Enforcement and use of non-duplicable unique physical identifiers

Abstract

To use and apply a unique, non-replicable physical identifier in a schematic manner.SOLUTION: The method of applying a unique marker includes: receiving a target having a surface feature; and forming a unique marker on the surface feature of the target. The unique marker includes a distribution of elements and is conformal to the form of the surface feature. The method further includes extracting orientation information from the unique marker. The orientation information can indicate the relative spatial orientation of the respective elements. The method further includes generating a unique code for the target based on the orientation information. The surface feature can be a small surface, surface pattern, texture, or other indentation of the target. The surface feature can include an area of the target that is susceptible to unauthorized modification.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 6

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 930,875, entitled "Shaping Identifier Tags to Surface Morphology," filed November 5, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 934,283, entitled "Adhesive Identifier Tags," filed November 12, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 934,298, entitled "Tamper-Evident Identifier Tags," filed November 12, 2019, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0002] The following description relates to applying and using unique physical identifiers that cannot be duplicated. [Background technology]

[0003] Some products are made with holograms, watermarks, fluorescent dyes, or other features that can be used as anti-counterfeiting measures. For example, such features can be used to verify the origin or authenticity of the product. Such measures are important in multiple industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, electronics, luxury goods, etc. Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0004] A method is provided that includes receiving an object having surface features; forming a unique marker on the surface features of the object, the unique marker including a distribution of elements and conforming with a shape of the surface features; extracting orientation information from the unique marker, the orientation information indicating the relative spatial orientation of each element; and generating a unique code for the object based on the orientation information. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0005] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary article having a unique marker. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram of the exemplary unique marker of FIG. 1A. [Figure 2A] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary particle composed of a diamond crystal containing a defect center. [Figure 2B] FIG. 2B is a schematic diagram illustrating an NV defect center in the exemplary diamond crystal lattice of FIG. 2A. [Figure 3] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary random distribution of particles in or on a host material within a unique marker. [Figure 4] FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary scanner system for measuring the position and orientation of particles within a unique marker. [Figure 5] FIG. 1 illustrates particle locations in an exemplary image obtained from a fluorescent scan. [Figure 6] 1A-1C are schematic diagrams illustrating exemplary grain orientations in a host material within a unique marker. [Figure 7] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary particle reference frame orientation used to calculate particle orientation. [Figure 8] FIG. 1 shows an exemplary magnetic resonance response of a particle such as an NV center in diamond. [Figure 9A] FIG. 9A is a schematic diagram of an exemplary magnetic scanning configuration. [Figure 9B] FIG. 9B is a schematic diagram of an exemplary magnetic scanning configuration. [Figure 10] FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating an exemplary parameterization of particle position and orientation. [Figure 11A] FIG. 1 shows a comparison of two exemplary particle position and orientation ensembles. [Figure 11B] FIG. 1 shows a comparison of two exemplary particle position and orientation ensembles. [Figure 12]1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for performing an original scan of unique markers. [Figure 13] 1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for performing a destination scan of unique markers. [Figure 14] 1 is a flow diagram that generally illustrates an exemplary process for using orientation information extracted from an object. [Figure 15] 1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for generating a unique code for an object. [Figure 16] 1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for analyzing an object. [Figure 17] 1 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates an exemplary challenge-response process. [Figure 18A] 1 is a diagram of an exemplary object having exemplary unique markers shaped to match the surface morphology of the object; [Figure 18B] 1 is a diagram of an exemplary object having exemplary unique markers shaped to match the surface morphology of the object; [Figure 19A] 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary object having a recessed logo. [Figure 19B] 19B is a diagram of an exemplary process for forming a unique marker in the recessed logo shown in FIG. 19A. [Figure 19C] 19B is a diagram of an exemplary process for forming a unique marker in the recessed logo shown in FIG. 19A. [Figure 19D] 19B is a diagram of an exemplary process for forming a unique marker in the recessed logo shown in FIG. 19A. [Figure 19E] 19B is a diagram of an exemplary process for forming a unique marker in the recessed logo shown in FIG. 19A. [Figure 20A] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary flexographic printing system. [Figure 20B] FIG. 10 is an enlarged top view of several cells designed to have different dimensions so that unique markers with specified shapes can be created. [Figure 21] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary gravure printing system. [Figure 22A]1 is a diagram of a single tag before application to an underlying object or interface. [Figure 22B] FIG. 1 shows a plurality of single tags arranged in the form of a tape or roll. [Figure 23] FIG. 10 shows an example of a distribution of elements placed in an adhesive that is not fully cured. [Figure 24] FIG. 10 shows an example where both the element and the distribution of the sealing material are incorporated into a handheld applicator having a nozzle or tip. [Figure 25A] 10A-10C illustrate examples in which a distribution of elements can be incorporated into an encapsulant to seal interfaces and electronic enclosures. [Figure 25B] 10A-10C illustrate examples in which a distribution of elements can be incorporated into an encapsulant to seal interfaces and electronic enclosures. [Figure 26A] FIG. 10 is a diagram showing an example in which elements are distributed only in a portion of the encapsulant. [Figure 26B] FIG. 10 is a diagram showing an example in which elements are distributed only in a portion of the encapsulant. [Figure 27A] 1A-1D illustrate an exemplary process for forming a conformal coating on an underlying substrate or object. [Figure 27B] 1A-1D illustrate an exemplary process for forming a conformal coating on an underlying substrate or object. [Figure 28] FIG. 1 shows an example in which a gasket with a distribution of elements is provided on a housing. [Figure 29] FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a tagged area that can be used to authenticate identity and provide evidence of tampering. [Figure 30] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a box including unique markers on the edge of the box. [Figure 31] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a box including unique markers at the seams of the box. [Figure 32] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a film including a unique marker that is placed on an object to result in a shrink-wrapped product. [Figure 33]FIG. 10 is a diagram of a fastener with a unique marker located on the clutch of the fastener. [Figure 34] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an article housing having a unique marker located on a seam of the housing. [Figure 35] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a microchip with unique markers at the solder points. [Figure 36] FIG. 10 illustrates an example where a unique marker can be used to provide evidence of use or activation of an object. [Figure 37] FIG. 10 illustrates an example where unique markers can be used to provide evidence of external forces applied to a tagged surface. [Figure 38] 1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for creating and using unique markers that conform with the surface morphology of an object. [Figure 39] 1 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process for forming and using a sticker that includes a distribution of elements on a substrate having an adhesive backing. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0006] In some aspects of the subject matter described herein, a unique physical identifier that cannot be replicated is applied and used. In some implementations, the unique marker is shaped to match the form of a surface feature of the object. The surface feature can be a facet, surface pattern, texture, or other indentation of the object. In some cases, the object has multiple sides or faces, and a facet can be one of the multiple sides or faces of the object. For example, the object can be a gemstone, and a facet can be one of the multiple sides or faces of the gemstone. The unique marker can be applied to or incorporated into the object (which can also be referred to as an article). In some implementations, the unique marker can include elements distributed in or on a host material applied to or incorporated into the object. These elements can include crystalline particles (e.g., micron- or nano-scale diamond particles) or other types of elements. The unique marker can be physically unclonable, thereby enabling the unique marker to be a taggant for the object. For example, the orientation of the elements can be randomly distributed, and the size and relative position of the elements can be regularly or randomly distributed. In some instances, the likelihood of making a copy of an object having a marker containing elements of similar composition and orientation is sufficiently low that an object having a unique marker can thus be considered distinct or unique. In some instances, the unique marker is a sticker that includes a distribution of elements on a substrate having an adhesive backing, and at least a portion of the sticker is affixed to the object.

[0007] The unique marker can be used to analyze the object. In some examples, analyzing the object using the unique marker includes authenticating the identity of the object, determining whether the object has been tampered with, determining whether the object has been used or activated, determining whether the object has been exposed to environmental stress, determining whether the object has been subjected to mechanical stress or wear, or performing other types of analysis of the object. Various types of objects can be analyzed using the methods and systems discussed herein. Non-limiting illustrative examples of objects include banknotes and statements, credit cards and the like, electronic payment systems, voting systems, communication systems and elements, jewelry and collectibles, diamonds and gemstones, packaging, paper products, electronic device casings, electronic components and systems (e.g., integrated circuits, chips, circuit boards), retail goods (e.g., handbags, clothing, sporting goods), industrial parts and systems (e.g., machine parts, automotive parts, aerospace parts), raw materials (processed or unprocessed) (e.g., ingots, billets, logs, slabs), food and packaging (e.g., wine, spirits, truffles, spices), pharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical packaging and lots, medical devices and surgical tools and their packaging, official documents (e.g., contracts, passports, visas), digital storage systems and elements, mail and postal packaging, seals and tamper-evident labels. This list of exemplary objects is not exhaustive, and many other types of objects can be analyzed using the methods and systems disclosed herein.

[0008] In some aspects of the subject matter described herein, a unique code can be generated based on elements of a unique marker. In some cases, one or more characteristics of these elements can be determined (e.g., by scanning the elements) to generate a unique code, which can then be used to analyze, for example, an object. For example, the spatial orientation, location, or size of the elements can be extracted from the unique marker to generate a unique code, although other types of characteristics of these elements can be used to generate a unique code. Similar to how barcodes and quick response (QR) codes are currently used to easily identify objects, the unique code can be used to analyze an object. Thus, a unique marker, for example, when attached to or incorporated into an object, can be used as a "fingerprint" that allows the object to be analyzed.

[0009] The unique marker can be formed using one or more methods described herein. In some aspects of the subject matter described herein, the unique marker can be shaped to match the surface morphology of the object. For example, the unique marker can be shaped to match the surface pattern, texture, or other indentations of the object. In some cases, shaping the unique marker to match the surface morphology of the object includes providing a fluid (e.g., a liquid or viscous fluid) including a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) and hardening the fluid to form the unique marker. In some implementations, the fluid (including the distribution of elements) hardens in the surface pattern, texture, or other indentations of the object to become the unique marker. In some implementations, the fluid is transferred from a pattern of cells onto a substrate to produce the unique marker.

[0010] In some aspects of the subject matter described herein, a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) can be incorporated into an uncured or semi-cured material. In some implementations, the material can be an adhesive or sealing material, and the uncured or semi-cured material can have a gel-like consistency. The uncured or semi-cured material can be applied to an object to conformally coat one or more components of the object or to cover or fill a seam of the object. The uncured or semi-cured material is then exposed to a process that solidifies the material (e.g., conventional drying, curing, exposure to an energy source (e.g., UV radiation), or another process), thus allowing the adhesive or sealing material (including the distribution of elements) to obtain physically unclonable identification while maintaining its functional purpose (e.g., decorative, informative, protective, etc.) within the design of the underlying object. Additionally, utilizing an adhesive or sealing material provides an efficient and custom method for incorporating a distribution of elements onto surfaces not previously designed to host unique markers, for example, in a custom tagging campaign.

[0011] In some aspects of the subject matter described herein, unique markers that include a distribution of elements can be used to demonstrate evidence of tampering or use of the tagged object.

[0012] The systems and techniques described herein can provide technical advantages and improvements. For example, conformal unique markers can provide a covert, simple, aesthetically pleasing, and secure method for analyzing objects (e.g., product tracking, authentication, etc.). Integrating unique markers onto packaging or the surface of the product itself allows companies to securely track their raw materials, components, and products (e.g., throughout the product's lifespan). In some cases, products can be tracked using mechanisms that are not easily damaged or interfere with the product's function or aesthetics. In some cases, conformal unique markers can provide a unique code that can be read repeatedly and quickly, allowing for more efficient and reliable sequential tracking analysis. Conformal unique markers can also be integrated into products to fit existing manufacturing techniques and product features. In some cases, conformal unique markers can be used to integrate a product's unique identifier (e.g., serial number, etc.) into the product's imprinted branding, logo, graphics, trademark, or other visual features. In some cases, the unique marker can be integrated into crevices or hidden features within the surface of the product, for example, to obscure its presence or to shield it from environmental exposure. Additionally, in some implementations, unique markers shaped to conform to the surface can be mass-produced in consistent shapes for labeling.

[0013] In some implementations, the article is analyzed as follows: After applying unique markers to the article, an initial or "origin" scan is performed by an origin scanner that aligns the relative positions and orientations of the crystals within an origin location and orientation map. In some implementations, this is done by performing magnetic resonance measurements of fluorescent atomic defects within the crystals in parallel for each crystal under a known applied magnetic field. In some cases, in addition to the crystal's position and orientation, the size of each crystal is determined and aligned for use in analyzing the article. Grain orientation can be calculated from the projection of the magnetic field vector along the defect center axis. The orientation information need not be complete; partial projections of the orientation can also be used. Orientation information can be considered geometrically. The defect center can be represented as a unit vector emanating from its center. The vector's orientation can be described using spherical coordinates around its origin. Longitude and latitude coordinates can be fully or partially described and known. In some examples, orientation information is queried by measuring the Zeeman shift of the defect center relative to a magnetic field whose magnitude and orientation are known. Partial orientation information can be inferred from a single measurement in which the defect center orientation is projected onto the magnetic field plane. By combining several such measurements at different magnetic field orientations, complete orientation information can be extracted.

[0014] After an analysis of the item is desired (e.g., after the item reaches its destination) (e.g., to authenticate the item's identity, determine whether the item has been tampered with, determine whether the item has been used or activated, determine whether the item has been exposed to environmental stresses, determine whether the item has undergone mechanical stress or wear, etc.), the unique markers on the item are scanned similarly to the first scan (but not necessarily with the same magnetic field configuration) and a second scan is used to determine the relative position and orientation of the crystals. Partial or complete orientation information is calculated based on the predetermined setting of the magnetic field at the time of the second scan. This calculation results in an orientation map of the markers, which can be compared to a known map from a previous scan (e.g., the original scan).

[0015] One exemplary comparison would be to find a set of position values ​​on the previous scan (origin) map, whose corresponding positions on the current scan (destination) map differ by a value V. For example, V can be a fraction of the size of each particle. For particles in this subset, their orientation can be found in an orientation map. The angle between the particle orientation in the origin map and the particle orientation in the destination map can be calculated. Only particles in the subset with an angle difference less than a predetermined threshold W, selected by constraints from the destination scanner conditions (e.g., magnetic field strength, detection time, etc.), are considered a match. If the two maps exceed the threshold criteria for a match, the item at the destination can be considered authentic and uniquely identified, not tampered with, not used or activated, not exposed to environmental stresses, not subjected to mechanical stresses of wear, etc. One threshold criterion could be that the percentage of matching particles is 90% of the total number of particles in the origin location map.

[0016] In some implementations, the crystalline particles in the unique marker contain fluorescent color centers, so their positions and sizes can be obtained using standard imaging techniques. The orientation of the crystalline particles can also be determined using a variation of standard fluorescence microscopy combined with magnetic resonance techniques. The relative orientation of the particles can be random (and so can the relative positions and sizes of the particles), and a sufficiently large group of particles will be largely unique and distinct with respect to their attributes.

[0017] In some cases, the properties of nitrogen-vacancy centers (NVCs) in diamond and other crystalline particles containing color centers can be exploited for use in unique markers and other objects.

[0018] Some unique combinations of crystalline particle host and color center enable magnetic resonance responses that provide orientation information about the particle and its location and size. The NVC in diamond is an example of a color center that exhibits optically detected magnetic resonance. When excited by optical radiation below 600 nm (typically around 530 nm), the NVC exhibits a broad fluorescence response within the optical wavelength range of 635 nm to 800 nm. Due to the symmetry of the diamond lattice and the composition of the NVC, the electronic ground state of this center is a spin triplet with an intrinsic crystal field that splits the energy of spin sublevel 0 from two spin sublevels 1. This energy split is around 2.8 GHz in the microwave regime, and the transition between sublevel 0 and sublevels ±1 is driven by resonant excitation. With a magnetic field applied along the NVC symmetry axis, sublevel ±1 shifts in energy proportional to the magnitude of the applied magnetic field (the Zeeman effect). This results in two distinct frequencies satisfying the resonance condition. Conversely, if the magnetic field orientation is known, the orientation of the NV-containing crystal can be obtained by measuring the resonant frequency and back-calculating its projection onto the NV axis. Additionally, the triplet / singlet electronic structure of NVC facilitates the measurement of its magnetic response. After brief (less than 5 μs) irradiation with optical radiation (wavelengths less than 600 nm), the relative populations of the spin sublevels 0 and ±1 preferentially transform and polarize to the 0 state a few microseconds after the cessation of irradiation due to inherent interconversion between the singlet and triplet states. Furthermore, such interconversion results in a distinct population of spin sublevels, with the ±1 sublevel exhibiting approximately 30% less fluorescence than the spin sublevel 0.

[0019] 1A shows an exemplary article, in this example a sneaker 101, incorporating a unique marker 103a that can be used to analyze the article (e.g., to verify its authenticity). The unique marker 103a can be incorporated onto the article in a variety of ways, including, for example, the logo 102 shown in FIG. 1A. The unique marker 103a can also be incorporated onto a label or elsewhere within the article and need not be visible to the naked eye. The unique marker (UM) under sufficient magnification 103b by techniques described below can be used to reveal the orientation 105 and relative positioning 106 of a group of particles 104 within the UM.

[0020] In some cases, the uniqueness of the marker is derived from the relative positioning and orientation of particles or other elements within the host material. Figure 2A shows a schematic diagram of a crystalline particle 202 containing at least one defect center (also known as a color center) 201 that emits fluorescence. An example of a crystalline particle host is diamond, which is composed of a regularly repeating structure of carbon atoms 203, as shown in Figure 2B. An example of a color center in diamond is a nitrogen-vacancy center 204, which consists of a carbon atom in the lattice replaced by nitrogen, with the nearest neighbor carbon atom completely removed. The orientation of the color center can be defined, for example, by a vector from the nitrogen atom to the vacancy. In some cases, the lattice symmetry and the four-fold symmetry of the NV center can preclude absolute knowledge of the crystal orientation, while the two-fold symmetry allows the relative orientation of the two centers to be known.

[0021] 3 shows an expanded film or volume of a host material 301 containing many particles, a subset of which carry at least one color center 302. The separation of the particles as well as the orientation of the particles can be arbitrary.

[0022] Information regarding particle separation and orientation can be obtained by imaging the unique markers using conventional optical microscopy techniques. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of an exemplary scanner used to determine particle separation and orientation. In the illustrated example, a unique marker (a composite of host film and particles) 401 is illuminated by a light source 402, such as a laser, and reflected and converted by a set of standard optical components 406 and a focusing objective lens 407. The focusing objective lens 407 is configured to provide sufficient magnification of the particle fluorescence to resolve a field of interest of the unique marker, which can be the entire unique marker or a region of interest of the unique marker. After appropriate filtering of the illumination source from the fluorescence and imaging with standard filters and optics 406, an image of the host plane is captured in an imaging unit 405, such as a CMOS or CCD camera. Figure 5 shows an exemplary image 500, from which positions from a fixed coordinate system 501 and relative distances between particles 502 can be obtained. This is one example of several possible techniques for reading unique markers.

[0023] Particle orientation can be determined by observing changes in particle fluorescence due to the relative orientation of an electromagnetic field directed in the scanner reference frame relative to the particle. One example is to use a standard waveplate in the optical system 406 to change the transverse polarization of the propagating electromagnetic radiation (i.e., the illuminating light) to linearly or circularly polarized. This works for many crystalline materials containing color centers, including the diamond-NV system of 203. Alternatively, the response of NVCs (or, more accurately, negatively charged NVCs) to magnetic fields can also provide information about orientation. This is observed due to the inherent magnetic resonance conditions in the microwave RF regime. The magnet module of the scanner 409 tunes the magnitude and orientation of the magnetic field applied to the unique marker. The output frequencies of the microwave antenna 404 and RF signal generator 403 are tuned to the changing resonance conditions of the magnet. The main logic module 408 coordinately controls the laser output (e.g., amplitude and time-dependent modulation), microwave or RF field (e.g., amplitude, phase, resonant frequency), and magnetic field orientation and magnitude so that particle orientation can be determined using a set of fluorescence images.

[0024] The resulting image can resemble an optical image (in the visible light spectrum) of the night sky obtained by a telescope on a particular night, with bright dots of various sizes positioned against a mostly dark background and many distances between them. The position of any one star, planet, or celestial object in the sky can be described by its displacement from a reference celestial body, i.e., the North Star (Polaris), assuming a known observation point on the Earth's surface. Similarly, alignment marks (e.g., fiducial marks) within a unique marker can guide the positioning of the scanner to help obtain reproducible images of the same unique marker obtained at different times or locations using similar, but not necessarily identical, optical scanner systems. Determining the location of fluorescing particles within a scan relative to these alignment markers can provide an absolute measure of the particle's location within the marker. One example of an alignment marker is a "+" sign printed (e.g., using inkjet technology) with indelible ink that absorbs green light and fluoresces at wavelengths similar to NVC.

[0025] The location of a single bright point in an image of a UM can be represented by using a regularly spaced Cartesian grid system 501 assigned to the pixels of the image. The location is expressed as an ordered pair (X a ,Y a ), where X is the pixel coordinate of particle a along one dimension and Y is the coordinate along the orthogonal dimension 503. a and Y a can be an integer or a real number. The set of ordered pairs of locations {(X a ,Y a ), (X b ,Y b ), ..., (X zz ,Y zz)} specifies a unique description of the particle's location in the image. If an absolute origin is not specified, a unique description of the particle's position is obtained by creating a label for each ordered pair and defining the vector that separates the two particles. For example, if the particle at point (X2,Y2) is labeled "2" and the particle at point (X3,Y3) is labeled "3", then the unique identifier is "Δ 23 " = (X2 - X3, Y2 - Y3). By calculating all pairs of vectors, we obtain a unique list L of identifiers to describe particle locations with the additional property that they are invariant to global transformations of the lattice coordinate system. L is a unique set for a given host film with any particle separation.

[0026] In addition to particle location within the image, individual particles also have an orientation relative to the host material frame of reference. In some cases, if the host material is assumed to be an extended object, an origin can be defined within the host material, and this origin 601 shown in FIG. 6 can define the frame of reference for a right-handed, three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Similarly, a separate right-handed Cartesian coordinate system can be defined for each crystalline particle within the host material. Accordingly, there exists a unique coordinate transformation for moving between the particle coordinate system and the host material coordinate system. One exemplary parameterization is the use of directional cosines in the two coordinate systems, and another is a set of Euler rotations. Similar to the naming conventions discussed above, a point (X A ,Y A ) is labeled "A", and the transformation matrix T transforms the vector specified in the "A" frame 602 into the host reference frame. a Similarly, suppose that the point (X B ,Y B ) is labeled "B" and has a transformation matrix T b The transformation matrix serves to identify the orientation of the particle with respect to the coordinate frame. Similarly, the matrix T ab =(T a )^(-1)*T b specifies the relative orientation 701 between particle crystal frames "A" and "B" as shown in FIG.ab can also be obtained via the directional cosine of the angle between the orthogonal axes containing frames A and B. Due to the single crystalline nature of the particles, the color centers within the particles have fixed orientations relative to the particle coordinate system. Therefore, by measuring the orientation of the color centers relative to the host material frame, it is possible to determine the orientation of the particles using a similar coordinate transformation between the color center's coordinate axes and the crystalline particle's coordinate axes. Computing all pairwise transformations yields a unique list M (e.g., "AB") of transformation matrices to describe the relative orientations of the particles, with the additional property that they are invariant with the global rotation of the host lattice coordinate system. M is a unique set for a given host film with random grain orientation.

[0027] In cases where the particle's crystal lattice has a high degree of symmetry, there is freedom in specifying the axes of the color center coordinate system relative to the crystal principal axes. In such cases, it is not possible to uniquely convert the color center's orientation to the crystal principal axis system using only measurements of the color center. In such cases, it is sufficient to provide a parameterization of the coordinate transformation from the host material reference frame to only the color center's single symmetry axis. For example, this transformation can be parameterized by three directional cosines between the symmetry axis and each of the Cartesian coordinate axes. Another parameterization is the polar angle and azimuthal angle, where the polar angle is defined as the angle between the z Cartesian axis of the host reference frame and the symmetry axis, and the azimuthal angle is defined as the angle between the x Cartesian axis of the host reference frame and the projection of the symmetry axis onto the xy Cartesian plane of the host reference frame.

[0028] The properties of specific color centers embedded in crystalline grains can be used to determine the orientation of those grains. As an example, consider a negatively charged nitrogen-vacancy color center within a diamond crystal grain. The nitrogen atoms and vacancies within the diamond's carbon lattice can define direction vectors with distinct orientations relative to the crystal lattice coordinate axes. The photophysics of a color center can exhibit a decrease in fluorescence when illuminated by an oscillating radio frequency field whose frequency is tuned to the intrinsic resonance of system 800 shown in Figure 8. For example, at a frequency of approximately f = 2870 MHz, the center's photoluminescence decreases by approximately 30%. Furthermore, when a magnetic field is applied along the NV symmetry axis, this single resonance splits into two resonances, resulting in a decrease in the frequency of f for a magnetic field of strength G Gauss projected along the symmetry axis. + =2870+2.8G and f - = 2870 - 2.8 G gives distinct frequencies. To the lowest order, magnetic fields perpendicular to this axis of symmetry do not contribute to a shift in frequency. Therefore, by maintaining the magnitude of the external magnetic field and varying its direction relative to a common coordinate system, such as the host material coordinate system, in a well-known manner, it is possible to determine the absolute orientation of the crystalline grains. With this information, the techniques described above can be used to establish the distinct orientations of any two grains of a pair within the host material.

[0029] Provided the number of particles within the host material is sufficiently small, the microscopy techniques described above can be used to spatially identify the fluorescence emitted from each individual particle. For example, when the host material contains a sparse distribution of particles (e.g., with a filling factor of 20% or less), the resulting fluorescence image can contain voids larger than the particles. By sampling microwave frequencies near f0, where the maximum and minimum frequencies are set by a known magnetic field applied to the host material, it is possible to measure the resonance response 800 for each region of interest of each individual particle, as shown in FIG. 8. Next, by applying static magnetic fields 900 of different orientations relative to the host film reference frame, it is possible to determine the orientation of each individual particle from the series of magnetic resonance responses. For example, as shown in FIG. 9, a first orientation can be along the X-axis 901 of the host material frame, and a second orientation can be along the Y-axis 902 of the host material frame. A set of images acquired under these different microwave frequencies and magnetic field orientations can provide a complete scan and description of the spatial location and orientation of each particle within the host film 1000, as shown in FIG. 10. Each particle contains a unique location and orientation transformation matrix 1001. The complete orientation of a unique marker can be calculated, for example, by the set of coordinates and matrices {(X i ,Y i ,Z i ,T i )} Two random instances of particles set within their respective host magnetic fields will have sets of completely inconsistent orientations, thereby ensuring the uniqueness of a given set of particles.

[0030] In addition to the location and orientation properties of the unique marker, additional uniqueness can optionally be derived from the size and shape of the particle, using image processing techniques that analyze the shape (e.g., outline) and relative size (e.g., length of largest axis) of the particle in a projected image.

[0031] As shown in Figure 11, in some cases, a test measurement 1101 of perfect orientation and a set of particle positions and orientations s = {(X i ,Y i ,Z i ,T i} to the known perfect orientation s0={(X i ,Y i ,Z i ,T i A given unique marker can be identified by matching |.| to a set of vectors, such as a standard, and ε represents a single parameter threshold that determines the equality of two sets.

[0032] 12 and 13 illustrate an exemplary process for analyzing an article.

[0033] In the first example, two locations are involved in the identification. The origin 1200 is where the unique marker is first scanned. The complete position and orientation of the unique marker 1201 is obtained using the techniques described herein by a scanner 1204 capable of applying any magnetic field configuration used for the complete scan. The unique marker is associated with a serial number 1207 and is attached to an item of interest 1202. The complete location information, orientation information 1206, and scanner settings 1203 at the origin are associated with the serial number 1207 and securely stored. Such storage 1208 may be near the origin or may be located at a remote data center 1351 that receives data via the Internet or other network. The unique item 1209 then leaves the origin.

[0034] At the destination 1300 (which may be a physical location separate from the origin or, as discussed below, may be the same location as the origin), it is desirable to identify and analyze a unique marker 1303 attached to a unique item 1301. In this example, the destination queries an authentication server 1350 over the Internet or other network with the unique item's serial number 1302. The authentication server retrieves scanning parameters from a secure database 1351 associated with the item serial number. The server responds to the destination with a set of challenge parameters, such as a test magnetic field configuration and microwave frequency parameters, for which scanner settings 1305 the destination's scanner 1304 should be adjusted. In this example, the magnetic field configuration is sufficient for the destination scanner to determine a set 1306 of positions and orientations of each particle in the unique marker relative to a coordinate system located at the center of the host film. The destination scanner performs a series of scans similar to those completed at the origin. The destination scanner then provides a response to the authentication server 1350 with the measured set 1306 of positions and orientations and the serial number to the authentication server. The authentication server 1350 has knowledge of the location and orientation associated with the serial number, stored in database 1351, and obtained from the initialization scan at the origin scan. The server 1350 compares the orientation and location maps to perform an overlap calculation of the two sets (initialization scan and destination scan) to determine whether the sets are close enough to be considered a genuine match. In this example, the server 1350 responds with one of two results 1307: pass if the proximity criterion is met, or fail for all other results.

[0035] A single destination point for a unique item is provided as an illustrative example for the first example. For certain applications and use cases (e.g., authenticating banknotes), there may not be a single destination point, as the unique item may continue to circulate between various parties and destination points. Additionally, the destination may not be at a separate physical location, and variations of the analysis method described above may initialize, store, and analyze the unique item at a single physical location.

[0036] In the second example, an origin scan of an item begins as described in the first example 1200 above. At the destination, a unique item is received and the unique marker and serial number are retrieved from the item. In this second example, the scanner has a magnetic field of a magnitude and orientation that is not variable but is known to the analysis system. The scanner unit is identified by the scanner's serial number. With this single magnetic field configuration, the destination scanner performs a scan by capturing successful fluorescent images of the unique markers, each assigned a different microwave frequency. The image location and magnetic resonance frequency of each particle are recorded. This information, along with the item serial number and scanner identification number, is sent to an authentication server.

[0037] In this example, the authentication server knows the particle location and orientation of the unique marker associated with the serial number captured during the initialization scan. With knowledge of the applied magnetic field, the authentication server can calculate the expected magnetic resonance response for this particular unique marker. Because the magnetic field associated with the scanner serial number provides this information by using a mathematical model for NV centers, the authentication server can determine the expected magnetic resonance response for the combination of the serial number and the scanner serial number. The expected magnetic resonance response is equivalent to obtaining a partial, incomplete orientation of the particles. The scan information (particle location and resonance frequency) is sent from the destination to the authentication server and compared to the value calculated by the model. Using a similar thresholding criterion with a single parameter ε described above, if the partial scan at the destination is sufficiently similar to the partial scan calculated at the authentication server, the unique marker is considered a genuine match for the combination of the item serial number and the scanner serial number.

[0038] In some cases, the analytical techniques described herein can provide significant advantages. For example, a hierarchical system can be used to identify physically unique distributions of fluorescent particles in one, two, or three dimensions. Not only the particle locations used, but also the random orientation of the particles relative to one another is used for unique identification. It may be impractical or even impossible to replicate a physical fingerprint using both positional and orientational information, for example, using a nanopositioning tool such as an atomic force microscope to perform a particle-by-particle pick-and-place procedure to recreate the fingerprint.

[0039] In addition to orientation, optionally, in some cases, other physical properties of the particles can be observed from fluorescence that promote the security, uniqueness, and unclonability of the unique marker. These properties can include, but are not limited to, the crystal distortion of each particle, the spin detuning time (e.g., T2 time) of each particle, the unique signature of magnetic noise local to each particle's environment, the unique signature of electric field noise local to each particle's environment, the unique resonance signature of the local nuclear spin ensemble within the particle (e.g., hyperfine splitting), and the unique signature of fluorescence lifetime due to local dipole field resonance (FRET) of dipole fluorescence energy.

[0040] In some cases, the techniques described herein can avoid the need to rely on the spectral signature of fluorescence: measuring spectral signatures through small wavelength changes involves large diffraction gratings and long reflection paths, limiting the practical use of these fingerprinting methods, especially in field-deployable situations.

[0041] In some implementations, the fluorescence intensity of the particles can be used, in conjunction with or separately from measuring the magnetic resonance response of the color centers within the particles, to obtain information about particle orientation. As noted above, for some magnetic field strengths within the NV color center, such as several hundred Gauss, the fluorescence response has been observed to "vanish" when a large magnetic field component is applied orthogonal to the NV center symmetry axis. This technique allows for obtaining orientation information without the use of RF or microwaves.

[0042] In some cases, the addition of magnetic particles or markers to or near the UM can provide an additional layer of security. One example of a magnetic marker is a thin polymer film containing magnetized, superparamagnetic iron oxide particles. In such cases, a destination scanner approaches the unique marker under magnetic marker testing, causing the magnetic domains or particles on the surface to generate a localized magnetic field across a field of view for scanning the unique marker. The unique marker is imaged as described above, and the magnetic resonance response is recorded. The magnetic marker can be considered unique by the same criteria for uniqueness as previously described for unique markers. The unique magnetic marker is pre-characterized, and information about the marker's magnetic field (magnitude and orientation) is stored in the authentication unit 1350. This information allows the authentication unit to calculate the expected response of a given scanner to the unique magnetic marker's identification number and unique marker serial number. The measured and calculated responses at the destination scanner are analyzed for similarity, and authentication is determined by the threshold criteria described above.

[0043] In some implementations, the unique magnetic marker and the unique marker are fused into a composite physical marker. Magnetic particles (MPs) can be embedded within the article, for example, under the UM. The MPs generate a specific magnetic field pattern near the UM. If the UM is removed or moved from its original location on the article, the desired analysis (e.g., authentication) cannot be performed. In some implementations, the MPs can be incorporated into the adhesive of the UM or the suspension medium of the article.

[0044] In some implementations, the unique marker can act as a Physical Unclonable Function (PUF). PUFs operate through a challenge / response behavior, allowing some parameters of the system to be altered (i.e., challenged) and the physical system's response to those parameters to be easily measured. Due to the inherent randomness within the device, PUFs are difficult to clone. The randomness makes it difficult to similarly predict the physical system's response (i.e., functional output) based on the input (i.e., challenge) parameters. The unique marker can act as a PUF when placed in a parametrically controlled magnetic environment. As an example, the strength and orientation of the local magnetic field can be altered by setting parameters such as the current in a group of very small coils. These currents induce a magnetic field within the PUF. The PUF challenge can be a set of current values ​​for the coils, and the PUF response would be a resonant frequency response for each particle within the unique marker.

[0045] In some implementations, the challenge parameters for setting the magnetic field do not need to be communicated between the destination scanner and the authenticator for each scan. Instead, the authenticator knows a unique random key seed installed in the destination scanner. The authenticator and destination scanner also share a common, synchronized clock. The destination scanner then uses the clock value and the random seed as input to a one-way (e.g., hash) function whose output parameter sets the magnetic field parameter. In such a scheme, the authenticator can determine the magnetic field parameter from mutual information known to both the scanner and the authenticator and perform threshold matching. Such randomization of the scanner parameters adds an additional layer of security.

[0046] In some implementations, the UM can be used as a unique fingerprint or a physically unclonable function (PUF) for authentication and encryption. The orientation pattern generates a random bit string key that is used to encode a message or as a seed for another encryption protocol.

[0047] In some implementations, instead of the authenticator providing a simple pass / fail message for authentication, the authenticator provides the destination with the expected scanner response. The authenticator responds with a message that includes partial orientation information for the scanner / tag pair calculated from the scanner serial number and the complete orientation information of the UM captured in an initialization scan at the origin during attachment to the item. The destination scanner does not send its measurement results to the authenticator, but instead verifies the measured scan with the expected response provided by the authenticator. The destination compares the message with the scan information and authenticates the subject if the response meets a threshold criterion. The authentication step of comparing the origin and destination data can occur at the destination or within the system that receives data from both scanners.

[0048] In some implementations, the unique marker can also be intentionally altered in terms of its physical composition when it leaves the origin scan. As an example, a scanner or another device can alter or modify the UM. These alterations can be made by physical deformation of the UM or by heating the UM above a set temperature. For example, a laser beam can be used to heat an area within the UM and reflow the suspending medium so that the particle orientation and position change. Global and complete alterations can be used to reset the marker so that previous scanners will not match future scanners. In other words, the marker is reinitialized without the original scanner (or conventional system) having information about the UM's new configuration.

[0049] In some implementations, a physical modification can also be used to destroy the UM after use (for single-use applications). For example, the UM can be used to authenticate a seal on a package (e.g., as evidence of tampering). The seal is broken when the package is opened, and the UM is no longer needed. The UM can be destroyed to avoid attempts to reuse the marker, such as attaching an authentic UM to a non-unique item.

[0050] In some implementations, partial physical modifications can be used to ensure the chain of custody of the UM. As an example, a scanner (e.g., a destination scanner) can partially modify the UM to introduce variations in some of the marker characteristics, such as the position and orientation of particles within one region of the marker. These modifications can be measured by the modification scanner and stored locally or externally, as needed for the application. This can be used as a ledger to record scan events directly on the UM. The UM contains enough information to authenticate the marker, but also contains additional space / information / particles to enable recording and authentication of modified sections of the UM. This can be done multiple times on the same UM. For example, this technique can be used to track items in a supply chain where different checkpoint scanners are used.

[0051] In some implementations, the UM is used as an encryption key, whereby the unique marker is physically changed at the destination and the encrypted data is stored at the destination. Knowledge of the UM orientation can be known at the time of manufacture but can be changed by a scanner at the time of encryption to deny prior control of future knowledge of the UM of the key by others. The unclonability of the key prevents unauthorized accessors from duplicating the key on the fly. In some examples, devices that accept cleartext (unencrypted) data require the UM as the key for symmetric encryption / decryption.

[0052] In addition to the application of the unique marker described herein for object authentication, the unique marker can have other applications (which can be in combination with or instead of object authentication). One example application is multi-factor authentication. The unique marker is unclonable, and knowledge of its characteristics can be stored by an authentication server. A user seeking to authenticate a transaction, event, object, data, etc. can provide both this physical marker (key) and a password to prove their identity. In another example, a user password is used to generate a specific, predetermined magnetic pattern within a scanner device, thus providing an additional layer of security. The user ID, scanner ID, and marker scan are shared with the authentication system. This is similar to a hardware security token, except that it does not need to be powered but requires a dedicated reader device.

[0053] Another exemplary application is the generation of random bits to be used as an encryption key. The orientation and location information of a given unique marker can be used to generate a random bit string to be used for encryption. Provided that the data associated with the unique marker is not intentionally stored but is used only at the originating location to derive the random string, a physically unclonable key would be required to decrypt the information.

[0054] Another exemplary application is determining whether the integrity of an object has been compromised. In some cases, the integrity of an object can be compromised when the object is tampered with, used, exposed to environmental stress, or exposed to mechanical stress or wear. The unique marker can be applied to the object or incorporated into the object. As one example, the unique marker can conformally coat one or more components of the object. As another example, the unique marker can be shaped to match the surface pattern, texture, or other indentations of the object. When the integrity of the object is compromised, the unique marker can be physically altered or deformed, thus changing one or more characteristics of the unique marker. Comparison of the characteristics of the unique marker at various points along the object's chain of custody can reveal whether the object has been tampered with, used, or exposed to environmental or mechanical stress or wear (and where along the object's chain of custody). In some cases, the characteristics of the unique marker can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics of the unique marker may be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. In some cases, the characteristics of the unique marker may be obtained by visual or optical inspection of the integrity of the unique marker.

[0055] FIG. 14 is a flow diagram that generally illustrates an example process 1400 for using orientation information extracted from an object. The example process 1400 may include additional or different operations, including operations performed by additional or different entities, and these operations may be performed in the order shown or in a different order. In some cases, one or more of the operations shown in FIG. 14 are implemented as a process that includes multiple operations, subprocesses, or other types of routines performed by one or more systems. For example, in some cases, the systems, components, and processes shown in FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, 3-8, 9A, 9B, 10, 11A, 11B, 12, 13, or 15 may be used to perform one or more of the example operations shown in FIG. 14. In some cases, operations may be combined, performed in parallel, iterated or otherwise repeated, or performed in another manner.

[0056] Figure 14 shows an example process 1400 performed by three entities: a first entity 1402, a second entity 1404, and a third entity 1406. The entities shown in Figure 14 may represent separate entities in a manufacturing process, an industrial process, a supply chain, a distribution channel, a financial process, an enterprise workflow, or another type of process. As shown in Figure 14, each entity obtains a unique code from the same element of interest, and the unique code is then used by the entities.

[0057] In some cases, the object in example process 1400 can be or include a unique marker (UM), for example, of the types described above. For example, in some implementations, the object can be sneaker 101 or unique marker 103a shown in FIG. 1A, unique marker 401 shown in FIG. 4, article 1202 or unique marker 1201 shown in FIG. 12, or unique article 1301 or unique marker 1303 shown in FIG. 13. In some cases, the object can be or include another type of unique marker (UM), or another type of system, device, or component that includes a UM. In some cases, the object can be or include a tamper-evident device that can be used to verify structural integrity.

[0058] In some examples, the first entity 1402 is a component manufacturer, the second entity 1404 is a system manufacturer, and the third entity 1406 is a retail distributor. The target can be a component (or part of a component) manufactured by the first entity 1402, and the second entity 1404 can incorporate the component from the first entity 1402 into a product that is sold or distributed by the third entity 1406. The second entity 1404 and the third entity 1406 can use the unique code, for example, to track and trace the component or to authenticate the source, type, or other attributes of the component. As an example, the component can include a battery, chipset, or other part for a consumer electronic device, a medical device, etc.

[0059] In some examples, the first entity 1402 is a manufacturer or printer of a business document, and the second entity 1404 and the third entity 1406 are financial institutions. The object may be a business document (or a portion of a business document) produced by the first entity 1402. For example, the unique code may be used to authenticate the origin, type, or another attribute of the business document. Examples of business documents include cash, coins, and other currency or bank notes, checks, bonds, stock certificates, etc.

[0060] In some examples, the first entity 1402 is a manufacturer of a pharmaceutical product, medical device, or medical equipment, the second entity 1404 is a distributor, and the third entity 1406 is a healthcare provider. The object can be a pharmaceutical product, medical device, or medical equipment (or packaging therefor, or a component of a pharmaceutical product, medical device, or medical equipment) manufactured by the first entity 1402 and distributed to a healthcare institution by the second entity 1404. The second entity 1404 and the third entity 1406 can use the unique code, for example, to authenticate the source, type, intended recipient (e.g., a specific patient), or another attribute of the medical device or medical equipment. As an example, the medical device can be a prosthetic organ or implant manufactured or assigned for a particular patient.

[0061] In some examples, a first entity 1402 is a manufacturer of containers (e.g., vials, bottles, jars, shipping containers, etc.), and a second entity 1404 fills these containers with some contents and consigns the containers to a third entity 1406 for storage, analysis, transport, processing, or another purpose. The objects can be containers (or portions of containers) manufactured by the first entity 1402 and provided to the second entity 1404. The second entity 1404 and the third entity 1406 can use the unique code, for example, to authenticate the identity or contents of each individual container. As one example, the unique code can be used to authenticate an individual patient's biological sample, a type of prescription medication, or other sensitive contents. As another example, the unique code can be used to verify a tamper-evident component of the container and determine whether the container or its contents have been tampered with, for example.

[0062] In some examples, the unique code can be used to verify that the object has been authorized for handling or use by a particular entity or group of entities, such as an entity in a particular geographic region or an entity with appropriate credentials.

[0063] At 1410, a first entity 1402 manufactures an object. In some implementations, another entity (other than the first entity 1402, the second entity 1404, or the third entity 1406 shown in FIG. 14 ) manufactures the object at 1410 and then provides the object to the first entity 1402. An object may be manufactured by multiple entities in multiple locations, and the manufacturing performed at 1410 may represent one manufacturing process within an overall manufacturing workflow.

[0064] In the example shown in FIG. 14 , when the object is manufactured, a distribution of elements is formed within the object. In some cases, the manufacturing process can control the density, sparseness, or number of elements within the object. In some cases, the elements are diamond particles, and the object can be manufactured to have diamond particles filling less than a threshold percentage of the object's volume (e.g., less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 1%, etc.). In some cases, the density (e.g., mass density, volume density) of the elements within the object is controlled to allow an imaging system to identify individual elements, for example, so that a fluorescent image of the object contains a sparse collection of diamond particles.

[0065] Here, a distribution of elements can be formed as a suspension of elements on a two-dimensional surface of an object, or as a suspension of elements within a three-dimensional volume of an object, or both. In some cases, a suspension of elements is formed in an object by distributing elements on a surface of the object (e.g., an exterior surface, an interior surface, or both). In some cases, a suspension of elements is formed in an object by distributing elements within the medium of the object (e.g., within the material from which the object is made). The elements can be fixed in position, e.g., so that the elements remain stationary relative to each other and the medium of the object. For example, a suspension of elements can be a static spatial distribution of elements, where the relative locations, orientations, sizes, magnetic field environments, and other properties of the elements can remain fixed. In some implementations, the elements are fixed in position unless the shape and structure of the object changes, and the positions of the elements can be modified, e.g., by deforming or otherwise altering the object to modify the relative locations, orientations, sizes, magnetic field environments, and other properties of the elements.

[0066] In some examples, the elements are diamond particles, and a suspension of diamond particles is formed within the object when the object is manufactured in 1410. The suspension of diamond particles can be the type within host material 301 shown in FIG. 3 or another type of distribution. The suspension of diamond particles can be formed, for example, by a manufacturing system that uses raw materials that include diamond particles. For example, the manufacturing system can include an injection molding system, an additive manufacturing system, a printer, a painting system, a saw, a lathe, a mill, and other manufacturing systems. In some cases, the manufacturing system can also include a mixer or another type of system that mixes or otherwise distributes the diamond particles within the raw materials.

[0067] The diamond particle suspension can be formed, for example, by distributing the diamond particles on the surface of the object. For example, the diamond particles can be distributed on the surface of the object by mixing the diamond particles in a liquid, gas, or other fluid medium and applying the liquid, gas, or other fluid medium to the surface of the object. In some cases, the diamond particles can be mixed with an aerosol paint in a pressurized container, and the aerosol paint can be sprayed onto the surface (interior, exterior, or both) of the object. In some cases, the diamond particles can be mixed with a latex-based paint, oil-based paint, or another type of paint, and the paint can be brushed, rolled, sprayed, or otherwise applied to the surface (interior, exterior, or both) of the object. In some cases, the diamond particles can be distributed on the surface of the object by spin or dip coating processes used in semiconductor manufacturing.

[0068] For example, the diamond particles can be distributed on the surface of the object by mixing the diamond particles into a conformal coating material and applying the conformal coating material to the surface of the object. The conformal coating material can include an acrylic, silicone, urethane, or parylene material, or another material of the type typically applied to electronic components (e.g., printed circuit boards, etc.). The conformal coating material can be sprayed, brushed, or otherwise applied to the surface (interior, exterior, or both) of the object.

[0069] For example, the diamond particles can be distributed on the surface of an object by mixing the diamond particles into a toner or ink material (e.g., in a printer cartridge) and printing the toner or ink material onto the object. The toner or ink material can include the type of material typically used in inkjet printers, laser printers, etc. The toner or ink material can be printed, for example, by a conventional printer or another type of system onto paper, fabric, or other material that forms all or part of the object.

[0070] For example, a suspension of diamond particles can be formed by distributing diamond particles within a material and forming an object from the material. For example, diamond particles can be distributed within a material by mixing diamond particles into a liquid, gas, or other fluid medium and forming an object from the liquid, gas, or other fluid medium. For example, diamond particles can be mixed with a raw material (e.g., a liquid or resin thermoplastic material, a molten glass material, a molten metal material, etc.), and the raw material can be used in an injection molding process or an additive manufacturing process to form an object. In a typical injection molding process, heated raw material is injected under high pressure into a cavity defined by a mold, where the raw material conforms to the mold and then cools and hardens to the shape of the cavity. In a typical additive manufacturing process, raw material is deposited into successive layers according to a computer model, and these layers are accumulated to form the object. An additive manufacturing process can be performed, for example, by a conventional 3D printer or another type of system.

[0071] The diamond particles can be mixed with raw material (e.g., liquid or resinous thermoplastic material, molten glass material, molten metallic material, etc.), and the raw material can be cooled or otherwise processed to form a solid workpiece from which an object is formed. For example, the workpiece can be a plastic, metal, or other type of solid workpiece, and the object can be formed by removing material from the workpiece (e.g., cutting, filing, grinding, grinding, drilling, punching, machining, etc.). In some cases, the workpiece can be machined using conventional equipment (e.g., saws, sandpaper, lathes, mills, drills, etc.), for example, in a subtractive manufacturing process.

[0072] At 1412, the first entity 1402 obtains a unique code from the elements of the object. For example, when the elements are diamond particles, the first entity 1402 can generate a unique code for the object using a suspension of the diamond particles. The first entity 1402 can obtain the unique code, for example, according to the exemplary process 1500 shown in FIG. 15 or another type of process. In some examples, the unique code can be based on orientation information (e.g., orientation information 1206 shown in FIG. 12 , orientation information 1306 shown in FIG. 13 ) or another type of element information extracted from the object (e.g., magnetic field environment information, topography information, location information, etc.) (e.g., the unique code can be, include, be derived from, etc.). In some implementations, the unique code is obtained by a scanner system that extracts the element information and a computer system that generates the unique code from the element information. For example, when the object includes a suspension of diamond particles, the element information can describe the orientation, location, magnetic field environment, or size of each diamond particle in the suspension, or the object information can describe any combination of these properties of each diamond particle in the suspension.

[0073] At 1414, the second entity 1404 acquires the object. The second entity 1404 may acquire the object directly from the first entity 1402 or indirectly through an intermediary entity. For example, the object may be handled by a delivery service, customs or traffic personnel, another entity in the supply chain, etc. In some cases, the object may pass through one or more intermediate owners, trustees, or other entities between the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 over a period of days, months, or years.

[0074] At 1416, the second entity 1404 obtains the unique code from the element of interest. The second entity 1404 may obtain the unique code, for example, according to the example process 1500 shown in FIG. 15 or another type of process. In some implementations, the second entity 1404 obtains the unique code using the same process that the first entity 1402 used to obtain the unique code. For example, the second entity may have access to the same type of scanner equipment and may obtain the unique code via a protocol known to both the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404.

[0075] In some cases, the protocol for obtaining a unique code from a subject includes parameters (e.g., magnetic field strength, illumination intensity, scanner settings, or other types of parameters), and the unique code created by execution of the protocol depends on the characteristics of the subject and the values ​​of the parameters. In some cases, the first entity 1402 selects values ​​of the parameters used to extract the unique code (at 1412), and the second entity 1404 uses the same values ​​to extract the unique code (at 1416). For example, these values ​​can be provided to the subject, obtained separately from the first entity 1402, received from a trusted third party, retrieved from a public database, or otherwise obtained by the second entity 1404. In some cases, the second entity 1404 independently selects values ​​of the parameters used to extract the unique code (at 1416), e.g., by randomly selecting values, using predefined values, or otherwise, independent of the values ​​used by the first entity to obtain the unique code (at 1412).

[0076] In some cases, the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 obtain the same unique code at 1412 and 1416, respectively. For example, when the element of interest is unchanged and the extraction protocol is executed properly, the unique code obtained by the second entity 1404 (at 1416) can be identical to the unique code obtained by the first entity 1402 (at 1412). In some cases, the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 obtain different unique codes at 1412 and 1416, respectively. For example, when the element of interest is changed or the extraction protocol is executed improperly, the unique code obtained by the second entity 1404 (at 1416) can be different from the unique code obtained by the first entity 1402 (at 1412).

[0077] At 1418, the second entity 1404 uses the unique code. In some implementations, the unique code is used in a process to authenticate the object, to track the object, to verify the integrity of the object, or another type of process related to the object. As an example, the unique code can be the orientation information 1306 of FIG. 13 used to authenticate the unique item 1301. In some implementations, the unique code can be used in processes that are not otherwise related to the object. In some instances, the unique code can be used as a quality measure, a safety measure, and an inventory control tool. In some instances, the unique code can be used to demonstrate regulatory compliance or for other purposes.

[0078] In some implementations, the second entity 1404 communicates with the first entity 1402 (or another entity) to use the unique code at 1418. In some cases, the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 communicate directly with each other, e.g., via a communication channel or a direct communication link. Exemplary communication channels include a wired or wireless connection (e.g., a radio, optical, or electrical connection, etc.), a wired or wireless network (e.g., a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a private network, a public network (e.g., the Internet), a peer-to-peer network, a cellular network, a Wi-Fi network, etc.), other physical connections (e.g., a pneumatic tube, an acoustic medium, etc.), etc. In some cases, the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 communicate indirectly with each other, e.g., via access to a shared database or other resource, an intermediary entity, an escrow channel, etc. In some implementations, using the unique code in 1418 does not require the second entity 1404 to communicate with the first entity 1402 or any other entity. For example, the unique code may be used in a process (e.g., a safety process or another type of process) performed internally by the second entity 1404.

[0079] In some implementations, the unique code is used in an authentication process. For example, the second entity 1404 can perform the operations of the requestor 1602 in the example process 1600 shown in FIG. 16 . In some cases, the authentication process includes or is implemented as a challenge-response process, such as the example challenge-response process 1700 shown in FIG. 17 . The authentication process can be used for anti-counterfeiting, integrity verification, identity verification, chain of custody verification, or another purpose. The authentication process can produce an output indicative of the authenticity of the subject, for example, as a binary value (“pass” or “fail”) or a gradient value (e.g., a percentage, likelihood, or probability).

[0080] For anti-counterfeiting purposes, for example, unique codes can be used to authenticate objects to determine whether the purported source, grade, type, or quality of the object is genuine (i.e., authentic) or counterfeit (i.e., inauthentic). A product manufacturer can, for example, authenticate product components to determine whether the product components were manufactured by a particular component manufacturer. A retailer can, for example, authenticate branded products to determine whether the branded product was produced by a stated brand source or authorized manufacturer. A bank can, for example, authenticate currency to determine whether the currency was issued by a particular financial institution or government. Authentication processes can also be used for other types of anti-counterfeiting purposes.

[0081] In the case of integrity verification, for example, a unique code can be used to authenticate an object to determine whether the object remains intact (i.e., authentic) or has been damaged or tampered with (i.e., inauthentic). A distributor or end user can, for example, authenticate a product to determine whether a product seal has been disturbed, whether a component has been disassembled or replaced (e.g., whether a mounting screw has been disturbed), or whether the object has been tampered with in other ways. A pharmacy can, for example, authenticate a compound to determine whether the packaging or container has been tampered with. The authentication process can also be used for other types of integrity verification.

[0082] For identity verification, for example, a unique code may be used to authenticate an object to determine whether the object is associated with a particular identity or identifier of a person or other entity (e.g., a corporate entity, a government entity, etc.). A hospital, for example, may authenticate a prescription drug container to determine whether the contents are associated with a particular prescription or patient. A healthcare provider, for example, may authenticate a prosthesis or implant to determine whether the prosthesis or implant is associated with a particular patient or procedure. The authentication process may also be used for other types of identity verification.

[0083] For chain-of-custody verification, the unique code can be used to authenticate whether a subject holds one or more entities. A corporate entity may, for example, verify the chain of custody of a sensitive product or information to ensure confidentiality before it is introduced into a secure internal process. A law enforcement entity may verify the chain of custody of physical evidence to ensure the integrity of an investigation, for example. The authentication process can also be used for other types of chain-of-custody verification.

[0084] The authentication process can produce an outcome that the second entity 1404 can act upon. As one example, if the authentication process indicates that the subject is authentic (e.g., via a binary indicator, a slope above a tolerance threshold, etc.), the second entity 1404 can accept and introduce the subject. For example, a component can be installed, a medication can be administered, a financial instrument can be accepted as payment, etc. As another example, if the authentication process indicates that the subject is not authentic (e.g., via a binary indicator, a slope below a tolerance threshold, etc.), the second entity 1404 can reject or quarantine the subject. For example, a component can be returned, a medication can be disposed of, a financial instrument can be declined as payment, etc.

[0085] In some implementations, the unique code is used in a cryptographic process. For example, a key (e.g., a private key, a shared secret, etc.) or another value for a cryptographic process can be generated based on the unique code (e.g., a unique code that can be used as a key or to derive a key). The unique code can be used for authenticating (e.g., signing, verifying) a message, encrypting (e.g., encrypting, decrypting) a message, deriving a key (e.g., creating a session key, an ephemeral key, etc.), and other cryptographic applications.

[0086] In some implementations, the first entity 1402 and the second entity 1404 can use the unique code as a shared secret that is similar to the type of shared secret created by, for example, a cryptographic key agreement algorithm (e.g., Diffie-Hellman, quantum key distribution (QKD), or another algorithm). The second entity 1404 can use the shared secret in an encrypted communication session over a public channel, for example, to encrypt a message to or decrypt a message from the first entity 1402. The second entity 1404 can use the shared secret in an authenticated communication session over a public channel, for example, to sign a message to or verify a message from the first entity 1402.

[0087] In some implementations, the second entity 1404 can use the unique code as a private key to generate an associated public key, e.g., for use in a public key infrastructure (PKI) system. For example, the second entity 1404 can use the private key to decrypt a message encrypted by another entity using the public key. As another example, another entity can also use the public key to verify a message signed by the second entity 1404 using the private key. Exemplary PKI systems include RSA-based systems, elliptic curve systems, etc.

[0088] In some implementations, the object is used as (or associated with) a ledger (e.g., a secure ledger, a public ledger, a distributed ledger, or another type of ledger), and the unique code is used as (or is used to generate) an entry or update in the ledger. For example, a first unique code obtained (at 1412) by the first entity 1402 can represent a first entry in the ledger, and a second, different unique code obtained (at 1416) by the second entity 1404 can represent a second, different entry in the ledger. In some instances, the second entity 1404 modifies the object before obtaining the unique code at 1416, thereby causing the second entity 1404 to obtain the second, different unique code at 1416. For example, the second entity 1404 can change the orientation of one or more of the object's elements, such that orientation information extracted from the object creates a different unique code.

[0089] At 1420, the third entity 1406 obtains the object. The third entity 1406 may obtain the object directly from the second entity 1404 or indirectly through one or more intermediary entities.

[0090] At 1422, the third entity 1406 obtains a unique code from the element of interest. The third entity 1406 may obtain the unique code according to, for example, the exemplary process 1500 shown in FIG. 15 or another type of process. In some implementations, the third entity 1406 obtains the unique code using the same process that the first entity 1402 or the second entity 1404 (or both) used to obtain the unique code. In some instances, the first entity 1402, the second entity 1404, and the third entity 1406 obtain the same unique code at 1412, 1416, and 1422, respectively. For example, when the element of interest has not been altered and the extraction protocol was executed properly, the unique code obtained by the third entity 1406 (at 1422) may be identical to the unique code obtained by the first entity 1402 (at 1412) and the second entity 1404 (at 1416). In some instances, one or more of the first, second, and third entities obtain a unique code that is different from the other entities.

[0091] At 1424, the third entity 1406 uses the unique code. The third entity 1406 can use (at 1424) the unique code obtained at 1422 similarly to how the second entity 1404 uses (at 1418) the unique code obtained at 1416. In some implementations, the third entity 1406 communicates with the first entity 1402 or the second entity 1404 (or another entity) to use the unique code at 1424. For example, an authentication process can be performed between the third entity 1406 and the first entity, and the authentication process can be performed directly between the third entity 1406 and the first entity 1402 or can be performed via an intermediate entity (e.g., the second entity 1404 or another entity). In some instances, the process 1400 is extended to additional entities as well.

[0092] 15 is a flow diagram that generally illustrates an example process 1500 for generating a unique code for an object. The example process 1500 may include additional or different operations, which may be performed in the order shown or in a different order. In some cases, operations may be combined, performed in parallel, iterated or otherwise repeated, or performed in another manner.

[0093] In some cases, one or more of the operations shown in FIG. 15 are implemented by a scanner system, such as the scanner shown in FIG. 4 or another type of scanner system. The scanner system can be configured to extract information from a sample, for example, by applying stimuli to the sample and recording the sample's response to the stimuli. The scanner system can include one or more probes that apply stimuli or record the sample's response (or both). For example, the scanner system can include an illumination source (e.g., a laser or other light source), optical components (e.g., lenses, mirrors, filters, amplifiers, etc.), optical sensors, a camera (e.g., a CMOS camera, a CCD camera, or another type of camera), a signal generator (e.g., an RF signal generator, a microwave signal generator, etc.), coils and antennas, a magnet system (e.g., an electromagnet, a superconducting magnet, etc.), and other components, which can be arranged according to the example shown in FIG. 14 or in other ways.

[0094] In examples where the scanner system is configured to inspect color centers of diamond particles, the scanner system includes one or more probes configured to acquire a fluorescent image of the sample, for example, by applying illumination to the sample and detecting the fluorescent response of the subject (e.g., over a range of applied static magnetic fields, applied electrostatic fields, etc.). In some examples, the scanner system also includes one or more probes configured to acquire magnetic resonance properties of the sample, for example, by placing the sample in an external magnetic field, applying radio or microwave pulses to the sample, and detecting the subject's response to the pulses. In some examples, the scanner system also includes a sample region in which the sample is located when inspected by the scanner system.

[0095] 15 are implemented by a computer system. For example, a scanner system that extracts information from a sample can include a processor that analyzes the extracted information. Additionally or alternatively, the operations can be performed by another computer system. For example, information extracted by the scanner system can be communicated to a separate (and in some cases, remote) computer system from the scanner system.

[0096] At 1502, an object is received. The object may be received, for example, within a sample volume of a scanner system. The object received at 1502 is a physical object and includes elements, such as elements integrated into the structure of the object or otherwise dispersed within the object. The object received at 1502 may be of the type referenced in process 1400 of FIG. 14. For example, the object may be or include a unique marker (UM) or another article containing a suspension of elements.

[0097] In some implementations, the object is a manufactured system or device (e.g., a container, a document, a medical device, etc.). In some implementations, the object is a component of a manufactured system or device. For example, the object can include a component (e.g., a label, a lid, a seal, or other component) of a container (e.g., a prescription drug container, a biological sample container, an envelope or other document receptacle, a shipping container, etc.), a printed area on a document (e.g., currency, a bank note, or other business document), a portion of a medical device (e.g., a prosthesis or implant), a tag attached to a retail item or an electronic device, etc.

[0098] In some implementations, the object is a macroscopic object, and the element is a microstructure or nanostructure of the object. For example, the element can be a microstructure such as a diamond particle, a magnetic particle, a nanorod, a flake or foil, a molecule exhibiting electron paramagnetism, a molecule with a finite electric dipole moment, or other type of structure suspended within the object. The object can have a macroscopic size, e.g., a maximum dimension on the order of a few millimeters, a few centimeters, or more, and the element can have a size that is one or several orders of magnitude smaller than the object, e.g., the element can have a maximum dimension on the order of a few millimeters, a few micrometers, or a few nanometers in some cases. In some examples, the element is a crystalline particle fixed within a medium. The crystalline particle can be, for example, a diamond particle having a respective color center (e.g., an NV center or other type of color center), and the medium can be an organic or inorganic material. In some cases, the crystalline particles can be suspended in silicon, glass, thermoplastics (e.g., acrylic, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene), thermosetting polymers (e.g., epoxy and polyurethane), or other types of materials. An object can contain hundreds, thousands, millions, or more elements. The elements can be distributed throughout all or a portion of the volume of the object, distributed throughout all or a portion of the surface of the object, or otherwise distributed within the object.

[0099] In some implementations, each element has a structure (internal or external) that defines the orientation of the element. For example, the element can have a crystalline structure, and the orientation of the element can be defined by a particular axis (e.g., symmetry axis) or plane of the element's crystalline structure. As another example, the element can have an elongated structure, and the orientation of the element can be defined by a particular axis (e.g., long axis) or plane of the element's elongated shape. As another example, the element can have an internal feature or structure (e.g., color center), and the orientation of the element can be defined by a particular axis (e.g., NV axis) or plane of the element's internal feature or structure.

[0100] In some implementations, each element is fixed within an object relative to other elements within the object. For example, elements can be fixed within an object such that their relative locations and orientations remain fixed as long as the shape and structure of the object remains fixed. Accordingly, the object can uniquely define a distribution of element properties that can be repeatably and deterministically detected by detecting individual elements. For example, the suspension of elements can define a distribution of relative spatial orientations, a distribution of relative locations, a distribution of sizes and shapes, etc. The distribution of element properties can have thousands, millions, or more independent degrees of freedom, and such degrees of freedom can vary within each object.

[0101] In some implementations, some or all of the elemental properties are controlled by highly complex random or quasi-random processes, such as thermodynamic processes, that occur when the object is manufactured. Correspondingly, the distribution of elemental properties within an individual object may be difficult or impractical (or even impossible) to replicate or duplicate in another object. Thus, the distribution of elemental properties may be unique for each individual object and may serve as a unique identifier for the object, similar to a fingerprint or signature.

[0102] At 1504, element information is extracted from the object. The element information may be extracted from the object, for example, by the operation of one or more probes of a scanner system. The element information may include or be based on a distribution of element properties defined by the elements of the object. For example, the element information may describe a distribution of relative spatial orientations, a distribution of relative locations, a distribution of sizes and shapes, or a combination thereof.

[0103] In some cases, the element information is extracted by imaging the object using optical microscopy (e.g., as described with respect to FIG. 4) and processing the resulting image. In some cases, the element information is extracted by detecting magnetic resonance properties of the object (e.g., as described with respect to FIG. 4) and processing the magnetic resonance data.

[0104] In some cases, the element information is extracted by an extraction protocol executed by the scanner system, and the element information can depend on the element characteristics and parameters of the extraction protocol. For example, the parameters of the extraction protocol can be provided as input to a controller or control process (e.g., main logic module 408 in FIG. 4 ) that operates the probe of the scanner system. In some cases, the element information extracted from the object does not necessarily depend on the parameters of the extraction protocol. For example, two separate extraction protocols that identify the orientation of the same elements (e.g., all of the elements or the same subset of elements) can produce the same orientation information because the orientation is fixed. The element information can be defined in a standardized or predefined format, and such a format can be invariant under global rotation of the object.

[0105] In some implementations, extracting the element information includes extracting orientation information from the object, where the orientation information indicates the relative spatial orientation of each element of the object. The orientation information can be formatted as a list, an array, or another format. In some cases, the orientation information includes a coordinate transformation that describes the relative spatial orientation of each element. The coordinate transformation can be, for example, a list of transformation matrices, an ordered set of orthogonal rotations (such as an Euler decomposition), or another form of coordinate transformation. In an example where the elements are diamond particles, the orientation information can be a list of composite transformation matrices (e.g., a composite transformation matrix for each diamond particle), where the list of composite transformation matrices can be invariant to the overall rotation of the object's coordinate system.

[0106] In some cases, orientation information, and possibly other element information (e.g., location information, size information, shape information), is extracted by obtaining an optical response (e.g., a fluorescence response or another type of optical response) to illumination applied to the object. The optical response may, in some cases, include Raman scattering or another nonlinear effect (e.g., second harmonic generation, spontaneous parametric down-conversion, etc.). In some examples, the fluorescence response may include an electromagnetic signal, e.g., in the 635 nm to 800 nm range or another wavelength, generated by a color center or another feature of the element (e.g., Stokes and anti-Stokes shifts or another nonlinear process). Based on the fluorescence response of the element, a fluorescence image of the object can be generated, and the relative spatial orientation can be determined from the fluorescence image. Image 500 shown in FIG. 5 represents an example of a monochromatic fluorescence image with 1-bit color depth. Orientation information can be determined based on fluorescence changes in the object, for example, fluorescence changes of the element detected in response to changes in illumination or changes in a magnetic field applied to the object. In another example, orientation information can be determined based on the orientation dependence of a nonlinear optical process (e.g., second harmonic generation (SHG)).

[0107] In some cases, the orientation information, and possibly other element information (e.g., magnetic field environment information), is extracted using a magnetic resonance technique, such as electron spin resonance (ESR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR), or another type of magnetic resonance technique. For example, a scanner can acquire a magnetic resonance response to an oscillating electromagnetic field (e.g., radio frequency, microwave frequency, etc.) applied to the subject, and a computer system can determine the relative spatial orientation by analyzing the magnetic resonance response. The magnetic resonance response can be acquired, for example, by placing the subject in an external magnetic field (e.g., an external static magnetic field), applying an oscillating electromagnetic field (e.g., radio or microwave frequency pulses) to the subject in the external magnetic field, and optically detecting changes in the magnetic resonance of the element in response to relative changes in the external magnetic field (e.g., relative changes in the strength or orientation of the external magnetic field), relative changes in the oscillating electromagnetic field (e.g., relative changes in the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the oscillating electromagnetic field).

[0108] In some implementations, orientation information can be extracted independently of aligning the object with, for example, a scanner system. In some cases, the object does not include alignment marks or orientation references other than its elements. When orientation information is extracted by applying illumination to the object, the orientation of the elements relative to each other can be described without reference to the illumination angle. Similarly, when orientation information is extracted by magnetic resonance techniques, the orientation of the elements relative to each other can be described without reference to the angle of the applied magnetic field. Accordingly, the orientation information can be invariant to the global rotation of the object's coordinate system.

[0109] When the crystal grains are diamond grains having respective color centers, orientation information can be extracted by detecting the relative orientation of the color centers. In some cases, the relative orientation can be detected by processing a fluorescent image, magnetic resonance data, or other measurement of the object. For example, the relative orientation can be identified using a coordinate transformation, such as a composite transformation matrix (e.g., as described with reference to Figures 6 and 7) that represents multiple transformations for each diamond grain. The composite transformation matrix for the diamond grain can represent a first transformation between the coordinate system of the object and the coordinate system of the diamond grain, and a second transformation between the coordinate system of the diamond grain and the coordinate system of the color centers within the diamond grain. In some examples, each diamond grain contains a single color center (e.g., each individual diamond grain contains a single NV center). In some examples, some or all of the diamond grains contain multiple color centers (e.g., each individual diamond grain contains two or more NV centers). When a single diamond crystal contains multiple NV centers, the four-fold symmetry of the diamond lattice means that any of four orientations can be selected as a basis for describing the grain's orientation.

[0110] In some implementations, extracting the element information includes extracting location information from the object, where the location information indicates the relative spatial position of each element of the object. The location information can be formatted as a list, an array, or another format. In some cases, the location information includes a list of coordinate vectors that describe the relative spatial position of each element. In some cases, the relative location can be detected by processing fluorescence images, magnetic resonance data, or other measurements of the object. For example, the relative location can be identified using the method described with respect to FIG. 5 or in another manner.

[0111] In some implementations, extracting the element information includes extracting topographical information from the object, where the topographical information indicates the relative spatial topography (e.g., relative size, relative shape, etc.) of each element of the object. The topographical information can be formatted as a list, an array, or another format. In some cases, the topographical information includes a list of coordinate vectors describing dimensions (e.g., along one or more coordinate axes). In some cases, the topography of the elements can be detected by processing fluorescence images, magnetic resonance data, or other measurements of the object.

[0112] In some implementations, extracting the element information includes extracting magnetic field environment information from the object, where the magnetic field environment information indicates the magnetic field environment of each element of the object. The magnetic field environment information can be formatted as a list, an array, or another format. In some cases, the magnetic field environment information includes a list of coordinate vectors that describe the magnetic field strength (e.g., along one or more coordinate axes) experienced by each element. In some cases, the magnetic field environment of the elements can be detected by processing magnetic resonance data or other measurements of the object.

[0113] The element information may indicate properties of the elements, for example, in two or three spatial dimensions. For example, the orientation information may indicate relative spatial orientation in two or three dimensional space; similarly, the topography and location information may indicate relative location, size, shape, etc., in two or three dimensional space. In examples where the elements are crystalline particles fixed within another medium of interest, the element information may indicate the relative size, shape, orientation, or position of the crystalline particles, for example, in two or three spatial dimensions, or a combination of these properties.

[0114] At 1506, a unique code is generated from the element information. For example, the unique code can be generated by a processor within the scanner system, a computer system separate from the scanner system, or a combination thereof. For example, a separate computer system can obtain the element information (orientation information, location information, topography information, magnetic field environment information, or a combination thereof) and generate the unique code.

[0115] In some implementations, the unique code is generated from orientation information extracted from the subject by a scanner system, and the unique code does not depend on any alignment or relative orientation between the subject and the scanner system. For example, the orientation information can be processed independently of the relative orientation between the subject and the scanner system. When the orientation information is extracted by applying illumination to the subject, the unique code can be determined without reference to the angle at which the illumination is applied to the subject. Similarly, when the orientation information is extracted by magnetic resonance techniques, the unique code can be determined without reference to the angle at which an external (static or oscillating) magnetic field is applied to the subject.

[0116] In some implementations, the unique code is generated from element information that represents only a subset of the elements in the object. For example, the object may include a superset of elements, and the element information used to generate the unique code may represent only a subset of the elements (fewer than all elements).

[0117] In some cases, the element information extracted in 1504 characterizes only a subset of the elements, and in 1506, a unique code is generated from all of the element information extracted in 1504. For example, the subset of elements may be elements that respond to stimuli within a particular range of magnetic field strength, frequency, polarization, etc. As an example, when the elements are diamond particles, a camera may be used to observe only diamond particles that have an optical response to a specific frequency band, e.g., 2.77-2.79 gigahertz (GHz), or another frequency band.

[0118] In some cases, the element information extracted in 1504 is indicative of characteristics of all elements in the superset, and at 1506, a unique code is generated from a subset of the element information extracted in 1504. For example, a subset of orientation information indicative of the relative spatial orientation of the subset of elements can be identified from the full set of element information such that a unique code can be generated based on the relative spatial orientation of only that subset. The subset of elements can be elements in a particular region of interest, elements that result in a particular signal strength, or elements of another subset.

[0119] The unique code can include information in any suitable form or format and can be generated by processing the element information in any suitable manner. For example, the unique code can be binary or alphanumeric, or can include other types of symbols or values. The unique code can be formatted as a single value or a group of values ​​(e.g., a list, an array, etc.), or another format. As an example, when the orientation information includes a list of coordinate transformations, this list can be processed or reformatted to define the unique code. In some cases, a function or transformation is applied to the element information to generate the unique code.

[0120] In the exemplary process 1500, the unique code generated in 1506 is unique to the object. For example, the unique code may be defined by parameters in a phase space that is large enough that, practically, no two objects can produce the same code. For example, the size of the phase space may be defined by the number of degrees of freedom in the element information extracted from the object. The likelihood that another object (manufactured by the same process, manufactured using the same materials, etc.) can occupy the same location in the phase space may be infinitesimally small. In some cases, it may be impractical to produce another object that occupies the same location in the phase space and produces the same code.

[0121] At 1508, the object can be modified. For example, modifying the object can change the relative spatial orientation or spatial location (or both) of at least some of the elements. Process 1500 can be repeated, for example, after modifying the object at 1508 or other times. In some cases, a first unique code for the object is generated in a first iteration of process 1500, and a second, different unique code is generated from the same object in a second iteration of process 1500 after changing the relative spatial orientation based on the orientation information extracted from the object. In some cases, the relative spatial orientation of the elements can be used as a secure or public ledger for information related to the object. For example, changing the spatial orientation (by modifying the object at 1508) can be associated with an update to the ledger.

[0122] 16 is a flow diagram that generally illustrates an example process 1600 for analyzing an object. The example process 1600 may include additional or different operations, including operations performed by additional or different entities, and these operations may be performed in the order shown or in a different order. In some cases, operations may be combined, performed in parallel, iteratively or otherwise repeated, or performed in a different manner. The example process 1600 may be used to authenticate the identity of the object, determine whether the object has been tampered with, determine whether the object has been used or activated, determine whether the object has been exposed to environmental stress, determine whether the object has undergone mechanical stress or wear, or perform other types of analysis of the object.

[0123] In some instances, the operations illustrated in FIG. 16 are implemented by one or more computer systems. FIG. 16 illustrates an exemplary process 1600 performed by a requestor 1602 and an authenticator 1604. The requestor 1602 and the authenticator 1604 may represent, for example, computer-implemented modules deployed in a single computer system, separate computer systems (e.g., different locations, different environments, etc.), a distributed computing system, or a process of separate entities (e.g., a manufacturing process, an industrial process, a supply network, a distribution channel, a financial process, an enterprise workflow, or another type of process). As an example, the requestor 1602 may represent a process performed at the destination 1300 of FIG. 13, and the authenticator 1604 may represent a process performed at the authenticator 1350 of FIG. 13. As another example, the requestor 1602 may represent a process performed at the second entity 1404 of FIG. 14, and the authenticator 1604 may represent a process performed at the first entity 1402 of FIG. 14.

[0124] The requestor 1602 and the authenticator 1604 communicate with each other during process 1600. In some implementations, the requestor 1602 and the authenticator 1604 communicate with each other directly, for example, via a communication channel or a direct communication link. In some implementations, the requestor 1602 and the authenticator 1604 communicate with each other indirectly, for example, by accessing a shared database or by other methods.

[0125] The example process 1600 shown in Figure 16 utilizes information extracted from a physical object. In some instances, the object referenced in the example process 1600 of Figure 16 can be or include a unique marker (UM) of the type described above, an object of the type referenced in process 1400 of Figure 14, an object of the type referenced in process 1500 of Figure 15, or another type of object. In some implementations, the extracted information includes element information indicative of characteristics of each element of the object (e.g., orientation information indicative of the relative spatial orientation of each element).

[0126] The example process 1600 can also utilize an object identifier, and possibly other information related to the physical object. The object identifier can include, for example, an object serial number, an object part number, or a source identification, an object grade, type, or quality. The object identifier can be, for example, an identification or identifier for a person or other entity associated with the object (e.g., name, address, phone number, username, social security number, etc.).

[0127] Before or during process 1600, a unique code is generated from the object extracted element information, and the unique code is associated with an object identifier for the object. The unique code can be generated similar to how the unique code is generated in process 1500 shown in FIG. 15. The object identifier and unique code can be associated, for example, by storing them in a secure database, or in another manner. For example, the object identifier can be serial number 1207 of FIG. 12, the element information can be orientation information 1206 of FIG. 12, and the object identifier and element information can be associated by linking them in secure data storage 1208 of FIG. 12 (or secure database 1351 of FIG. 13). The object identifier and unique code can also be associated in other ways.

[0128] In some implementations, additional information is stored in a secure database or otherwise associated with the object identifier and unique code. For example, scanner settings used by the scanner system to extract element information can be associated with the object identifier and unique code. The scanner settings can include, for example, values ​​for parameters used in the extraction protocol performed on the object.

[0129] At 1610, the requestor 1602 obtains subject data. For example, the subject data may include a unique code based on element information extracted from the subject by the requestor 1602. The unique code may be or include a unique code generated from the element information by the requestor 1602, for example, similar to process 1500 shown in FIG. 15 or otherwise. The subject data obtained at 1610 may also include a subject identifier, such as, for example, a subject serial number. The subject data obtained at 1610 may also include challenge response data or other types of information.

[0130] At 1612, the requester 1602 sends an analysis request to the authentication provider. The analysis request can include or be based on subject data, including, for example, a unique code and a subject identifier. In some cases, the analysis request includes additional information. For example, the analysis request can indicate scanner settings to be used by a scanner system of the requester 1602 to extract the element information.

[0131] At 1614, the authenticator 1604 evaluates the analysis request. The authentication request can be evaluated based on information in a secure database or another type of assurance system accessible to the authenticator 1604. As an example, the authenticator 1604 can use the subject identifier from the analysis request (and in some cases other information, such as scanner settings) to find a valid unique code previously associated with the subject identifier. The authenticator 1604 can then compare the valid unique code to the submitted unique code in the analysis request.

[0132] At 1616, the authenticator 1604 sends an analysis response to the requester 1602. The analysis response of FIG. 16 includes analysis data indicating the results of the evaluation performed at 1614. The analysis response can indicate the result as a binary value. For example, the analysis data can indicate that the comparison resulted in a match (e.g., a valid unique code in the database matches the submitted unique code in the analysis request exactly or within some tolerance), which can mean that the object is authentic, has not been tampered with, has not been used or activated, has not been exposed to environmental stress, has not been subjected to mechanical stress or wear, etc., or the analysis data can indicate that the comparison did not result in a match (e.g., a valid unique code in the database does not match the submitted unique code in the analysis request exactly or within some tolerance), which can mean that the object is not authentic, has been tampered with, has been used or activated, has been exposed to environmental stress, has been subjected to mechanical stress or wear, etc. The analysis response can indicate the result as a gradient value. For example, the analysis data may indicate the percentage or degree to which the valid unique code matches the submitted unique code in the analysis request, and the requestor 1602 may interpret the gradient value based on its own criteria (e.g., with reference to some tolerance or other acceptance criteria).

[0133] 17 is a flow diagram that generally illustrates an example challenge-response process 1700. The example process 1700 may include additional or different operations, including operations performed by additional or different entities, and these operations may be performed in the order shown or in a different order. In some cases, operations may be combined, performed in parallel, iterated or otherwise repeated, or performed in another manner.

[0134] In some instances, the operations illustrated in Figure 17 are implemented by one or more computer systems. Figure 17 illustrates an exemplary process 1700 performed by a requestor 1702 and an authenticator 1704. The requestor 1702 and the authenticator 1704 can be implemented similarly to the requestor 1602 and the authenticator 1604 of Figure 16, e.g., computer-implemented modules in one or more computer systems. As an example, the requestor 1702 can represent a computer-implemented process performed at the destination 1300 of Figure 13, and the authenticator 1704 can represent a computer-implemented process performed at the authenticator 1350 of Figure 13. As another example, the requestor 1702 can represent a process performed at the second entity 1404 of Figure 14, and the authenticator 1704 can represent a process performed at the first entity 1402 of Figure 14. The requestor 1702 and the authenticator 1704 communicate with each other (directly or indirectly) during process 1700.

[0135] The exemplary process 1700 shown in Figure 17 utilizes information extracted from a physical object. In some cases, the object referenced in the exemplary process 1700 of Figure 17 can be or include a unique marker (UM) of the type described above, an object of the type referenced in process 1400 of Figure 14, an object of the type referenced in process 1500 of Figure 15, or another type of object. In some implementations, the extracted information includes element information indicating characteristics of each element of the object (e.g., orientation information indicating the relative spatial orientation of each element). The exemplary process 1700 can also utilize object identifiers and possibly other information related to the physical object.

[0136] The challenge-response process 1700 can be performed as an analytical process (e.g., to authenticate the object, to determine whether the object has been tampered with, to determine whether the object has been used or activated, to determine whether the object has been exposed to environmental stress, to determine whether the object has undergone mechanical stress or wear, etc.) or for other purposes. In some cases, the challenge-response process 1700 is used when the object is implemented as a physically unclonable function (PUF). For example, when a particular stimulus or challenge is applied to the object, the object can provide a predictable response that is unique to that object, and such a response is difficult or impractical (or even impossible) to obtain without the object. The response to a particular challenge may depend, for example, on the object's highly complex internal structure, which is difficult or impractical (or even impossible) to analytically replicate or determine. Accordingly, in some cases, the object, when implemented as a PUF, can serve the same purpose as a one-way function (e.g., a hash function).

[0137] At 1710, the requestor 1702 obtains challenge data. For example, the challenge data may indicate an extraction protocol that can be used by the scanner system of the requestor 1702 to extract element information from the subject. In some cases, the challenge data indicates scanner settings for the extraction protocol. The scanner settings may include, for example, specific values ​​for parameters of the scanner system for executing the extraction protocol. In some implementations, the requestor 1702 obtains the challenge data from the authenticator 1704 or another external source. In some implementations, the requestor 1702 generates the challenge data, for example, by randomly selecting scanner settings, by selecting a predefined set of scanner settings, or in other ways.

[0138] At 1712, the requester 1702 obtains response data based on the challenge data. The response data may be obtained by querying the subject according to the challenge data, for example, by running an extraction protocol using scanner settings indicated by the challenge data. The response data may include a unique code generated from element information extracted from the subject using the challenge data. The element information may be extracted from the subject similar to process 1500 shown in FIG. 15 or in another manner. The response data obtained at 1712 may also include a subject identifier, for example, a subject serial number.

[0139] At 1714, the requestor 1702 sends the response data to the authenticator 1704. In some cases, the requestor 1702 also sends challenge data to the authenticator 1704. The requestor 1702 can also send a subject identifier or other information to the authenticator 1704.

[0140] At 1716, the authenticator 1704 evaluates the response data. The response data can be evaluated based on information in a secure database or another type of assurance system accessible to the authenticator 1704. As an example, the authenticator 1704 can use the challenge data (and in some cases other information, such as a subject identifier) ​​to find a valid response previously obtained from the subject. The authenticator 1704 can then compare the valid response (e.g., from a secure database) with the submitted response in the response data.

[0141] In some cases, the authenticator 1704 evaluates the response data using predefined valid responses at 1716. For example, the authenticator 1704 may have access to a challenge-response library for the subject, where each valid response in the challenge-response library is associated with a distinct challenge. The challenge-response library may be defined before the challenge-response process 1700 is performed, for example, by querying the subject based on a set of distinct challenges, or in another manner. In some cases, the authenticator 1704 generates a valid response during the challenge-response process 1700 based on the challenge data obtained at 1710. For example, the authenticator 1704 may have access to complete factor information for the subject, which may enable the authenticator 1704 to calculate a valid response based on the challenge data.

[0142] At 1718, the authenticator 1704 sends validity data to the requestor 1702. The validity data in FIG. 17 indicates the result of the evaluation performed at 1716. The validity data can indicate its result as a binary value. For example, the validity data can indicate that the comparison resulted in a match (e.g., a valid response in the database matches the submitted response in the response data, either exactly or within some tolerance), which can mean that the response is valid, or the validity data can indicate that the comparison did not result in a match (e.g., a valid response in the database does not match the submitted response in the response data, either exactly or within some tolerance), which can mean that the response is invalid. The validity data can indicate its result as a gradient value, e.g., the percentage or degree to which the valid response matches the submitted response, and the requestor 1702 can interpret the gradient value based on its own criteria (e.g., with reference to some tolerance or other acceptance criteria).

[0143] In some implementations, the unique marker can be shaped to match the surface topology of the object. As an example, the unique marker 103a shown in Figure 1A, the unique marker 401 shown in Figure 4, the unique marker 1201 shown in Figure 12, the unique marker 1303 shown in Figure 13, or any other unique marker can be shaped to match the surface pattern, texture, or other indentation of the object or article.

[0144] 18A and 18B are diagrams of an example object 1802 having an example unique marker 1804 shaped to match the surface morphology of the object 1802. Specifically, FIG. 18A is a diagram of the object 1802 having the unique marker 1804 shaped to match the surface morphology, and FIG. 18B is an exploded view of the object 1802 and the unique marker 1804 shown in FIG. 18A. In some implementations, the object 1802 can be the sneaker 101 shown in FIG. 1A, the article 1202 shown in FIG. 12, the unique article 1301 shown in FIG. 13, or any other object or article. In some implementations, the unique marker 1804 can be the unique marker 103a shown in FIG. 1A, the unique marker 401 shown in FIG. 4, the unique marker 1201 shown in FIG. 12, the unique marker 1303 shown in FIG. 13, or any other unique marker. Exemplary objects 1802 and unique markers 1804 are shown schematically in Figures 18A and 18B and can generally have any size and shape.

[0145] As shown in FIG. 18B , the surface of object 1802 can include indentations 1803. In some cases, object 1802 can be made from any solid material (metal, plastic, wood, leather, etc.), and indentations 1803 can be made, for example, through stamping, engraving, etching, or otherwise patterning object 1802. In some cases, indentations 1803 are made for reasons other than retaining unique markers 1804. For example, indentations 1803 can be a manufacturing process, a natural texture of a material, or a surface pattern created by other methods. In some cases, surface patterning can be used in the manufacture of object 1802 for aesthetic or functional purposes of object 1802. In some cases, indentations 1803 are an aesthetic feature of a product, such as a decorative surface texture. In some examples, the indentations 1803 are functional features of the product, such as a company name, logo, or serial number embedded in the surface, or are intended to provide a structural benefit to the product (e.g., ribs or indentations to protect against external abrasion). In some examples, the indentations 1803 are present for further manufacturing purposes. For example, the indentations 1803 may comprise a patterned engraving on the cylindrical object 1802 (which may be a first substrate) that is used to imprint a unique pattern onto a second or third substrate (e.g., via a gravure or flexographic printing process) to mass-produce tags of uniform shape and size.

[0146] In some cases, the recess 1803 can be used to host a unique marker 1804 that serves as a unique fingerprint for the object 1800. For example, in some implementations, the unique marker 1804 (e.g., an outer surface of the unique marker 1804) is sized and shaped to match the size and shape of the recess 1803 (e.g., the unique marker 1804 is located within the recess 1803). In some implementations, the unique marker 1804 is formed within the recess 1803, for example, by filling the etches, grooves, cells, or surface pattern of the recess 1803 with a liquid material that dries to form the unique marker 1804 that can serve as a long-term (e.g., permanent) fingerprint for the object 1802.

[0147] 19A is a schematic diagram of an exemplary object 1900 having a recessed logo 1903, and FIGS. 19B, 19C, 19D, and 19E are diagrams of an exemplary process for forming a unique marker 1908 within the recessed logo 1903. The object 1900 can be, for example, a commercial product that includes the recessed logo 1903 or another type of surface feature. For example, in some implementations, the object 1900 can be the sneakers 101 shown in FIG. 1A , the article 1202 shown in FIG. 12 , the unique article 1301 shown in FIG. 13 , the object 1802 shown in FIG. 18 , or any other object or article. In some implementations, the recessed logo 1903 can be the depression 1803 shown in FIG. 18, and the unique marker 1908 can be the unique marker 103a shown in FIG. 1A, the unique marker 401 shown in FIG. 4, the unique marker 1201 shown in FIG. 12, the unique marker 1303 shown in FIG. 13, the unique marker 1804 shown in FIG. 18, or any other unique marker.

[0148] 19B, 19C, 19D, and 19E show cutaway cross-sections of a portion of object 1900 having a recessed logo 1903. Specifically, FIGS. 19B, 19C, 19D, and 19E show cutaway cross-sections taken along line AA shown in FIG. 19A. As seen in FIG. 19B, object 1900 includes a substrate 1902 that has been patterned to form recessed logo 1903. In some implementations, recessed logo 1903 can be formed via stamping, engraving, etching, or otherwise patterning substrate 1902.

[0149] 19C, a fluid 1904 (e.g., a liquid or viscous fluid) containing a distribution of elements 1905 (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) is applied to a substrate 1902 to fill (e.g., overfill) recessed logo 1903. The concentration of elements 1905 within fluid 1904 can depend, at least in part, on the size of the elements and the size of the unique marker being formed. Elements 1905 can be distributed within fluid 1904 such that their spatial distribution and relative orientation within fluid 1904 do not solidify until fluid 1904 solidifies.

[0150] The fluid 1904 can be a liquid resin or another type of liquid material. For example, the fluid 1904 can be or include a resin, epoxy, acrylic, urethane, silicone, or another liquid resin. In some cases, the resin can be mixed with other elements, such as a solvent (e.g., xylene, toluene, ethyl acetate), ink, and silica, for additional functionalization. In some implementations, the fluid 1904 can be applied to the substrate 1902 by an application process (e.g., pouring, dipping, rolling, printing, painting, dripping, coating, spraying, spreading, brushing, etc., onto the substrate 1902). The fluid 1904 can be applied by any suitable process (e.g., manual, automated machine process, etc.).

[0151] 19D , a planarization process is used to remove excess material of fluid 1904 from the surface of substrate 1902. In some cases, such as the example of FIG. 19D , the planarization process can use a removal tool 1906 to remove excess material of fluid 1904 from the surface of substrate 1902. In some implementations, removal tool 1906 can be or include, for example, a doctor blade, a spatula, a squeegee, or another type of removal tool 1906. Specifically, excess material 1907 of fluid 1904 is removed from non-recessed portions of substrate 1902 such that the surface of substrate 1902 and the surface of fluid 1904 in recessed logo 1903 are substantially flush. In some cases, a scraping process can be used to remove excess material 1907 of fluid 1904. The removed excess material 1907 of fluid 1904 can be reused or discarded.

[0152] 19E, the fluid 1904 remaining within the recessed logo 1903 is subjected to a process (e.g., a curing process) that hardens and solidifies the fluid 1904, thus forming a hardened unique marker 1908 with respect to the spatial distribution and relative orientation of the elements 1905. The fluid 1904 may be solidified, for example, by conventional drying, curing, exposure to an energy source (e.g., UV radiation), or another process that hardens and solidifies the fluid 1904.

[0153] The unique marker 1908 can be used as a decorative feature in some cases and can be used for authentication, security, verifying the integrity of the object 1900, and other applications. For example, a unique code can be extracted based on the spatial distribution and relative orientation of the elements 1905, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some implementations, the unique marker 1908 has a unique collection of features that allow for secondary identification that can be derived using other tools (e.g., spectroscopy with functionalized fluorescent particles, NMR with measurement of nuclear spins, dynamic light scattering (DLS) with specific particle size distributions), thereby allowing batch, lot, or brand level information to be extracted.

[0154] 19B, 19C, 19D, and 19E show fluid 1904 being applied after creating recessed logo 1903, in some implementations, fluid 1904 can be applied to substrate 1902 by the same process that creates recessed logo 1903. For example, after applying fluid 1904, a die or stamp head can be impressed into substrate 1902 to form recessed logo 1903 by coating the die or stamp head with fluid 1904 (including element 1905).

[0155] FIG. 20A is a schematic diagram of an exemplary flexographic printing system 2000. The exemplary flexographic printing system 2000 can be used to form unique markers shaped to match the surface topography of a target. The flexographic printing system 2000 includes an ink reservoir 2002. In some implementations, the ink reservoir 2002 is a container that contains a fluid (e.g., a liquid or viscous fluid) 2004 that includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) used to form the unique markers. The fluid 2004 can be similar to the fluid 1904 described above in connection with FIGS. 19C, 19D, and 19E.

[0156] The flexographic printing system 2000 includes a first cylindrical structure 2006 (e.g., an ink ductor roller) that is at least partially immersed in a fluid 2004. In some implementations, the first cylindrical structure 2006 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can also be used. During operation of the flexographic printing system 2000, the first cylindrical structure 2006 rotates in a first direction (e.g., counterclockwise in the example of FIG. 20A ), and thus, as the first cylindrical structure 2006 rotates, the fluid 2004 coats the portion of the first cylindrical structure 2006 that is not immersed in the fluid 2004.

[0157] The flexographic printing system 2000 includes a second cylindrical structure 2008 (e.g., an anilox roller) used as a carrier for the fluid 2004. In some implementations, the second cylindrical structure 2008 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can also be used. In some implementations, the outer surface of the second cylindrical structure 2008 includes patterned or etched cells, channels, or other recessed features that serve as a carrier for the fluid 2004 (and thus the distribution of elements contained within the fluid 2004). During operation of the flexographic printing system 2000, the second cylindrical structure 2008 rotates in a second, different direction (e.g., clockwise in the example of FIG. 20A ), causing the fluid 2004 from the first cylindrical structure 2006 to fill the etched cells formed on the surface of the second cylindrical structure 2008. In some implementations, the flexographic printing system 2000 includes an optional removal tool 2010 (e.g., a doctor blade) that removes excess material of the fluid 2004 from the etching cells formed on the surface of the second cylindrical structure 2008.

[0158] The flexographic printing system 2000 includes a third cylindrical structure 2012 (e.g., a plate cylinder) that holds a printing plate 2014 (e.g., a flexographic plate). In some implementations, the third cylindrical structure 2012 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can be used. The printing plate 2014 can be made from a soft, flexible, rubber-like material. In some implementations, the printing plate 2014 can be held against the third cylindrical structure 2012 using tape, magnets, tension straps, ratchets, or combinations thereof. During operation of the flexographic printing system 2000, the third cylindrical structure 2012 rotates in a first direction (e.g., counterclockwise in the example of FIG. 20A ), causing the fluid 2014 in the etched cells of the second cylindrical structure 2008 to move toward the printing plate 2014.

[0159] The flexographic printing system 2000 includes a fourth cylindrical structure 2016 (e.g., an impression cylinder). In some implementations, the fourth cylindrical structure 2016 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can also be used. During operation of the flexographic printing system 2000, a substrate 2018 (e.g., metal, plastic, wood, leather, etc.) is positioned between the fourth cylindrical structure 2016 and the third cylindrical structure 2012. The fourth cylindrical structure 2016 applies pressure to the third cylindrical structure 2012 and rotates in a second direction (e.g., clockwise in the example of FIG. 20A ), thereby imprinting indentations in the substrate 2018 and moving the fluid 2004 into the substrate 2018 so that the fluid 2004 conforms to the shape of the indentations. In some cases, the substrate 2018 with the fluid 2004 can be cured (e.g., by normal drying, exposure to an energy source such as UV radiation, or another process) to solidify the spatial distribution and relative orientation of elements in the fluid 2004 and form the unique markers. In some implementations, the flexographic printing system 2000 can be used to create multiple patterned unique markers in or on the substrate 2018, along with normally printed, untagged areas. The substrate 2018 with the unique markers can then be used to manufacture a product or article.

[0160] As discussed above, the exterior surface of the second cylindrical structure 2008 includes etched cells that function as carriers for the fluid 2004. FIG. 20A also shows an enlarged top view of several cells 2020 etched into the exterior surface of the second cylindrical roller 2008. While the exemplary cells 2020 are shown as quadrilaterals in FIG. 20A , in other examples, the cells 2020 can be any shape. Each cell can have a respective size (e.g., a respective width and a respective depth). The size of each cell can depend on factors such as at least the size of the elements contained within the fluid 2004, the portion of the printing plate 2014 used to receive the fluid 2004 from the second cylindrical structure 2008 and imprint the unique markers into the substrate 2018, the size of the unique markers to be imprinted into the substrate 2018, and the amount of fluid 2004 required to imprint the substrate 2018. In some cases, the etched cells 2020 can be designed to hold a specific transfer volume of the fluid 2004 into the printing plate 2014. In some cases, there can be a mathematical relationship between the size of the elements contained within the fluid 2004 and the minimum cell or pattern width on the second cylindrical structure 2008. For example, in some implementations of the flexographic printing system 2000, the cells 2020 each have a width W of up to 300 μm in their widest dimension (e.g., in a range of about 20 μm to about 300 μm). In another example, in some implementations of the flexographic printing system 2000, the system and materials can be designed such that the volume of the cells is at least an order of magnitude larger than the average width (e.g., diameter) of the elements (e.g., fluid 2004 containing diamond particles having an average width of 10 μm can be printed to a minimum of 100 μm). 3 (It can be used with other cells, etc.)

[0161] In some instances, the size of the cells and other features of the flexographic printing system 2000 can be designed to create unique markers with specified characteristics (e.g., size, shape, spatial density of elements, spatial distribution of elements, etc.). Additionally, tagged and untagged patterns on the substrate 2018 can be designed by modifying the geometry of the etched cells 2020 to hold more or less tagging material (e.g., fluid 2004). FIG. 20B shows an enlarged top view of several cells 2022 designed to have different dimensions to enable the creation of unique markers with a specified shape (e.g., X-shaped). For example, each cell of a first group of cells 2024 has a larger dimension (e.g., width, depth, or both) than each cell of a second group of cells 2026. As a result, the fluid 2004 is able to fill the cells from the first group of cells 2024 but not the cells from the second group of cells 2026 (e.g., due to the smaller cell dimensions). In some implementations, the volume of each cell from the first group of cells 2024 is at least an order of magnitude larger than the average width (e.g., diameter) of the elements (e.g., a fluid 2004 containing diamond particles with an average width of 10 μm is divided into 100 μm 3 (It can be used with other cells, etc.)

[0162] FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary gravure printing system 2100. The exemplary gravure printing system 2100 can be used to form unique markers shaped to match the surface morphology of an object. The gravure printing system 2100 includes an ink reservoir 2102. In some implementations, the ink reservoir 2102 is a container that contains a fluid (e.g., a liquid or viscous fluid) 2104 that includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) used to form the unique markers. The fluid 2104 can be similar to the fluid 1904 described above in connection with FIGS. 19C, 19D, and 19E.

[0163] The gravure printing system 2100 includes a first cylindrical structure 2106 (e.g., a gravure cylinder) that is at least partially immersed in a fluid 2104. In some implementations, the first cylindrical structure 2106 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can also be used. During operation of the gravure printing system 2100, the first cylindrical structure 2206 rotates (e.g., clockwise in the example of FIG. 21 ), and thus, as the first cylindrical structure 2106 rotates, the fluid 2104 coats the portion of the first cylindrical structure 2106 that is not immersed in the fluid 2104.

[0164] In some implementations, the outer surface of the first cylindrical structure 2106 includes patterned or etched cells, channels, or other recessed features that act as carriers for the fluid 2104. During operation of the gravure printing system 2100, the first cylindrical structure 2106 rotates and the fluid 2004 from the first cylindrical structure 2006 fills the etched cells formed on the surface of the first cylindrical structure 2106. In some implementations, the gravure printing system 2100 includes an optional removal tool 2108 (e.g., a doctor blade) that removes excess material of the fluid 2104 from the etched cells formed on the surface of the first cylindrical structure 2106.

[0165] The gravure printing system 2100 includes a second cylindrical structure 2110 (e.g., an impression roll). In some implementations, the second cylindrical structure 2110 can be a metal (e.g., steel or copper) cylinder, although other materials (e.g., ceramic) can also be used.

[0166] During operation of the gravure printing system 2100, a substrate 2112 (e.g., metal, plastic, wood, leather, etc.) is placed between the second cylindrical structure 2110 and the first cylindrical structure 2106. The second cylindrical structure 2110 applies pressure to the first cylindrical structure 2106 and rotates (e.g., counterclockwise in the example of FIG. 21 ), thereby imprinting an indentation in the substrate 2112 and moving the fluid 2104 into the substrate 2112 so that the fluid 2104 conforms to the shape of the indentation. In some cases, the substrate 2112 with the fluid 2104 can be cured (e.g., by normal drying, exposure to an energy source such as UV radiation, or another process) to solidify the spatial distribution and relative orientation of elements in the fluid 2104 and form a unique marker. In some implementations, the gravure printing system 2100 can be used to create multiple patterned unique markers in or on the substrate 2112, along with successfully printed tagged areas. The substrate 2112 with the unique markers can then be used to manufacture a product or article.

[0167] Similar to the flexographic printing system 2000, in the gravure printing system 2100, the size of each cell can depend on factors such as at least the size of the elements contained within the fluid 2104, the portion of the first cylindrical structure 2106 used to imprint the unique marker on the substrate 2112, the size of the unique marker imprinted on the substrate 2112, and the amount of fluid 2104 required to imprint on the substrate 2112. Similar to the flexographic printing system 2000, in the gravure printing system 2100, there can be a mathematical relationship between the size of the elements contained within the fluid 2104 and the minimum cell or pattern width on the first cylindrical structure 2106.

[0168] In the examples discussed in Figures 18A, 18B, 19A, 19B, 19C, 19D, 19E, 20A, 20B, and 21, manufacturers can tailor distinctive features and locations on a substrate to include a unique marker comprising a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) and thus provide a secure fingerprint for the underlying substrate. The unique marker can conform to depressions in the substrate to allow a recessed logo or other surface feature to serve as a covert, secure identifier for the brand or to conceal the tag from exposure to physical environmental factors. In some cases, such as the examples in Figures 20A, 20B, and 21, the unique marker can be replicated within etched cells on a printing roller, which can be used to mass-produce uniquely shaped tags by imparting shaped tags onto the substrate or printing plate. In some cases where products can have random depressions (e.g., found on the surfaces of natural materials like wood and leather), the unique marker can be integrated into creases, cracks, and etchings (e.g., common in many luxury goods). In some implementations, the created unique markers may be, for example, microscopic in size (e.g., 1 μm 2 ~1000μm 2 ) to macroscopic sizes (e.g., 1 mm 2 ~1000mm 2 (having a surface area in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mm).

[0169] In some implementations, a physically unclonable unique marker is combined with an adhesive / sealant material to establish a unique identity on an underlying object or interface. FIGS. 22A and 22B show an example where a distribution of elements is embedded in the front surface of a substrate having an adhesive backing. In the examples of FIGS. 22A and 22B, the unique marker can be similar to a sticker or label (e.g., a pre-made "peel and stick" tag). FIG. 22A shows an example of a single tag 2200 prior to application to an underlying object or interface. FIG. 22B shows an example where multiple single tags 2200 (e.g., from FIG. 22A) are arranged in the form of a tape or roll 2208.

[0170] The tag 2200 can be a sticker. In some cases, the sticker includes a substrate 2202 having a distribution of elements 2204 (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) formed on a front surface of the substrate 2202. The substrate 2202 can be, by way of example, paper, plastic, or any suitable flexible substrate for a sticker or label (e.g., a multi-part sticker or multi-part label). The substrate 2202 can have a first portion 2202A and a second portion 2202B, both of which have elements 2204 dispersed therein. In the example of FIG. 22A , the first portion 2202A and the second portion 2202B are separated by a perforation 2203 or similar boundary. At least a portion of the substrate 2202 can have an adhesive backing (e.g., an adhesive formed on the back surface of the substrate 2202). For example, the first portion 2202A of the substrate 2202 can have an adhesive backing, and the second portion 2202B of the substrate 2202 does not include an adhesive backing. In another example, both the first portion 2202A and the second portion 2202B of the substate 2202 can have an adhesive backing. In some implementations, the adhesive can be one or more of the following materials: epoxy, urethane, hot melt, silicone, polyimide, latex, acrylic, clear coat, paint, marine grease, a regular pressure sensitive adhesive, a non-reactive adhesive, a thermoset adhesive, a chemically reactive adhesive, or a physically reactive adhesive.

[0171] In some cases, the tag 2200 can be analyzed before being affixed to an underlying object or interface. Illustratively, characteristics of the tag 2200 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information.

[0172] When the tag 2200 is affixed to an underlying object or interface, the first portion 2202A (e.g., having an adhesive backing) separates from the second portion 2202B, with the first portion 2202A forming the unique marker 2206. The unique marker 2206 can then be affixed to the underlying object or interface. In some implementations, the unique marker 2206 can be analyzed after being affixed to the product or interface. Additionally or alternatively, characteristics of the second portion 2202B of the substrate 2202 (e.g., the remainder of the tag 2200) can be obtained after the unique marker 2206 is affixed to the product or interface. Illustratively, the characteristics of the remainder of the tag 2200 and the unique marker 2206 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. The characteristics of the tag 2200 (obtained prior to affixing to an underlying object or interface), the unique marker 2206, and the remainder of the tag 2200 can be compared to analyze the underlying object or interface (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stresses, provide evidence of exposure to mechanical stresses or wear, etc.).

[0173] 22A and 22B show a multi-part tag or sticker 2200 (e.g., label 2202A and backing 2202B) where the tag 2200 can be scanned / registered when the label 2202A and backing 2202B are combined and only a portion of the tag 2200 (e.g., label 2202A) is moved onto an object via the sticker / adhesive, thus allowing identification to occur before and after application to an underlying object or interface. The remaining portion 2202B of the tag 2200 (e.g., backing / non-adhesive portion) can also be identified and tied to the application event to an underlying object or interface. As an example, initial orientation information can be extracted from the sticker 2200 before a first portion 2202A of the sticker 2200 is applied to an object. The initial orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation of each element 2204 within the entire sticker 2200, and an initial unique code (associated with the entire sticker 2200) may be generated based on the initial orientation information. The first portion 2202A may then be separated from the second portion 2202B and placed on an object. Orientation information from the first portion 2202A of the sticker 2200 (which is on the object) may be extracted, and the orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation of each element 2204 of the first portion 2202A of the sticker 2200. A unique code for the object may then be generated based on the orientation information of the first portion 2202A of the sticker 2200. In some implementations, after the first portion 2202A of the sticker 2200 is placed on the object, second orientation information may be extracted from the second portion 2202B of the sticker 2200. The second orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation of each element 2204 of the second portion 2202B of the sticker 2200. A second unique code can then be generated based on the orientation information of the second portion 2202B of the sticker 2200. The second unique code can be associated with the application of the first portion 2202B of the sticker 2200 to an object.

[0174] In the examples of FIGS. 22A and 22B , a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) is formed on the surface of the substrate, and an adhesive is formed on the backside of the substrate. However, in other examples, the elements can be distributed within the adhesive itself. FIG. 23 shows an example in which a distribution of elements 2300 is disposed within an adhesive 2302 that is not fully cured. In the example of FIG. 23 , the adhesive 2302 is uncured or semi-cured and can have a gel-like consistency. In some implementations, the adhesive 2302 can be one or more of the following materials: epoxy, urethane, hot melt, silicone, polyimide, latex, acrylic, clear coat, paint, marine grease, a regular pressure-sensitive adhesive, a non-reactive adhesive, a thermosetting adhesive, a chemically reactive adhesive, or a physically reactive adhesive.

[0175] The adhesive 2302, including the distribution of elements 2300, is sandwiched between liners 2304, 2306. The liners 2304, 2306 can be, by way of example, UV-blocking backing paper. The adhesive 2302 can be used to form a unique marker that is affixed to an underlying object or interface. For example, the liners 2304, 2306 can be removed, thus exposing the adhesive 2302. The adhesive 2302 can then be affixed to the underlying object or interface. The underlying object or interface (with the adhesive 2302) can then undergo a curing process (e.g., conventional drying, curing, exposure to an energy source (e.g., UV radiation), or another process) that solidifies the adhesive 2302, thus allowing the adhesive 2302 (including the distribution of elements 2300) to obtain a physically unclonable identification while maintaining its functional purpose (e.g., decorative, informative, protective, etc.) within the design of the underlying object or interface. The characteristics of the cured adhesive 2302 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. The characteristics of the cured adhesive 2302 can be used to analyze the underlying object or interface (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stress, provide evidence of exposure to mechanical stress or wear, etc.).

[0176] In the examples of Figures 22A, 22B, and 23, the unique markers can be preformed into a specific shape or stamped out from a larger tag or tagged sheet (which itself can be made using an extrusion process). Additionally, the unique markers can be resilient to provide tamper evidence through deformation while maintaining the unique marker's ability to be successfully identified if removal is attempted. The unique markers can also be mass-produced through manufacturing processes (e.g., as discussed above in Figures 18A, 18B, 19A, 19B, 19C, 19D, 19E, 20A, 20B, and 21) that shape the unique marker to fit the surface morphology of the product.

[0177] In some implementations, a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) can be combined with an encapsulation material (e.g., a coating, potting compound, paint, etc.). The distribution of elements can be pre-mixed within the uncured encapsulation material or can be added to the surface of an applied but uncured encapsulation material, with the identification information created during or after the curing process. The encapsulation material can be applied to an underlying object or interface by various methods, such as spraying, dipping, painting, or extruding.

[0178] Figure 24 shows an example where both the distribution of elements 2400 and the encapsulant material 2402 are incorporated into a handheld applicator 2404 having a nozzle or tip 2406. The texture of the surface 2408 on which the handheld applicator 2404 is placed is used to remove material from the handheld applicator 2404 and mark or coat distinct areas of the surface 2404 with uncured material, which is then cured to form a unique marker 2410. The example shown in Figure 24 can be similar to a pen form factor with a polymer adhesive or a marine marker incorporated into a paint marker.

[0179] In some cases, for example, an encapsulant can be used to fill small voids of any formation (e.g., interfaces, holes, cracks, fissures, gaps between surfaces, etc.). FIGS. 25A and 25B illustrate an example in which a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) can be incorporated into an encapsulant to seal interfaces and electronic enclosures. In the example shown in FIG. 25A , an encapsulant 2500 including a distribution of elements 2502 is applied by an encapsulant applicator 2504 to fill an interface or gap 2506 in an underlying object 2507. The encapsulant 2500 can be in an uncured or semi-cured state when filling the interface or gap 2506. The encapsulant 2500 can then be cured to form a unique marker 2508 that secures the interface or gap 2506. The characteristics of the unique marker 2508 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. The characteristics of the unique marker 2508 can be used to analyze the underlying object or interface (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stresses, provide evidence of exposure to mechanical stresses or wear, etc.).

[0180] In the example shown in FIG. 25B , an encapsulant 2510 (e.g., a potting compound or resin) including a distribution of elements 2512 is used to encapsulate an electronic enclosure 2514 containing one or more electronic components 2516. The encapsulant 2510 can be in an uncured or semi-cured state when filling the electronic enclosure 2514. The encapsulant 2510 can then be cured to solidify the spatial distribution and relative orientation of the elements within the encapsulant 2510. Properties of the encapsulant 2510 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , or another type of process. In some cases, properties can be obtained by generating orientation information, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13 , or another type of orientation information. The properties of the encapsulant 2510 can be used to analyze the electronic enclosure 2514 (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stress, provide evidence of exposure to mechanical stress or wear, etc.) Analysis of the electronic enclosure 2514 can reveal whether one or more of the electronic components 2516 require service or repair.

[0181] In the example of Figure 25B, the elements 2512 are uniformly distributed within the encapsulant 2510. However, in other examples, such as those shown in Figures 26A and 26B, the elements 2512 may be distributed in only a portion of the encapsulant 2510. Specifically, in Figure 26A, the distribution of elements is formed as a conformal coating 2612A on the electronic component 2516, and an encapsulant 2610A (which is substantially transparent and does not contain any elements) is formed on the conformal coating 2612A. In Figure 26B, an encapsulant 2610B (which is substantially transparent and does not contain any elements) is formed on the electronic component 2516, and the distribution of elements is formed as a conformal coating 2612B on the encapsulant 2610B.

[0182] 27A and 27B illustrate an exemplary process for forming a conformal coating on an underlying substrate or object. In the example of FIG. 27A , a spray gun 2700 can be used to form a conformal coating of elements 2702 on an object 2704. In some cases, an encapsulant including a distribution of elements can be placed in a cup 2706. The encapsulant including the distribution of elements is then sprayed onto the object 2704. In some cases, the spray gun 2700 can be moved widely while spraying to ensure distribution of the element distribution across one or more surfaces of the object 2704. In the example of FIG. 27B , a similar process can be used to form a conformal coating of elements on one or more electronic components 2708. For example, an encapsulant 2710 (e.g., potting compound or resin) including a distribution of elements can be sprayed (using a spraying device 2712) onto one or more electronic components 2708 to form a conformal coating of the elements (e.g., as shown in the example of FIG. 26A ).

[0183] In some cases, a sealing material including a distribution of elements can act as a gasket that can provide evidence of deformation due to changes in pressure. FIG. 28 illustrates an example in which a gasket 2802 having a distribution of elements 2804 is provided on a housing 2800. In some implementations, the gasket 2802 is formed from a sealing material including a distribution of elements 2804. The gasket 2802 can be deformed due to changes in pressure. In some implementations, the characteristics of the gasket 2802 can be analyzed to determine whether the housing 2800 has been exposed to changes in pressure. The characteristics of the gasket 2802 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, for example, the orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13 , or another type of orientation information. The properties of gasket 2802 can be used to analyze housing 2800 (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stresses, provide evidence of exposure to mechanical stresses or wear or pressure changes, etc.).

[0184] In the examples shown in Figures 22A, 22B, 23, 24, 25A, 25B, 26A, 26B, 27A, 27B, and 28, a single sealing or coating step can be used to create multiple identification areas on a substrate (e.g., the coating can be used to provide multiple identification points for added security or the ability to tag multiple subcomponents with the coating in a single process). Additionally, these examples create continuous scan areas (as opposed to a single scan point) that allow the scanner to authenticate the distribution of elements and detect changes in the surface coating as it moves across the surface, thus enabling analysis of the underlying object or interface (e.g., to authenticate identity, provide evidence of tampering, provide evidence of use, provide evidence of exposure to environmental stress, provide evidence of exposure to changes in mechanical stress or wear or pressure, etc.).

[0185] The examples shown in Figures 22A, 22B, 23, 24, 25A, 25B, 26A, 26B, 27A, 27B, and 28 also have at least the following features: A sticker or label can use a distribution of elements to provide unclonable identification information for security and tracking applications. In some cases, the distribution of elements is incorporated into an uncured adhesive / sealing material and cured upon application, thereby establishing identification information. A sticker or label can combine at least one of a decorative or protective function with a covert analytical function (e.g., when used in a vehicle coating). A sticker or label can form a unique marker that provides both identification information and evidence of tampering / environmental stress indicated by deformation of the unique marker. A sticker or label can create both a scannable point and a scannable area that holds identification information and other information. Stickers or labels can provide a way to covertly or overtly incorporate secure, non-replicable identifying information into stickers, labels, sealants, coatings, adhesives, and paints (which in some cases can be applied by convenient conventional processes) and maintain the existing functions of the medium (decorative, informative, protective, etc.), thereby allowing the product to have inherent security, traceability, and binding to a digital record.

[0186] When securing physical goods, one key layer of security is ensuring that the owner can tell if an unauthorized third party attempts to access the item. Unique markers, including distributions of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements), can be incorporated into the packaging and / or the product itself as a security layer through the housing, fasteners, joints, components, or other attack points. For example, unique markers can be applied to products, components, parts, housings, fasteners, or other items where identity, traceability, and security / tamper evidence are desired. In addition to demonstrating evidence of tampering of the tagged object (e.g., product and / or packaging), unique markers can be used to authenticate the identity of the tagged object. In some cases, partial deformation, alteration, modification, or destruction of a unique marker does not prevent the unique code of the unique marker from being recognized or, to some extent, calculated. However, unique markers are not reusable and can be altered by tampering. As a result, tampering can cause a change in the unique code of the unique marker. In some cases, tampering (eg, removal and replacement of a unique marker) can trigger a tamper alert during subject authentication.

[0187] 29 shows an example of a tagged area 2900 that can be used to authenticate identity and provide evidence of tampering. In some cases, the tagged area 2900 has a unique marker that includes a distribution of elements 2902 (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements). The unique marker can include a first region 2904, a second region 2906, and a third region 2908. The second region 2906 and the third region 2908 can collectively form a tagged screw head, as an example, and the first region 2904 can be a region of a substrate surrounding the tagged screw head. In some cases, the first region 2904 and the second region 2906 can be used to authenticate the identity of an object, and the first region 2904 and the second region 2906 can also be used to provide evidence of whether a screw has been turned. In some examples, the third region 2908 may show evidence of destruction of the unique marker (eg, when a force is applied to the third region 2908).

[0188] In some implementations, depending on the underlying surface morphology, a system (e.g., the system shown in FIG. 4) can determine areas within a unique marker that show evidence of tampering and areas that do not show evidence of tampering, and these regions can then be used to verify the identity of the unique marker. For example, the system can determine the center of the unique marker and radially analyze the unique marker for changes, or separate the unique marker into multiple sectors (similar to the example shown in FIG. 29) and analyze changes within and between sectors.

[0189] 29, the system can use local pixel similarities within the image of the tagged area 2900 to derive local morphological similarities, and can use various graining or smoothing operations to include or exclude those features. Upon subsequent scanning of the tagged area 2900, the system can identify unique markers and then perform a difference analysis of the unique markers against a reference image to derive evidence of tampering.

[0190] In some cases, unique markers can be utilized at pre-designated tamper points. A tamper point can be any area of ​​an object (e.g., a product or product packaging) that can be opened or breached, thereby allowing a third party to change the shape of the object or access the contents of the object. In other words, when a third party attempts to open, replace, or materially alter the product or product packaging, tampering can alter the unique marker. Figures 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35 show examples where unique markers are utilized at tamper points to provide evidence of tampering.

[0191] FIG. 30 is a diagram of a box 3000 that includes a unique marker 3002 on an edge of the box 3000. In the example of FIG. 30, the box 3000 is used as packaging for an object. The unique marker 3002, which includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements), is placed across a seam of the box 3000 or an entry point into the box 3000. In the example of FIG. 30, the unique marker 3002 is in the form of tape. When the box 3000 is opened, the unique marker 3002 is altered (e.g., torn). Attempts to reseal the box 3000 result in tears and misalignment 3004 in the unique marker 3002. Tampering can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3002. The characteristics of the unique marker 3002 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus can provide evidence of tampering with box 3000.

[0192] FIG. 31 is a diagram of a box 3100 that includes a unique marker 3102 at a seam of the box 3100. In the example of FIG. 31, the box 3100 is used as packaging for an object. The unique marker 3102, which includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements), is placed across a seam of the box 3100 or an entry point to the box 3100. In the example of FIG. 31, the unique marker 3102 is in the form of an adhesive placed across a seam or entry point of the box 3100. When the box 3100 is opened, the unique marker 3102 is altered (e.g., torn). Attempting to reseal the box 3100 results in tears and misalignment 3104 in the unique marker 3102. By analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3102, tampering can be investigated. The characteristics of the unique marker 3102 may be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics may be obtained by generating orientation information, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus may provide evidence of tampering with the box 3100.

[0193] FIG. 32 is a diagram of a film 3200 including a unique marker 3204. In the example of FIG. 32, the film 3200 (e.g., plastic wrap) is placed over an object 3202 (e.g., a die) to create a shrink-wrapped product. The unique marker 3204, which includes a distribution of elements 3205 (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements), is placed on the film 3200. Tampering with the film 3200 can relieve tension in the substrate (e.g., film 3200), thus causing deformation of the unique marker 3204. Tampering can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3204. The characteristics of the unique marker 3204 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus can provide evidence of tampering with the film 3200.

[0194] FIG. 33 is a diagram of a fastener 3300 having a unique marker 3302 disposed on a clutch of the fastener 3300. In the example of FIG. 33, the fastener 3300 (e.g., a cable tie) can be used to fasten a product to packaging. The unique marker 3302, which includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements), can be disposed on a clutch 3304 of the fastener 3300. Tampering with the fastener 3300 can cause deformation of the unique marker 3302. Tampering can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3302. The characteristics of the unique marker 3302 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus can provide evidence of tampering with the fastener 3300.

[0195] FIG. 34 is a diagram of an article housing 3400 having a unique marker 3402 disposed on a seam of the housing 3400. In the example of FIG. 34, the unique marker 3402 includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements). The unique marker 3402 may be disposed across a seam 3404 of the housing 3400. The unique marker 3402 may also be disposed across any non-permanent joint or interface between surfaces. When the housing 3400 is opened, the unique marker 3402 is altered (e.g., torn). Attempting to reseal the housing 3400 results in a tear and misalignment 3406 in the unique marker 3402. Tampering can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3402. The characteristics of the unique marker 3402 may be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics may be obtained by generating orientation information, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus may provide evidence of tampering with the housing 3400.

[0196] FIG. 35 is a diagram of a microchip 3500 with unique markers 3502 at solder points 3504. Each of the unique markers 3502 includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline grains or other types of elements). In the event of tampering with the microchip 3500, an unauthorized third party may attempt to provide a signal to (or receive a signal from) the microchip 3500 via one or more of the solder points 3504, thus damaging each unique marker 3502. Tampering can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique markers 3502. The characteristics of the unique markers 3502 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained, thus providing evidence of tampering with the microchip 3500, by generating orientation information, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information.

[0197] FIG. 36 illustrates an example in which a unique marker 3600 can be used to provide evidence of use or activation of an object. In the example of FIG. 36, the object includes heat sink blades 3602 that heat up when the object is activated or used. In some cases, the heat sink blades 3602 can also heat up when the object is exposed to environmental stress (e.g., high temperature). The unique marker 3600 includes a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) and is disposed on one or more of the heat sink blades 3602. When the object is used or activated, the heat sink blades 3602 heat up, thus causing deformation (e.g., melting) of the unique marker 3600. The use or activation of the object can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3600. The characteristics of the unique marker 3600 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. In some cases, characteristics can be obtained by generating orientation information, such as orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information, and thus can provide evidence of use or activation of the object.

[0198] FIG. 37 illustrates an example in which a unique marker 3700 can be used to provide evidence that an external force has been applied to a tagged surface. In the example of FIG. 37 , a surface of an object 3702 is provided with a unique marker 3700 including a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements). When an external force 3704 is applied to the surface by another object 3706, a portion 3708 of the unique marker 3700 can be removed from the surface of the object 3702. The application of the external force to the surface of the object 3702 can be investigated by analyzing the characteristics of the unique marker 3700. The characteristics of the unique marker 3700 can be obtained by generating a unique code, for example, according to the exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , or another type of process. In some cases, the characteristics can be obtained, thus providing evidence that an external force has been applied to the tagged surface, by generating orientation information, such as the orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13 , or another type of orientation information.

[0199] In the examples of Figures 29-37, tampering with one unique marker can trigger inspection or quarantine of all other associated unique markers (e.g., a box may display evidence of tampering, thus flagging the sealed product and its tag for further review). Additionally, in the examples of Figures 29-37, the system can isolate regions within the unique marker based on their susceptibility to indicating tampering (e.g., similar to the example of Figure 29). Depending on the safety needs of the tagged objects, the operator can define different sensitivity levels to changes in the unique markers that can trigger an alert. Additionally or alternatively, the system can automatically define its own detection sensitivity to changes. The system can render the results of the differential analysis, and if the unique marker is damaged beyond identification, the system can designate the unique marker as being tamper evident and submit it for a safety audit, if the unique marker exceeds one of several defined possible levels of alteration, the system can authenticate the identity of the unique marker and alert the operator of the results of the analysis and provide a set of actions to resolve, and depending on the safety level and the nature of the tagged substrate (e.g., screw head), if the unique marker shows a minimal level of alteration, the system can authenticate the identity of the tag and provide certification that no tampering has likely occurred.

[0200] 38 is a flow chart that generally illustrates an exemplary process 3800 for forming and using a unique marker that conforms to the surface morphology of an object. At 3802, an object having surface features is received. The surface features may be facets of the object, surfaces of one or more components of the object, or surface patterns, textures, or other indentations of the object. Furthermore, the object may be any solid material (metal, plastic, wood, leather, etc.), and the surface features may be created, for example, through stamping, engraving, etching, or otherwise patterning the object. At 3804, a unique marker is formed on the surface features of the object. Any of the processes discussed above in the examples shown in Figures 19A, 19B, 19C, 19D, 19E, 20A, 20B, 21, 22A, 22B, 23, 24, 25A, 25B, 26A, 26B, 27A, 27B, and 29-37 can be used to form unique markers on surface features of an object. The unique markers include a distribution of elements (e.g., crystalline particles or other types of elements) and conform to the form or shape of the surface features. At 3806, orientation information is extracted from the unique markers. The orientation information can be, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in Figures 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. At 3808, a unique code for the object is generated based on the orientation information, for example, according to exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in Figures 14 and 15, or another type of process. The unique code can then be used to analyze the object (e.g., to authenticate the object's identity, to determine if the object has been tampered with, to determine if the object has been used or activated, to determine if the object has been exposed to environmental stresses, to determine if the object has been subjected to mechanical stress or wear, or other types of analysis of the object).

[0201] FIG. 39 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates an exemplary process 3900 for forming and using a sticker including a distribution of elements on a substrate having an adhesive backing. At 3902, a sticker including a distribution of elements on a substrate having an adhesive backing is provided. As an example, sticker 2200 shown in FIG. 22A may be provided. At 3904, at least a portion of the sticker (e.g., first portion 2202A of sticker 2200) is affixed to an object. At 3906, orientation information is extracted from the portion of the sticker located on the object. The orientation information may be, for example, orientation information 1206, 1306 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, or another type of orientation information. At 3908, a unique code for the object is generated based on the orientation information, for example, according to exemplary processes 1400, 1500 shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, or another type of process. The unique code can then be used to analyze the object (e.g., to authenticate the object's identity, to determine if the object has been tampered with, to determine if the object has been used or activated, to determine if the object has been exposed to environmental stresses, to determine if the object has been subjected to mechanical stress or wear, or other types of analysis of the object).

[0202] Some of the subject matter and operations described herein can be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer software, firmware, or hardware, including the structures disclosed herein and their structural equivalents, or in a combination of one or more of these. Some of the subject matter described herein can be implemented as one or more computer programs, i.e., one or more modules of computer program instructions, encoded on a computer storage medium for execution by or to control the operation of a data processing apparatus. A computer storage medium can be or be included in a computer-readable storage device, a computer-readable storage substrate, a random or serial access memory array or device, or a combination of one or more of these. Moreover, a computer storage medium is not a propagated signal; a computer storage medium can be a source or destination of computer program instructions encoded in an artificially generated propagated signal. A computer storage medium can also be or be included in one or more separate physical components or media (e.g., multiple CDs, disks, or other storage devices).

[0203] Some of the operations described herein may be implemented as operations performed by a data processing apparatus on data stored in one or more computer-readable storage devices or received from other sources.

[0204] The term "data processing apparatus" encompasses all kinds of apparatus, devices, and machines for processing data, including, by way of example, a programmable processor, a computer, a system-on-chip, or two or more or combinations of the above. An apparatus may include special purpose logic circuitry, such as an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit). In addition to hardware, an apparatus may also include code that provides an execution environment for the computer program, such as code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocol stack, a database management system, an operating system, a cross-platform runtime environment, a virtual machine, or one or more combinations of these.

[0205] A computer program (also known as a program, software, software application, script, or code) can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted, declarative or procedural languages, and can be implemented in any form, including a stand-alone program, or modules, components, subroutines, objects, or other units suitable for use in a computing environment. A computer program can, but need not, correspond to a file in a file system. A program can be stored within a portion of a file that holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in a markup language document), within a single file dedicated to the program, or within multiple cooperating files (e.g., files that store one or more modules, subprograms, or code portions). A computer program can be implemented to be executed on one computer or multiple computers, which can be located at one site or distributed across multiple sites and interconnected by a communications network.

[0206] Some of the processes and logic flows described herein may be performed by one or more programmable processors executing one or more computer programs that perform actions by operating on input data to generate output. The processes and logic flows may also be performed by, and apparatus may be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, such as an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit).

[0207] Processors suitable for executing a computer program include, by way of example, both general-purpose and special-purpose microprocessors, and processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, a processor receives instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random-access memory, or both. Elements of a computer may include a processor, which performs actions in accordance with the instructions, and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data. A computer may also include one or more mass storage devices, such as magnetic disks, magneto-optical disks, or optical disks, for storing data, or may be operatively coupled to receive data from or transmit data to these storage devices, or both. However, a computer need not have such devices. Furthermore, a computer may be embedded in another device, such as a telephone, electronic appliance, mobile audio or video player, game console, global positioning system (GPS) receiver, or portable storage device (e.g., a universal serial bus (USB) flash drive). Suitable devices for storing computer program instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, media, and memory devices, including, by way of example, semiconductor memory devices (e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory devices, etc.), magnetic disks (e.g., internal hard disks, removable disks, etc.), magneto-optical disks, and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. In some cases, the processor and the memory may be supplemented by or incorporated in special purpose logic circuitry.

[0208] To provide for user interaction, operations can be implemented on a computer having a display device (e.g., a monitor or another type of display device) for displaying information to the user, and a keyboard and pointing device (e.g., a mouse, trackball, tablet, touch-sensitive screen, or another type of pointing device) by which the user can provide input to the computer. Other types of devices can be used to provide user interaction as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback, and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input. Additionally, the computer can interact with the user by sending documents to and receiving documents from devices used by the user, for example, by sending a web page to a web browser on the user's client device in response to a request received from the web browser.

[0209] A computer system may include a single computing device or multiple computers operating within close proximity or generally remote from each other and typically interacting through a communications network. Examples of communications networks include local area networks ("LANs") and wide area networks ("WANs"), internetworks (e.g., the Internet), and peer-to-peer networks (e.g., ad hoc peer-to-peer networks). The relationship of client and server may arise by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other.

[0210] In a general aspect, a unique, non-replicable physical identifier is applied and used. In some implementations, the unique marker is shaped to match the form of a surface feature of the object. The surface feature can be a facet, surface pattern, texture, or other indentation of the object. The unique marker can include a distribution of elements, and the element information is used to generate a code. In some examples, the element information can include orientation information and possibly other information describing the diamond particles or other types of elements. In some cases, the unique marker is a sticker that includes a distribution of elements on a substrate with an adhesive backing, and at least a portion of the sticker is affixed to the object.

[0211] In a first example, an object containing multiple elements is received. A scanner system detects the elements and extracts orientation information from the object. The orientation information indicates the relative spatial orientation of each element. A unique code for the object is generated based on the orientation information.

[0212] A first example implementation may include one or more of the following features: Extracting the orientation information may include obtaining an optical response to illumination applied to the object. Extracting the orientation information may include obtaining a fluorescence image of the object and determining a relative spatial orientation of each element from the fluorescence image. Obtaining the optical response to illumination may include detecting a fluorescence change of the elements in response to a change in illumination, and the relative spatial orientation may be determined based on the detected fluorescence change. The unique code generated from the orientation information may be independent of (e.g., does not vary with) one or more angles at which illumination is applied to the object.

[0213] A first example implementation may include one or more of the following features. Extracting the orientation information may include obtaining a magnetic resonance response to an oscillating (e.g., radio frequency, microwave, etc.) electromagnetic field applied to the subject and determining a relative spatial orientation based on the magnetic resonance response. Obtaining the magnetic resonance response may include positioning the subject in an external magnetic field, applying an oscillating electromagnetic field to the subject in the external magnetic field, and optically detecting a change in magnetic resonance of the element in response to a relative change in the external magnetic field (e.g., a change in field strength or orientation), a relative change in the oscillating electromagnetic field (e.g., a relative change in signal amplitude, frequency, or phase), or both. The unique code generated from the orientation information may be independent of (e.g., does not vary with) one or more angles at which the oscillating electromagnetic field and the external magnetic field are applied to the subject.

[0214] Implementations of the first example may include one or more of the following features: The object may include a superset of elements, and the unique code may be generated based on the relative spatial orientation of only a subset of the elements that includes fewer than all elements in the superset; The orientation information extracted from the object may indicate the relative spatial orientation of only the subset of elements; The orientation information extracted from the object may indicate the relative spatial orientation of all elements in the superset, and a subset of the orientation information may be identified that indicates the relative spatial orientation of the subset.

[0215] Implementations of the first example may include one or more of the following features: The orientation information may be extracted independently of aligning the object with respect to the scanner system; The orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation of the elements in a two-dimensional coordinate space or a three-dimensional coordinate space; The orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation in a format that is invariant to global rotations of the object's coordinate system.

[0216] Implementations of the first example may include one or more of the following features: The orientation information may include a list of coordinate transformations (e.g., transformation matrices) that describe the relative spatial orientation of each element; The list may include a composite transformation matrix for each element; The list of composite transformation matrices may be invariant to a global rotation of the object's coordinate system; If the elements are diamond particles, the composite transformation matrix for each element may represent a first transformation between the object's coordinate system and the diamond particle's coordinate system, and a second transformation between the diamond particle's coordinate system and the coordinate system of a color center within the diamond particle.

[0217] Implementations of the first example can include one or more of the following features: The elements can be crystalline particles, and the object can include crystalline particles fixed within the medium. The crystalline particles can be diamond particles having respective color centers, and extracting the orientation information can include detecting the relative orientations of the color centers.

[0218] A first example implementation may include one or more of the following features: Location information indicative of the relative spatial position of each element may be extracted from the object; Topography information indicative of the relative spatial topography of each element may be extracted from the object; Magnetic field environment information indicative of the magnetic field environment of each element may be extracted from the object; A unique code may be generated from any combination of the location information, topography information, magnetic field environment information, and orientation information.

[0219] A first example implementation can include one or more of the following features: The unique code can be a first unique code, and modifying the object can change the relative spatial orientation of at least some of the elements. A second, different unique code can be generated for the object based on orientation information extracted from the object after changing the relative spatial orientation. The relative spatial orientation can be used, for example, as a ledger for information related to the object.

[0220] An implementation of a first example may include one or more of the following features. The scanner system may include a sample region, a probe, and a processor. The sample region may be configured to receive the object. The probe may be configured to extract orientation information from the object by detecting the element. The processor may be configured to generate a unique code for the object based on the orientation information. The probe may include an optical imaging system (e.g., a fluorescence imaging system) configured to extract orientation information by applying illumination to the object and acquiring an optical response (e.g., a fluorescence response) to the illumination. In some cases, the optical imaging system may be configured to acquire the optical response based on Raman scattering or another nonlinear effect (e.g., second harmonic generation, spontaneous parametric down-conversion, etc.). The probe may include a magnetic resonance system configured to extract orientation information by applying magnetic fields (e.g., oscillating electromagnetic fields and external magnetic fields) to the object and acquiring a magnetic resonance response to those magnetic fields.

[0221] In a second example, orientation information is obtained that indicates the relative spatial orientation of each element of the object. A unique code for the object is derived from the orientation information.

[0222] Implementations of the second example may include one or more of the following features: The unique code may be used in a challenge-response protocol. Orientation information may be extracted based on challenge data for the challenge-response protocol, the unique code may be used to generate response data for the challenge-response protocol, and the response data may be sent to the authenticator.

[0223] Implementations of the second example may include one or more of the following features: The unique code may be used in an authentication process. An authentication process may be performed to authenticate the origin of the subject. An authentication process may be performed to verify the integrity of the subject. An authentication process may be performed to verify the chain of custody of the subject.

[0224] Implementations of the second example may include one or more of the following features: The unique code may be used in a cryptographic process. The unique code may be used to obtain a private key for an encryption protocol, a digital signature protocol, or another type of cryptographic process.

[0225] Implementations of the second example may include one or more of the following features: The object may include a superset of elements, and the unique code may be generated based on the relative spatial orientation of only a subset of the elements that includes fewer than all elements in the superset; The orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation of the elements in a two-dimensional coordinate space or a three-dimensional coordinate space; The orientation information may indicate the relative spatial orientation in a format that is invariant to an overall rotation of the object's coordinate system.

[0226] Implementations of the second example may include one or more of the following features: The orientation information may include a list of coordinate transformations (e.g., transformation matrices) that describe the relative spatial orientation of each element; The list may include a composite transformation matrix for each element; The list of composite transformation matrices may be invariant to a global rotation of the object's coordinate system; If the elements are diamond particles, the composite transformation matrix for each element may represent a first transformation between the object's coordinate system and the diamond particle's coordinate system, and a second transformation between the diamond particle's coordinate system and the coordinate system of a color center within the diamond particle.

[0227] In a third example, a suspension of elements is formed within the object, and the suspension of elements is used to generate a unique code for the object. The suspension of elements can be, for example, a suspension of diamond particles.

[0228] Implementations of the third example can include one or more of the following features: The suspension can be formed by distributing diamond particles on the surface of the object; Distributing the diamond particles on the surface of the object can include applying a paint including the diamond particles to the surface of the object; Distributing the diamond particles on the surface of the object can include applying a conformal coating material including the diamond particles to the surface of the object.

[0229] Implementations of the third example can include one or more of the following features: The suspension can be formed by distributing diamond particles within a material and forming an object from the material including the diamond particles; Forming the object from the material can include forming the object by an injection molding process; Forming the object from the material can include forming the object by an additive manufacturing process; Forming the object from the material can include forming the object by a printing process; Forming the object from the material can include forming a workpiece from the material and removing material from the workpiece.

[0230] Implementations of the third example may include one or more of the following features: The object is sent from a sending entity to a receiving entity, and the unique code is used in an analysis process performed between the sending and receiving entities; The suspension of diamond particles is used as a Physical Unclonable Function (PUF), as a ledger for information related to the object, or otherwise.

[0231] Implementations of the third example can include one or more of the following features: a manufacturing system configured to form a suspension of diamond particles within an object; a scanner system configured to extract particle information from the object, the particle information indicative of a characteristic of each diamond particle within the suspension; and a computer system configured to generate a unique code for the object based on the particle information.

[0232] In a fourth example, orientation information indicating the relative spatial orientation of each element of an object is received. A unique code is generated from the orientation information. The unique code is associated with an object identifier for the object.

[0233] Implementations of the fourth example may include one or more of the following features: The object may include a unique marker applied to the item, and the object identifier may be a serial number of the item. The item may be distributed, and the unique code and serial number may be stored in a secure database. Orientation information may be extracted from the unique marker by operation of a scanner system, and scanner settings used by the scanner system to extract the orientation information may be stored in the secure database. The unique marker may enable a recipient of the item to analyze the item.

[0234] In a fifth example, an analysis process is performed that includes receiving an object identifier for the object, receiving a unique code for the object based on the detected relative orientations of each element of the object, and analyzing the object based on the unique code and the object identifier.

[0235] Implementations of the fifth example can include one or more of the following features: The object can include a unique marker applied to the item, and the object identifier can include a serial number of the item. Analyzing the object can include communicating the unique code and the object identifier to an authentication unit. Analyzing the object can include evaluating the unique code based on information in a secure database. Analyzing the object can include performing an authentication process to authenticate the origin of the object, the integrity of the object, or the chain of custody of the object.

[0236] In a sixth example, a challenge-response protocol is performed. Challenge data for the challenge-response protocol is obtained. Based on the challenge data, orientation information is extracted from the object by a scanner system detecting the relative spatial orientation of each element of the object. The challenge data includes parameters used by the scanner system to detect the relative spatial orientation. Based on the orientation information, response data for the challenge-response protocol is generated.

[0237] Implementations of the sixth example may include one or more of the following features: Response data may be sent to an authenticator, and the response data for a challenge-response protocol may be verified. A result of the challenge-response protocol may be received from the authenticator based on the challenge data and the response data. Obtaining the challenge data may include receiving the challenge data from the authenticator. Obtaining the challenge data may include generating the challenge data at a scanner system.

[0238] In a seventh example, a challenge-response protocol is executed. Challenge data and response data for the challenge-response protocol are obtained. The challenge data includes parameters for extracting orientation information from the object, and the response data is based on the orientation information extracted from the object (e.g., by a scanner system) using the parameters. The orientation information indicates the relative spatial orientation of each element of the object. The challenge data and response data are used to determine whether the response data represents a valid response to the challenge data.

[0239] Implementations of the seventh example may include one or more of the following features: Determining whether the response data represents a valid response to the challenge data may include evaluating the orientation information based on valid information in a secure database; The valid information may be obtained from the secure database based on the challenge data and a subject identifier of the subject; The authenticator may receive the challenge data and the response data from the remote scanner system, and the authenticator may send an indication of whether the response data represents a valid response to the remote scanner system.

[0240] Implementations of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh examples may include one or more of the following features: The elements may be diamond particles having respective color centers, and orientation information may be extracted by detecting the relative orientation of the color centers. Extracting the orientation information may include obtaining an optical response (e.g., a fluorescent response) to illumination applied to the diamond particles. Orientation information may be extracted by optically detected magnetic resonance of the diamond particles. The unique code and object identifier may be used in an analysis process to analyze the object.

[0241] In an eighth example, a method includes receiving an object having surface features and forming a unique marker on the surface features of the object. The unique marker includes a distribution of elements and conforms to the shape of the surface features. The method further includes extracting orientation information from the unique marker. The orientation information indicates the relative spatial orientation of each element. The method further includes generating a unique code for the object based on the orientation information.

[0242] Implementations of the eighth example may include one or more of the following features. The elements may be crystalline particles, and the unique marker may include crystalline particles fixed within the medium. The crystalline particles may be diamond particles including respective color centers, and extracting the orientation information may include detecting the relative orientation of the color centers. The surface features may include indentations, and forming the unique marker on the surface features may include forming a fluid including a distribution of the elements within the indentations and exposing the fluid within the indentations to a curing process that hardens the fluid to form the unique marker. The curing process may include at least one of a drying process (e.g., exposure to an atmosphere at room temperature), a hardening process (e.g., a process using a hardener such as a catalyst or hardener, examples of which include tertiary amines, Lewis acids, aliphatic and aromatic amines, or carboxylic acid anhydrides), or exposure to an energy source (e.g., a lamp, examples of which include a mercury lamp or a light-emitting diode (LED) lamp). The energy source (e.g., a mercury lamp or an LED lamp) may be configured to emit ultraviolet radiation. The fluid includes at least one of a resin material, an epoxy material, an acrylic material, a urethane material, a silicone material, a xylene material, a toluene material, an ethyl acetate material, or an ink. Forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the depression includes applying the fluid to the object to fill the depression and removing excess fluid material from the surface of the object. Removing excess fluid material from the surface of the object includes removing excess fluid material from the surface of the object using a removal tool. The removal tool includes at least one of a doctor blade, a spatula, or a squeegee. Forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the depression includes forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the depression of the object using a flexographic printing system, or forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the depression of the object using a gravure printing system, or a combination thereof.

[0243] Implementations of an eighth example can include one or more of the following features. Forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the recesses includes using a flexographic printing system, wherein a plurality of cells are present on a surface of an anilox roller of the flexographic printing system. The width of each cell in its widest dimension can be in a range of about 20 μm to about 300 μm. Forming the fluid including the distribution of elements in the recesses includes using a flexographic printing system, wherein a plurality of cells are present on a surface of an anilox roller of the flexographic printing system, wherein the plurality of cells includes a first group of cells and a second group of cells. A volume of each cell in the first group of cells can be greater than a volume of each cell in the second group of cells, and the volume of each cell in the first group of cells can be at least an order of magnitude greater than an average width of the elements. The surface feature includes a facet of the object, and forming the unique marker on the surface feature includes forming the unique marker as a conformal layer on the facet of the object. The surface feature includes a surface of one or more components of the object, and forming the unique marker on the surface feature includes forming the unique marker as a conformal layer on the one or more components of the object. The surface feature includes a tamper-vulnerable area of ​​the object, and forming the unique marker on the surface feature includes forming the unique marker on the tamper-vulnerable area of ​​the object. In some cases, the tamper-vulnerable area of ​​the object can be any area of ​​the object (e.g., a product or product packaging) that can be opened or breached, thereby allowing a third party to change the shape of the object or access the contents of the object.

[0244] In a ninth example, a method includes providing a sticker including a distribution of elements on a substrate having an adhesive backing and applying at least a portion of the sticker to an object. The method further includes extracting orientation information from the portion of the sticker on the object. The orientation information can indicate a relative spatial orientation of each element of the portion of the sticker on the object. The method further includes generating a unique code for the object based on the orientation information.

[0245] Implementations of a ninth example may include one or more of the following features. A portion of a sticker may be affixed to a tamper-vulnerable area of ​​the object. The sticker may include a first portion and a second portion, and affixing at least a portion of the sticker on the object may include separating the first portion of the sticker from the second portion of the sticker and affixing the first portion of the sticker on the object. Prior to affixing the first portion of the sticker on the object, initial orientation information may be extracted from the sticker. The initial orientation information may indicate a relative spatial orientation of each element of the first and second portions of the sticker. Based on the initial orientation information, an initial unique code may be generated, and the initial unique code may be associated with the sticker. After affixing the first portion of the sticker on the object, second orientation information may be extracted from the second portion of the sticker. The second orientation information may indicate a relative spatial orientation of each element of the second portion of the sticker. Based on the second orientation information, a second unique code is generated. A second unique code is associated with the second portion of the sticker and with the application of the first portion of the sticker to the object.

[0246] In some implementations, a system includes a manufacturing device configured to receive an object having surface features and form a unique marker on the surface features of the object, the unique marker including a distribution of elements and conforming to a shape of the surface features. The system further includes a scanner system configured to extract orientation information from the unique marker, the orientation information indicating a relative spatial orientation of each element. The system further includes a computer system configured to generate a unique code for the object based on the orientation information.

[0247] While this specification contains many details, these should be understood as descriptions of features specific to particular examples, rather than as limitations on the scope of what may be claimed. Certain features described or illustrated herein in the context of separate implementations may also be combined. Conversely, various features that are described or illustrated in the context of a single implementation may also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination.

[0248] Similarly, while the figures may depict operations in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular illustrated order or sequential order, or that all of the illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain situations, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Furthermore, the separation of various system components in the implementations described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all implementations, and it should be understood that the program components and systems described may generally be integrated together in a single product or packaged in multiple products.

[0249] Although several embodiments have been described, it will be understood that various modifications may be made and, accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

Claims

1. A sticker comprising a distribution of elements, a substrate, and an adhesive, the sticker comprising a first portion and a second portion; extracting initial orientation information from the first and second portions of the sticker, the initial orientation information indicating relative spatial orientations of elements of the first and second portions of the sticker; generating an initial unique code based on the initial orientation information, the initial unique code being associated with the sticker; Separating a first portion of the sticker from a second portion of the sticker; applying a first portion of the sticker onto an object; extracting orientation information from a first portion of the sticker on the object, the orientation information from the first portion of the sticker on the object indicating a relative spatial orientation of each element of the first portion of the sticker on the object; generating a unique code for the object based on the orientation information from a first portion of the sticker on the object; A method comprising:

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein a first portion of the sticker is affixed to an area of ​​the object that is susceptible to tampering.

3. extracting second orientation information from a second portion of the sticker after applying the first portion of the sticker to an object, the second orientation information indicating a relative spatial orientation of each element of the second portion of the sticker; generating a second unique code based on the second orientation information, the second unique code being associated with a second portion of the sticker and an application of the first portion of the sticker on the object; The method of claim 1 , comprising:

4. the distribution of elements is on the surface of the substrate; The method of claim 1 , wherein applying a first portion of the sticker onto the object comprises applying a first portion of the substrate onto the object.

5. a distribution of said elements is present in said adhesive; The method of claim 1 , wherein applying a first portion of the sticker onto the object comprises applying a first portion of the adhesive onto the object.

6. the substrate is a liner; The method of claim 5 , further comprising removing a liner from the adhesive after applying the first portion of the adhesive onto the object.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the elements are crystalline particles.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein the crystalline particles are diamond particles.

9. a first portion of the sticker comprising a first portion of the substrate; a second portion of the sticker comprising a second portion different from the first portion of the substrate; The method of claim 1.

10. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the first portion of the sticker and the second portion of the sticker are separated by a perforation before being separated and before applying the first portion of the sticker onto the object.

Images