Layered structure and method for the production of graphene

Abstract

The invention pertains to a layered structure (100) comprising a. A first layer (101), wherein i. the first layer (101) comprises a first metal and at least one other chemical element, wherein the at least one other chemical element is preferably at least one further metal, ii. the first layer (101) has a first section (112), wherein the first section (112) has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane; iii. the Miller index ℓ, used to define the crystal lattice planes, is arranged perpendicular to a surface (108) of the first layer (101); wherein a first angle (111) between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4.

Description

[0001] LAYERED STRUCTURE AND METHOD FOR THE PRODUCTION OF GRAPHENE

[0002] FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The invention pertains to a layered structure, which can be used in a method for producing a graphene layer e.g., by growing the graphene layer on the layered structure. The invention also pertains to a method for producing a graphene layer. The invention further pertains to a graphene layer obtainable by the method for producing a graphene layer.

[0004] BACKGROUND

[0005] Graphene is material with a large number of highly desirable properties. Some of these properties include the following: is it a light-weight material with a tensile strength stronger than that of iron, and it is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. As a result of having such desirable properties, graphene can be used for a large number of applications, including in the energy industry (e.g., for a batteries), the medical industry (e.g., cancer treatment), and the electronics industry (e.g., in opto-electronic devices). Applications that use graphene generally require graphene of a sufficiently high quality. In particular, it is required that the graphene has very little wrinkles or folds. However, production of such high-quality graphene remains challenging. A method for producing graphene is described in, e.g., US8,470,400, Wang et al. (2021), Nature, 596, 519, and Burton et al. (2023), ACS Nano, 17, 2, 1229.

[0006] OBJECTS

[0007] An object of the present invention is to at least partially overcome at least one of the disadvantages encountered in the state of the art.

[0008] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that can be used to obtain (e.g., produce) a graphene layer on said layered structure.

[0009] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for a reduced adhesions force between the layered structure and a graphene layer superimposed on the layered structure. It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for an improved delamination of a graphene layer superimposed on said layered structure. For example, the delamination is improved when the damage to the graphene layer, as a result of the delamination, is reduced.

[0010] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that can be reused for the obtaining of a graphene layer on said layered structure. For example, a first graphene layer is deposited on the layered structure, with the first graphene layer subsequently removed. The layered structure is then re-used to deposit a further graphene layer on the layered structure.

[0011] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for a faster growth rate of a graphene layer on the layered structure.

[0012] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer, wherein the layered structure has a reduced dewetting during the process of obtaining the graphene layer.

[0013] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer, wherein the layered structure further allows for a reduction in the chemicals (such as catalysts) required to obtain the graphene layer.

[0014] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer that has an improved quality.

[0015] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer that has less defects.

[0016] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer that has less wrinkles.

[0017] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer that has a lower surface roughness.

[0018] It is a further object of the invention to provide a layered structure that allows for the obtaining of a graphene layer that has a lower doping level.

[0019] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer.

[0020] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer, wherein the method allows for a faster production of the graphene layer.

[0021] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer, wherein the method requires less energy.

[0022] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer, wherein the method has an increased graphene growth rate.

[0023] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer, wherein the method requires less chemicals (such as catalysts).

[0024] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer, wherein said graphene layer has an improved quality. A graphene layer has an improved quality when, e.g, the graphene layer has a less wrinkles, a reduced average wrinkle height, less folds, increased electron mobility, reduced sheet resistance. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer that has less defects.

[0025] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer that has a lower surface roughness.

[0026] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for obtaining a graphene layer that has a lower doping level.

[0027] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer.

[0028] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer with improved quality.

[0029] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has less wrinkles.

[0030] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has less defects.

[0031] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has a lower surface roughness.

[0032] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has a lower doping level.

[0033] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has a reduced average wrinkle height.

[0034] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has less folds.

[0035] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has an increased electron mobility.

[0036] It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that has reduced residual charge carrier fluctuations. It is a further object of the invention to provide a graphene layer that can be used for more applications. For example, the graphene layer can be used in a larger number of different electronic device types and / or electrical component types.

[0037] PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

[0038] A contribution to at least partially fulfilling at least one of the above-mentioned objects is made by any of the embodiments of the invention.

[0039] A 1stembodiment of the invention is a first layered structure comprising a. a first layer, wherein i. the first layer comprises a first metal and at least one other chemical element, wherein the at least one other chemical element is preferably at least one further metal, ii. the first layer has a first section, wherein the first section has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane; iii. the Miller index , used to define the crystal lattice planes, is arranged perpendicular to a surface of the first layer; wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the first metal and the at least one other chemical element are either in elementary form or in chemically bound form. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the first metal and the at least one other chemical element form a chemical compound, i.e., the first metal and the at least one other chemical element are in chemically bound form. A particularly preferred example of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element being in chemically bound form is an alloy of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the first section makes up at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least 70 vol-%, even more preferably at least 85 vol-%, and further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the first angle is a dihedral angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the first crystal plane is a (168)-plane or a (169)-plane. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, the first section should preferably be understood as having a single crystal structure.

[0040] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layer comprises a first alloy, and wherein the first alloy comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, sulphur, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, germanium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, tin, tungsten, rhenium, iridium, platinum, gold, a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 2ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 1stembodiment of the invention.

[0041] In the 2ndembodiment the first alloy is an example of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element in chemically bound form, i.e., forming a chemical compound. In the 2ndembodiment, examples of an alloy include a nickel-molybdenum alloy, a copper-silicon alloy, a platinum-silicon alloy, a nickel-gold alloy, a nickel-titanium alloy, a copper-cobalt alloy, and a copper-nickel alloy. In an aspect of the 2ndembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the first alloy is a copper-nickel alloy.

[0042] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layer comprises a first alloy, wherein the first alloy comprises at least one or all of the following: a. in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-%, preferably in the range of 67 wt-% to 93 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 72 wt-% to 88 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 77 wt-% to 83 wt-% copper, where the wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer; b. in the range of 1 wt-% to 40 wt-%, preferably in the range of 7 wt-% to 33 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 12 wt-% to 28 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 17 wt-% to 23 wt-% nickel, where the wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer.

[0043] This preferred embodiment is a 3rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 2ndembodiments of the invention. In the 3rdembodiment, the first alloy is an example of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element in chemically bound form, i.e., forming a chemical compound. In an aspect of the 3rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In this aspect, the combination a+b is particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 3rdembodiment, if the first layer comprises both copper and nickel (i.e., the combination a+b), then it is not a requirement that the sum of the wt-% of copper and nickel should add up to 100 wt-%. For example, the first alloy may comprise 80 wt-% copper, 19 wt-% nickel, and 1 wt-% of one or more other chemical elements. In an aspect of the 3rdembodiment, it is preferred that the first alloy comprises copper, nickel, and less than 5 wt-%, preferably less than 3 wt-%, and more preferably less than 1 wt-%, of at least one other chemical element.

[0044] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layer has a thickness in the range of 0.01 pm to 30 pm, preferably in the range of 0.05 pm to 20 pm, more preferably in the range of 0.1 pm to 15 pm, even more preferably in the range of 0.2 pm to 5 pm, further preferably in the range of 0.4 pm to 3 pm, and even further preferably in the range of 0.6 pm to 1 pm. This preferred embodiment is a 41,1embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 3rdembodiments of the invention.

[0045] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least vol-70 %, further preferably at least 85 %, and even further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the first layer has a single crystal structure. This preferred embodiment is a 5thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 4'1' embodiments of the invention.

[0046] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layer has a surface roughness Rq that is in the range of 0.05 nm to 1 nm, preferably in the range of 0.1 nm to 0.6 nm, and more preferably in the range of 0.1 nm to 0.3 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 6'1' embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 51,1embodiments of the invention.

[0047] In a preferred aspect of the invention, preferably in an aspect of the 6thembodiment of the invention, a difference between a minimum surface roughness Rqminand a maximum surface roughness Rqmaxof the first layer, measured over a distance and / or scale of 10 pm, is less than 10 nm, more preferably less than 5 nm, and further preferably less than 3 nm.

[0048] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layered structure further comprises a further layer, wherein a. the first layer is superimposed on the further layer, and b. the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one further alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, at least one element from group III of the periodic table, at least one element from group IV of the periodic table, at least one element from group V of the periodic table, a combination of two or more thereof.

[0049] This preferred embodiment is a 7'1' embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 6'1' embodiments of the invention.

[0050] In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the further layer comprises at least one oxide. In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide (e.g., sapphire), a combination thereof. In this aspect magnesium oxide is particularly preferred.

[0051] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the first layer touches the further layer. This preferred embodiment is an 8thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 7thembodiment of the invention.

[0052] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the further layer is adapted and arranged to impose a crystal orientation on the first layer. This preferred embodiment is a 9thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7'1' to 8* embodiments of the invention.

[0053] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the further layer has a further section, wherein the further section has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, and further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This preferred embodiment is a I O'1' embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7thto 9thembodiments of the invention.

[0054] In the 10thembodiment, the Miller index , used to define the crystal lattice planes of the further layer, should preferably be understood to be arranged perpendicular to a surface of the first layer. In an aspect of the I O'1' embodiment, it is preferred that the further section makes up at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least 70 vol-%, even more preferably at least 85 vol-%, and further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. In an aspect of the 10thembodiment, it is preferred that the further angle is a dihedral angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane. In an aspect of the 10thembodiment, it is preferred that the further crystal plane is a (168)-plane or a (169)-plane. In an aspect of the 10thembodiment, the further section should preferably be understood as having a single crystal structure.

[0055] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the further layer has a further section, wherein the further section has a crystal orientation that lies in the further crystal plane, and wherein an even-further angle between the first crystal plane and the further crystal plane is in the range of -25° to 25°, preferably in the range of -20° to 20°, more preferably in the range of -15° to 15°, further preferably in the range of -10° to 10°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, further preferably in the range of -3° to 3°, and even further preferably in the range of -1° to 1°. This preferred embodiment is an 1 11,1embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7thto 10thembodiments of the invention.

[0056] In an aspect of the 1 11,1embodiment, it is preferred that the even-further angle is a dihedral angle between the first crystal plane and the further crystal plane.

[0057] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: a. at least one oxide selected from the group consisting of magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, zirconium oxide, aluminium oxide, a combination of at least two thereof; b. at least one of the following: silicon, germanium, silicon carbide, a combination of at least two thereof; c. at least one nitride selected from the group consisting of gallium nitride, boron nitride, a combination of at least two thereof; d. at least one chemical compound comprising at least one element from group III of the periodic table and at least one element from group V of the periodic table.

[0058] This preferred embodiment is a 12thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7thto 1 11,1embodiments of the invention.

[0059] In an aspect of the 12thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 12'1' embodiment, a preferred boron nitride is hexagonal boron nitride. In an aspect of the 12'1' embodiment, it is particularly preferred that the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide (e.g., sapphire), a combination thereof. In this aspect magnesium oxide is particularly preferred.

[0060] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least vol-70 %, further preferably at least 85 %, and even further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the further layer has a single crystal structure. This preferred embodiment is a 131,1embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7'1' to 12'1' embodiments of the invention.

[0061] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, the further layer has a thickness in the range of 100 pm to 2 mm, preferably in the range of 200 pm to 800 pm, more preferably in the range of 400 pm to 600 pm, and further preferably in the range of 450 pm to 550 pm. This preferred embodiment is a 14'1' embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7thto 13thembodiments of the invention.

[0062] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, a ratio of a thermal expansion coefficient of the first layer to a thermal expansion coefficient of the further layer is in the range of 0.1 to 2.5, preferably in the range of 0.4 to 1.7, more preferably in the range of 0.7 to 1.3, and further preferably in the range of 0.9 to 1.1. This preferred embodiment is a 151,1embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 7'1' to 14|J|embodiments of the invention.

[0063] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, a surface of the first layer, a surface of the further layer, or both, comprise a plurality of terraces, wherein a size of at least 50 % of the terraces vary by less than 30 %, more preferably less than 20 %, and further preferably less than 10 % from an average size of the plurality of terraces. This preferred embodiment is a 16thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 15thembodiments of the invention.

[0064] In the 16thembodiment, terraces should preferably be understood as at least two adjacent regions in the surface of a layer, wherein the at least two regions have different heights.

[0065] A 17thembodiment of the invention is a further layered structure comprising a. a first layer, wherein i. the first layer comprises a first metal and at least one other chemical element, wherein the at least one other chemical element is preferably at least one further metal, ii. the first layer has a first section, wherein the first section has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane; iii. the Miller index , used to define the crystal lattice planes, is arranged perpendicular to a surface of the first layer; wherein a second angle between the second crystal plane and the (ll l)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°.

[0066] In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, the 2ndto 16|J|preferred embodiments, and their preferred aspects, are also preferred embodiments and preferred aspects, mutatis mutandis, of the 17thembodiment of the invention. In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, it is preferred that the first metal and the at least one other chemical element are either in elementary form or in chemically bound form. In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, it is preferred that the first metal and the at least one other chemical element form a chemical compound, i.e., the first metal and the at least one other chemical element are in chemically bound form. A particularly preferred example of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element being in chemically bound form is an alloy of the first metal and the at least one other chemical element. In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, it is preferred that the first section makes up at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least at least 70 vol-%, even more preferably at least 85 vol-%, and further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, it is preferred that the second angle is a dihedral angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane. In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, it is preferred that the second crystal plane is a (11 l)-plane. In an aspect of the 17|J|embodiment, the first section should preferably be understood as having a single crystal structure.

[0067] In a preferred embodiment of the further layered structure, the thickness of the first layer is less than 600 nm, more preferably less than 500 nm, and further preferably less than 400 nm. This preferred embodiment is an 18thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 17'1' embodiment of the invention.

[0068] In a preferred embodiment of the further layered structure, the further layered structure further comprises a further layer, wherein the first layer is superimposed on the further layer. This preferred embodiment is a 19* embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 17thto 18thembodiments of the invention.

[0069] In an aspect of the 19|J|embodiment, it is preferred that that further layer comprises an oxide, more preferably aluminium oxide, even more preferably a-Al2O3, and further preferably sapphire.

[0070] In a preferred embodiment of the further layered structure, the further layer has a further section, wherein the further section has a crystal orientation that lies in a third crystal plane, wherein a third angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, and further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This preferred embodiment is a 20* embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 17thto 19thembodiments of the invention.

[0071] In the 20thembodiment, the Miller index , used to define the crystal lattice planes of the further layer, should preferably be understood to be arranged perpendicular to a surface of the first layer. In an aspect of the 20thembodiment, it is preferred that the further section makes up at least 50 vol-%, more preferably at least at least 70 vol- %, even more preferably at least 85 vol-%, and further preferably at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. In an aspect of the 20thembodiment, it is preferred that the (OOOl)-plane is with respect to a C-axis (or optical axis) of the further layer. In an aspect of the 20thembodiment, it is preferred that the third angle is a dihedral angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane. In an aspect of the 20* embodiment, it is preferred that the third crystal plane is a (OOOl)-plane. In an aspect of the 20* embodiment, the further section should preferably be understood as having a single crystal structure. In a preferred aspect of the invention, the first layered structure is more preferred that the further layered structure.

[0072] A 21stembodiment of the invention is a method for producing a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 1stto 20* embodiments of the invention, more preferably a first layered structure according to any of the 1stto 16thembodiments of the invention, comprising the steps of: a. optionally, providing a further layer, preferably a further layer according to any of the 7'1' to 16|J|embodiments of the invention; b. depositing the first layer, preferably by superimposing the first layer on the further layer, to obtain the layered structure.

[0073] The 21stembodiment should preferably be understood as a method for producing a first layered structure according to the invention, a method for producing a further layered structure according to the invention, or both.

[0074] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a layered structure, the first layer is deposited on the further layer such that the further layer and the first layer touch each other. This preferred embodiment is a 22ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 21stembodiments of the invention.

[0075] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a layered structure, the first layer is deposited using at least one or all of the following: a. chemical vapour deposition; b. physical vapour deposition; c. atomic layer deposition.

[0076] This preferred embodiment is a 23rdembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 21stto 22ndembodiments of the invention.

[0077] In an aspect of the 23rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 23rdembodiment, physical vapour deposition is particularly preferred.

[0078] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a layered structure, the method further comprises the step of subjecting the layered structure to heat treatment. This preferred embodiment is a 24thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 21stto 23rdembodiments of the invention. In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the heat treatment is performed at a temperature that is at least 50 °C, preferably at least 75 °C, and more preferably at least 100 °C below the melting point of the first layer, the further layer, or both. b. the heat treatment is performed at a temperature that is in the range of 200 °C to 2400 °C, preferably in the range of 200 °C to 2000 °C, more preferably in the range of 250 °C to 1600 °C, even more preferably in the range of 250 °C to 1300 °C, even more preferably in the range of 300 °C to 1100 °C, further preferably in the range of 300 °C to 1000 °C, and even further preferably in the range of 400 °C to 900 °C.

[0079] This preferred embodiment is a 25|J 1embodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on the 24thembodiment of the invention.

[0080] In an aspect of the 25thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 25|J|embodiment, step b., it is preferred that the heat treatment is performed at a temperature that is in the range of 680 °C to 900 °C.

[0081] A 26thembodiment of the invention is a method for producing at least one graphene layer, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 1stto 20thembodiments of the invention, more preferably a first layered structure according to any of the 1stto 16thembodiments of the invention, or preferably a layered structure obtainable by the method for producing a layered structure according to any of the 21stto 25|J|embodiments of the invention; b. placing the layered structure in a cavity; c. heating the layered structure in the presence of a gaseous carbon precursor in the cavity, thereby obtaining the at least one graphene layer, and wherein the at least one graphene layer is superimposed on the layered structure, preferably the first layer, wherein a temperature in the cavity is in the range of 300 °C to 2000 °C, preferably in the range of 400 °C to 1700 °C, more preferably in the range of 500 °C to 1500 °C, even more preferably in the range of 600 °C to 1300 °C, further preferably in the range of 600 °C to 900 °C, further preferably in the range of 670 °C to 830 °C, further preferably in the range of 700 °C to 800 °C, and even further preferably in the range of 730 °C to 770 °C. In an aspect of the 26|J 1embodiment, it is particularly preferred that a first layered structure according to the invention is provided, and even more particularly preferred that a first layered structure according to any of the 1stto 16|J|embodiments of the invention is provided. In an aspect of the 26thembodiment, it is preferred that the cavity forms part of a reactor adapted and arranged for chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, or both. An example of such a reactor is a quartz tube furnace. In an aspect of the 26|J|embodiment, it is preferred that the at least one graphene layer touches the layered structure, more preferably touches the first layer. In an aspect of the 26thembodiment, step c., it is preferred that a single graphene layer, superimposed on the layered structure, is obtained. In an aspect of the 26thembodiment, the following temperature ranges are particularly preferred: a temperature in the range of 651 °C to 900 °C, more preferably in the range of 670 °C to 830 °C, further preferably in the range of 700 °C to 800 °C, and even further preferably in the range of 730 °C to 770 °C.

[0082] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, a pressure in the cavity is in the range of IO-3mbar to 1000 mbar, preferably in the range of IO-2mbar to 100 mbar, more preferably in the range of 10-1mbar to 10 mbar. This preferred embodiment is a 27thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on the 26|J 1embodiment of the invention.

[0083] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the at least one graphene layer is obtained using at least one or all of the following: a. chemical vapour deposition, e.g., plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition, metalorganic chemical vapour deposition; b. physical vapour deposition.

[0084] This preferred embodiment is a 28thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 26|J|to 27thembodiments of the invention.

[0085] In an aspect of the 28thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b.

[0086] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the carbon precursor is selected from the group consisting of ethylene, acetylene, methane, toluene, benzene, camphor, at least one natural oil, at least one alcohol, carbon dioxide, coal char, lard, at least one alkane, ethane, a polysaccharide (e.g., cellulose, starch), a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 29thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 26|J|to 28|J|embodiments of the invention.

[0087] In an aspect of the 29thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the carbon precursor is ethylene, acetylene, methane, or a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of preferred natural oils in the 29|J 1embodiment include sesame oil and palm oil. Examples of preferred alcohols in the 29thembodiment include methanol, ethanol, and 1- propanol, 2-phenylethanol. Examples of preferred alkanes in the 29|J|embodiment include methane, butane and propane. A preferred combination of methane and butane is liquefied petroleum gas. Examples of a polysaccharide is cellulose and starch.

[0088] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the layered structure is heated in the presence of at least one or all of the following: a noble gas (e.g., argon), hydrogen, nitrogen, a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 30thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 26thto 29thembodiments of the invention.

[0089] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the layered structure, with the at least one graphene layer superimposed thereon, is subjected to an intercalation step, thereby forming at least one intercalation layer between the layered structure and the at least one graphene layer. This preferred embodiment is a 31stembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 26thto 3 O'1' embodiments of the invention.

[0090] In an aspect of the 31stembodiment, it is preferred that the intercalation step is performed after the layered structure, with the at least one graphene layer superimposed thereon, has been removed from the cavity. E.g., the intercalation step is performed outside the cavity.

[0091] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the method further comprises the step of at least partially removing the at least one graphene layer from the layered structure. This preferred embodiment is a 32ndembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 26thto 31stembodiments of the invention.

[0092] In an aspect of the 32ndembodiment, it is preferred to at least partially remove the at least one graphene layer after the layered structure, with the at least one graphene layer superimposed thereon, has been removed from the cavity. E.g., the at least one graphene layer is at least partially removed outside the cavity.

[0093] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the at least one graphene layer is at least partially removed using at least one or all of the following: wet transfer, quasi-dry transfer, dry transfer, electrochemical transfer, or a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 33rdembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on the 32ndembodiment of the invention.

[0094] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing at least one graphene layer, the method further comprises the step of reusing the layered structure to obtaining at least one further graphene layer superimposed on the layered structure. This preferred embodiment is a 34thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 32ndto 33rdembodiments of the invention.

[0095] An example of the 34'1' embodiment is the following: the method for producing at least one graphene layer, according to any of the 26thto 31stembodiments, is performed, thereby obtaining at least one graphene layer that is superimposed on the layered structure. The layered structure is subjected to any of the 32ndto 33rdembodiments to remove the at least one layer of graphene from the layered structure. The method for producing at least one graphene layer, according to any of the 26thto 31stembodiments, is then repeated using the same layered structure, thereby again obtaining at least one graphene layer (i.e., at least one further graphene layer) that is superimposed on the layered structure. The layered structure is again subjected to any of the 32ndto 33rdembodiments to remove the at least one further layer of graphene from the layered structure. It is preferred to repeat this example multiple times using the same layered structure.

[0096] A 35thembodiment is a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 1stto 20thembodiments of the invention, or preferably a layered structure obtainable by the method for producing a layered structure according to any of the 21stto 25|J|embodiments of the invention, wherein the layered structure further comprises at least one graphene layer, preferably at least one graphene layer superimposed on the first layer.

[0097] In an aspect of the 35thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the layered structure is a first layered structure according to the invention, and even more particularly preferred a first layered structure according to any of the 1stto 16thembodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 35thembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure further comprises an intercalation layer arranged between the first layer and the at least one graphene layer. A preferred intercalation layer comprises water. In an aspect of the 35'1' embodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure comprises a single graphene layer.

[0098] A 36thembodiment of the invention is a method, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure according to the invention, with at least one graphene layer superimposed on the first layer, preferably a layered structure according to the 35'1' embodiment of the invention; b. at least partially removing the at least one graphene layer.

[0099] In an aspect of the 36thembodiment, it is preferred that the at least one graphene layer is at least partially removed using at least one or all of the following: wet transfer, quasi-dry transfer, dry transfer, electrochemical transfer, or a combination of at least two thereof. A 37|J 1embodiment of the invention is a graphene layer, preferably a graphene layer obtainable by a method according to the invention, more preferably a graphene layer obtainable according to any of the 26thto 34th, and 35thembodiments of the invention.

[0100] In an aspect of the 37'1' embodiment, it is preferred that the graphene layer is in the form of a plurality of fragments, e.g., flakes.

[0101] In a preferred embodiment of the graphene layer, the graphene layer has at least one or all of the following properties: a. less than 20 %, preferably less than 15 %, more preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % of a surface area of the graphene layer has folds; b. less than 20 %, preferably less than 15 %, more preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % of the surface area of the graphene layer has wrinkles; c. a maximum wrinkle height of, of wrinkles present in the graphene layer, is less than 50 nm, preferably less than 35 nm, more preferably less than 20 nm, even more preferably less than 10 nm, further preferably less than 5 nm, and even further preferably less than 2 nm.

[0102] This preferred embodiment is a 38* embodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on the 37thembodiment of the invention.

[0103] In an aspect of the 38* embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g, a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0104] A 39thembodiment of the invention is an electrical component comprising a graphene layer according to the invention, preferably a graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38'1' embodiments of the invention.

[0105] In a preferred embodiment of the electrical component, the electrical component is selected from the group consisting of: a semiconductor component (e.g, a transistor, a graphene based field effect transistor, a radio frequency graphene based field effect transistor); an opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photo-detector, a broad spectrum photo-detector, a single photon photo-detectors); a waveguide; a heating component (e.g, a graphene heater); a measuring component (e.g., a device comprising a hall bar); a sensor (e.g., a pressure sensor, a gas sensor, a magnetic sensor, an ion sensor); an accelerometer; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, and / or a combination of at least two thereof; quantum dots; a micro wave circuit; an antenna (e.g., a THz antenna); a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 40thembodiments of the invention, that preferably depends on the 39'1' embodiment of the invention. A 41stembodiment of the invention is a use of a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 1stto 20thembodiments of the invention, or preferably a layered structure obtainable by the method for producing a layered structure according to any of the 21stto 25|J|embodiments of the invention, for producing at least one graphene layer, preferably for producing a single graphene layer.

[0106] In an aspect of the 41stembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is a first layered structure according to the invention, more preferably a first layered structure according any of the 1stto 16thembodiments of the invention.

[0107] A 42ndembodiment of the invention is a use of a graphene layer according to the invention, preferably a graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38* embodiments of the invention, in an electrical component, preferably to improve at least one property of the electrical component.

[0108] In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, it is preferred that the electrical component is selected from the group of electrical components of the 40* embodiment of the invention. In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, it is preferred that the graphene layer is in the form of a plurality of fragments, e.g., flakes. In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, the at least one property includes at least one or all of the following: bit rate, insertion loss, energy usage, responsivity, a combination of at least two thereof. The aforementioned properties should preferably be understood as follows: bitrate is the rate of data flow in digital networks, typically measured in bits per second; insertion loss is unwanted loss in an intensity of electromagnetic waves propagating in a waveguide of a photodetector; energy usage is the energy required to operate the electrical component; responsivity is a ratio of current output by a photodetector to optical power of electromagnetic waves propagating in a waveguide of the photodetector.

[0109] A 43rdembodiment of the invention is a first assembly 1000 comprising a. a first sub-assembly 1001, wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 comprises i. a first electrical component 1002, wherein the first electrical component is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator: ii. a second electrical component 1003, wherein the second electrical component is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; iii. a first integrated circuit 1004 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1002, and preferably the second electrical component 1003; iv. preferably a first data storage means 1005 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the first integrated circuit 1004; b. a further sub-assembly 1007, wherein the further sub-assembly 1007 comprises i. a further electrical component 1008, wherein the further electrical component 1008

[0110] A. is preferably adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical component 1002, B. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; ii. an even-further electrical component 1009, wherein the even-further electrical component 1009

[0111] A. is preferably adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the second electrical component 1003,

[0112] B. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; iii. a further integrated circuit 1010 in electrical connection with the further electrical component 1008, and preferably the even-further electrical component 1009; iv. preferably a further data storage means 1011 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the further integrated circuit 1010; c. a first light emitting means 1006, wherein i. preferably, the first electrical component 1002 and the first light emitting means 1006 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the first light emitting means 1006 is arranged in the first sub-assembly 1001 ; d. preferably a further light emitting means 1012, wherein i. preferably the even-further electrical component 1009 and the further light emitting means 1012 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the further light emitting means 1012 is arranged in the further sub-assembly 1007; wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 and the further sub-assembly 1007 are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, and at least one, preferably all, of the following comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38* embodiments of the invention: the first electrical component 1002, the second electrical component 1003, the further electrical component 1008, the even-further electrical component 1009.

[0113] In a preferred aspect of the 43rdembodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 1 mm, more preferably at least 2 mm, even more preferably at least 5 mm, and further preferably at least 10 mm. In a preferred aspect of the 43rdembodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly and the further subassembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 10 cm, more preferably at least 30 cm, and further preferably at least 50 cm. In a preferred aspect of the 43rdembodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40* embodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the second electrical component, the further electrical component, the even-further electrical component.

[0114] In a preferred embodiment of the first assembly, the first assembly is selected from the group consisting of an assembly adapted and arranged for communication, an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication, an assembly adapted and arranged for high-performance computing, an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence (e.g., machine learning), an assembly adapted and arranged for a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip. This preferred embodiment is a 44thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 43rdembodiment of the invention.

[0115] A 45thembodiment of the invention is an optical data communication module 2100 comprising a. a first electrical component 2101, wherein the first electrical component 2101 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably, a light emitting means 2102 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical component 2101; c. preferably a further electrical component 2103, wherein the further electrical component 2103 i. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector, iii. is preferably in optical connection with the first electrical component 2101; d. an integrated circuit 2104 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 2101, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical component 2103, if present.

[0116] In a preferred aspect of the 45|J|embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0117] A 46thembodiment of the invention is an optical sensing module 1100 comprising: a. a first electrical component 1101, wherein the first electrical component 1101 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is adapted an arranged to modulate first electromagnetic waves directed towards a target area 1102, iii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. a sensing means 1103 adapted and arranged to detect further electromagnetic waves from the target area 1102, thereby generating an electrical signal, wherein i. the sensing means preferably comprises a further electrical component, wherein the further electrical component

[0118] A. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38* embodiments of the invention,

[0119] B. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably optics 1104 adapted and arranged to focus the further electromagnetic waves onto the sensing means 1103, and d. preferably an integrated circuit 1105, wherein the integrated circuit is i. preferably in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1101, ii. preferably in electrical connection with the sensing means 1103, iii. preferably adapted and arranged to process the electrical signal generated by the sensing means 1103; e. preferably a light emitting means 1106 in optical connection with the first electrical component 1101.

[0120] In a preferred aspect of the 46|J 1embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0121] A 47|J|embodiment of the invention is an apparatus 1200 adapted and arranged for a medical application, comprising a. a first electrical component 1201, wherein the first electrical component 1201 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical component 1202, wherein the further electrical component 1202 i. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably a first light emitting means 1203 in optical connection with the first electrical component 1201; d. a first integrated circuit 1204 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1201, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical component 1202, if present, e. preferably a sensing unit 1205, wherein the sensing unit 1205 is adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body, preferably a mammalian body, wherein the sensing unit 1205 i. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 45|J|embodiment of the invention, ii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 46thembodiment of the invention, iii. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0122] A. the first electrical component 1201,

[0123] B. the further electrical component 1202, if present.

[0124] In a preferred aspect of the 47|J 1embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0125] A 48thembodiment of the invention is a vehicle 1300 adapted and arranged for flight, wherein the vehicle 1300 comprises a. a first electrical component 1301, wherein the first electrical component 1301 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a first light emitting means 1302 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical component 1301; c. preferably a further electrical component 1303, wherein the further electrical component 1303 i. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1304 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1301, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical component 1303, if present; e. preferably a propulsion means 1305; f. preferably a means to generate lift 1306; g. preferably a control system 1307 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the vehicle, h. preferably a sensing unit 1308, wherein the sensing unit 1308 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the vehicle 1300, more preferably spatial information about surroundings of the vehicle 1300, ii. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 45|J|embodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 46thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0126] A. the first electrical component 1301, and

[0127] B. the further electrical component 1303, if present.

[0128] In a preferred aspect of the 48* embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0129] In a preferred embodiment of the vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, said vehicle is selected from the group consisting of an airplane, a helicopter, a drone, a rocket, a satellite, a balloon (e.g., a weather balloon, a hotair balloon) and a missile. This preferred embodiment is a 49|J|embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 48* embodiment of the invention.

[0130] A 50thembodiment of the invention is a robotic system 1400, comprising: a. a first electrical component 1401, wherein the first electrical component 1401 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a light emitting means 1402 in optical connection with the first electrical component 1401; c. preferably a further electrical component 1403, wherein the further electrical component 1403 i. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1404 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1401, and preferably the further electrical component 1403, if present. e. a robotic body 1405 adapted and arranged for movement, wherein the robotic body 1405 preferably comprises the first electrical component 1401 and / or the further electrical component 1403, if present; f. a sensing unit 1406, wherein the sensing unit 1406 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., the target area) of the robotic body 1405, ii. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 45|J|embodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 46thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication with at least one or all of the following: the first electrical component 1401, the further electrical component 1403, if present; g. a control module 1407 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the robotic body 1405, preferably based on the spatial information provided by the sensing unit 1406, wherein the control module 1407 is preferably in data communication, and more preferably optical connection, with at least one or all of the following: i. the first electrical component 1401, ii. the further electrical component 1403, iii. the first integrated circuit 1404; h. preferably, an external entity 1408 in data communication with the robotic body 1405.

[0131] In a preferred aspect of the 50* embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0132] A 51stembodiment of the invention is a second assembly 1500, comprising: a. one or more memory units 1501, preferably one or more optical memory units, adapted and arranged to store instructions and / or data; b. one or more processors 1502, preferably one or more optical processors, that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication, and preferably in optical connection, with the one or more memory units 1501, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 1501 and / or to perform operations using optical signals, c. preferably a data communication module 1503, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 45thembodiment of the invention, wherein the data communication module 1503 is adapted and arranged for the communication of data, more preferably optical data, between at least one or all of the following: i. at least one of the one or more memory units 1501 and at least one of the one or more processors 1502, ii. between at least two of the memory units 1501, iii. between at least two of the processors 1502; d. at least one electrical component 1504, wherein the at least one electrical component 1504 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector, iii. is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one memory unit 1501, the at least one processer 1502, the data communication module 1503.

[0133] In a preferred aspect of the 51stembodiment of the invention, the at least one electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0134] A 52ndembodiment of the invention is a third assembly 1600 comprising: a. a homomorphic operation module 1601 that is adapted and arranged for performing homomorphic operations on encrypted optical data to obtain modified encrypted optical data, b. preferably a photonic encryption module 1602, wherein the photonic encryption module 1602 i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. is adapted and arranged for encrypting optical data, preferably using an optical encoding scheme, to obtain the encrypted optical data; c. preferably a photonic decryption module 1603, wherein the photonic decryption module i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, or both, ii. is adapted and arranged for decrypting the modified encrypted optical data, preferably using an optical decoding scheme; d. at least one electrical component 1604, wherein the at least one electrical component 1604 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector, iii. is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, the photonic decryption module 1603; e. preferably at least one light emitting means 1606 that is in optical connection with at least one or all of the following; i. the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. the photonic encryption module 1602, iii. the photonic decryption module 1603.

[0135] In a preferred aspect of the 52ndembodiment of the invention, the at least one electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0136] A 53rdembodiment of the invention is an optical connection module 1700, comprising: a. a first electrical component 1701, wherein the first electrical component 1701 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical component 1702, wherein the further electrical component 1702 i. is preferably in optical connection with the first electrical component, ii. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, iii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably at least one waveguide 1703 in optical connection with the first electrical component 1701, the further electrical component 1702, if present, or both; d. preferably a light emitting means 1704 in optical connection with the first electrical component 1701; e. preferably at least one integrated circuit 1705 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1701, the further electrical component 1702, if present, or both. In a preferred aspect of the 53rdembodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0137] In a preferred embodiment of the optical connection module, the optical connection module is selected from the group consisting of an optical interconnect, an optical transmitter, an optical receiver, an optical transceiver, and an optical switch. This preferred embodiment is a 54'1' embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 53rdembodiment of the invention.

[0138] A 55'1' embodiment of the invention is a first transportation means 1800, preferably adapted and arranged for autonomous travel, comprising: a. a first electrical component 1801, wherein the first electrical component 1801 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a first light emitting 1812 means adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical component 1801; c. preferably a further electrical component 1802, wherein the further electrical component 1802 i. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1811 in electrical connection with the first electrical component 1801, the further electrical component 1802, if present, or both; e. a sensing unit 1803, wherein the sensing unit 1803 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the first transportation means 1800, ii. preferably comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 45thembodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 46thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0139] A. the first electrical component 1801, and

[0140] B. the further electrical component 1802, if present; f. a processing module 1804 that i. comprises a perception sub-module 1805 adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process the spatial information from the sensing unit 1803 to provide perception data on a presence and / or a classification of patterns and / or items in the target area, ii. comprises a generation sub-module 1806 adapted and arranged to process the perception data, and to preferably generate a recommendation, a control instruction, or both, i. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0141] A. the first electrical component 1801, and

[0142] B. the further electrical component 1802, if present; g. preferably a human-machine interface 1807 adapted and arranged to provide feedback to a user based on the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; h. preferably a control unit 1808 adapted and arranged to execute the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; i. a steering means 1809 adapted and arranged to steer the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the steering means; j. a propulsion means 1810 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the propulsion means 1810.

[0143] In a preferred aspect of the 551,1embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0144] An 56thembodiment of the invention is a further transportation means 1900 comprising: a. a first electrical component 1901, wherein the first electrical component 1901 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical component 1902, wherein the further electrical component 1902 i. is preferably in optical connection with the first electrical component 1901, ii. preferably comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, more preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38thembodiments of the invention, iii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a photodetector; c. a steering means 1903 adapted and arranged to steer the further transportation means 1900; d. a propulsion means 1904 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the further transportation means 1900.

[0145] In a preferred aspect of the 56'1' embodiment of the invention, at least one, more preferably all, of the following is an electrical component according to the invention, and even more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39'1' to 40thembodiments of the invention: the first electrical component, the further electrical component.

[0146] A 57thembodiment of the invention is a fourth assembly 2000, comprising: a. one or more memory units 2001 adapted and arranged to store instructions and / or data; b. one or more processors 2002 that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication with the one or more memory units 2001, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 2001 and / or to perform operations; c. at least one electrical component 2003, wherein the at least one electrical component 2003 i. comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38thembodiments of the invention, ii. is preferably an opto-electronic component, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector; wherein the fourth assembly is preferably adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and / or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

[0147] In a preferred aspect of the 57'1' embodiment of the invention, the at least one electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0148] A 58* embodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 43rdembodiment of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: communication, telecommunication, high-performance computing, for use in a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip.

[0149] A 59'1' embodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 43rdembodiment of the invention, in at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence applications and / or machine learning applications, an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application, a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, a robotic system, an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing, a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module, an optical connection module, a transportation means.

[0150] A 60* embodiment of the invention is a use of a fourth assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 57'1' embodiment of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and / or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

[0151] A 61stembodiment of the invention is a use of an electrical component comprising at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38* embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: a. communication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. telecommunication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. high-performance computing, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j . a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. optical computing, preferably an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and / or machine learning.

[0152] In the 61stembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention. In a preferred aspect of the 61stembodiment of the invention, the electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0153] A 62ndembodiment of the invention is a use of an electrical component comprising at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37thto 38* embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and / or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and / or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and / or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j. an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and / or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and / or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud.

[0154] In the 62ndembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention. In a preferred aspect of the 62ndembodiment of the invention, the electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0155] A 63rdembodiment of the invention is an item comprising an electrical component, wherein the electric component comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38* embodiments of the invention, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j. a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and / or machine learning.

[0156] In the 63rdembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention. In a preferred aspect of the 63rdembodiment of the invention, the electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0157] A 64|J 1embodiment of the invention is an item comprising an electrical component, wherein the electric component comprises at least one graphene layer according to the invention, preferably at least one graphene layer according to any of the 37'1' to 38* embodiments of the invention, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and / or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and / or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and / or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j. an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and / or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and / or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud.

[0158] In the 64|J|embodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention. In a preferred aspect of the 64|J 1embodiment of the invention, the electrical component is an electrical component according to the invention, more preferably an electrical component according to any of the 39thto 40* embodiments of the invention.

[0159] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0160] Throughout this document, disclosures of ranges should preferably be understood to include both end points of the range. Furthermore, each disclosure of a range in the document should preferably be understood as also disclosing preferred sub-ranges in which one end point is excluded or both end points are excluded. For example, a disclosure of a range from A', to A / is to be understood as disclosing a range that includes both of the end points A', and A\ Furthermore, it is to be understood as also disclosing a range that includes the end point A', but excludes the end point A , a range that excludes the end point A', but includes the end point A , and a range that excludes both end points AQ and AG.

[0161] Some preferred embodiments and preferred aspects have various combinations of features as alternatives. Where the various combinations are disclosed, these combinations are separated by a semi-colon For example, the list “a; a+b; a+c+d” should be understood to disclose a preferred embodiment that comprises the feature “a”, an alternative of the preferred embodiment that comprises the features “a” and “b”, and a further alternative of the preferred embodiment that comprises the features “a”, “c”, and “d”.

[0162] Throughout this document, ranges and multiple preferred ranges are disclosed for a number of features. Any of the ranges of one feature may be combined with any of the ranges of another feature.

[0163] Throughout this document, the wording “first”, “second”, “third”, “further” and “even-further” is used to distinguish features from each other and should preferably not be understood to indicate the number of features present in a component (e.g., the first layer). For example, in the 17'1' embodiment of the invention, the first section of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane. Here the wording “second” should preferably not be understood to indicate that said first section also has an orientation that lies in a “first” crystal plane. Rather, the wording “second” is used to distinguish the second crystal plane of the further layered structure from the first crystal plane of the first layered structure. The above also applies to, e.g., angles (such as the first angle and the second angle).

[0164] Features described as preferred in one category of the invention, for example the first layered structure, are analogously preferred in embodiments of the other categories according to the invention, such as the methods and the uses.

[0165] Lavers

[0166] Examples of “a layer' ’ are a first layer, a further layer, and a graphene layer. Therefore, throughout this document, where reference is made to a layer without any qualification (examples of a qualification include “first”, “further”, “graphene”), this should preferably be understood as disclosing at least one or all of the following: a first layer, a further layer, a graphene layer. For example, if it is disclosed that a layer may be deposited using chemical vapour deposition, this should preferably be understood as disclosing that at least one or all of the following may be deposited using chemical vapour deposition: a first layer, a further layer, a graphene layer.

[0167] Throughout this document, “layer X”, “layer Y”, and “layer Z” are used to distinguish between different layers in a given context. Examples of the layers X, Y, and Z include a first layer, a further layer, and a graphene layer. For example, if it is disclosed that layer Y is superimposed on layer X, this should be understood to disclose, inter alia, the following: a first layer superimposed on a further layer; a graphene layer superimposed on a first layer. Note that, e.g., a layer X may represent a given layer in a first context, and a different layer in another context.

[0168] First layer

[0169] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 50 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane, wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of - 5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 50 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure.

[0170] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 70 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane, wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of - 5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 70 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure. In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 85 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane, wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of - 5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 85 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure.

[0171] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 95 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane, wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of - 5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 90 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure.

[0172] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 50 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane, wherein a second angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 50 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the further layered structure.

[0173] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 70 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane, wherein a second angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 70 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the further layered structure.

[0174] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 85 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane, wherein a second angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 85 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the further layered structure. In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 95 vol-% of the first layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a second crystal plane, wherein a second angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the first layer has a first section that makes up at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the first layer. This aspect is particularly preferred for the further layered structure.

[0175] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the first layer comprises a first alloy, wherein the first alloy comprises copper and nickel. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first alloy comprises in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-%, preferably in the range of 67 wt-% to 93 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 72 wt-% to 88 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 77 wt-% to 83 wt-% copper, and in the range of 1 wt-% to 40 wt-% nickel. The wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer. It is particularly preferred that this aspect applies to the first layered structure.

[0176] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the first layer comprises a first alloy, wherein the first alloy comprises copper and nickel. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first alloy comprises in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-%, preferably in the range of 67 wt-% to 93 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 72 wt-% to 88 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 77 wt-% to 83 wt-% copper, and in the range of 7 wt-% to 33 wt-% nickel. The wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer. It is particularly preferred that this aspect applies to the first layered structure.

[0177] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the first layer comprises a first alloy, wherein the first alloy comprises copper and nickel. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first alloy comprises in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-%, preferably in the range of 67 wt-% to 93 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 72 wt-% to 88 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 77 wt-% to 83 wt-% copper, and in the range of 12 wt-% to 28 wt-% nickel. The wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer. It is particularly preferred that this aspect applies to the first layered structure.

[0178] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the first layer comprises a first alloy, wherein the first alloy comprises copper and nickel. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first alloy comprises in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-%, preferably in the range of 67 wt-% to 93 wt-%, more preferably in the range of 72 wt-% to 88 wt-%, and further preferably in the range of 77 wt-% to 83 wt-% copper, and in the range of 17 wt-% to 23 wt-% nickel. The wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer. It is particularly preferred that this aspect applies to the first layered structure. Further layer

[0179] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 50 vol-% of the further layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the further layer has a further section that makes up at least 50 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. This preferred aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure. This preferred aspect is also a preferred aspect, mutatis mutandis, of the third angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane of the further layered structure.

[0180] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 70 vol-% of the further layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the further layer has a further section that makes up at least 70 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. This preferred aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure. This preferred aspect is also a preferred aspect, mutatis mutandis, of the third angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane of the further layered structure.

[0181] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 85 vol-% of the further layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the further layer has a further section that makes up at least 85 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. This preferred aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure. This preferred aspect is also a preferred aspect, mutatis mutandis, of the third angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane of the further layered structure.

[0182] In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least 95 vol-% of the further layer has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°, preferably in the range of -12° to 12°, more preferably in the range of -8° to 8°, further preferably in the range of -5° to 5°, and even further preferably in the range of -4° to 4°. This aspect should preferably be understood that the further layer has a further section that makes up at least 95 vol-% of the total volume of the further layer. This preferred aspect is particularly preferred for the first layered structure. This preferred aspect is also a preferred aspect, mutatis mutandis, of the third angle between the third crystal plane and the (OOOl)-plane of the further layered structure. In a preferred aspect of the invention, the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one further alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, at least one element from group III of the periodic table, at least one element from group IV of the periodic table, at least one element from group V of the periodic table, a combination of two or more thereof. In this aspect, preferred elements from group 14 of the periodic table are germanium and silicon. In this aspect, a chemical compound comprising at least two elements from group 14 of the periodic table, such as silicon carbide, are also preferred.

[0183] In a preferred aspect of the invention, the further layer comprises at least one chemical compound comprising at least one element from group III of the periodic table and at least one element from group V of the periodic table. Such a chemical compound is defined as a III-V chemical compound. Examples of a III-V chemical compound include aluminium antimonide, aluminium arsenide, aluminium gallium arsenide, aluminium gallium indium phosphide, aluminium gallium nitride, aluminium gallium phosphide, aluminium indium arsenide, aluminium nitride, aluminium phosphide, boron arsenide, boron nitride, boron phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide phosphide, gallium indium arsenide antimonide phosphide, gallium nitride, gallium phosphide, indium aluminium nitride, indium antimonide, indium arsenide, indium arsenide antimonide phosphide, indium gallium aluminium nitride, indium gallium arsenide, indium gallium arsenide phosphide, indium gallium nitride, indium gallium phosphide, indium nitride, and indium phosphide.

[0184] In a preferred aspect of the invention, the further layer is adapted and arranged to impose a crystal orientation on the first layer. This should preferably be understood to mean that when the first layer is superimposed on the further layer, the crystal orientation of the further layer at least partially determines the crystal orientation of the first layer. For example, when a first layer that comprise Cu-Ni is deposited, using molecular beam epitaxy, on a further layer that comprises MgO, the crystal orientation of the first layer is determined by the crystal orientation of the further layer.

[0185] Graphene layer

[0186] A preferred graphene layer has average room-temperature carrier mobilities of at least 3000 emW, preferably at least 10000 cm2 / V, more preferably at least 25000 cm2 / V, and further preferably at least 40000 cm2 / V, for a carrier density of 1012cm2.

[0187] A fold in a graphene layer should preferably be understood as a section of the graphene layer that is bent over on itself such that one part of the section covers another part of the section. A wrinkle in a graphene layer should preferably be understood as a section of the graphene layer that forms a ridge. Superimposed

[0188] If a layer Y (e.g., a first layer, a graphene layer) is superimposed on a layer X (e.g., a further layer, a first layer), this should preferably be understood to mean that the layer Y at least partially covers a surface of the layer X. However, this should not be understood to mean that 100 % of a surface area of the layer X is necessarily covered by the layer Y. E.g., if layer Y is superimposed on a surface of layer X, then layer Y may cover 100 % of the surface area of a surface of layer X, or layer Y may cover less than 100 % of the surface area of a surface of layer X.

[0189] If a layer Y is superimposed on a layer X, then the layers Y and X may touch each other. However, if a layer Y is superimposed on a layer X, this should not be understood to mean that the layers X and Y necessarily have to touch each other. E.g., the layer Y is superimposed on the layer X, wherein a layer Z is arranged between the layers X and Y, i. e. , the layers X and Y both touch the layer Z, but the layers X and Y do not touch each other. E.g. , the layer Y is superimposed on the layer X, and the layers X and Y touch other.

[0190] Crystal plane

[0191] A lattice plane, as used in this document, should preferably be understood as a lattice plane in crystal Bravais lattices. A preferred first layer can be described by a cubic Bravais lattice.

[0192] Miller indices should preferably be understood as a notation system in crystallography for lattice planes in crystal Bravais lattices. Generally, a family of lattice planes of a given Bravais lattice is determined by three integers h, k, and , which are known as the Miller indices. Miller indices are preferably written as (h, k, E). Examples of materials that can be described with the Miller indices (h, k, €) include a copper-nickel alloy and magnesium oxide.

[0193] For materials that can be described using hexagonal and / or rhombohedral Bravais lattices, it is preferred to use the Miller indices (h, k, i, E). An example of a material that can be described with the Miller indices (h, k, i, E) is oc- A12O3. An example of a material that comprises a-Al2O3is sapphire.

[0194] Single crystal structure

[0195] If a section of a layer has a single crystal structure, this should preferably be understood as the section of the layer having no grain boundaries. For example, the structure of the crystal lattice is continuous and unbroken.

[0196] Deposition

[0197] Various chemical vapour deposition (CVD) methods for depositing a layer (e.g., a first layer, a further layer, a graphene layer) are well known in the art. Any CVD method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These CVD methods include, but are not limited to, atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), low-pressure CVD (LPCVD), ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHCVD), plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), atomic -layer deposition (ALD), and metalorganic CVD (MOCVD).

[0198] Various physical vapour deposition (PVD) methods for depositing a layer (e.g., a first layer, a further layer, a graphene layer) are well known in the art. Any PVD method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These PVD methods include, but are not limited to, sputtering deposition methods, evaporation deposition methods, and pulsed laser deposition. Evaporation deposition methods pertain to the evaporation and condensation of a chemical substance on, e.g., a layer. Suitable sputtering deposition methods include, but are not limited to, high-power impulse magnetron sputtering, high-target-utilisation sputtering, ion beam sputtering, reactive sputtering, ion-assisted deposition, and gas flow sputtering.

[0199] In a preferred aspect of the invention, a layer (e.g., a first layer, a graphene layer) is deposited via epitaxy, more preferably via molecular beam epitaxy.

[0200] Any first layer that the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention may be used. First layers are well- known to the skilled person and are commercially available from a number of vendors, such as Goodfellow Cambridge Ltd (England). A first layer may also be obtained using any method that the skilled person deems suitable for depositing the first layer.

[0201] For example, sputtering, such as de magnetron sputtering, may be used to obtain a first layer comprising a coppernickel alloy, using sputter targets that have the desired ratio of copper and nickel. Suitable sputter targets are well- known to the skilled person and are commercially available from a number of vendors, e.g., FHR Anlagenbau GmbH (Germany) and EVOCHEM Advanced Materials GmbH (Germany). A preferred sputter target has a purity of 99.999%. Sputtering methods used for depositing a layer comprising copper may also be used for depositing a first layer comprising a copper-nickel alloy by employing suitable sputter targets that have the desired ratio of copper and nickel.

[0202] Obtaining a first layer is also described in various literature sources, such as K. Verguts et al. (2016), “Epitaxial A1203(0001) / Cu(l l l) Template Development for CVD Graphene Growth”, J. Phys. Chem. C, vol. 120, no. 1, pp. 297-304, and G. C. A. M. Janssen et al. (2020), “Single-crystal copper films on sapphire”, Thin Solid Films, vol. 709. The methods as described in Verguts et al. and Janssen et al. may also be used for, e.g., a first layer comprising a copper-nickel alloy, by employing sputter targets comprising copper and nickel (e.g., as described above) and a further layer with a suitable crystal orientation.

[0203] Any further layer that the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention may be used. Further layers are well-known to the skilled person and are commercially available from a number of vendors, such as MaTecK - Material-Technologie & Kristalle GmbH (Germany) and SurfaceNet GmbH (Germany). If a further layer comprising sapphire is used, it is preferred to anneal the sapphire preferably at 1100 °C, preferably in an O2atmosphere, preferably at atmospheric pressure, and preferably for 24 hours, prior to superimposing the first layer.

[0204] In a preferred aspect of the invention, if the first layer has been superimposed on a further layer, the layered structure (e.g., the first layered structure, the further layered structure) is subjected to one or more post-processing steps. An example of such a post-processing step is the annealing of the layered structure (comprising, e.g., a copper-nickel alloy deposited on a magnesium oxide substrate, or a copper-nickel alloy deposited on a sapphire substrate), preferably in a CVD system. The annealing is preferably performed under a reduced pressure of 90 mbar. The annealing is preferably performed at a temperature of 1000 °C. The layered structure is preferably heated with a heating rate of 10 °C / min, up to, e.g., 1000 °C. It is preferred to anneal the layered structure for 15 min (e.g., 15 min at 1000 °C). Annealing is preferably performed in a 960:40: 10 seem Ar:H2:CH4atmosphere. Following the annealing, it is preferred to cool the layered structure to room temperature, preferably at a rate of 10 °C / min.

[0205] The obtaining of the graphene layer should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: the obtaining of the graphene layer on the layered structure, the removal of the graphene layer from the layered structure, or both. A graphene layer is preferably obtained on the layered structure by depositing the graphene layer on the layered structure. In this aspect, it is preferred that the graphene layer is deposited by growing the graphene layer on the layered structure. A graphene layer is preferably removed from the layered structure by a transfer method (also referred to as a delamination method).

[0206] Carbon precursor

[0207] A gaseous carbon precursor should preferably be understood as a carbon precursor in the form of a gas. A preferred carbon precursor is an organic compound.

[0208] Intercalation and removal of graphene layer

[0209] Various methods for the intercalation of a graphene layer superimposed on a layered structure are well known in the art. Any intercalation method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used.

[0210] Various methods, for the at least partial removal (transfer) of a graphene layer from the layered structure, are well known in the art. Any removal method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. Examples of removal methods include mechanical delamination, electrochemical delamination, or a combination thereof.

[0211] Mechanical delamination methods suitable for the invention are well-known to the skilled person. Examples of a mechanical delamination methods include using polyvinyl alcohol or polymethyl methacrylate films to delaminate the graphene from the layered structure. Example of a mechanical delamination method includes wet transfer, quasidry transfer, and dry transfer. A wet transfer method and / or a quasi-dry transfer method preferably uses an etchant to remove the layered structure.

[0212] Electrochemical delamination methods (also referred to as electrochemical transfer methods) suitable for the invention are also well-known to the skilled person. An example of an electrochemical delamination method is described in Verguts et al., Graphene delamination using ‘electrochemical methods ’: an ion intercalation effect, Nanoscale, 2018, 10, 5515. A further example of electrochemical delamination is bubble transfer.

[0213] Waveguide

[0214] A suitable waveguide includes, but is not limited to, strip waveguides, rib waveguides, slot waveguides, buried waveguides, and diffused waveguides.

[0215] A preferred waveguide comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of combinations of the aforementioned materials include titanium dioxide, aluminium nitride, tantalum pentoxide, silicon nitride, aluminium oxide, silicon oxynitride, lithium niobate, silica, indium phosphide, gallium arsenide, indium gallium arsenide, barium titanate, and aluminium gallium arsenide. A preferred chalcogenide is a dichalcogenide, more preferably a transition metal dichalcogenide.

[0216] A preferred waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves, more preferably electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 1000 to 2700 nm, even more preferably from 1100 to 2600 nm, and further preferably from 1200 to 2500 nm. A more preferred waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in at least one or all of the following ranges: 1260 to 1360 nm (also known as the Original Band or O-Band), 1360 tol460 nm (also known as the Extend Band or E- Band), 1460 tol530 nm (also known as the Short Band or S-Band), 1530 to 1565 nm (also known as the Conventional Band or C-Band), and 1565 to 1625 nm (also known as the Long Band or L-Band). In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that a waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the O-band, the C-band, or both.

[0217] When it is disclosed that a waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in a specified wavelength range, this should not be understood to mean that the waveguide is necessarily only adapted for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in that specified wavelength range. Rather, it should preferably be understood to mean that the waveguide is at least adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the specified wavelength range. Opto-electronic component and modification

[0218] A preferred opto-electronic component is adapted and arranged to modify an electromagnetic wave propagating in a waveguide. Examples of preferred opto-electronic components include modulators, photodetectors (also spelled photo-detectors), and interferometers. More preferred examples are modulators and photodetectors. A preferred modulator at least partially converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. A preferred photodetector at least partially converts an optical signal to an electrical signal. An opto-electronic component may also be referred to as an opto-electronic device.

[0219] Modification of an electromagnetic wave should preferably be understood as the modification of one or more properties of an electromagnetic wave. Examples of these properties include amplitude, phase, frequency, and polarisation.

[0220] A modulator preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by modulating the electromagnetic wave, more preferably by modulating an amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the modulator modulates the electromagnetic wave for the sending of data, more preferably by imposing a signal on the electromagnetic wave.

[0221] A photodetector preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by at least partially absorbing the electromagnetic wave. The at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave preferably leads to a decrease in the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the photodetector at least partially absorbs the electromagnetic wave for the receiving of data.

[0222] For example, if a modulator and a photodetector are in optical connection, the modulator sends data and the photodetector receives the data, e.g., data is transmitted between the modulator and photodetector.

[0223] An opto-electronic component preferably has a height that is at least 10 nm, more preferably at least 100 nm, and further preferably at least 200 nm. For example, an opto-electronic component may have a height in the range from 300 to 400 nm. A preferred opto-electronic component has a height that is equal to or less than 50 pm, preferably equal to or less than 20 pm, and more preferably equal to or less than 10 pm.

[0224] A preferred opto-electronic component comprises at least one layer of graphene. Opto-electronic components (such as modulators and photodetectors) using graphene are well-known to the skilled person.

[0225] Electrical component An electrical component may comprise one or more further electrical components. In turn, these one or more further electrical components may comprise one or more other electrical components. For example, a sensor may comprise a chip, that in turn comprises a transistor.

[0226] Examples of an electrical component include a semiconductor component (e.g, a transistor, a graphene based field effect transistor, a radio frequency graphene based field effect transistor); an opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photo-detector, a broad spectrum photo-detector, a single photon photo-detectors); a waveguide; a heating component (e.g., a graphene heater); a measuring component (e.g, a device comprising a hall bar); a sensor (e.g., a pressure sensor, a gas sensor, a magnetic sensor, an ion sensor); an accelerometer; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, and / or a combination of at least two thereof; quantum dots; a microwave circuit; an antenna (e.g., a THz antenna); a chip; a die; a combination of at least two thereof.

[0227] Optical connection

[0228] Two components that are in optical connection should preferably be understood to mean that said two components are adapted and arranged for a propagation (e.g., transmission) of electromagnetic waves between said two components. Here the two components can be, e.g., a light emitting means and an opto-electronic component, two optoelectronic components (e.g., a modulator and a photodetector). Two components that are in optical connection are preferably adapted and arranged for the communication (e.g., transfer) of data between the two components, however, this is not a requirement. Two components that are in optical connection are not required to be in, e.g., the same assembly, the same sub-assembly, the same apparatus, the same system, but can be in e.g., different assemblies, different sub-assemblies, different apparatuses, different system s.

[0229] A modulator that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with a photodetector is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal between the modulator and the photodetector, more preferably transmit data via an optical signal from the modulator to the photodetector.

[0230] Electrical connection

[0231] Two components that are in electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that an electrical current can flow between the two components. Here the two components can be, e.g., an integrated circuit and an electrical component, an integrated circuit and an opto-electronic component, an integrated circuit and a sensing means. An electrical connection is preferably adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: data communication, to provide power to a component.

[0232] Integrated circuit Examples of a preferred integrated circuit include the following: a processing unit, a memory unit, an applicationspecific integrated circuit, a microcontroller, a field-programmable gate array, and a system-on-chip.

[0233] A processing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to execute instructions of a computer program. Examples of these instructions include arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input / output operations. A memory unit is preferably adapted and arranged to store instructions of a computer program.

[0234] Examples of a processing unit include a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), an X- processing unit (XPU), a tensor processing unit (TPU), a neuromorphic processing unit (NPU). Examples of a memory unit include random access memory (RAM), static RAM (SRAM), synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), graphics DDR SDRAM (GDDR SDRAM), flash memory, magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM), magnetic tunnel junction MRAM, and spin-orbit torque MRAM.

[0235] Examples of a data storage means is a hard drive and a flash drive.

[0236] Data communication

[0237] Two components that are in data communication should preferably be understood to mean that data can be communicated between said two components. Here the two components can be, e.g., two opto-electronic components, an integrated circuit and an opto-electronic component, a sensing means and an opto-electronic component, an integrated circuit and a sensing means. The data may be communicated using electrical signals, optical signals, or both. Data that is communicated between a first component and a further component includes at least one or all of the following: A.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the first component to the further component, B.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the further component to the first component, both A.] and B.]. For example, the first and further components are a modulator and a photodetector, respectively.

[0238] Light emitting means

[0239] A light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit electromagnetic waves. For example, a light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit radio waves, microwaves, or optical waves. A preferred light emitting means is adapted and arranged to facilitate at least one or all of the following: communication, sensing, imaging. An example of a light emitting means is a laser.

[0240] Light and photonics

[0241] The terms “optical” and “light”, as used herein, should preferably be understood as electromagnetic radiation, more preferably electromagnetic radiation in any of the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet spectral ranges. An example of an optical signal is a signal and / or data that is communicated using electromagnetic waves. Optical data should preferably be understood as data that is communicated using electromagnetic waves. Photonics should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: generation, detection, manipulation, emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing of electromagnetic waves.

[0242] Artificial intelligence and machine learning

[0243] Artificial intelligence (Al) should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and / or generating information using computerised tools and / or techniques (e.g., machine learning models). Machine learning includes supervised learning (e.g., linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines), unsupervised learning (e.g., hierarchical clustering, k-means clustering), and reinforced learning. Machine learning also includes deep learning, such as convolutional neural networks and recurrent neural networks.

[0244] Sensing means

[0245] A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to sense (e.g., measure) at least one or all of the following: sound waves, electromagnetic waves, electrical signals, a movement, a temperature, a speed, an acceleration, a rotation. For example, a movement, a speed, an acceleration and / or a rotation may be of a mammalian body, a vehicle, a robotic body, a transportation means. It is particularly preferred that a sensing means is adapted and arranged to at least partially absorb electromagnetic waves. A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to generate an electrical signal, an optical signal, or both, wherein a signal generated is preferably based on an input received by the sensing means. Examples of such input include a measurement and / or the at least partial absorption of an electromagnetic wave.

[0246] A sensing means may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors.

[0247] Sensing unit

[0248] A sensing unit comprises a sensing means. A sensing unit preferably comprises an integrated circuit.

[0249] A sensing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process data of a target area obtained by the sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, temperature measurements, and / or other sensor readings. The output of a sensing unit is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and / or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as a health of a patient, item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and / or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and / or keypoints), and / or pattern recognition output.

[0250] Spatial information should preferably be understood as information about a space wherein an entity, such as a vehicle, a robotic body, and / or a transportation means, is located. Spatial information may include information on a presence of an item in the vicinity of the entity (e.g., a distance between the element and the item), a speed of the entity, an acceleration of the entity, and / or a rotation of the entity.

[0251] Data communication module

[0252] A data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more components, such as electrical components. Here the electrical components may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, and an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system.

[0253] First assembly

[0254] In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same chip. In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of different chips. In this aspect, the different chips may have different functions. For example, a first chip may be a processing unit, and a further chip may be a memory unit (e.g., random access memory). In one preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same computational means (such as a computer). In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further subassembly are part of different computational means (such as different computers). For example, the first and further sub-assemblies are part of different computers in a computer cluster.

[0255] In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies, via an optical signal, over a distance of at least X mm and / or at least Y cm. This should preferably not be understood to mean that said sub-assemblies cannot communicate data at distances that are smaller than X mm and / or Y cm. Rather, this should preferably be understood mean that said sub-assemblies can communicate data over distances that range from 0 mm up to at least X mm and / or up to at least Y cm, and preferably distances that are larger than A' mm and / or larger than Y cm.

[0256] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of less than 10 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one further communication means and at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection.

[0257] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of at least 10 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one further communication means and at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection.

[0258] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for high-performance computing preferably comprises at least one supercomputer and / or at least one computer cluster. A supercomputer should preferably be understood as a computer that can perform at least 1014floating-point operations per second. An assembly for high-performance computing is preferably adapted and arranged for parallel computing.

[0259] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for a data centre is preferably adapted and arranged to store data, and more preferably, to communicate data.

[0260] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence is preferably an assembly that can be used to obtain artificial intelligence models, more preferably to obtain machine learning models, using e.g., supervised learning, semi-supervised learning, and unsupervised learning.

[0261] A switch is preferably adapted and arranged for, e.g., optically connecting two networks and / or optically connecting a computational means (such as a computer) and a network.

[0262] An optical interconnect is preferably adapted and arranged for optically connecting at least one or all of the following: two integrated circuits, two computer chips. Here the two integrated circuits and / or two computer chips may be parts of a system-in-package or a chiplet. Here the two integrated circuits may be part of the same chip.

[0263] A first assembly according to the invention allows for an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption. A first assembly also allows for a communication of data over increased distances, while simultaneously allowing for at least one of all of the following: a reduced energy consumption, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio. Optical data communication module

[0264] An optical data communication module should preferably be understood as a data communication module that communicates data via optical signals. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal using at least one opto-electronic component. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to send data via an optical signal using a modulator. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to receive data via an optical signal using a photodetector.

[0265] An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more components, such as electrical components. Here the electrical components may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system.

[0266] An optical data communication module may comprise at least one or all of the following: an optical fibre, an optical interconnect.

[0267] An optical data communication module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, reduced energy consumption, and a reduced error rate in the data communicated.

[0268] Electromagnetic waves from target area

[0269] Further electromagnetic waves detected by a sensing means and / or sensing unit from a target area include, amongst other, electromagnetic waves reflected by an item in the target area, and / or electromagnetic waves emitted by an item in the target area.

[0270] Optical sensing module

[0271] An optical sensing module may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors: photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors.

[0272] Examples of optics include lenses, prisms, and diffraction gratings.

[0273] An example of an optical sensing module is disclosed in WO2023076132 Al. An optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for improved sensing capabilities and performance. Specifically, the optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for enhanced sensitivity, improved signal-to-noise ratio, reduced crosstalk and reduced energy consumption, allowing for an improved performance and versatility in various sensing applications.

[0274] Apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application

[0275] A medical application should preferably be understood as including at least one or all of the following: monitoring a health of a patient, diagnosing a pathological condition in a patient; maintaining a state of health of a patient; sending and / or receiving data from a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; controlling a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application. Here a patient is preferably a mammal, and more preferably a human. The apparatus may be implantable in a patient (internal use) and / or may be for use outside a body of a patient.

[0276] Examples of a physical property of a body include an oxygen concentration (e.g., of blood, tissue), a temperature of the body, a heart rate of the body, a blood glucose level. Examples of a sensing means adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body include a blood glucose monitor, a heart rate monitor, a thermometer, an oximeter.

[0277] The apparatus is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal by using at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. The apparatus preferably comprises one or more integrated circuits, more preferably one or more integrated circuits adapted and arranged to control the at least one opto-electronic component.

[0278] An apparatus, adapted and arranged for a medical application, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved patient safety, an improved monitoring of the health of a patient and an improved diagnosing of a pathological condition in a patient. An apparatus according to the invention also allows for an improved sensitivity, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption.

[0279] Vehicle adapted and arranged for flight

[0280] A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal by using at least one opto-electronic component, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Here the communication of data may be a communication of data within the vehicle, between the vehicle and another entity (e.g., another vehicle, a ground station), or both. It is particularly preferred that the communication of data is within the vehicle, e.g., between a sensing unit and an integrated circuit in the vehicle. Flight should preferably be understood to include both controlled flight and uncontrolled flight. Here controlled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle can be controlled by, e.g., a human operator and / or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, an airplane is adapted and arranged for controlled flight by a human and / or an autopilot. Here the vehicle may be controlled remotely. Uncontrolled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle is generally not controlled by, e.g., a human operator and / or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, a weather balloon is generally adapted and arranged for uncontrolled flight. Flight should preferably be understood to include flight in the atmosphere, as well as above the atmosphere. Flight should preferably be understood to include an orbit of the vehicle, e.g., around the Earth.

[0281] Examples of a propulsion means include an engine, jet propulsion, burners of a hot-air balloon, an envelope of a hot-air balloon, a balloon. Here engines include, but are not limited to, jet engines and turbine engines.

[0282] An example of a means for generating lift is wings.

[0283] A control system preferably comprises a control means and / or a control module. Examples of a control means include a rudder, an elevator, and an aileron. Example of a control module is an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to control a movement of a control means.

[0284] A vehicle adapted and arranged for flight may be used for commercial and / or defence purposes.

[0285] A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved safety of the vehicle, including passengers in the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle when operated remotely, and an improved communication with the vehicle (e.g., including a tracking of the vehicle, a faster data transfer rate, less dismption when communication with the vehicle).

[0286] Robotic system

[0287] A term robotic system should preferably be understood to comprise a robotic body that is designed to perform tasks autonomously and / or under remote control. In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system is adapted and arranged for an autonomous movement of the robotic body.

[0288] A robotic system may be used for commercial and / or defence purposes. For example, a robot system can comprise an industrial robot, a service robot, a personal and domestic robot, an educational robot, a research robot, an entertainment robot. A robotic body may be a robotic arm. Robotic arms typically comprise multiple segments connected by joints, resembling a human arm. In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module. In this aspect, it is particularly preferred that the data communication module is arranged in the robotic body. In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the data communication module are arranged in the robotic body, while other submodules of the data communication module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body). In this aspect, it is preferred that the data communication module is adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: data communication in the robotic body (more preferred), data communication between the robotic body and an external entity. An example of the communicating of data in the robotic body is the transfer of data between different parts of the robotic body (e.g., between different computer chips located in the robotic body). An example of the communicating of data between the robotic body and an external entity is the transfer of data between the robotic body and a computer that is located outside the robotic body.

[0289] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a sensing unit. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

[0290] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a control module. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the control module are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the control module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

[0291] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, at least one or all of the following forms part of the robotic body: a data communication module, the sensing unit, the control module. In an alternatively preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body does not comprise the data communication module, the sensing unit, or the control module.

[0292] The robotic system according to the present invention allows for improved reliability of the robotic system, improved communication (e.g., data transfer rate) in the robotic system, improved safety, increased versatility of the robotic system, and a reduced energy usage of the robotic system. Second assembly

[0293] A second assembly is preferably adapted and arranged for optical computing. A second assembly as used herein should preferably be understood as a computational architecture that uses the principles of optics and photonics for at least one or all of the following: data processing, data transmission, data storage.

[0294] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, the at least one or more memory units is at least one or more optical memory units and the at least one of more processors is at least one or more optical processors.

[0295] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a memory unit comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a processor comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector.

[0296] An optical processor preferably comprises at least one or all of the following: an optical switch, an optical transistor. Examples of optical processor include photonic integrated circuits (PICs), Fourier optical processors, optical neural networks (ONNs), all-optical switches, and quantum optical processors.

[0297] Examples of an optical memory unit include holographic memory, photorefractive crystals, optical RAM (ORAM), phase change materials and optical fibre delay lines.

[0298] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector) is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one processor, the at least one memory unit, the data communications module. If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the at least one processer and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one processor and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two at least one opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the at least one processer and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one processor and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two at least one opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the data communication module and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the data communication module and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the at least one processer, the at least one memory unit, and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one processor, at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in at least one memory unit, and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least three opto-electronic components).

[0299] The second assembly according to the invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, and an improved resistance to electromagnetic interference.

[0300] Optical computing is described in, e.g., WO2023145206 Al and WO2021245701 Al.

[0301] Third assembly

[0302] Homomorphic encryption should preferably be understood as a form of encryption that allows mathematical operations to be performed on encrypted data without decrypting said data first. E.g., it enables computations to be carried out directly on ciphertext, yielding an encrypted result that, when decrypted, corresponds to the result of the operations performed on the unencrypted data. Photonic homomorphic encryption should preferably be understood as an encryption technique that combines principles of both photonics and homomorphic encryption to enable computations on encrypted data using optical signals. In photonic homomorphic encryption, encryption and / or decryption are performed using photonic components and techniques, while homomorphic properties are preserved to allow computations on the encrypted data without decryption. A third assembly adapted and arranged for photonic homomorphic encryption is preferably used for at least one or all of the following: secure data processing, cloud computing, secure multiparty computation, and privacy -preserving data analysis.

[0303] Examples of photonic encryption and / or decryption modules include optical phase encoders and / or decoders, optical polarization encoders and / or decoders, optical frequency encoders and / or decoders, optical chaos-based encryption and / or decryption modules, a quantum key distribution system, and an optical one-time pad system.

[0304] In a preferred aspect of the third assembly, the third assembly comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector.

[0305] In a preferred aspect of the third assembly, at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector) is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, the photonic decryption module. If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic encryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one optoelectronic component is arranged in the photonic encryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two at least one opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two at least one opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the photonic encryption module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one optoelectronic component is arranged in the photonic encryption module and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two opto-electronic components). If “at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the photonic encryption module, and at least one opto-electronic component is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least three opto-electronic components).

[0306] A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the homomorphic operation module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic encryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the photonic encryption module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic decryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the photonic decryption module.

[0307] The third assembly according to the present invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, improved resistance to electromagnetic interference, improved encryption, improved encryption and decryption speed, enhanced security, and an improved compatibility with optical networks.

[0308] Homomorphic encryption is described in, e.g., WO2022213048 Al, US20220116198 Al, US20220366059 Al, and US20240022394 Al.

[0309] Optical connection module

[0310] An optical connection module should preferably be understood as a link that utilises optical signals, typically transmitted through waveguides, optical fibres and / or free-space optical channels, to transmit data e.g., between electrical components and / or components, such as between processors, memory modules, input / output components, and networking equipment.

[0311] A transmitter is adapted and arranged to convert electrical signals received from, e.g., an electrical component and / or an integrated circuit, into optical signals. A receiver is adapted and arranged to convert optical signal into electrical signals that are transmitted to, e.g., an electrical component and / or an integrated circuit. A transceiver is adapted and arranged to both convert electrical signals into optical signals and optical signals into electrical signals.

[0312] The optical connection module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, a decreased latency, increased transmission distances, less susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, increased security, increased compactness, decreased insertion loss, and increased energy efficiency.

[0313] Optical connection modules are described in, e.g., WO2023124580 Al, WO2023122711 Al, and US20230314711 Al.

[0314] First and further transportation means

[0315] A transportation means includes a vehicle (e.g., a car, a truck), a train, an airplane, a ship, a bicycle, a drone, a satellite. Examples of autonomous movement include autonomous driving, autonomous flying, autonomous sailing, autonomous walking.

[0316] A processing module is preferably adapted and arranged for executing instructions and performing computations. A processing module preferably comprises a processing unit. In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector). In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one light emitting means.

[0317] Examples of a human-machine interface include a screen, preferably a touch screen, a device adapted and arranged to play a sound, a device adapted and arranged to emit a signal, preferably a light signal. Examples of a steering means include a steering wheel, a rudder, handlebars, ailerons. Examples of a propulsion means include a combustion engine, a jet engine, a sail, a drivetrain of a bicycle.

[0318] A sensing unit may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors.

[0319] A perception sub-module is adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process data of a target area obtained by a sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, and / or other sensor readings. The output of a perception sub-module is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and / or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and / or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and / or keypoints), and / or pattern recognition output. A generation sub-module may be used in e.g., autonomous systems. The generation sub-module is adapted and arranged to process and / or analyse the data provided by the perception module in order to, e.g., determine actions and / or responses based on predefined objectives, rules, and / or constraints. For example, the generation sub-module outputs driving commands, including trajectory planning, path selection, and control commands for steering, acceleration, and braking in autonomous vehicles. Subsequently, a control unit may execute a driving command generated by the generation sub-module and control the transportation means’ motion accordingly.

[0320] A further transportation means preferably comprises an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to be in data communication with at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector). A further transportation means preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator).

[0321] The first and further transportation means according to the present invention allow for improved safety, enhanced traffic efficiency, reduced environmental impact, increased accessibility, enhanced user experience, increased scalability, and increased adaptability.

[0322] A transportation means is described in, e.g., DE102021121918 Al.

[0323] Fourth assembly

[0324] The fourth assembly preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic component (e.g., a modulator).

[0325] Examples of artificial intelligence (Al) include perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and / or generating information using, e.g., machine learning. For example, a fourth assembly may use a combination of hardware and software to perform operation to perceive, synthesize, infer, predict, and / or generate information.

[0326] The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for a handling of increased volumes of data, faster processing speeds, reduced susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, and lower energy consumption. The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for massive parallelism (e.g., parallel computing) and high-speed data processing, such as big data analytics, neural network training, and real-time simulations.

[0327] An assembly for machine Al and machine learning is described in, e.g., US20230114847 Al, WO2018187487 Al, and US20220188155 Al. TEST METHODS

[0328] The test methods which follow were utilized within the context of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, the measurements were conducted at an ambient temperature of 23 °C, an ambient air pressure of 100 kPa (0.986 atm) and a relative air humidity of 50 %.

[0329] Crystal orientation

[0330] The crystal orientation is determined using X-ray diffraction analysis and according to the standard ISO 22278:2020(en). The single crystal structure of a layer (e.g., first layer, further layer) is also determined according to the standard ISO 22278:2020(en).

[0331] Chemical composition of layers

[0332] The chemical composition of a layer (e.g., the first layer) is determined using X-ray diffraction analysis and according to the standard ISO 3497:2000. For example, this measurement method is used to determine the wt-% of copper and / or the wt-% of nickel in a first layer thar comprises copper and nickel. X-ray diffraction analysis is suitable for determining the chemical composition of chemical elements that are present in a layer in the amount of 1 wt-% or more.

[0333] If the wt-% of a chemical element in a layer is less than 1 wt-%, then X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is used. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is performed according to the standard ISO 13424:2013(en).

[0334] Thickness of layer

[0335] A thickness of a layer is measured using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The TEM device used for the measurement is calibrated according to ISO 29301:2017.

[0336] The number of graphene layers is measured using Raman spectroscopy and according to the standard ISO / TS 21356-l:2021(en).

[0337] Surface roughness

[0338] The surface roughness Rq (also known as the root mean square average Rms) is measured using atomic force microscopy and according to the standard EN ISO 25178-6:2010-01.

[0339] Ratio of thermal expansion coefficients

[0340] The ratio of the thermal expansion coefficient of the first layer to a thermal expansion coefficient of the further layer is calculated by dividing the thermal expansion coefficient of the first layer by the thermal expansion coeffi- cient of the further layer. For this calculation, the values of the thermal expansion coefficient, as given using °C, are used.

[0341] Adhesion force

[0342] Adhesion force can be measured using atomic force microscopy according to the standard ISO 23729:2022.

[0343] Folds and wrinkles in graphene layer

[0344] A graphene layer with a size of 0.5 cm2is provided. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image is taken of the graphene layer. The surface area of the graphene layer that has folds and wrinkles can be obtained from the SEM image. The wrinkle heights are obtained using atomic force microscopy according to the standard ISO 25178.

[0345] Temperature

[0346] The temperature of the cavity is determined using a thermocouple connected to a portable digital temperature calibrator. The portable digital temperature calibrator is the model CL3515R, commercially available from MTI Corporation (USA). The thermocouple is a K type thermocouple with an alloy sheath. The thermocouple has a length of 914 mm and a sheath diameter of 6 mm. The thermocouple is also commercially available from MTI Corporation (USA). The temperature measurement is taken at a distance of 5 cm from the layered structure.

[0347] Pressure

[0348] The pressure is measured using a piezo / Pirani combination gauge with a measurement range between 5 x IO4to 1200 mbar. A suitable measurement gauge is commercially available from Thyracont Vacuum Instruments GmbH (Germany).

[0349] The invention is now illustrated by non-limiting examples and exemplifying embodiments.

[0350] FIGURES

[0351] List of figures

[0352] The figures serve to exemplify the present invention and should not be viewed as limiting the invention. Furthermore, the figures are not drawn to scale.

[0353] Fig. 1 : schematic illustration of a cross-sectional cut of a layered structure according to the invention.

[0354] Fig. 2: schematic illustration of the steps of a method for producing graphene layer.

[0355] Fig. 3 : flow diagram showing the steps of a method for producing a layered structure.

[0356] Fig. 4: flow diagram showing the steps of a method for producing a graphene layer.

[0357] Fig. 5: schematic illustration of the Miller indices used to define the crystal lattice planes. Fig. 6: schematic illustration of the angle between crystal lattice planes.

[0358] Figs 7 to 18: schematic diagrams illustrating various embodiments that comprise at least one graphene layer according to the invention.

[0359] Description of figures

[0360] Fig. 1 shows a schematic illustration of a cross-sectional cut of a layered structure (100) according to the invention. The layered structure has a first layer (101) that comprises a first metal and at least one other chemical element. The at least one other element is a further metal. The first metal and further metal are in chemically bound form to form a first alloy. For example, the first metal is copper and the further metal is nickel, thereby forming a coppernickel alloy. The first layer (101) has a first section (112) that makes up more than 99 vol-% of the first layer (101). The first section (112) has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane, wherein a first angle between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -5° to 5°. Preferably, the first crystal plane has a (168) or a (169) orientation. The first section (112) has a single crystal structure.

[0361] The layered structure also comprises a further layer (102). The first layer (101) is superimposed in the further layer (102) such that the first layer (101) and the further layer (102) touch. The further layer comprises an oxide, such as magnesium oxide. The further layer (102) also has a further section (113) that makes up more than 99 vol-% of the further layer (102). The further section (113) has a crystal orientation that lies in a further crystal plane, wherein a further angle between the further crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -5° to 5°. Preferably, the further crystal plane has a (168) or a (169) orientation. The further section (113) has a single crystal structure.

[0362] Fig. 2 shows a schematic illustration of the steps of a method (200) for producing a graphene layer. In step 201, a layered structure according to Fig. 1 is provided. In step 202, the layered structure (100) is placed in a cavity (104) of a quartz tube furnace (103). In step 203, a carbon precursor (105), in the form of methane gas, is injected into the cavity (104) and the cavity (104) is heated to a temperature of 730 °C. A single graphene layer (106) is obtained, wherein the graphene layer (106) is superimposed on the first layer (101) of the layered structure (100). The graphene layer (106) touches the first layer (101).

[0363] Fig. 3 shows a flow diagram of the steps of a method for producing a layered structure. In Step 301, a further layer is provided. In Step 302, a first layer is deposited on the further layer to obtain the layered structure (i.e., the first layer is superimposed on the further layer). The first layer is deposited using physical vapour deposition and via molecular-beam epitaxy. The first layer is deposited such that the first layer and the further layer touch. In optional step 303, the layered structure is heat treated at a temperature of 500 °C.

[0364] Fig. 4 shows a flow diagram of the steps of a method for producing a graphene layer. In Step 401, the layered structure obtained from the method in Fig. 3 is provided. In Step 402, the layered structure is placed in a cavity. In Step 403, the layered structure is heated in the presence of a gaseous carbon precursor in the cavity, thereby obtaining a graphene layer that is superimposed on the first layer of the layered structure. In optional Step 404, the layered structure, comprising the graphene layer, is removed from the cavity. The layered structure is subjected to an intercalation step. In optional Step 405, the graphene layer is removed from the layered structure using an electrochemical delamination method. In optional Step 406, the layered structure is re-used to deposit a further graphene layer on the layered structure (i.e., Steps 402 and 403 are repeated).

[0365] Fig. 5 is a schematic illustration of the Miller indices used to define the crystal lattice planes. Fig. 5 shows the layered structure (100) of Fig. 1. The Miller index (107) is arranged perpendicular to a surface (108) of the first layer (101).

[0366] Fig. 6 is a schematic illustration of how the angle between crystal lattice planes is defined. Fig. 6 shows a (168)- plane (109) and a first crystal plane (110A). A first angle (111 A) between the crystal lattice planes (109) and (110) is defined as the dihedral angle between said crystal lattice planes. The first angle (111) is measured starting from the (168)-plane (109) and moving to the first crystal plane (110). If the first angle is measured counterclockwise, then the first angle is positive. This is illustrated by the first crystal plane (110A) and the first angle (111 A). If the first angle is measured clockwise, then the first angle is negative. This is illustrated by the first crystal plane (HOB) and the first angle (11 IB).

[0367] The second angle between the second crystal plane and the (11 l)-plane is measured in the same manner as described in Fig. 6. Here the second angle is measured starting from the (11 l)-plane and moving to the second crystal plane. A further angle between a further crystal plane and, e.g., the (168)-plane is measured in the same manner as described in Fig. 6. Here the further angle is measured starting from the (168)-plane and moving to the further crystal plane. A third angle between a third crystal plane and, e.g., the (OOOl)-plane is measured in the same manner as described in Fig. 6. Here the third angle is measured starting from the (OOOl)-plane and moving to the third crystal plane. An even-further angle between the first crystal plane and the further crystal plane is measured in the same manner as described in Fig. 6. Here the even-further angle is measured starting from the first crystal plane and moving to the further crystal plane. This also applies for measuring an angle between the second crystal plane and the third crystal plane.

[0368] EXAMPLES

[0369] The invention is illustrated further by way of examples. The invention is not restricted to the examples. The set-up described below applies to all the examples. Set-up

[0370] Unless specified otherwise, the below set-up applies to all examples.

[0371] A further layer of magnesium oxide is provided. A first layer is deposited onto the further layer using physical vapour deposition to obtain a layered structure. The first layer and the further layer touch each other. The first layer has a thickness of 0.5 pm. Both a first section of the first layer and a further section of the further layer have a single crystal structure. The first section makes up at least 99 vol-% of the first layer. The further section makes up at least 99 vol-% of the further layer.

[0372] The layered structure is placed in a cavity of a quartz-tube furnace. 5 seem H2and 300 seem Ar are first allowed to flow through the cavity for 30 min at a pressure of 130 mbar (seem is standard cubic centimetres per minute). After 30 minutes, 20 seem of 0.3% ethylene, diluted in Ar, is allowed to flow through the cavity for 1 hour, thereby leading to a graphene layer being obtained on the layered structure. Once obtained, the layered structure with the graphene is rapidly cooled down at the same gas flow and pressure.

[0373] Once cooled, the layered structure is removed from the cavity. The graphene layer is removed from the layered structure using a mechanical delamination method with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The PVA used is commercially available from Sigma Aldrich. 7 g polyvinyl alcohol (8000 - 10000 MW, 80% hydrolysed) and 3 g PVA (85000 - 124000 MW, 87-89 % hydrolysed) is mixed with 40 mL deionised water and stirred at 80 °C until the PVA is fully dissolved. 0.1 ml cm2of the dissolved PVA is placed on a removable support and dried at room temperature to obtain a PVA film. The PVA film is then placed onto the graphene layer (that is superimposed on the layered structure), and heated to 120 °C. The PVA, graphene layer, and layered structure are then allowed to cool to 23 °C, with the PVA and graphene layer subsequently removed from the layered structure. The PVA can be removed from the graphene layer by placing the PVA and graphene layer in 80 °C deionised water 30 hours.

[0374] Unless specified otherwise, a “+” indicates an increase in the desired technical effect, whereas a indicates a poorer technical effect.

[0375] Example 1

[0376] In Examples 1.1 to 1.4, both the first layer and the further layer have a single crystal structure. For the deposition of the graphene layer, a temperature in the cavity of the quartz-tube furnace is shown in Table 1.

[0377] Apart from the different growth temperatures, the differences between Examples 1.1 to 1.4 are the following:

[0378] - Example 1.1: the first layer has a crystal orientation of (111) and is made from copper. The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (111). - Example 1.2: the first layer has a crystal orientation of (111) and is made from a copper-nickel alloy (75 wt-% Cu and 25 wt-% Ni, based on the weight of the first layer). The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (111).

[0379] - Example 1.3: the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168) and is made from copper. The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (168).

[0380] - Example 1.4: the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168) and is made from a copper-nickel alloy (75 wt-% Cu and 25 wt-% Ni, based on the weight of the first layer). The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (168). Table 1 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 1.1 to 1.4. In Table 1, the scale used is “■

[0381] Table 1 In Table 1, the growth temperature is chosen in order to increase the technical effects for that specific example. For example, growing a graphene layer at 730 °C in Example 1.1 leads to graphene with significantly poorer quality compared to a graphene layer grown using a temperature of 1030 °C.

[0382] The technical effects in Table 1 are as follows:

[0383] Adhesion force: the adhesion force between the graphene layer and the layered structure. It is desired to have a smaller (weaker) adhesion force.

[0384] - Effect of delamination: damage caused to the graphene layer when delaminating the graphene layer from the layered structure. It is desired to reduce the damage.

[0385] - Reuse of layered structure: once the graphene layer has been removed from the layered structure, whether the layered structure can be reused to grow further graphene layers. It is desired to reuse the layered structure.

[0386] - Presence of wrinkles: whether wrinkles are present in the graphene layer that is obtained. It is desired to reduce the number of wrinkles, preferably to have no wrinkles.

[0387] Quality of graphene: the quality of the graphene layer obtained from the examples. For example, the number of holes, wrinkles and grain boundaries in the graphene layer that is grown. It is desired to improve the quality of the graphene grown by, e.g., reducing the number of holes, wrinkles, and grain boundaries. For example, “+++” indicates better quality than “+”.

[0388] Applications of graphene layer obtained: the number of electrical components in which the obtained graphene layer can be used. A larger number of electrical components is desired.

[0389] Example 2

[0390] For Examples 2.1 to 2.4, the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168) and is made from a copper-nickel alloy (75 wt-% Cu and 25 wt-% Ni, based on the weight of the first layer). The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (168). Furthermore, both the first layer and the further layer have a single crystal structure.

[0391] For Examples 2.1 to 2.4, different temperatures are used for the cavity of the quartz-tube furnace when depositing the graphene layer. The different temperatures are shown in Table 2. In example 2, the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168).

[0392] Table 2 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 2.1 to 2.4. In Table 2, the scale used is “ - ”, Table 2

[0393] The technical effects in Table 2 are as follows:

[0394] Wrinkle formation: whether the graphene layer that is grown has wrinkles. It is desired that the number of wrinkles is reduced. It is more desired that the graphene layer has no wrinkles.

[0395] - Defect formation: the number of defects per unit area in the graphene layer. Defects include one or more atoms missing in crystal lattice of the graphene layer. It is desired that the number of defects is reduced. It is more desired that the graphene layer has no defects.

[0396] Growth rate: the rate at which the graphene layer is grown in the furnace. It is desired to increase the growth rate. An increased growth rate indicate that the time required to grow the graphene layer in the furnace is reduced. For example, “++” indicates a faster growth rate than “+”. While an increased growth rate is generally desired, if the growth rate is too fast, this leads to defects in the graphene layer. This is observed in Example 5.6. The growth rates shown in Table 2 do not negatively affect the quality of the graphene layers.

[0397] Dewetting rate: the rate at which the Cu-Ni first layer dewets, i. e., the transformation of the first layer into sets of droplets. It is desired to decrease the dewetting rate. For example, indicates a larger dewetting rate than “+”

[0398] Applications of graphene layer obtained: the number of electrical components in which the obtained graphene layer can be used. It is desired to increase the number of applications. For example, “+” indicates a larger number of applications than Results that are similar to those of Example 2.1 are found when the temperature is 650 °C or less. Results that are similar to those of Example 2.2 are found when the temperature is in the range from > 650 °C to 750 °C. Results that are similar to those of Example 2.3 are found when the temperature is in the range from > 750 °C to 900 °C. Results that are similar to those of Example 2.4 are found when the temperature is above 900 °C.

[0399] Example 3

[0400] For Examples 3.1 and 3.2, the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168) and is made from a copper-nickel alloy (75 wt-% Cu and 25 wt-% Ni, based on the weight of the first layer). The further layer also has a crystal orientation of (168). For the growing of the graphene, a temperature in the cavity of the quartz-tube furnace is 730 °C.

[0401] The differences between Examples 3.1 and 3.2, are the following:

[0402] - Example 3.1 : the first layer and the further layer do not have a single crystal structure.

[0403] - Example 3.2: both the first layer and the further layer have a single crystal structure.

[0404] Table 3 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 3.1 and 3.2. In Table 3, the scale is “ - ”,

[0405] Table 3

[0406] The technical effects in Table 3 are the same as the technical effects of Table 2, with the following additional technical effect:

[0407] Residual charge carrier fluctuations (n*): n* is determined by intrinsic defects, the doping, and the localised charge state of a graphene layer, n* is an indication of scattering in the graphene layer. A lower n* is desired. Electron mobility: a characterisation of how quickly an electron can move through the graphene layer. A larger electron mobility is desired. For example, “+” indicates a larger electron mobility than

[0408] Example 4

[0409] In Examples 4.1 to 4.9, the temperature in the cavity of the quartz-tube furnace is varied, as well as the carbon source used to obtain the graphene layer (the carbon source is in the form of gas that is allowed to flow through the cavity of the furnace). Furthermore, for Examples 4.1 to 4.9, the first layer has a crystal orientation of (168) and is made from a copper-nickel alloy (75 wt-% Cu and 25 wt-% Ni, based on the weight of the first layer).

[0410] Table 4 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 4.1 to 4.9. In Table 4, the scale is “ - ”, —

[0411] Table 4

[0412] In Table 4, temperatures of 800 °C and higher lead to the formation of wrinkles in the graphene layer.

[0413] In Table 4 the carbon sources are acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), and methane (CH4). Table 4 also shows the temperature ranges for which the results of Examples 4.1 to 4.9 apply to, i.e., similar technical effects are obtained when the temperature is selected that falls within the indicated range. For example, similar results to those of Experiment 4.1 are obtained when acetylene and a temperature that falls within the range of 300 to 600 °C is used. The technical effects in Table 4 are as follows:

[0414] - Defect formation: the number of defects per unit area in the graphene layer. Defects include one or more atoms missing in crystal lattice of the graphene layer. It is desired that the number of defects is reduced. It is more desired that the graphene layer has no defects. For example, “++” indicates less defects than “+”. - Growth rate: the rate at which the graphene layer can be grown in the furnace. It is desired to increase the growth rate. An increased growth rate indicate that the time required to grow the graphene layer in the furnace is reduced. For example, “++” indicates a faster growth rate than “+”. While an increased growth rate is generally desired, if the growth rate is too fast, this leads to defects in the graphene layer. This is observed in Example 5.6. The growth rates shown in Table 4 do not negatively affect the quality of the graphene layers.

[0415] Example 5

[0416] In Examples 5.1 to 5.6, the first layer is made from Cu and Ni, and has a crystal orientation of (168). Furthermore, in Examples 5.1 to 5.6 the wt % of Cu and Ni in the first layer is varied as shown in Table 5.

[0417] Table 5 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 5.1 to 5.6. In Table 5, the scale used is “ - ”,

[0418] Table 5

[0419] The technical effects in Table 5 are as follows:

[0420] Approx melting temp: the temperature at which the first layer melts. A higher melting temperature is desired.

[0421] C solubility at 750 °C: the solubility of C in the Ni present in the first layer. It is desired to increase the solubility. For example, “+” indicates a larger solubility than

[0422] Growth rate at 1030 °C: the rate at which the graphene layer can be grown in the furnace at a temperature of 1030 °C. It is desired to increase the growth rate. An increased growth rate indicate that the time required to grow the graphene layer in the furnace is reduced. For example, “++” indicates a faster growth rate than

[0423] Ideal growth temp range: the temperature range that leads to a maximum growth rate for the graphene layer, when using a first layer as indicated in Table 5. A smaller ideal growth temperature is preferred.

[0424] Ideal growth carbon: the carbon source, in gas form, that leads to a maximum growth rate for the graphene layer, when using a first layer as indicated in Table 5.

[0425] Growth rate using ideal growth temp range: the rate at which the graphene layer can be grown in the furnace when the temperature in the cavity falls within the ideal growth temperature range, as indicated in Table 5. It is desired to increase the growth rate. An increased growth rate indicate that the time required to grow the graphene layer in the furnace is reduced. For example, “++” indicates a faster growth rate than

[0426] The graphene obtained from Example 5.6 has many sections that has two overlapping graphene layers. This leads to very low-quality graphene. Furthermore, while an increased growth rate is generally desired, if the growth rate is too fast, this leads to defects in the graphene layer. This is observed in Example 5.6. The growth rates shown in Examples 5.1 to 5.5 do not negatively affect the quality of the graphene layers.

[0427] Example 6

[0428] In Examples 6.1 and 6.2 graphene layers are obtained according to Example 1.1. In Examples 6.3 and 6.4 graphene layers are obtained according to Example 1.3. In Examples 6.5 to 6.6 graphene layers are obtained according to Example 1.4. The graphene layers of Examples 6.1 to 6.6 are removed (delaminated) from the layered structure using the dry transfer methods shown in Table 6.1 below. The graphene layers are either removed using a polymer film or a layer of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN). Table 6.1 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 6.1 to 6.6. In Table 6.1, the scale used is “ —

[0429] Table 6.1

[0430] The technical effects in Table 6.1 are as follows:

[0431] Catalyst reusability: how often the catalyst used in the transfer method can be used. It is desired that the catalyst can be reused more often. For example, “+” indicates a catalyst that can be re-used more times than

[0432] Intercalation speed: the speed at which an intercalation layer forms between the graphene layer and the first layer of the layered structure. It is desired to increase the intercalation speed. For example, “++” indicates a larger intercalation speed than “ — ”.

[0433] Transfer speed: the speed at which the graphene layer can be transferred from the layered structure to a substrate or another layer of, e.g., an opto-electronic device. It is desired to increase the transfer speed. For example, “+++” indicates a faster transfer speed than “+”.

[0434] - Number of defects: the number of defects per unit area that are introduced into the graphene layer as a result of the transfer method. It is desired to reduce the number of defects. Defects include holes and tears in the graphene layer. For example, “+++” indicates less defects than “ — ”.

[0435] Introduced roughness: the surface roughness Rq of the graphene layer that results from the transfer method. It is desired to reduce the introduced surface roughness. For example, “++++” is better than

[0436] Introduced doping: the doping that is introduced into the graphene layer as a result of the transfer method. It is desired to reduce the introduced doping. For example, “++++” is better than

[0437] - Raman 2D FWHM: the full width at half maximum of the measurement obtained using Raman spectroscopy of the graphene layer. It is desired to reduce the Raman 2D FWHM value. Table 6.2 shows a comparison of different methods for transferring a graphene layer from the layered structure. For Examples 6.5 to 6.9 in Table 6.2, the graphene layer was obtained according to Example 1.4. Examples 6.5 and 6.6 in Table 6.1 are repeated in Table 6.2 to aid comparison of the results. Table 6.2 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 6.5 to 6.9. In Table 6.2, the scale used is “ —

[0438] Table 6.2

[0439] From Table 6.2 it follows that using a dry transfer method provides significant technical advantages over the other transfer methods shown in Table 6.2. The technical effects in Table 6.2 are the same as those of Table 6.1.

[0440] Example 7

[0441] Examples 7.1 to 7.3 are the same as Example 1.4, with the difference that the thickness of the Cu-Ni layer (the first layer) is varied as shown in Table 7.

[0442] Table 7 shows a comparison of the results obtained from Examples 7.1 to 7.3.

[0443] Table 7

[0444] The technical effects in Table 7 is as follows:

[0445] - Layer roughness: the surface roughness Rq of the first layer. It is desired to have a lower surface roughness. Dewetting rate: the rate at which the Cu-Ni first layer dewets, i. e., the transformation of the first layer into sets of droplets. It is desired to decrease the dewetting rate.

[0446] Example 8

[0447] Table 8 shows the requirements of devices that use at least one graphene layer. When a graphene layer obtained according to the invention (e.g., Example 1.4) is used in these devices, this leads to an improved meeting of the requirements, compared to using a graphene layer that has not been obtained according to the invention. Table 8

[0448] REFERENCE LIST

[0449] 100 Layered structure

[0450] 101 First layer

[0451] 102 Further layer

[0452] 103 Quarts tube furnace

[0453] 104 Cavity

[0454] 105 Carbon precursor

[0455] 106 Graphene layer

[0456] 107 Miller index

[0457] 108 Surface of first layer

[0458] 109 (168)-plane

[0459] 110 First crystal plane

[0460] 111 First angle

[0461] 112 First section

[0462] 113 Further section

[0463] 1000 First assembly

[0464] 1001 First sub-assembly

[0465] 1002 First electrical component

[0466] 1003 Second electrical component

[0467] 1004 First integrated circuit

[0468] 1005 First data storage means

[0469] 1006 First light emitting means

[0470] 1007 Further sub-assembly

[0471] 1008 Further electrical component

[0472] 1009 Even-further electrical component

[0473] 1010 Further integrated circuit

[0474] 1011 Further data storage means

[0475] 1012 Further light emitting means

[0476] 1100 Optical sensing module

[0477] 1101 First electrical component

[0478] 1102 Target area

[0479] 1103 Sensing means

[0480] 1104 Optics 1105 Integrated circuit

[0481] 1106 Light emitting means

[0482] 1200 Apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application

[0483] 1201 First electrical component

[0484] 1202 Further electrical component

[0485] 1203 First light emitting means

[0486] 1204 First integrated circuit

[0487] 1205 Sensing unit

[0488] 1300 Vehicle adapted and arranged for flight

[0489] 1301 First electrical component

[0490] 1302 First light emitting means

[0491] 1303 Further electrical component

[0492] 1304 First integrated circuit

[0493] 1305 Propulsion means

[0494] 1306 Means to generate lift

[0495] 1307 Control system

[0496] 1308 Sensing unit

[0497] 1400 Robotic system

[0498] 1401 First electrical component

[0499] 1402 Light emitting means

[0500] 1403 Further electrical component

[0501] 1404 First integrated circuit

[0502] 1405 Robotic body

[0503] 1406 Sensing unit

[0504] 1407 Control module

[0505] 1408 External entity

[0506] 1500 Second assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing

[0507] 1501 Optical memory unit

[0508] 1502 Optical processor

[0509] 1503 Data communication module

[0510] 1504 Electrical component 1600 Third assembly

[0511] 1601 Homomorphic operation module

[0512] 1602 Photonic encryption module

[0513] 1603 Photonic decryption module

[0514] 1604 Electrical component

[0515] 1606 Light emitting means

[0516] 1700 Optical connection module

[0517] 1701 First electrical component

[0518] 1702 Further electrical component

[0519] 1703 Waveguide

[0520] 1704 Light emitting means

[0521] 1705 Integrated circuit

[0522] 1800 F irst transportation means

[0523] 1801 First electrical component

[0524] 1802 Further electrical component

[0525] 1803 Sensing unit

[0526] 1804 Processing module

[0527] 1805 Perception sub-module

[0528] 1806 Generation sub-module

[0529] 1807 Human-machine interface

[0530] 1808 Control unit

[0531] 1809 Steering means

[0532] 1810 Propulsion means

[0533] 1811 F irst integrated circuit

[0534] 1812 First light emitting means

[0535] 1900 Further transportation means

[0536] 1901 First electrical component

[0537] 1902 Further electrical component

[0538] 1903 Steering means

[0539] 1904 Propulsion means

[0540] 2000 Fourth assembly

[0541] 2001 Memory unit 2002 Processor

[0542] 2003 Electrical component

[0543] 2100 Optical data communication module

[0544] 2101 F irst electrical component

[0545] 2102 Light emitting means

[0546] 2103 Further electrical component

[0547] 2104 Integrated circuit

Claims

CLAIMS1. A layered structure (100) comprising a. a first layer (101), wherein i. the first layer (101) comprises a first metal and at least one other chemical element, ii. the first layer (101) has a first section (112), wherein the first section (112) has a crystal orientation that lies in a first crystal plane; iii. the Miller index , used to define the crystal lattice planes, is arranged perpendicular to a surface (108) of the first layer (101); wherein a first angle (111) between the first crystal plane and the (168)-plane is in the range of -18° to 18°.

2. The layered structure according to claim 1, wherein the first layer comprises a first alloy, and wherein the first alloy comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, sulphur, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, germanium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, tin, tungsten, rhenium, iridium, platinum, gold, a combination of at least two thereof.

3. The layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the first layer comprises a first alloy, and wherein the first alloy comprises at least one or all of the following: a. in the range of 60 wt-% to 99 wt-% copper, where the wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer; b. in the range of 1 wt-% to 40 wt-% nickel, where the wt-% are based on a total weight of the first layer.

4. The layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the first layer has a thickness in the range of 0.01 pm to 30 pm.

5. The layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least 50 vol-% of the first layer has a single crystal structure.

6. The layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the first layer has a surface roughness Rq that is in the range of 0.05 nm to 1 nm.

7. The layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the layered structure further comprises a further layer, and wherein a. the first layer is superimposed on the further layer; and b. the further layer comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one further alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, at least one element from group III of the periodic table, at least one element from group IV of the periodic table, at least one element from group V of the periodic table, a combination of two or more thereof.

8. A method for producing the layered structure according to any of the preceding claims, comprising the steps of: a. optionally, providing a further lay er ( 102) ; b. depositing the first layer (101) to obtain the layered structure.

9. A method for producing at least one graphene layer, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure (100) according to any of the claims 1 to 7, or a layered structure obtainable according to claim 8; b. placing the layered structure in a cavity (104); c. heating the layered structure in the presence of a gaseous carbon precursor (105) in the cavity (104), thereby obtaining the at least one graphene layer (106), and wherein the at least one graphene layer (106) is superimposed on the layered structure (100), wherein a temperature in the cavity is in the range of 300 °C to 2000 °C.

10. A layered structure according to any of the claims 1 to 7, or a layered structure obtainable according to claim 8, further comprising at least one graphene layer.

11. A method, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure according to the preceding claim 10; b. at least partially removing the at least one graphene layer.

12. A graphene layer obtainable by a method according to any of the claims 9 or 11.

13. An electrical component comprising a graphene layer according to any of the claims 10 to 12.

14. Use of a layered structure according to any of the claims 1 to 7, or a layered structure obtainable according to claim 8, for producing at least one graphene layer.

15. Use of a graphene layer according to any of the claims 10 to 12 in an electrical component.5

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