat capacity versus temperature curve for a phase change material. [Figure 4b] 1 is a bar graph showing the ultimate tensile strength of cold sprayed additively manufactured PM materials compared to several other PM materials. [Figure 5a] 13 is a graph showing simulated average magnet side temperature rise as a function of time during an uphill driving scenario with and without an installed PCM. [Figure 5b] FIG. 13 illustrates the same characteristics of the same simulation system observed during a highway acceleration scenario. [Figure 6] FIG. 13 shows simulated magnet temperature distribution after 15 seconds of an uphill driving scenario with and without an integrated PCM. [Figure 7] 13 is a graph of magnet side temperature over a simulated electric vehicle operating scenario in which the motor is operated at steady state for one hour, the motor is operated at peak demand for 60 seconds, and then operated at steady state again for an additional one hour duration. [Figure 7a]FIG. 8 is an expanded view of the graph of FIG. 7 showing a zoom in over a period corresponding to peak demand clearly illustrating the temperature drop associated with PCM. [Figure 8a] FIG. 8 illustrates simulated average and maximum magnet temperatures under the motor operating scenario shown in FIG. [Figure 8b] This is an expanded view covering a period corresponding to peak demand. [Figure 8c] 9b is a graph of the percentage of effective phase change material melted (above 118°C) during periods of high power demand, showing that in this scenario only 10.5% of the total PCM volume is effective in the PCM configuration of FIG. 9a. [Figure 9a] FIG. 13 illustrates an example of segmenting permanent magnets for better TRL, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 9b] FIG. 13 illustrates another example of segmenting permanent magnets for better TRL, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 9c] FIG. 13 illustrates yet another example of segmenting permanent magnets for better TRL in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 10a] 9A-9C are multiple graphs of thermal transient analysis of a permanent magnet without a PCM and the three segmented example of FIGS. 9A-9C. [Figure 10b] 9 is a histogram showing the transition time to reach 150° C. for the three segmented examples of FIGS. 9a-9c. [Figure 11] FIG. 10b is a plot of the temperature distribution at the 90 second data point of the simulated process shown in FIG. [Figure 12] FIG. 13 is a panel comparing a segmented PM design with an embedded hollow PM design according to one embodiment of the present invention. The panel includes side-by-side side views for the two PM designs, temperature distribution during the simulation at corresponding instants in the scenario, and heat flux vector plots showing heat flux at corresponding instants in the scenario. [Figure 13]FIG. 13 is a temperature versus time plot for the design of FIG. 12 showing the small difference made by the incorporation of a PCM into a PM for TRL purposes. [Figure 14] FIG. 13 is a side view of a variation of the embedded cavity PM design featuring a rounded top surface, with the cavity formed by holes drilled from two opposing sides with one side sealed. [Figure 14a] FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional view of the PM design of FIG. 14 taken along line AA showing the configuration of the vertical cavity embedded in the PM. [Figure 15a] FIG. 13 is a schematic cross-sectional view through a second variation of a PM design featuring five frustum cavities of two different sizes, each formed as drilled by a tapered bit from a different respective angle perpendicular to the surface of the PM part. [Figure 15b] FIG. 15b is an end view of the PM of FIG. 15a. [Figure 16] FIG. 13 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a third variant PM design featuring an elongated cavity that is recessed from the top surface by a constant distance (as shown) and two side cavities with diameters that are non-constant and monotonically decreasing with distance from the respective side from which the side cavities begin to extend. [Figure 17] FIG. 13 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a fourth variant PM design, which features two surface ridges extending a fixed depth on the sides (as shown) of the PM, and two low-height fan-shaped depressions extending like wings down the center of the PM. [Figure 18a] FIG. 1 is a multi-graph showing the simulated temperature rise as a function of the thermal contact resistance between a PM and its rotor, where the thermal contact resistance is shown as a function of gaps of 1 / 10 mm, 1 / 20 mm, 1 / 40 mm, and no gap. [Figure 18b] 13 shows the temperature distribution model of the PM design according to FIG. 12 with each gap.

[0025]

[0044] It should be noted that the figures are merely illustrative and that no limitation to the scope of the present disclosure is intended by the drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0026]

[0045] As used herein, the terms "PM(s)," "magnet(s)," "hard magnet(s)," and "permanent magnet(s)" are used interchangeably to refer to permanent magnet(s).

[0027]

[0046] As used herein, "NdFeB" represents a hard magnetic material of or for forming a PM part, and may alternatively be represented as "FeNdB," or any other order (or proportion) of the elements Nd, Fe, and B. In some embodiments, other elements may be added to the NdFeB of the hard magnetic powder to control certain properties, such as high temperature stability.

[0028]

[0047] As used herein, "PCM" stands for phase change material.

[0029]

[0048] As used herein, "TRL" stands for temperature rise limiting and is an adjective modifying a system, technique, or structure that reduces the tendency of PM overheating, especially during operations such as high torque loads, or overburdens, or short periods of high heat output.

[0030]

[0049] Generally, the present disclosure provides a PM that includes an incorporated phase change material. The phase change material can limit the temperature rise of the PM during operation. The PM can be used in applications such as electric machines and especially electric motors. The electric motors can be used in electric ground vehicles or aircraft (including manned, remotely piloted, autonomous, or any hybrid thereof, whether with a human carrier or passenger or operator, and whether heavier than air (fixed or rotorcraft) or lighter than air or hybrid thereof). The PCM is advantageously incorporated into the structure of the PM and into the rotor of the electric motor.

[0031]

[0050] The inventors have found that when the PCM is integrally held within or embedded in the PM, the PCM reduces the temperature rise of the PM. By "embedded within," applicants intend that the PCM is surrounded by the walls of the PM in that at least 80% of the surface area of ​​the PCM is adjacent to the PM. Preferably, the PCM is surrounded on at least four sides by the PM, and more preferably on five sides.

[0032]

[0051] PCMs are materials with high latent heat that can store a large amount of energy that is absorbed when any part of the PCM reaches a phase transition temperature (see FIG. 4a). According to the present invention, the temperature is selected relative to the TRL of the electric machine under peak operating conditions. As is useful in current PM materials, the phase transition temperature is below 200° C. (e.g., about 170° C. for the highest grades of NdFeB).

[0033]

[0052] Without being bound by theory, it is believed that the incorporated PCM reduces the maximum temperature of the PM by acting as an energy storage buffer, especially during short phases when peak power is demanded from the motor. Operation of the motor allows the accumulated heat to dissipate after the peak power event.

[0034]

[0053] The PMs of the present disclosure, including the incorporated PCM, may be used in different modes and configurations to achieve some motor performance improvements or cost reductions. For example, a reduction in maximum temperature may beneficially allow the use of lower cost magnet grades that are less stable at higher operating temperatures to lower the cost of the motor. PMs including the incorporated PCM may further beneficially be used in combination with higher coil currents to improve motor peak power output while maintaining a constant maximum magnet temperature. Motor characteristics may be further tuned using the PCM, which may allow for placement of the PCM in different configurations. Given the high ultimate tensile strength of the PM material, including the metal binder and hard magnetic powder, geometry restrictions on the PM may be relaxed. The PCM incorporated in the PM may be used as a motor built-in safety feature to prevent PM temperature spikes.

[0035]

[0054] FIG. 4b is a bar graph showing the extent to which cold spray additive manufactured (but not heat treated and otherwise optimized) PM materials can have higher ultimate tensile strength (UTS) than sintered, bonded (by injection molding or compression molding with binder), or large area additive manufactured. While all of these manufacturing methods have room for binders, the parts formed are not always formed bonded to the substrate (or rotor), and not all binders can be handled with all processes, and as illustrated, CSAM provides a metal binder that improves the deposition efficiency of the cold spray process, while also providing the material with excellent strengths of 210 MPa and 355 + / - 7 MPa transverse rupture strength. The material exhibits elastic deformation, but limited plastic deformation before fracture. Thus, it is expected that various PM materials containing metal binders will be endowed with mechanical properties well suited to alleviate the TRL challenges associated with current PM, and further improvements with lower binder loadings and even greater improvements in ductility are now feasible and will be further developed over the life of the patent. The currently preferred approach for CSAM fabrication of magnets involves premixing the magnetic powder (i.e., NdFeB) with the binder powder (i.e., Al) using a predefined weight ratio of 90% NdFeB to 10% Al. This ratio is selected to maximize the volume fraction of the hard magnetic phase while maintaining sufficient deposition efficiency for industrial applications. The mixed powders are processed in the CSAM equipment with pressurized gas at temperatures between 600°C and 800°C and pressures of 4.9 MPa. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the optimal weight ratio can be significantly altered by different choices of commercially available powder morphology, size, and composition, and by spray parameters dictated by process constraints such as nozzle clogging and maximum system pressure.

[0036]

[0055] The inventors have found that it is difficult to incorporate PCMs into conventional magnets manufactured by compaction. Indeed, a retaining structure is required since the PCM becomes liquid during the phase transition and is affected by the centripetal force applied to the rotor. Conventional sintered magnets are brittle and difficult to machine, and the geometry of conventional sintered magnets is limited to simple shapes that make the manufacture of structures suitable for housing PCMs impractical. In contrast, complex hollow structures can be embedded or machined into PMs manufactured by additive manufacturing or otherwise consisting essentially of a metal binder and hard magnetic powder, allowing the designer to more effectively position and contain the PCM.

[0037]

[0056] The invention further provides a method of manufacturing a PM including an incorporated PCM. The method comprises manufacturing the PM through additive manufacturing, for example cold spray. Advantageously, the PM is manufactured directly on the substrate without the need for further assembly. The PCM is then incorporated into a magnet.

[0038]

[0057] There are several approaches to incorporating PCM into PMs made through additive manufacturing.

[0039]

[0058] For example, PM can be directly manufactured using additive manufacturing with cavities into which PCM is inserted. When PCM reaches its melting point temperature, it can become liquid. Thus, PCM stays in the cavities of PM and absorbs energy throughout its phase change, thus limiting the peak temperature. In contrast to the methods currently available in the art, PCM is a material that does not require any circulation in PM, and therefore has the advantage of eliminating the need for guiding the material to the rotor structure, connecting members, and more importantly, pumping devices that can operate in variable centrifugal environments. The resulting structure may not include additional moving parts, does not require the use of additional power or control systems, thus improving the rotor weight, is generally less prone to failures and leaks, and can be used for many cycles without maintenance, provided the PM stays within its predefined operating temperature range.

[0040]

[0059] The present disclosure further describes a PM, a rotor, or an electric machine comprising a PM, and a method for manufacturing a PM. Additive manufacturing can enable the design and manufacture of PMs with complex shapes, for example by cold spraying of metal-NdFeB composites. As described herein, additive manufacturing, for example cold spraying, allows a PCM to be incorporated into or embedded in the PM. Advantageously, the PCM can be incorporated through cavities filled by the PCM after it has been built into the PM. In addition, the methods described herein allow magnets to be manufactured directly on a surface, for example the rotor of an electric motor, thus eliminating insulating air or adhesive interfaces. This is exemplified herein below to improve thermal conductivity even higher than aluminum binder inclusions.

[0041]

[0060] In one embodiment, there is a method of manufacturing a PM that includes providing a PM material and forming the PM and a cavity by additive manufacturing directly on a substrate. A PCM is then inserted or poured into the cavity. The cavity may be closed using, for example, a machined press-fit or screw-on cap, or any suitable cover.

[0042]

[0061] A method of manufacturing a PM can include repeatedly forming the PM, i.e., sequentially building up the PM using permanent magnet material to define a cavity. A PCM can then be inserted or poured into the cavity.

[0043]

[0062] In another embodiment, a method of making a PM is provided, wherein the substrate is a metal substrate, hi another embodiment, the metal substrate is an aluminum-based substrate, an iron-based substrate, a copper-based substrate, or a combination thereof.

[0044]

[0063] In another embodiment, there is a PM made from a powder composition comprising a hard magnetic phase and a metal binder. The hard magnetic phase may comprise an AlNiCo alloy, a NdFeB alloy, a SmCo alloy, a SmFeCo alloy, or a combination thereof. The hard magnetic powder may comprise NdFeB, a NdFeB alloy, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the binder consists essentially of a pure metal or alloy of Al, Cu, Ti, Zn, Fe, Ni, Ag, Au, or a combination thereof, more preferably the binder comprises more Al, Cu, Zn, Ni, or Fe than any other element. In one embodiment, the binder is Al, or an alloy thereof. The PM powder composition preferably comprises about 34 vol% to about 85 vol% hard magnetic phase. Applicants have demonstrated that CSAM PM comprises about 75 vol% hard magnetic phase. The binder and hard magnetic phase preferably comprise at least 70 vol% PM.

[0045]

[0064] In another embodiment, the method of producing a PM uses a CSAM to construct the PM.

[0046]

[0065] In one embodiment, the PCM may have a latent heat of at least 50 kJ / kg. The PCM may be selected from paraffin, erythritol, or a combination thereof. Table 1 below shows the properties of these two exemplary PCMs. [Table 1]

[0047]

[0066] In another embodiment, there is provided a PM formed by the method described herein.In another embodiment, there is provided a use of the PM described herein to manufacture an electric machine.

[0048]

[0067] In another embodiment, there is provided a use of a PM as described herein to operate an electric machine, wherein the electric machine comprises an electric motor or engine, such as in an electric vehicle or aircraft.

[0049] Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing

[0068] Cold spray is a process whereby material is built up to a substrate by the deformation and bonding of particles impacting the substrate at high speed. Typically, the particles are accelerated using a heated high pressure gas, e.g., nitrogen, delivered through a nozzle, typically using a De Laval configuration. The gas temperature can be heated to hundreds of degrees Celsius, but the actual particle temperature remains much cooler. Particle velocities of hundreds of meters per second can be achieved, which tends to build up materials with very high densities (typically with <1% porosity), generally exhibiting higher adhesion values ​​than can be achieved using most any other technique, and with higher densities than can be achieved by pressing and sintering techniques.

[0050]

[0069] Density is also essential for the production of high ultimate tensile strength materials, e.g., UTS>120 MPa, or higher than 150 MPa, or even higher than 200 MPa. Applicants have found that sintered PM composites typically exhibit UTS<80 MPa (see FIG. 4b). Other techniques for additive manufacturing, or hot, cold, or warm consolidation of metal powders with NdFeB (or presumably with AlNiCo, SmCo, or SmFeCo), are believed to produce PMs with uniformly limited UTS.

[0051]

[0070] In one embodiment, the cold spray process can be carried out using a Plasma Giken 800 gun at a main gas temperature of about 400°C to about 800°C or about 600°C to about 700°C and a maximum pressure of about 5 MPa, or about 3 MPa to about 5 MPa. In another embodiment, a spray distance of about 80 mm to the surface may be used. In another embodiment, the method of cold spraying the permanent magnet powder composition may be fully automated, for example using a robot and robot programming. In such an embodiment, the robot's passing speed and steps may depend on the shape of the PM being manufactured. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the set temperature, pressure, spray distance, etc. will depend on the magnetic powder composition.

[0052]

[0071] In one embodiment, the permanent magnet powder composition includes a hard magnetic powder and a binder. In another embodiment, the hard magnetic powder may include NdFeB. In another embodiment, the binder can be metal M to provide higher placement efficiency, good thermal conductivity, and corrosion / oxidation protection, as described above. In another embodiment, the binder or metal M can be an aluminum-based alloy, for example aluminum powder.

[0053]

[0072] In one embodiment, the permanent magnet powder (raw material) composition may include a minimum of about 34 vol% hard magnetic powder. In another embodiment, the permanent magnet powder composition may include about 34 vol% hard magnetic powder, or about 51 vol% hard magnetic powder, or up to about 99 vol% hard magnetic powder. In another embodiment, the permanent magnet powder composition may include up to about 1 vol% binder, or up to about 25 vol% binder, or up to about 49 vol% binder, or up to about 66 vol% binder. In a further embodiment, the permanent magnet powder composition may form a PM of M-NdFeB composite.

[0054]

[0073] In one embodiment, care is taken to minimize temperature rise of the magnetic powder during the spraying process to inhibit oxidation and degradation of magnetic properties, hi another embodiment, the spraying process is performed with the goal of maintaining low coating porosity and good deposition efficiency.

[0055]

[0074] In one embodiment, commercially available NdFeB-based powders may be used. In another embodiment, commercially available binders, such as pure aluminum powder, may be used. The aluminum powder may have a variety of powder size distributions. Suitable NdFeB magnetic powders include, but are not limited to, Magnequench MQP-S-11-9, MQFP-B, MQFP-14-12, MQP-AA4-15-12, MQA-38-14, and MQA-36-18. A PM with a cavity in which the PCM is deposited

[0056]

[0075] Methods for producing PMs with cavities, for example using cold spray additive manufacturing, are described herein. PM devices (e.g., PM motors) are further described that include a PM that includes a cavity that contains a PCM. In some examples, the PM defines a cavity into which the PCM is deposited.

[0057]

[0076] PMs (e.g. NdFeB) are conventionally manufactured using techniques such as compaction and sintering. The PM is then machined to meet tolerances and placed and attached as required to the part (e.g. an electric motor stator, and more preferably a rotor). Such methods limit the feasible configurations of the magnet. The use of additive manufacturing processes such as cold spray allows for the 3D construction of magnets with complex shapes with little or no increase in cost and / or manufacturing time. This added flexibility allows for the realization of shapes that would otherwise be technically difficult or impossible to manufacture, or simply cost prohibitive.

[0058]

[0077] TRL (more commonly known as thermal management) is a well-known problem in electric machines, e.g. electric motors. Electric current is necessary to produce motion, but unwanted eddy currents can flow in metallic parts, both of which contribute to heat generation. When used in such electric machines, the performance of rare earth PMs degrades rapidly when operating at temperatures above 100°C, and can ultimately lead to magnet demagnetization and machine failure. To minimize this effect, heavy rare earth elements (e.g. dysprosium) are added to the magnet composition to stabilize the high temperature properties of the magnet at the expense of overall performance.

[0059]

[0078] As described herein, additive manufacturing is used to fabricate a PM with a cavity into which the PCM is inserted, the geometry (e.g., shape, size, etc.) of the cavity depending on the shape of the magnet and its intended use. Cold spray, or another manufacturing technique such as laser sintering, laser cladding, direct write, extrusion, binder jetting, fused deposition modeling, etc. may be used to build the 3D shape of the magnet. For example, the cavity is formed by any one or combination of the following methods:

[0060]

[0079] (I) Direct formation of cavities, which involves directly forming the cavities using additive manufacturing techniques. In relation to cold spray, direct formation requires the use of appropriate tool paths, including building up material using various deposition angles to achieve the desired structure for the cavities defined within the magnet. Cavities formed directly at or near the outer surface of the PM, or at the interface between the PM and the rotor, are particularly preferred.

[0061]

[0080] (II) Embedding of custom tubes to form cavities, including placement of custom shaped tube passages within the magnet. The tubes are mated and shaped to the correct shape and placed into a pre-fabricated, but still incomplete, 3D magnetic structure. The structure is completed by addition of PCM directly within the tube. The tubes preferably contain PMs that are substantially unresponsive to electric and magnetic fields to avoid losses or redirection of magnetic flux, to work with the deposited PM, or are removable after additive manufacturing to minimize impact on PM performance.

[0062]

[0081] (III) Use of sacrificial materials to form cavities. Similar to the installation of custom tubes, the sacrificial material is formed into the correct shape, but is removed after the magnet is manufactured. The sacrificial material may be added by different techniques, including additive manufacturing, for example cold spray. The sacrificial material may be removed by melting, and then removed under the influence of gravity or applied pressure. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference the teachings of Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 11,313,041, which teaches a specific process for AM of parts using sacrificial materials, but Applicant does not wish to limit the sacrificial material to these soft metals. Applicant believes that embedding a body formed from an integral salt in a PM during additive manufacturing, and dissolving the salt after manufacturing, is well within the capabilities of one of ordinary skill in the art.

[0063]

[0082] (IV) Form a PM with a sufficiently high UTS and machine a cavity into the PM through the surface of the PM.

[0064]

[0083] Advantageously, PMs with cavities are built on a substrate. Such a substrate may be sacrificial or non-sacrificial. Generally, any metallic substrate is suitable for use in manufacturing PMs with cavities, although ceramic or polymeric substrates may be used. Among the most commonly used are iron-based and aluminum-based substrates. For example, aluminum-based substrates may be used in manufacturing PMs with cavities because (i) aluminum-based substrates increase heat rejection due to their high thermal conductivity, (ii) aluminum-based substrates can achieve good deformation due to good mechanical properties, (iii) aluminum-based substrates are relatively inexpensive, (iv) aluminum-based substrates are oxidation resistant, and (v) aluminum-based substrates are lightweight, thus contributing to reduce the weight of any final assembly. Iron-based substrates, such as soft magnetic composites or laminated structures, may also be used in manufacturing PMs with cavities, since they provide good magnetic saturation for the magnetic flux path and are inexpensive. In another example, copper-based substrates may be used in manufacturing PMs with cavities, since copper-based substrates have good thermal conductivity.

[0065]

[0084] In some examples, the PM with the incorporated PCM may form part of a motor component, e.g., rotor, stator, etc. In one example, the PM with the incorporated PCM may be bonded to a surface of the motor component, the PCM providing internal temperature control of at least the magnet. Alternatively, the PM with the incorporated PCM may be bonded to a surface of the motor component. Beneficially, the PM with the incorporated PCM is bonded to a rotor component of the motor.

[0066]

[0085] A PM with an integrated PCM may achieve enhanced thermal management capabilities for at least the following reasons:

[0067]

[0086] (I) High heat transfer because the PCM can be placed directly inside the structure requiring temperature control (i.e., the magnet). The close contact created favors heat dissipation by direct conduction, thus increasing the effective heat transfer coefficient.

[0068]

[0087] (II) Better temperature uniformity and control because the PCM can be designed with a shape that matches the shape of the magnet and a desired temperature profile. It can be used to control the temperature of magnet regions that are difficult to control using traditional temperature control techniques. It can also be used to configure the shape in a way that provides better temperature uniformity and thus protects against hot spot degradation.

[0069]

[0088] (III) High thermal conductivity and mechanical properties because PMs produced using cold spray additive manufacturing contain a metal binder (i.e., metal M) that improves the effective composite thermal conductivity while improving the mechanical properties.

[0070] (Example) Motor Configuration

[0089] For illustrative purposes, a radial flux motor with high density stator windings was selected for analysis, but those skilled in the art will readily envision its application to axial flux motors and generators. High density windings wound on teeth can achieve high copper fill factor and short end turns (17 is only visible in FIG. 3a), resulting in high power and torque density. On the other hand, its high armature harmonics tend to increase rotor losses, resulting in rapid magnet temperature rise during operation. It is therefore a suitable candidate for the present invention.

[0071]

[0090] 1a, 1b respectively show 2D and 3D models of half of a radial PM motor for an electric vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1b is the 3D model used for simulations. The PM motor comprises two main parts: a 12 coil stator 10 and a 10 pole rotor 20. The half stator 10 shown includes six magnetic stator cores 12 (only two of which are identified by leader lines) for supporting respective field generating coils 14. The cores 12 are not fully visible in FIG. 1b because the coils 14 cover them, and the coils 14 are not shown in FIG. 1a to show the cores 12 more clearly. The stator cores 12 guide the magnetic flux generated by the coils 14. The rotor 20 includes five PMs 25 mounted thereon. According to the present invention, at least one of the PMs 25, and typically all of the PMs 25, includes an embedded PCM. Although this configuration was used for simulations and to demonstrate the invention, other electromechanical designs may be used as well. Simulation of torque speed curve and motor loss distribution

[0072]

[0091] The motor of FIG. 1 was modeled using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to extract the motor torque-speed curve characteristics. Three typical driving scenarios corresponding to three different motor operating points are identified in FIG. 2a: A-uphill driving (high torque, low speed), B-highway steady state (low torque, high speed), and C-highway acceleration (moderate torque, high speed). The corresponding motor losses are simulated and shown in FIG. 2b. It can be seen that the total motor losses are high at operating point A and moderately high at C. All motor losses contribute to the motor temperature rise. In particular, the motor losses in the rotor and magnets directly contribute to the magnet temperature rise, while the copper losses in the winding 14 are somewhat distant from the PM and typically cooled locally. It is therefore observed that each of the magnet losses is the largest, but less than the accumulated iron losses.

[0073]

[0092] Figure 3 (i.e., 3a shows half of the motor structure in 3D used for modeling, and 3b, 3c show top and side views of the motor structure half) shows the components of the complete motor structure. 3a is labeled to indicate the boundary conditions used in the thermal FEA model used to study this electric machine. In particular, 3a shows a model for simulation of the motor of Figures 1a, 1b, overlaid with identifiers of areas of temperature sensitivity.

[0074]

[0093] The model includes a rotor 20 and a stator 10 as described above, the stator housed in a housing 15 that includes embedded coolant passages 21 for cooling the stator 10. The rotor is shrink fitted on an axle or shaft 22 that is coupled to the housing 15 by bearings 19. The axle 22 and coils 14 are cut off at the top (as shown) to avoid image obscuration. Pockets are machined in the rotor to accommodate the magnets. As is conventional, the pockets are oversized relative to the PM. They are typically designed to hold the PM using its two ends 26 that extend around it after insertion. The modeling assumes that a PCM can be inserted here.

[0075]

[0094] For the thermal FEA modeling, the housing 15 was assumed to have aluminum features, the coils 14 were equivalent to copper (loss assumption 27a), the stator (27b) and rotor (27c) core losses were modeled, and a thermally insulated bulkhead 16 (only some positions shown) was modeled to surround the copper coils (loss assumption 27e) and the permanent magnets (27d) (with and without embedded PCM). Additionally, convection cooling of the housing to air (27f) and convection cooling of the housing to coolant (27g) were modeled. The thermal contact resistance between the housing and the stator laminations (27h) was assumed to have a gap of 0.037 mm. The magnets were assumed to have an interface gap (27i) of 0.1 mm, and the shaft was assumed to have an interface gap (27j) of 0.037 mm where it connects to the rotor 22. Finally, the shaft-to-bearing and bearing-to-housing were associated with an interface gap (loss assumption 27k) of 0.3 mm.

[0076] Magnet temperature simulation

[0095] Magnet temperature distribution was simulated with and without the incorporated erythritol PCM filling the rotor pocket ends 26. Assumptions for heat transfer coefficients and air gap measurements in the motor are shown in Figure 3a. The motor configuration is shown in Figures 1a and 1b and 3a-3c. The erythritol PCM was simulated in the pocket ends 26 located at the ends of the magnets for some simulations (see Figure 9a for a closer look).

[0077]

[0096] Figures 5a and 5b are plots showing the average magnet side temperature during uphill driving and highway acceleration. Transient time is defined as the time required for the magnet temperature to reach a particular value under given fixed operating conditions. For illustrative purposes, data for a temperature of 150°C is shown in Tables 1 and 2 below. Note that the effect of the PCM is significant, as it increases the transient time by up to 81% for uphill driving conditions and up to 83% for highway acceleration conditions. [Table 2] [Table 3]

[0078]

[0097] Figure 6 shows that after 15 seconds of uphill driving, the PCM in the peripheral pocket significantly reduces the PM temperature. PCM Temperature Simulation

[0079]

[0098] FIG. 7 shows simulation results for a drive scenario in which high peak power (50 kW) of the electric motor is desired for a short period (60 s) after the motor has been used for 1 hour under lighter demand conditions. The motor is then returned to a light load according to this scenario. FIG. 7 is a graph of magnet side temperature as a function of time. FIG. 7a shows a close-up of the graph near the 1 minute peak demand. The PCM allows a reduction in maximum temperature approaching 22° C., which is a significant protection for the magnets. It may, for example, allow designs to use lower grade magnets to lower the overall cost of the motor.

[0080]

[0100] FIG. 8a and its enlarged view FIG. 8b show the maximum and average PCM temperatures observed during the actuation scenario in FIG. 7. The deviation between the average and maximum temperatures indicates the non-uniformity of the magnet temperature distribution due to the PCM concentration on the magnet side. FIG. 8c shows the percentage of available PCM material above its melting temperature of 118° C. The results show that only 10.5% of the PCM volume contributes to the TRL. Most of the PCM volume is not utilized in this configuration. FIG. 8c further shows that the PCM solidifies again 80 seconds after the peak temperature is reached, making the PCM ready for another transient operation. Magnet Segmentation

[0081]

[0101] To better protect the magnets and to fully utilize the PCM, three segmented designs of PMs were simulated. Each of Figures 9a-9c shows (half) a rotor 20 with five PMs 25 mounted on the rotor 20, with two pockets 26 on each side of each PM. Figure 9a shows a so-called one magnet segmentation where the PCM is restricted to the side pocket 26. Figure 9b shows a three magnet segmentation design which conceptually creates two further gaps 29 that can be filled by PCM. Figure 9c shows a six magnet segmentation, thus creating 5 x 5 = 25 gaps 29 with 10 pockets 26.

[0082]

[0102] The three rotor designs in Figures 9a, 9b, and 9c were simulated using electromagnetic FEA to evaluate the motor performance. A thermal FEA analysis of the complete motor structure is then performed with the simulated erythritol PCM filling the rotor gap.

[0083]

[0103] For a fair comparison, the following design constraints were applied to the three rotor designs in Figures 9a-c: Magnet area=189.5mm 2 PCM area=75.5mm 2 (±2%) 20A / mm 2 Output torque at current density = 186Nm (±3%)

[0084]

[0104] All three designs were assumed to have the same loss density with uniform distribution to evaluate the effectiveness of PCM.

[0085] Magnet Segmentation - Thermal Analysis

[0105] FIG. 10a shows the thermal transient analysis of the segmented design of FIG. 9a-9c. FIG. 10b shows the difference between the transient time to reach 150° C. for the segmented design of FIG. 9a-9c when PCM is present or when the gap between the magnets is filled with air, i.e., no PCM is present. It can be seen from FIG. 10a and FIG. 10b that the PCM becomes more effective in extending the transient period when used with more magnet segments, since the larger interfacial area between the PCM and the magnet increases the absorption of heat generated in the magnet during the phase change period of the PCM. FIG. 11 shows the temperature distribution of the magnet without PCM and the three segmented designs of FIG. 9a-9c at the 90 second data point of FIG. 10a. The more PCM segments there are, the cooler the magnet is at 90 seconds, although less effect is obtained from 3-6 compared to 1-3. Note that all the curves are similar before the melting point of the PCM is reached.

[0086] Built-in cavity

[0106] While it may be difficult to hold and assemble the rotor as shown in either of Figures 9b and 9c, it is clearly desirable from a TRL perspective. Figure 12 is a panel showing another configuration of a PM with an embedded PCM. The embedded PCM is formed using a cavity or recess 30 that extends at least part way through the PM, thus providing a large surface area for contact between the PCM and the PM. Some forming means may always produce a residual layer or coating at this interface, but its thermal resistance is small, so the directness of the contact, and the area of ​​contact relative to the volume of the PCM, is useful to better exploit the PCM TRL effect.

[0087]

[0107] The top of Figure 12 shows the segmented PM of Figure 9c in side view (left) and a thermal model of the PM and the PCM in the pocket and in the gap 29. A temperature scale is shown to show how effective the TRL is using this design. The dark band at the top of the PCM is relatively very cool (~105°C).

[0088]

[0108] On the right side of panel 12, the top shows a design for a PM with elongated diamond-shaped through holes or cavities 30. Thermal modeling indicates a better fit TRL of this PM for operating conditions compared to the segmented model on the left in that the temperature is more uniform in the model. From the thermal model it can be seen that the peak temperatures visible at the surface are well below 132°C for both the segmented PM and the PM with the built-in cavities. The models in heat distribution (center) and heat flux (bottom) are shown in perspective view. The heat flux distribution shows a significant difference in the cooling rate at the edge of the PCM in the segmented PM as opposed to the PM with the built-in cavities.

[0089]

[0109] Figure 13 is a graph of the average temperatures for these two PMs. The temperature rise for both configurations is comparable in the given scenario. However, the configuration with the built-in cavity has a huge practical advantage. In fact, that configuration can be used to enclose the PCM material, thus preventing leakage during operation under centrifuge conditions, with a molten or partially molten mass of the PCM material. [Table 4]

[0090]

[0110] Figure 14 is a side view of a variation of PM25 including cavities 30 of different configurations. Five cavities 30 are shown, three extending from the surface in view and two shown in dashed lines. Figure 14a shows a cross-sectional view taken along view line AA. The cavities 30 are long and similar, each extending parallel from one of two oppositely facing sides of PM25. At the end of each cavity 30 near where it reaches its respective side, a box thread 33 is tapped to engage a pin thread of a cap 32 shown mounted on one of the cavities 30.

[0091]

[0111] The three cavities 30 reaching the surface shown in Figure 14 are lower than the two reaching the opposite surface to better distribute the PCM within the PM and to reduce the distance between the cavities 30. This design can be manufactured using any of the methods I-IV listed above.

[0092]

[0112] Figures 15a, 15b show a cross-sectional view and a side view of a second variant of a PM 25 according to the invention. This embodiment also shows five cavities, two of which are smaller than the other three. The cavities are frustums, with rounded distal faces. There are various shapes that can be machined into a PM with sufficient UTS. This design may be suitable for cooling the face shown in Figure 15b (the first face) in case of heat build-up in the face shown in Figure 15b. It is theoretical to have smaller holes in the narrower parts of the PM and larger holes in the thicker parts to avoid stress concentrations in the PM. The axes of the cavities 30 shown in the second variant are not parallel, but the axes may be coplanar. Each axis is locally substantially perpendicular to the first face, which is curved in at least one direction. This design may also be manufactured using any of the methods I-IV listed above.

[0093]

[0113] 16 shows a cross-sectional view of a third variation of PM25 according to the invention. The third variation includes a subsurface extending cavity that extends substantially along the top surface (as shown) of PM25. The third variation further includes two symmetrically opposed cavities with a discontinuous shape, the shape consisting essentially of a cylindrical hole with a conical tip. If sacrificial materials or tubes are used in the design, this design can be manufactured by additive manufacturing.

[0094]

[0114] Figure 17 shows a cross-sectional view of a fourth variant of PM25 according to the invention. The cavities of the fourth variant are two long grooves along both side edges and a narrow fan slit structure that penetrates towards the centre of PM25. Each fan slit structure is connected to its respective groove, so there are strictly only two cavities. Covering this structure is not as simple as in the previous variant. prototype

[0095]

[0115] Applicants have produced examples of PMs according to the present invention. PMs were deposited on coupons of Al 6061, 36.7 x 28.8 x 14.5 mm. NdFeB magnet samples were prepared by cold spray additive manufacturing using MQFP-B NdFeB powder from Magnequench and H5 aluminum powder from Valimet. Samples were processed using a temperature of 600°C and a gas pressure of 4.9 MPa. Further details regarding the magnet manufacturing process and their magnetic properties can be found in Lamarre, J.-M., Bernier, F., Permanent Magnets Produced by Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing for Electric Engines, (2019), Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, 28(7), pp. 1709-1717, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0096]

[0116] The sample surface was machined to final dimensions and holes for inserting erythritol and thermocouples were drilled using conventional machining for demonstration purposes. The three main cavities were completely filled with a total of 2.32 g of liquid erythritol.

[0097]

[0117] A test rig was used to inspect the service condition of PM materials. 2Heat was provided by a laser (50 W, 163 pulse duration, 25 mm diameter laser spot) and temperature measurements were obtained by thermocouples, optical pyrometers and a thermal camera. The excellent agreement between the simulated heat distribution and that predicted by the simulation gives a very high confidence in the simulated results obtained above. Under conditions where the PM without PMC or slots was heated to 180°C, the PM with PMC was observed to be below 160°C.

[0098]

[0118] Thus, a PM and method of manufacture are disclosed. Formation of holes in the PM to form cavities for holding PCMs is exemplified to provide viable manufacturing means and well-documented improvements in thermal regulation of the PM. While the PM can be advantageously produced by AM directly on the rotor substrate, and preferably by CSAM, PMs of equal strength can be produced by other means making the various designs more suitable for deployment in the rotor of an electric machine.

Claims

1. A permanent magnet (PM) for use in an electric machine, the PM including a phase change material (PCM) incorporated therein, the PCM having a phase transition temperature between about 80°C and about 200°C.

2. 2. The PM of claim 1, wherein the phase transition temperature is between 150°C and about 250°C.

3. 2. The PM of claim 1, wherein the PCM has a latent heat of at least 50 kJ / kg.

4. 2. The PM of claim 1, wherein the PCM is selected from paraffin, erythritol, or a combination thereof.

5. The PM of claim 1 , wherein the PM comprises a plurality of cavities in which the PCM is embedded.

6. The PM of claim 5 , wherein said PM comprises fewer than 10 of said cavities.

7. The PM of claim 5 , wherein said PM comprises fewer than five of said cavities.

8. 6. The PM of claim 5, wherein each cavity is a dead-end, elongated chamber extending from one side of the PM with two shorter dimensions and one longer dimension, the longer dimensions of each cavity being oriented in substantially the same direction.

9. 9. The PM of claim 8, wherein each cavity has a cylindrical or flat shape such that said cavity is compatible with manufacture by drilling one or more overlapping holes.

10. 10. The PM of claim 1, wherein the PM comprises a permanent magnet material having a hard magnetic phase and a binder phase, the PM having an ultimate tensile strength of at least 150 MPa.

11. The PM of claim 10 , wherein the hard magnetic material consists essentially of an AlNiCo alloy, a NdFeB alloy, a SmCo alloy, a SmFeCo alloy, or a combination thereof.

12. The PM of claim 10 , wherein the hard magnetic material consists essentially of NdFeB or a NdFeB alloy.

13. 11. The PM of claim 10, wherein the binder consists essentially of Al, Cu, Ti, Zn, Fe, Ni, Ag, Au, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof.

14. The PM of claim 13, wherein the binder is Al, or an alloy thereof.

15. The PM of claim 10, wherein the PM comprises from about 34 vol% to about 85 vol% of the hard magnetic phase.

16. The PM of claim 10 , wherein the PM comprises about 50 vol % to about 75 vol % of the hard magnetic phase.

17. A PM according to any preceding claim mounted on a rotor for an electric machine.

18. A rotor as claimed in claim 17, in particular including the features of claim 8, wherein the longer dimension of each cavity is oriented parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotor and, if more than one hole is drilled, they are arranged radially outward from the axis of rotation.

19. 18. The rotor of claim 17, wherein the connection between the PM and the rotor is compatible with forming the PM in the rotor by additive manufacturing (AM), thereby enabling joining of the PM to the rotor during manufacture of the PM.

20. The rotor of claim 19 , wherein the connection is adapted to be formed by cold spray additive manufacturing.

21. 20. The rotor of claim 17 mounted to an axle and a stator to generate an electric machine.

22. 1. A method of manufacturing a permanent magnet (PM), the method comprising: providing a permanent magnet material and forming the PM by additive manufacturing using the permanent magnet material directly onto a substrate; finishing the PM and creating or finishing cavities in the PM for holding a phase change material; incorporating the phase change material into the PM; enclosing the cavity; A method comprising:

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