Methods of forming a carbon storage vector, and carbon storage vectors thereof

Abstract

The present application discloses methods of carbon capture and storage using a carbon storage vector formed by providing a feedstock comprising a reactive saccharide, an amino-functionalized component and / or an alkenyl-functionalized component; thermally treating the feedstock; and optionally, when the feedstock comprises an alkenyl-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur to vulcanize the alkenyl-functionalized component.

Description

METHODS OF FORMING A CARBON STORAGE VECTOR, AND CARBON STORAGE VECTORS THEREOFCROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims priority to United States Provisional Patent Application number US 63 / 553,249, filed February 14, 2024, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to methods of carbon capture and storage.BACKGROUND

[0003] Sequestering up to 1 ,000 gigatons (Gt) of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is considered required to limit impacts of global climate change by the end of 21stcentury (IPCC, 2014). However, CO2 storage in geological settings can be expensive; and is somewhat restricted due to the specifications required for storage of CO2 in dense supercritical form, and limits on practical rates of CO2 injection in some locations. Thus, for conventional carbon capture and storage (CCS), reservoirs are typically required to be at depths greater than 1.5 km, and to have effective caprock integrity over a large geographic area. Furthermore, CCS facilities are generally large and connected to carbon dioxide delivery pipeline and hub systems. In sum, despite the availability of geological sites suitable for CCS, such reservoirs are expensive to develop.SUMMARY

[0004] In one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided:1. A method of forming a carbon storage vector, the method comprising: providing a feedstock that comprises a reactive saccharide, an amino-functionalized component, and / or an alkenyl-functionalized component; thermally treating the feedstock; and forming a carbon storage vector.2. The method of the preceding embodiment, further comprising pre-treating the feedstock, the pre-treating comprising pyrolysis, ionizing radiation treatment, or a combination thereof.3. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating at a temperature of >159°C; or at a temperature between >159°C to about 600 °C, or between about 160°C to about 550 °C, or between about 180°C to about 550 °C.4. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the feedstock comprises non-fossilized organic material.5. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein, when the feedstock comprises a reactive saccharide and an amino-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises the reactive saccharide reacting with the aminofunctionalized component; and forming a mixture comprising melanoidins.6. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under alkaline conditions.7. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under aqueous conditions.8. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the reactive saccharide comprises starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.9. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the aminofunctionalized component comprises amino-functionalized saccharides, proteins, amino acids, or derivatives thereof, or a combination thereof.10. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the amino- functionalized saccharides comprises amino-functionalized starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.11. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the amino- functionalized component comprises ammonium hydroxide, ammonia, or a combination thereof.12. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the feedstock further comprises a hydroxyl-functionalized component, and thermally treating the feedstock further comprises the mixture comprising melanoidins reacting with the hydroxyl-functionalized component.13. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the hydroxyl- functionalized component comprises phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combinationthereof; or phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combination thereof derived from ester- functionalized components in the feedstock.14. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the phenols are derived from lignin in the feedstock.15. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carboxylic acids and / or alcohols are derived from lipids in the feedstock.16. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average double bond equivalent between about 0 to about 45..17. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1.18. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5.19. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2.20. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da.21. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.22. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.23. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.24. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, further comprising posttreating the carbon storage vector, the post-treatment comprising thermally treating the carbon storage vector in the presence of elemental sulfur; and forming a vulcanized carbon storage vector.25. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the carbon storage vector comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.26. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises disulfide crosslinks.27. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein, when the feedstock comprises an alkenyl-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur, and vulcanizing the alkenyl-functionalized component.28. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.29. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur comprises the elemental sulfur reacting with the alkenyl-functionalized component.30. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.31. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.32. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of embodiments 1 to 26.33. The vector of the preceding embodiment, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1.34. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5.35. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2.36. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da.37. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.38. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.39. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.40. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of embodiments 27 to 31.41. The vector of the preceding embodiment, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.42. The vector of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.43. A method of storing carbon, the method comprising assessing a sequestration site; optionally modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector; and sequestering the carbon storage vector of any one of embodiments 32 to 42 in the sequestration site.44. The storing method of the preceding embodiment, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.45. The storing method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.46. The storing method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the sequestration site comprises high concentrations of salt, a temperature >80 °C, or a combination thereof.47. The storing method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein assessing a sequestration site comprises assessing the site for: microbes; salinity; concentration of dissolved oxygen; concentration of total organic carbon; mineral composition; water saturation; nitrate concentration; sulfate concentration; and / or temperature.48. The storing method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein, if modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector, the modifying comprises increasing site salinity by adding salt or more saline water; and / or decreasing microbe activity by adding biocides.49. The storing method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein sequestering the carbon storage vector in the sequestration site comprises sequestering the vector in soils at a depth of at least 60 cm; or sequestering the vector in a geological reservoir at a depth between about 200m to about 6 km; or sequestering the vector in an oceanic reservoir.50. A method of modifying a property of a carbon storage vector, the method comprising contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector to modify a property of the carbon storage vector.51. The method of the preceding embodiment, wherein the oxidant comprises a peroxide.52. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting for > 24 hours; < 1min to about 24 hours; about <1 min to about 12 hours; about <1 min to about 8 hours; about <1 min to about 4hours; about <1 min to about 2 hours; or about < 1 hour.53. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting at ambient temperature; or above ambient temperature.54. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein the property is water solubility, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector comprises increasing water solubility of the carbon storage vector.55. A method of determining a carbon offset, the method comprising performing a feedstock-refining process; performing a life-cycle analysis of the feedstock-refining process, and determining the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstock-refining process; performing the method of any one of embodiments 1 to 31 on organic waste produced by the feedstock-refining process, and producing a carbon storage vector; performing a life-cycle analysis on the carbon storage vector, and determining the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; determining the differential between the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstock-refining process and the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; and translating the differential into a carbon offset.56. The method of the preceding embodiment, wherein the carbon offset is a saleable carbon credit.57. The method of any one or more of the preceding embodiments, wherein performing the life-cycle analysis comprises performing life-cycle data analysis on a computer.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0005] Embodiments of the present disclosure will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached Figures.

[0006] FIG. 1 depicts a system for net negative sequestration of CO2 removed from the atmosphere by biological activity and contained as biomolecules in organic carbonfeedstocks, via optional pre-treatment and then chemical stabilization into durable carbon storage vectors that may be added to soils, geological reservoirs, and / or ocean waters in the form of liquids, solutions, slurries, solids, semi-solids, or viscous fluids for long-term storage.

[0007] FIG. 2 depicts a first Sedimentary Organic Matter Analogue (SOMA) production method involving a Maillard initiation reaction (201) that produces a functionalized, stabilizing, and reactive molecular framework and platform (e.g. the SOMA core) that further binds other functionalized biomass components present (202), including phenolic species from lignins, and functionalized lipids including carboxylic acids and alcohols, to produce - after further polymerization and functionalization (203) - a carbon rich Sedimentary Organic Matter Analogue (SOMA) product (204), in liquid (a) and / or solid form (b) that may be used as vectors for long-term carbon sequestration in soils or geological reservoirs.

[0008] FIG. 3 depicts A) compound classes present in a SOMA product produced after a stabilization reaction involving a feedstock comprising one or more of a simple sugar, an amino acid, a protein, or a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, and analyzed using high resolution mass spectrometry (Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, FTICR-MS); where the inserted table shows average bulk molecular properties of the SOMA product derived from the FTICR-MS data. B) H / C and O / C Van Krevelen plot of the said SOMA products, derived from FTICR-MS analysis; the dashed line square denotes the compositional space that corresponds to natural types of recalcitrant (e.g., durable) organic carbon pools, such as oceanic dissolved organic matter (DOM), kerogens in sediments, or high molecular weight soil organic matter fractions.

[0009] FIG. 4 depicts thermo-gravimetric profiles of (dashed line) simple sugar feedstock and (solid line) a SOMA product produced after a stabilization reaction involving a feedstock comprising one or more of a simple sugar, an amino acid, a protein, or a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, under conditions described herein. Noted was the increase of more recalcitrant / refractory forms of carbon in the SOMA product compared to the precursor carbohydrate. TGA was performed in nitrogen by program temperature heating at 10 degrees °C per minute from room temperature to 800 degrees °C.

[0010] FIG. 5 depicts exemplary cross plots of structural indices (A-factor, upper panel and C-factor, lower panel) derived from infrared (IR) spectroscopy analysis of natural kerogens of increasing thermal maturities, and products of the SOMA reaction involving a feedstock comprising one or more of a simple sugar, an amino acid, a protein, or a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, under conditions described herein. Aromaticityrepresents the ratio of the relative abundance of aromatic versus aliphatic carbon atoms that are bound to one or more hydrogens. Kerogen data from (Craddock et al., 2018).

[0011] FIG. 6 depicts a second SOMA production method involving A) partial vulcanization-based stabilization reactions that produces sulphur cross-linked molecules, such as dimers, oligomers, polymers, etc. from unsaturated molecules and elemental sulphur; the resulting cross-linked molecules being generally less susceptible to biodegradation than the starting material. B) Infrared (IR) spectroscopy transmittance of unreacted bio-oil containing (poly)unsaturated fatty acids (PLIFA), shown in upper (lighter colored) trace and the resulting partially vulcanized product, shown in lower (darker colored) trace, depicting the signals corresponding to the formation of new carbon-sulfur bonds between PLIFA in bio-oil and elemental sulfur as the result of a partial vulcanization reaction.

[0012] FIG. 7 depicts impact of subsurface reservoir temperature and water salinity on biological degradation in the subsurface, wherein at least the depicted stabilized zone is targeted. In one or more embodiments as described herein, the depicted sterilized zone is targeted.

[0013] FIG. 8 depicts a process diagram for production of “green” chemicals from biomass, coupled with the SOMA process applied to stabilization of waste pulp residues to organic carbon storage vectors for long-term sequestration in soils.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0014] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning as commonly understood in the art.

[0015] As used in the specification and claims, the singular forms "a", "an" and "the" include plural references unless the context dictates otherwise.

[0016] As used herein, the terms “organic carbon feedstock”, “feedstock”, and “biomass” are used interchangeably, and refer to a general class of liquid, solid, or semi-solid (e.g., highly viscous) materials, solutions, and / or dispersions derived from non-fossilized organic material, including but not limited to bulk and residual aquatic and terrestrial plant matter (e.g., micro- and macro-algal and lignocellulosic), products derived from biomass and / or residues of aquatic and terrestrial animals (e.g., insects, egg or dairy products, shellfish exoskeletons, and similar), waste organic matter (such as solids and dissolved materials in wastewaters and bio-solids from municipal and agricultural sources), and organic residues from industrial biomass processing facilities (e.g. pulp and paper, food industry, etc.).

[0017] In one or more embodiments, the feedstocks comprise organic carbon molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lignin, lipids, amino acids, and others. In one or more embodiments, the feedstock comprises one or more of a simple sugar, an amino acid, a protein, or a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide. In one or more embodiments, the feedstock comprises organic molecules having at least one nucleophilic nitrogen, such as proteins, amino acids, a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, and others.

[0018] As used here, the term “kerogens” generally refers to complex fossilized organic material, such as that found in sedimentary rocks (e.g., shales), which is insoluble in common organic solvents and / or non-oxidizing acids.

[0019] As used herein, the term “reactive sugar” or “reactive saccharide” refers to a saccharide or carbohydrate that is capable of acting as a reducing agent, or is otherwise reactive to the herein described amino-functional compound. In one or more embodiments, the reactive sugar or reactive saccharide is a reducing sugar, or a reducing saccharide. In one or more embodiments, a reactive sugar or reactive saccharide includes monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides comprising a formyl group (also referred to herein as an aldehyde group); monosaccharides disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides comprising a ketone group that can tautomerize to an formyl group; and / or monosaccharides disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides that can convert to, or react to form an open-chain form that comprises an formyl group, or a ketone that can tautomerize to an formyl group. In one or more embodiments, the reactive sugar or reactive saccharide refers to starches, other carbohydrates, or other biochemical species, that react and convert under the herein described SOMA forming reaction conditions.

[0020] “Soils” or “soil”, generally refers to any natural or man-made upper layer covering the Earth’s surface, its associated structural and / or functional subsurface stratigraphic horizons up to 1.5-2 meters in depth, and including any pore fluids, and biologically active systems (e.g., plant roots, microorganisms) contained within. “Geological reservoirs” generally refer to any natural or man-made deep subsurface formations at any depth accessible through standard drilling and well practices or through mining activities, with associated fluids (e.g., water, pore water, brines, crude oil, oil-gas-water mixtures, and others), and any associated biologically active systems contained within (microorganisms). ’’Deep ocean” or “deep water” generally refers to a water column deeper than approximately 200 metres, or a point of transition from continental shelves to continental slopes, where exist acombination of conditions favoring organic matter preservation, such as low temperatures and lower oxygen contents, darkness and high pressure.

[0021] “Engineered interventions” generally refers to one or more engineering operations performed on a geological site to change the site’s natural form, structure, functional properties. In some embodiments, engineered interventions are performed on a geological site to prepare the site for use as a storage and / or sequestration site. In some embodiments, engineered interventions include operations that would be performed during oil / gas production, such as drilling of wells, injection and / or recirculation of fluids to and from a geological formation; fracking; addition of biocides and / or other additives, etc. In some embodiments, engineered interventions include mechanical interventions that would be performed during crop cultivation operations, such as plowing soils, or harrowing soils, irrigation, etc.

[0022] Methods And Processes For Sequestration Of Organic Carbon Feedstocks

[0023] There is interest in developing approaches to securely store carbon from the atmosphere in shallow storage sites without seals or cap rocks for CO2 gas, CO2 supercritical fluid, or aqueous CO2 solutions. Emerging CO2 removal methods such as direct air capture, enhanced rock weathering, and BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and sequestration) tend to be similarly constrained in terms of availability of biomass feedstocks, mineral processing space, suitable sequestration sites, and / or high costs associated with the capture and conversion processes themselves. Thus, there is an interest to develop other technologies for carbon removal that are scalable, cost-effective, environmentally sustainable, and / or represent a more secure long-term storage of the carbon away from the atmosphere.

[0024] Biomass-based carbon dioxide removal approaches have been of particular interest because of the availability of organic carbon feedstocks from various sources such as forestry, agriculture, industrial or domestic and municipal waste streams, and others. For example, it has been estimated that, globally, waste biomass streams amount to 140 Gt per year (Tripathi et al., 2019). However, if left untreated, organic carbon molecules in those feedstocks, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lignin, lipids, and others, are typically converted back to CO2 and other greenhouse gases such as methane, as the part of natural carbon cycle, primarily by aerobic or anaerobic microbial decomposition (Falkowski et al., 2000). There are technologies for converting biomass feedstocks to energy vectors, or storable products such as biochar or bio-oils that can be added to near-surface or subsurface environments topotentially sequester carbon longer term. However, these technologies tend to be sensitive to feedstock quality, energy inputs needed to achieve efficient biomass conversion, and in particular the uncertainties around the long-term fate and impacts of the carbon that is being sequestered.

[0025] As such, it would be beneficial to have improved systems and methods that use biomass and other organic carbon feedstocks for carbon sequestration. For example, systems and methods that can generate products that are stable long-term in their specific sequestration environment (e.g., soil or geological reservoirs), and can be produced inexpensively at low energy intensity, and flexibly using locally available feedstocks. Systems and methods that also add beneficial properties to the storage environment, such as improving the properties of soil environment for example, would also be beneficial.

[0026] Methods and processes described herein convert (bio)degradable molecules as found in organic carbon feedstocks, such as simple sugars, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, lignin, lipids, a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide and others, to complex liquid, solid, or semi-solid mixtures of species that resemble naturally occurring organic materials in rocks (such as kerogens - sedimentary organic matter that is generally poorly soluble or insoluble in organic solvents) and soils (such as humic substances - recalcitrant organic compounds naturally formed during long-term decomposition and transformation of biomass residue, e.g., in soils). Such species are referred to herein as Sedimentary Organic Matter Analogues (SOMA). SOMA as described herein were generally found to be resistant to natural biological and chemical degradation, and thus may be used as vectors for long term carbon sequestration in soils or geological reservoirs. Also described herein are methods and processes to assess, select, and / or modify subsurface sequestration sites that offer geochemical properties that support permanence of SOMA and other carbon storage vectors produced from organic carbon feedstocks.

[0027] Described herein are routes to the chemical stabilization of organic biomolecules contained in organic carbon feedstock, such as simple sugars, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, lignin, lipids, a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, and others. In an embodiment, the chemical stabilization of organic biomolecules contained in organic carbon feedstock occurs by conversion of said biomolecules to a complex mixture of condensed and / or polymerized species via a Maillard-like reaction (Hodge, 1953; Larter and Douglas, 1980; Martins et al., 2000) involving thermal stabilization at high pH. In another embodiment, the chemical stabilization of organic biomolecules contained in organiccarbon feedstock occurs via thermal treatment followed by partial or complete sulfurization. These methods can produce sedimentary organic matter analogues (SOMA) - otherwise referred to herein as vectors or storage vectors - which may be securely stored in soil, subsurface or ocean water reservoirs. Such stabilization approaches may produce liquid, solid, and / or semi-solid (e.g., viscous or dense fluids) materials, solutions, and / or dispersions, depending on the type of feedstock and reaction conditions. Notwithstanding, key characteristics of the products of the stabilization process, from the carbon storage perspective, include reduced reactivity and biodegradation susceptibility of the organic matter, compared to that of the starting organic feedstocks.

[0028] Such stabilization processes may attenuate rapid degradation of said feedstock back to CO2 or methane that could otherwise occur with untreated feedstocks. For example, durability or resistance of organic feedstocks to biodegradation in subsurface reservoirs may depend on several chemical and / or geological factors including reservoir temperature and / or reservoir water salinity. Biodegradation in subsurface reservoirs is generally understood to be anaerobic and methanogenic in nature (Head et al, 2003). During anaerobic degradation, multiple organic species can be degraded at the same time, but at very different rates controlled by their chemistry (Larter et al, 2006). Degradation rates can also be controlled by the transport rates of reactive species to the sites of biodegradation, which tend to be at the interfaces of organic rich fractions and water zones. In many subsurface reservoirs, transport rates of reactive species can be controlled by diffusion of reactants in the fluid phases; and thus the net durability of reactants can be controlled by the intermixed distributions of organic rich phases and water. With thick hydrocarbon columns, for example in tens of meters thick oil legs in petroleum reservoirs, timescales to degrade hydrocarbons can on the order of millions of years (Larter et al., 2003). In contrast, with thin millimeter scale hydrocarbon phases interspersed with larger water volumes, substantially complete removal of normal alkanes to methane and CO2 can take place on a timescale of a few years (Jones et al, 2008). Therefore, hydrocarbons - for example, those produced during biomass pyrolysis processes - could degrade relatively rapidly, for example on a year timescale, if adversely distributed as thin zones (mm-cm), within highly water saturated reservoirs zones.

[0029] Therefore, SOMA resulting from there herein described methods may have molecular features that are akin to long-lived natural forms of organic carbon, such as dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the oceans, kerogen in sedimentary rocks, humic substances in soils, or organosulfur compounds in petroleum, all of which can be recalcitrantto biodegradation on timescales from hundreds to thousands, to millions of years in the environment they are commonly found. In addition, SOMA comprise non-buoyant stable organic phases that may be sensibly stored in shallow, or deep, geological settings. SOMA obtained via the stabilization processes described herein may thus be suitable for use as longterm carbon storage vectors. While said SOMA may be inherently stable, certain aspects of their storage reservoirs may be modified to further promote stability against microbial conversion of said SOMA back to carbon dioxide or methane. Thus, the approach and methods described herein may also involve assessment, selection, and / or modification of a candidate storage environment, including considering compatibility with the physico-chemical properties of the stabilized carbon storage vectors (SOMA), to ensure that the biogeochemical conditions of the storage environment are conducive to maintaining and / or further increasing storage durability of the added carbon storage vectors (SOMA). For example, in the case of storage in geological reservoir settings, properties such as reservoir temperature, salinity and / or composition of reservoir waters, and / or the microbial community composition could be taken into consideration. As needed, the properties of storage reservoirs may be modified, for example by modifying water salinity, or through addition of biocides to the reservoir fluids.

[0030] Other selection parameters that may be considered when identifying or selecting sequestration sites to facilitate carbon storage via SOMA include regional availability of specific organic carbon feedstock types, their proximate co-location with reservoirs, required infrastructure and / or equipment needed for transport, and / or sequestration logistics. For example, geological reservoir storage using injectable liquid carbon storage vectors (SOMA) may be a favored option in regions with existing oil and gas operations and ready availability of existing injection wells. On the other hand, soil sequestration using solid carbon storage vectors (SOMA) may be more favored in locations with large areas of available land and / or intense or planned crop cultivation activity.

[0031] Relative to one or more incumbent solutions, the carbon removal and sequestration methods and processes described herein may offer: (i) an expanded range of possible organic feedstocks that can be used, including heterogeneous, liquid, or other high water content feedstock streams; (ii) reduced requirements for feedstock pre-processing, such as drying; (iii) improved energy efficiency, as the herein described feedstock stabilization methods and processes may be operated at low to moderate temperatures; (iv) formation of carbon storage vectors (SOMA) that may have higher carbon storage durability, and / orincreased flexibility of storage site options that may leverage existing industrial or agricultural infrastructure for transport and emplacement.

[0032] With reference to FIG. 1 , there is depicted a schematic representation of a method as described herein for providing a net negative sequestration of CO2 - removed from the atmosphere as biomass (e.g., forests, crops, etc.) - by biological activity, and converted to carbon storage vectors (SOMA) that may be added to soils, geological reservoirs, or ocean waters for long-term storage. The depicted organic carbon feedstock (101) may include any non-fossilized organic material that has incorporated atmospheric CO2 in the form of reactive, easily (bio)degradable biomolecules such as simple sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, lignin, lipids, amino acids, nucleic acids, pigments, a basic ammonium ion feedstock such as ammonium hydroxide, and others, or industrially processed products of such. Said feedstocks may come in any form of bulk and / or residual materials from agriculture, aquaculture, forestry, biomass processing (e.g., biochemical, pulp and paper, or food industry), domestic, commercial, and municipal waste collection / processing (e.g., food waste, wastewaters, biosolids). The depicted chemical stabilization (102) may include chemical reactions and conditions that can convert reactive biomolecules in the feedstocks (101) to complex mixtures of SOMA - similar to existing stable carbon species in the geosphere - which may be less susceptible to (bio)degradation back to CO2 and other greenhouse gases than the original feedstocks (101).

[0033] Optionally, the depicted chemical stabilization may also include pre-treating the feedstock, which may involve pyrolysis, ionizing radiation treatment, or a combination thereof. In one or more embodiments, the pyrolysis would involve treating the feedstock at temperatures at or above 350 to 400 degrees °C in the absence of air or oxygen, and collecting a resultant pyrolysis oil enriched in alkenyl functionalities, which would be amenable to partial sulfurization to form SOMA. Alkenyl-functionality may also be created by radiation of the feedstock, for example with gamma rays from radionuclide decay with energies in the range of 0.5 to several MeV. Radionuclides such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137, or other commercially available radionuclides or high energy X-ray sources, may be appropriate for such irradiation.

[0034] The SOMA as described herein may be used as carbon storage vectors (103) for long-term (e.g., >100 years) CO2 sequestration in soils, ocean waters, and / or geological reservoirs (105). So stored, said SOMA may be leveraged to apply for carbon credits, which may otherwise be used or sold to off-set carbon taxes applied to CO2-producing processes (106). For example, results from a storage site assessment may be used for the purposes ofcarbon accounting. Based on the net amount of carbon sequestered in a specific storage site (calculated as CO2 equivalents contained in SOMA added to the storage site, minus the equivalent CO2 emissions of all production system steps producing the SOMA), and its estimated permanence, carbon credits / offsets (expressed as tonnes of CO2 equivalent) may be generated (106) that can then be monetized and transacted in voluntary or compliance carbon markets.

[0035] SOMA may be prepared from organic carbon feedstocks that have originated from an environment / habitat / geographical area that is co-located, proximate, or distanced from its sequestration site. SOMA may be sequestered by adding to soils, geological, and / or ocean reservoirs, in the form of liquid, solution, dispersion, slurry, solid, or semi-solid (e.g., viscous fluid) materials by any existing technologies and methods such as well drilling, fracking, dispersion, irrigation systems, gravitational drainage and seepage, injection, insertion, burial, plowing, tiling, mixing, etc. Selection of a specific soil or geological reservoir as a site for sequestration of stabilized SOMA carbon vectors may be based on a prior site assessment using a suite of biogeochemical tests and models to evaluate parameters such as the carbon storage capacity of the said site, assessment of conditions that may favor long-term preservation of the added SOMA carbon storage vector, and / or the permanence of said vectors under a set of in-situ conditions present in a target storage site.

[0036] Examples of such tests / models include, but are not limited to: microbial ecological assessment using 16S rRNA sequencing (e.g., via 16S Illumina protocol on the MiSeq instrument with v3 reagents, or similar), or other microbiological or molecular biological practices, to assess microbial community structure, function, and / or the microbial metabolic processes taking place in the target storage site (e.g. aerobic, or what type of anaerobic decomposition processes are active); direct or indirect measurement of water saturation and / or pore water salinity and composition; in-situ temperature; isotope tracer experiments; mesocosm experiments to assess durability of SOMA to microbial degradation; molecular biodegradation modelling to assess SOMA durability in the target storage reservoir; and others to assess viability of a given carbon storage vector (SOMA) and storage reservoir combination as a long-term secure storage site for the carbon sequestered in the SOMA.

[0037] When applicable and / or needed, properties of a selected storage site may be modified using engineered interventions so that the preservation of any added carbon storage vector may be increased, for example by increasing water salinity, changing microbial community composition by adding bioactive substances, and / or similar approaches. Activitiesfor selection and / or modification of a candidate sequestration site may be performed using established methods, apparatus, and systems, coupled with an integration of results and insights from said tests.

[0038] In various configurations, the stabilization process described herein includes several reactions or combinations thereof. The stabilization process may convert biomolecules and / or moieties - which may degrade relatively quickly into CO2 and methane and are contained in a feedstock - to complex, functionalized and / or polymerized molecules (SOMA), that are altered compared to the parent biomolecules and / or moieties, and thus are less susceptible to microbial or abiotic degradation. In one or more embodiments, the stabilization reactions described herein include a series of reactions initiated by a modified Maillard reaction, occurring between amino-functionalized species (proteins, amino acids, aminofunctionalized saccharides, or ammonium compounds, etc.) and reactive sugars or other reactive saccharides in the feedstock, that produces melanoidins (e.g., higher molecular weight nitrogenous polymers) that can react with, and / or can incorporate other functionalised biomass components. In one or more embodiments, the stabilization reactions described herein include an at least partial sulfurization reaction, that involves reaction between unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds or other sites in the feedstock and elemental sulfur, resulting in cross-linked organo-sulfur heteropolymers. In one or more embodiments, the stabilization process described herein includes processing the resultant products by low temperature pyrolysis. Such low-temperature pyrolysis treatment can result in further denatured and defunctionalized products.

[0039] The resulting products of the herein described stabilization processes - referred to herein as SOMA - may be liquid, solid, or semi-solid (e.g., highly viscous). The properties of the resultant products may be tuned via careful selection of the type of feedstock used, and / or the reaction conditions selected (temperature, treatment time, amounts and relative proportions of reactants). When the resultant products are to be stored, the compatibility of their properties with the characteristics of the storage or sequestration site may be considered to determine the storage strategy (e.g., soil, subsurface reservoir storage, ocean waters). For example, if a saline aquifer is to act as a SOMA storage site, the SOMA selected to be stored therein may be in liquid form. For further example, if a subsurface reservoir is to act as a SOMA storage site, the SOMA selected to be stored therein may be in liquid form in order to leverage standard injection processes, as opposed to injection of solids through hydraulic fracturing.

[0040] In one or more embodiments, SOMA may be used as carbon storage vectors directly - that is, without further modification. In one or more embodiments, if there is a need or desire to increase the SOMA’s compatibility with characteristics of the selected storage or sequestration sites, additional reactions steps may be performed on the products. For example, chemical oxidation to increase oxygen content in the species which may improve aqueous solubility; mixing with organic solvents may reduce viscosity when subsurface injection is required. Further, the organic carbon feedstocks may be pre-treated to be more amenable to stabilization reactions. For example, pyrolysis or ionizing radiation treatment may be used to increase the amount of carbon-carbon double bonds available as reaction sites for the at least partial sulfurization reaction.

[0041] Without wishing to be bound by theory, it was considered that SOMA produced by the modified Maillard initiated process, optionally coupled with suitable reservoir engineering, may exhibit residence times in the subsurface of at least 10 to 100 times the equivalent residence times in a soil environment, suggesting mean residence times of several centuries or more.

[0042] The overall process depicted in FIG. 1 , and / or as described above, may be used as (I) an integrated solution, for example encompassing all steps from starting feedstock to final sequestration of carbon storage vectors; or (II) as a modular solution with only certain components of the process or system being used, for example, where the stabilization process may be integrated into an existing bioprocessing facility, and stabilized carbon storage vectors may be off taken by a third party entity for their ultimate sequestration, or a carbon sequestration entity may purchase a storage site assessment and selection package and sell carbon storage services.

[0043] Chemical stabilization of organic carbon feedstocks to Sedimentary Organic Matter Analogues (SOMA) - carbon rich products functional as carbon storage vectors

[0044] FIG. 2 depicts an example of the herein described stabilization processes, involving a process initiated by a variant of the Maillard reaction that occurs between an aminofunctionalized compound (e.g., proteins, amino acids, ammonium compound - NH4+) and a reactive saccharide (e.g., reducing sugars, aldose sugars, related polysaccharides etc.) in the presence of water or an aqueous solution (201). The initiation reaction can produce reactive and highly-functionalized secondary reaction products with abundant ketone, aldehyde andfurfural derivatives, as well as nitrogen-free polymers and complex nitrogen-containing polymers through reaction with further amino-functionalized species (202). This complex functionalised material may act to further chemically bind other functionalized biomass components or reactive species formed by, or remaining from the initiation reaction , including phenolic species such as lignins and functionalized lipids, including carboxylic acids and alcohols. This chemical binding, or reaction may produce a Sedimentary Organic Matter Analogue (SOMA) carbon rich product (e.g., a SOMA core, (202)). With continued reaction and subsequent thermal de-functionalization, an increase in product molecular weight and elimination of biological structures produced a final SOMA product that can exhibit high resistance to subsequent degradation (203).

[0045] In some feedstocks, amino-functionalized species may be a minor reaction component, and may be originally present in the organic feedstock itself (e.g., as residual proteins, amino acids), or added as an external reactant (e.g., an ammonium compound, such as ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH). In some feedstocks, reactive saccharides (e.g. reducing sugars, or otherwise reactive sugars) may be a major reaction component, and may be present in the bulk organic feedstock itself, or may be present in degradation products resulting from processes such as hydrolysis or other reactions (e.g., as [hemi]cellulose or other reactive carbohydrates in plant-sourced or animal-sourced feedstocks, where reactive refers to the penchant to undergo the SOMA-forming reactions and / or methods described here. Reactive polysaccharides and derivatives may form a main reactive component of most feedstocks. In one or more examples, the saccharide includes energy-storage polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, galactogen, and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin and derivatives. While some polysaccharides such as starch for example, might not be commonly thought of as reducing, they and their degradation products (e.g., hydrolysates) are reactive species.

[0046] The ratio of amino-functionalized compound to reactive saccharide in the feedstock to be used for the reaction may range from a 1-to-5 mass ratio up to a 1-to-20 mass ratio. Depending on the type of organic feedstock, the ratio of amino-functionalized compound to reactive saccharides may vary greatly, therefore elemental analysis of the feedstock (quantitation of CHNS elements via high temperature combustion, using commercially available instrumentation) may be conducted prior to conducting stabilization reactions, to determine the nitrogen to carbon molar ratio of the feedstock, and decide whether an addition of external amino-functionalized species may be needed. Biochemical analyses of feedstockcomposition may also be used to manage feedstock mixtures. For example, the dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method may be used to estimate the concentration of reactive saccharides (e.g., reducing saccharides, or reducing sugars) in the feedstock. Applying the DNS method to the feedstock of the present disclosure, a dinitrosalicylic acid reagent (e.g., 3,5- dinitrosalicylic acid) would be mixed with the feedstock and heated to catalyse a reaction between the reagent and the reactive saccharide (e.g., reducing sugar) to form an amino-nitrosalicylic acid (e.g., 3- amino-nitrosalicylic acid) plus oxidized sugar, and then measuring at least the concentration of the amino-nitrosalicylic acid via visible absorbance. In one or more embodiments, use of a method such as the DNS method may permit characterization of in-coming feedstock, facilitating identification of feedstocks having higher concentrations of reactive saccharides.

[0047] In one or more embodiments of the methods described herein, the stabilization reactions may occur underwater saturated conditions (>30% moisture by total reaction mixture volume), at low to moderate temperatures (e.g., relative to incumbent biomass processing technologies such as pyrolysis) ranging from about 150 to about 250 degree °C; and / or in alkaline solution (pH>7). Alkaline conditions may be achieved by the addition of industrial alkali such as KOH, NaOH, and / or NH4OH which also provides ammonium ion. At said low to moderate temperatures, the initial Maillard reaction products can lose the structural characteristics of the primary biomass ingredients, becoming more biologically refractory. Depending on the temperature used, the final products may have variable physical and chemical properties and may be developed for fluid or solid injection storage destinations (204).

[0048] In one or more embodiments of the methods described herein, ultrasound- assisted (US) (bio)reactors are used to conduct the reactions leading to SOMA as described herein. An advantage of US-assisted reactions includes decreased processing time and / or temperature as compared to conventional thermal treatment (Yu et al., 2020); as such, US- assisted processes may experience a reduced overall energy input and lower CO2 emissions associated with overall biomass processing, which may result in higher net carbon removal and may subsequently generate higher amount of carbon credits / offsets, compared to conventional thermochemical treatments.

[0049] In one or more embodiments of the reaction depicted in Fig. 2, as supported by mass spectrometry observations, the steps for producing the herein described SOMA may include one or more of the following: a reactive saccharide (e.g., an aldose sugar) is reacted with an amino-functionalized compound to produce N-substituted glycosylamines and / orrearranged ketose products (201); the glycosylamine undergoes an Amadori rearrangement to form ketosamines, which can continue interacting among themselves and with other species present in the reaction mixture in a series of condensation reactions to produce a mixture of polymeric materials that include highly-functionalized nitrogenous and mixed heteroatom polymers; and said polymeric materials and earlier intermediate reaction products subsequently react with alcohols, carboxylic acids, phenols, and / or additional species that may derive from alteration of the feedstock’s biomass carbohydrates and proteins, or added (202) to produce a complex functionalized sedimentary organic matter analog of increasing molecular weight (SOMA), in liquid, solid, or semi-solid form (203).

[0050] In one or more embodiments of the method described herein, the SOMA reaction products include multi-heteroatom moieties, e.g., NxSyOz groups where “x”, “y” and “z” denotes variable number of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen, atoms respectively per individual molecule. In an embodiment, x may be up to 10; y may be up to 1 ; and z may be up to 14. That the SOMA comprise such multi-heteroatom moieties suggests that SOMA will be highly biodegradation resistant. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this is considered the case because complex heteroatom-comprising compounds comprising non-biological structures (for example, heteroatom-rich compounds found in crude oils; Oldenburg et al., 2014) tend to be less amenable to microbial degradation (e.g., microbes do not have metabolic pathways to degrade such molecules quickly), and / or because organisms need to produce enzymes tailored for each specific complex heteroatom-comprising compound to degrade them.

[0051] Also, as a result of the condensation reactions, the resultant SOMA have been found to have a lower hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) atomic ratio compared to the starting feedstocks, suggesting the SOMA have a more condensed molecular structure (e.g., see FIG. 3). Such molecular properties resemble those of recalcitrant humic-like substances that naturally occur in major CO2 sinks, such as soil organic matter (SOM) and dissolved organic matter (DOM), or in the kerogens of sedimentary rocks; such as, an H / C atomic ratio lower than approx. 1 and O / C ratio lower than approx. 0.5.

[0052] Further to that, the bulk molecular properties of the SOMA (as shown in the insert table of FIG. 3) can be used to estimate durability of a SOMA’s carbon storage properties, as per models for other organic carbon storage vectors produced by high temperature pyrolysis, e.g., biochar (Lehman et al., 2015). For example, based on Lehman et al., 2015, the H / C ratio can be used to estimate Mean Residence Time (MRT) in soil as perMRT (years) = 4501 xe-32x(H / COrg) (Eq. 1)as well as the percentage of C in the carbon storage vector that remains stable in soil for more than 100 years (BC+100 %) asBC+100 (%) at 10 °C = -42.4(H / Corg)+106 (Eq. 2)

[0053] Based on these criteria, an estimated MRT of SOMA as described herein may be up to approximately 140 years (139.78), with a BC+100 (%) of 60%.

[0054] SOMA durability may also be assessed using a thermal stability methodology, where the SOMA is heated through a temperature program in an inert atmosphere and the mass loss is assessed (thermogravimetric analysis, TGA). Mass lost during TGA at temperatures below 380 degree °C generally corresponds to the content of volatile and labile forms of organic carbon, while mass lost above 380 degree °C generally correspond to recalcitrant and refractory forms of carbon (such as aromatic and condensed carbon, and inorganic carbon), as per the criteria established by Leng et al., 2019; Zornoza et al., 2016. Based on that criteria and conducted TGA analysis (temperature heating at 10 degree °C per minute from room temperature to 800 degrees °C, in inert nitrogen atmosphere), the proportion of recalcitrant and refractory forms of carbon forming the SOMA was found to have increased 44.5% compared to the starting simple sugar feedstock, FIG. 4.

[0055] With reference to FIG. 5, there is a comparison of the SOMA as described herein relative to compositions of thermally mature kerogens (for kerogens information, see Craddock et al 2018). It was found that SOMA share similarities with thermally mature kerogens; for example, in terms of higher aromaticity, and reduced aliphatic substitution. The SOMA were also found to show similar A factors (a FT-I R derived proxy for aliphatic to aromatic carbon content for kerogens) relative to thermally mature kerogen; while the C factor (a FT-IR derived proxy for extent of oxygen functionality) was found to be elevated relative to kerogens (Craddock et al., 2018). Generally, higher C factors may translate into higher water solubility and / or an ability to react with other biomass feedstock species, such as lipids and lignins, or their derivatives. Studies of laboratory-conducted thermal alteration of sedimentary organic species indicated that the oxygen content of SOMA materials may be reduced further to a desired level via an extended heat treatment process, which can alter material properties such as solubility or interfacial activity. The aromatic to aliphatic carbon balance can generally be considered a proxy for biodegradation stability of sedimentary organic matter, where an increase in aromatic and particularly condensed aromatic species generally results in higher resistance to biodegradation. It was found that the SOMA have increased aromaticity relative to the starting feedstock, which suggests the SOMA would exhibit long term stability. Insummary, based on the observed properties; the similarity of SOMA to natural forms of durable organic carbon (also referred to herein as recalcitrant / refractory organic matter) forms of organic carbon; and based on stability testing; the SOMA as described herein are suited for use as carbon storage vectors that can be added to soils or subsurface geological reservoirs for long-term carbon sequestration.

[0056] FIG. 6 depicts an example of a second type of stabilization process as disclosed herein, termed partial vulcanization. The depicted process involves heating molten elemental sulfur (Ss) above its melting temperature (>159 degree °C) together with organic carbon feedstocks in liquid, semi-solid, or solid form. The ratio of elemental sulfur to organic carbon feedstock (up to 10% moisture content by weight) is from about <1% to about 50%, to more than 50% by mass, and the method can produce stable solid or semi-solid sulfurized polymers that are biodegradation resistant.

[0057] In one or more embodiments of the reaction depicted in FIG. 6, the reaction may include the following: heating the sulfur to open the Ss ring and form sulfide radicals (-S*) that are reactive with the unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds (-C=C-) in the organic carbon feedstock to form organo-sulfur copolymers (in solid or semi-solid state) via neo-formed carbon-sulfur (-C-S-) bonds. In one or more embodiments of the reaction depicted in FIG. 6, the reaction conditions may be based on the type of feedstock. In one or more embodiments, the temperature is maintained above 159 degrees °C to facilitate elemental sulfur depolymerizing and becoming radically reactive towards C=C double bonds present in the organic carbon feedstock. In one or more embodiments, the temperature may be lower if the reaction is catalyzed. Sulfur content may range from about <1wt% to about 50wt%, to more than 50wt%. In one or more embodiments, it was found that by at least partially vulcanizing organic carbon feedstock to form SOMA, the SOMA exhibit an increase in durability and become less prone to microbial degradation.

[0058] Experiments with (poly)unsaturated fatty acids (PLIFA), such as linoleic acid, have shown that these species react with thermally formed sulfide radicals to form macromolecules cross-linked via neo-formed -C-S- bonds (e.g., see FIG. 6). The reaction as depicted in Fig. 6, of PLIFA rich bio-oil (canola) and sulfur was conducted in a 1 :1 ratio (per mass) at a temperature of about 180 degrees °C for 17 minutes. Compared to readily biodegradable linoleic acid (and other PLIFA), linoleic acid’s partially vulcanized products would not be readily biodegradable under aerobic conditions and may be resistant to anaerobic biodegradation, according to an assessment using predictive model Biowin6 for assessing acompound’s biodegradability. This model is based on the biodegradability test guidelines of the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). In one or more embodiments of the partial vulcanization process, use of molten elemental sulfur to sulfurize a pyrolysis bio-oil resulted in a sulfurized product with greater biodegradation resistance than the organic carbon feedstock. Sulfur bearing species tend to be highly resistant to biodegradation over long timescales, as generally indicated by increasing sulfur contents and concentrations of resistant species; for example, the alkylated dibenzothiophenes seen in heavily biodegraded crude oils, such as the Canadian oil sands bitumens, and other heavy oils globally (Adams et al, 2013 and references therein).

[0059] Such organo-sulfur copolymers may be considered molecular analogs of naturally occurring, geologically stable species that can be found in crude oils (Silva et al., 2020) and kerogens. For example, the presence of sulfur bearing compounds in highly biodegraded crude oils, including compounds formed by sulfur addition to lipid molecules (Silva et al., 2020), and the common increase in sulfur bearing species during advanced petroleum biodegradation, indicates the stability of sulfurized compounds during degradation processes. Comparison of the degrees of degradation of different chemical species in petroleum during degradation suggests that cyclic, sulfur bearing species typically biodegrade at rates around 100 times more slowly than similar molecular weight species without sulfur. Therefore, SOMA produced by a stabilization reaction that at least include partial vulcanization may be suitable for use as long-term carbon storage vectors, in soils, and / or in subsurface reservoirs. Sulfur- containing SOMA may exhibit durability properties of at least 200 years, to many thousands of years or more under anaerobic conditions; and possibly much longer if reservoir engineering is optimized for minimizing interspersed water rich reservoirs zones.

[0060] Modifications of this partial vulcanization process may include a separate pretreatment of organic feedstocks via fast pyrolysis (e.g., which involves high temperatures and short residence times in an open-system pyrolyzer) to produce an alkene rich oil; low temperature olefination (allylation); or use of ionizing radiation to increase the amount of reactive carbon-carbon double bonds in the organic carbon feedstock to enhance reactivity with sulfur. In one or more embodiments, the pyrolysis would involve treating the feedstock at temperatures >400 °C, or well above 400 degrees °C in the absence of air or oxygen, and collecting the resultant pyrolysis oil. In one or more embodiments, the higher pyrolysis temperatures may result in formation of a higher concentration of alkenyl-functionalized components that could subsequently react with the sulphur to produce sulfur-comprisingSOMA. Alkenyl-functionality may further be created by radiation of the organic feedstock, for example with gamma rays from radionuclide decay with energies in the range of 0.5 to several MeV. Radionuclides such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137 may be appropriate for such radiation.

[0061] Further, the resultant carbon-sulfur copolymers may be further modified by chemical or thermal oxidation to improve compatibility with storage reservoirs, e.g., by increasing their solubility. For example, by oxidizing the sulfurized biopolymer shown in FIG. 6 using a 30% hydrogen peroxide solution (H2O2), its aqueous solubility was found to increase two-fold. The experimental details of this study include the following: Solid SOMA samples (approx. 400 mg) were gently stirred overnight in 30% aqueous solution of H2O2 at room temperature. Control treatments without H2O2 were run in parallel. After treatment, the aqueous phase was separated and freeze-dried, and the amount of dry residue was weighed. The result was used as a measure of solubilized organics from the solids. In one or more embodiments, it is the sulfur groups and / or bonds that are oxidized. In one or more embodiments, so oxidized, the post-treated SOMA may be suitable for storage / dispersion via irrigation systems; and / or storage in an aqueous reservoir. In one or more embodiments, so oxidized, the post-treated SOMA remains recalcitrant.

[0062] In one of more embodiments, post-treatments to the carbon storage vector are selected to align the vector’s properties with its intended final use and / or storage reservoir.

[0063] Assessment, selection, and / or modification of carbon sequestration sites

[0064] Storage reservoir environments are at least one of the factors limiting or stopping chemical and / or microbial degradation of added carbon storage vectors, such as SOMA, to carbon dioxide and methane that might then leak back to the atmosphere.

[0065] Soi / s

[0066] Soil types that may be well-suited for long term storage of SOMA as described herein include those where there is reduced density and activity of soil microbes (which typically decrease below 60 cm soil depth), lower abundance of soil organic matter and other organic carbon substrates (e.g. <17% organic C by weight), lower oxygen content (e.g. in the 1-5% O2 v / v range), and a mineral composition that favors formation of organo-mineral aggregates (OMA), such as the presence of high surface area clays (e.g., vermiculites, smectites or similar) or high surface area non-clay minerals (e.g., allophane or similar). In addition, soils with increased salinity may be suitable because of reduced microbial activity. This may include soils with electrical conductivity above 4 ds / m (deci-siemens per meter) forthe 0-60 cm soil horizon, and above 8 ds / m for the 60-120 cm soil horizon. Selection of suitable soil carbon storage sites may be based on analyses of: (I) microbial composition using standard microbiological methods and molecular biological approaches, such as RNA and DNA sequencing (e.g., using standard 16S sequencing protocols), microbial density assessment (e.g., using spectroscopic cell density measurements, or similar), microbial activity (e.g., by measuring Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP); (II) total organic carbon (TOC) content (e.g., determined by combustion oxidation method); (III) oxygen content (e.g., determined in- situ using appropriate oxygen sensor probe, or as a function of soil bulk density (e.g. soils in the 1.4-1.75 gram per cubic centimeter range would be expected to have lower oxygen content)); (IV) mineral composition (e.g., determined by X-ray diffraction; e.g., as per established soil survey guidelines)); and / or (V) salinity (e.g., determined by electric conductivity measurements, whether in-situ via probes, or using standard laboratory methods and instruments for measuring conductivity). The tools, methods, and protocols to measure parameters used for selection of appropriate soils for storage of organic carbon vectors may be derived from those established and / or standardized in soil science.

[0067] Overall, the soil properties described above that may favor durability of carbon storage vectors (SOMA) tend to be encountered in deeper soil layers (at or below approximately 60 cm depth). A method for emplacement of said SOMA may be selected from, e.g., use of deep soil tillage, or distribution in an aqueous phase (such as via sprinkler systems) that may favor quick percolation to deeper soil layers. Possible modification of soil sites for storage of said carbon storage vectors (SOMA) may include addition of high-surface area minerals, such as clays or similar. Microbial degradation of carbon storage vectors (SOMA) in soils may also be inhibited by using sulfur-based SOMA produced by partial vulcanization processes, as described herein, as they may be less bioavailable to microbial metabolic processes. In an example of SOMA emplacement in soils, the soil is a cultivated soil, and prior testing of SOMA to determine content of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and iron) and undesirable substances such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated compound, may be conducted in accordance with existing protocols and criteria for adding soil amendments, such as biochar (ECB, 2012- 2023). In another example of SOMA emplacement in soils, the soil is an uncultivated and / or degraded soil, whether through natural processes (e.g., salting out) or through human activity (e.g., soils polluted with industrial chemicals; or deposits such as mining tailings; soils that have been depleted of nutrients due to over-cultivation; and others), a less stringent criteria forSOMA addition may be selected, compared to cultivated soils. In such examples, the addition of SOMA may improve the quality of degraded soils, e.g., by increasing the content of organic carbon and nutrients, binding of pollutants to the SOMA matrix, and similar beneficial effects. Therefore, SOMA materials may serve as a part of the reclamation activities on such degraded soils.

[0068] Geological reservoirs

[0069] SOMA produced via the stabilization processes as described herein may be stored as solid particles, or as aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, dispersions, or slurries of organic species in pores of natural reservoirs, or in natural or engineered fracture systems of geological reservoirs. Degradation rates of organic species in pores or fractures of geological reservoirs may be controlled by A) reservoir temperature and / or B) formation water salinity (Head et al., 2014; Head et al., 2003). Reservoir temperatures above approximately 80-90 °C tend to stop or inhibit the activity of microbial populations, such as syntrophic bacteria and methanogenic archaea, a phenomenon referred to herein as geo-pasteurization (Wilhelms et al., 2001). Slower microbial activity generally inhibits or prevents degradation of added carbon storage vectors (SOMA) and thus can extend carbon storage durability. Organic matter in such reservoirs may be preserved over geological timescales (millions of years). Reservoir temperature in any reservoir may be measured using well logging tools or estimated by the formula below:(Eq 3.) where Tz is temperature at depth z; Tsurf is the temperature at the surface, dT / dZ is temperature gradient, and Z is the given depth. A typical thermal gradient in crustal rocks is approx. 30 degrees °C per every kilometer of reservoir depth. Considering a 20° C surface temperature, reservoirs deeper than approx. 2 kilometers depth would commonly be geo-pasteurized and generally suitable for injection of carbon storage vectors for long-term carbon storage, as little microbial degradation would occur. Generally, there are few to no practical and / or economic means of increasing temperature of geological reservoirs at large scale, except finding equivalent reservoirs at greater depths having higher in situ temperature. However, temperature gradients can differ across different geological formations; for example, thermal gradients in northern portions of the Canadian province Alberta can reach up to 45 degrees °C per kilometer, thus permitting geo-pasteurization in somewhat shallower formations. Further, with a wide scale application of thermal recovery methods in the oil sands, and heavy oilreservoirs in Canada, there are many relatively shallow (200-800m depth) reservoirs that have been locally heated by steam or in situ combustion processes to temperatures over 200 degrees °C or higher, and which remain hot for years after the steam injection process has displaced oil from that section of the reservoir. These relatively shallow reservoirs with high porosity and permeability, substantially free from oil, could offer sterile secure places at shallower depths, to store carbon storage vectors (SOMA). These would make easily accessible, low-cost, storage locations for SOMA.

[0070] The temperature needed for sterilization or inhibition of microbial growth in a reservoir may be lower if the formation water salinity is elevated. At salinities greater than 100 g / L dissolved solids, or temperatures greater than 80 °C no significant levels of biological organic matter degradation are expected in the subsurface (Head et al., 2014), and any reservoir in these spaces would be considered an excellent long-term storage setting for injected SOMA carbon storage vectors. The effect of salinity on the durability of SOMA carbon storage vectors in subsurface reservoirs is referred to as geo-pickling. At formation water salinities greater than 50 g / L, and at reservoir temperatures above 30 °C, any reservoir in these spaces would be considered a very good setting for storing stabilized organic material in the subsurface for long time periods. For example, based on the available data from Alberta Energy Regulator (AER, 2016), there are over 50 locations in the Western Canadian Sedimentary basin (WCSB) that intersect reservoirs with pore water salinities that would be suitable for long-term carbon sequestration using such geo-pickling approaches. Reservoir water salinity may generally be determined using well logging tools, direct analysis of water samples from production or well tests, or by centrifuging free water out of conventional core cut with oil-based mud. See Fig. 7.

[0071] Possible reservoir modifications to promote geo-pickling of SOMA carbon storage vectors as described herein may include injecting additional saline water along with the carbon storage vector fluids. Saline waters are commonly present in produced fluids from basins with petroleum production from conventional or unconventional “shale” reservoirs. If reservoir sections do not contain appropriately saline fluids for their reservoir temperature, saline fluids may be manufactured from water and salt, or simply represent recycled waste saline fluids from hydraulic fracturing or other activities that do produce saline fluids from the subsurface. These modifications may minimize degradation rates of organic carbon species in subsurface storage reservoirs and may provide an economic benefit to saline water disposalactivities; for example, by introducing a carbon credit / offset gain, to what would otherwise be cost-incurring activity.

[0072] Beyond temperature and salinity, there are secondary controls on in-reservoir degradation of organic carbon vectors (SOMA) that may be considered when assessing, selecting, or modifying geological reservoirs for carbon sequestration. These include minimizing water saturation in the injection zone. For carbon storage systems as described herein, relatively thin reservoirs (a few meters), may be preferred for organic matter stability, but there may be a trade-off with the injectivity of the reservoir and its relationship to reservoir thickness. In addition, SOMA may be injected at locations with as low injection rates as is economically viable to minimize the extent of mixing of the carbon storage vector containing fluid and any adjacent formation water bodies. Avoiding injection of SOMA carbon storage vectors into reservoirs containing significant concentrations of nitrate ion, or other biologically active electron acceptors such as sulfate, may also be desired. The presence and concentrations of these ions can be estimated from pore water analyses of recovered water samples. Additionally, in this context, possible modification of biologically active carbon storage reservoirs may include the addition of biocide to the injected carbon storage vector carrying fluid, an approach that is routinely used in oil and gas production, and generally involves application of glutaraldehyde, benzalkonium chloride (BAC), cocodiamine, and / or tetrakis hydroxymethyl phosphonium sulfate (THPS); or other biocides (Xue and Voordouw, 2015) and may be combined with a metabolic inhibitor such as molybdate or bromoethane sulfonate (BES) which inhibit sulphate reduction (molybdate) or methanogenesis (BES).

[0073] To gain a better understanding of the invention described herein, the following examples are set forth. It should be understood that these examples are for illustrative purposes only. Therefore, they should not limit the scope of this invention in anyway.

[0074] EXAMPLES

[0075] Demonstrative Example 1 - Production of “green” chemicals coupled with sequestration of SOMA carbon storage vectors in soils

[0076] With reference to FIG. 8, an example of a biomass refining process is depicted involving a reactor that is used to convert wood and agricultural biomass from co-located biomass sources to “green” petrochemical alternatives, and other industrial chemical substitutes for use in health care, agriculture, sustainable plastics, and / or other greenerchemical feedstock alternatives. The conversion process includes a residual stream of waste pulp that amounts to a dominant fraction of the starting biomass feedstock. A stabilization process, as described herein, is used to convert the waste pulp stream into the storable carbon-dense SOMA described herein for long-term sequestration. The SOMA are added back to the soil from which the feedstock biomass is cultivated. This reduces or avoids environmentally negative and costly conventional waste removal (e.g., via landfilling), and potentially creates additional revenue as the subsurface-stored SOMA reduce the carbon footprint of the bio-mass refining, whereby any carbon removal cred its / off sets generated as a result may be directly monetized in voluntary or compliance carbon markets.

[0077] In the bio-refining process depicted in FIG. 8, process conditions (e.g., feedstock type, reaction temperature, time) are selected so as that the cumulative CO2 footprint of all energy and material inputs are lower than the CO2 content captured in the final carbon storage vector product (SOMA), such that the conversion process is net CO2 negative. Table 1 shows a summary of a life cycle analysis performed for the process of converting a waste wood pulp feedstock using ammonium hydroxide as alkali modifier via a hydrothermal treatment at 250 °C and an energy input of 797.18 MJ / ton of feed. The details of the stabilization process include: input feedstock comprising a wood residue biomass having a 35% moisture content; heating at 250 degrees °C with an energy input of about 797.18 MJ / ton of feedstock (at 75% efficiency); and adding 85 L of ammonium hydroxide per ton of feedstock; yielding about 455 kg of SOMA per ton of feedstock input.

[0078] Table 1. Life cycle analysis for waste wood pulp conversion to solid carbon storage vectors using the Maillard initiated stabilization process as described herein.

[0079] Demonstrative Example 2 - Storage of SOMA carbon storage vectors in subsurface geological formations in the Province of Alberta, Canada

[0080] Possible subsurface storage reservoirs for carbon storage vectors as described herein include partly drained petroleum reservoirs, or similar settings whereby porous and permeable reservoirs are largely free of petroleum and fully water saturated. Contrasting reservoirs for subsurface storage of carbon storage vectors include cool shallow reservoirs with low salinity waters, and deeper hotter reservoirs that sometimes contain very saline formation waters. The examples below describe carbon storage vector options for SOMA material storage in a range of subsurface petroleum reservoirs, where some of the petroleum may have been extracted.

[0081] About 170,000 abandoned wells exist in Alberta, representing 37 per cent of all wells in the province (AER, 2013-2022). The Upper Devonian Nisku reef setting, and the Lower Cretaceous Manneville sandstone reservoirs found in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) region of Canada, which is generally regarded as a major oil and gas producing area, are selected as just two examples of potential reservoirs. Organic carbon feedstock from these regions include biomass residues from agriculture and / or forestry sectors. These industries are co-located in the same general region as suitable geological sequestration reservoirs. Also, that WCSB region of northern Alberta is the world’s second largest generator of elemental sulfur, a by-product of oil refining. Approx. 9 million tonnes per year of elemental sulfur is generated, some of it being used for fertilizer or other applications; however, most of it has been accumulating as a low value industrial residue. This supports carbon stabilization via the partial vulcanization process as described herein as a potentially sustainable and scalable alternative to valorize excess elemental sulfur, thereby improving the overall CO2 footprint of large oil and gas operators via generation of high quality, long-term carbon removal credits / offsets. Densified biomass feedstocks are transported to conversion facilities in the vicinity of selected injection sites, where they are processed using the methods and process described herein, and subsequently injected into selected geological formations as solutions and / or slurries via conventional pumping and injection systems already used in oilfieldservicing. Possible modification of reservoir salinity may also be conducted, by (re)using saline formation fluids from concurrent oil and gas production.

[0082] The Upper Devonian (Frasnian) Nisku carbonate reef trend is part of the Winterburn group and is located in west-central Alberta, Canada. These pinnacle reef reservoir systems range from 2-4 km subsurface in depth and locally contain oil and gas, which is commonly associated with saline waters and sometimes H2S (Machel, 2005). Reservoir temperatures can reach over 100°C, with porosities of over 6% and permeabilities of over 50 mD (milli Darcys). The salinity of the formation waters in the Winterburn Group in the Brazeau Area and the surrounding region is very high, ranging from about 120 g / L to more than 240 g / L (TDS = total dissolved solids). Some of the reservoirs are sufficiently hot and saline that little modification of biomass would be needed to support durability of SOMA carbon storage vectors. The reservoirs have effective seals and are locally used for acid gas injection.

[0083] In contrast, the Lloydminster area that straddles the Alberta and Saskatchewan provincial border contains reservoirs which held large amounts of heavy oil, found in multiple zones of thin unconsolidated sandstones, mostly found at a depth of approximately 400- 600 m, in the Lower Cretaceous Manville Formation. The thickness of the Manville sands is up to about 20 m, but most of the oil is found in sands less than 5 m thick. These reservoirs are fine to very fine grained quartzose sand zones with porosities around 30%, average water saturations of around 25%, with low water salinities. Most reservoirs have an average permeability of 1-4 Darcy, and the reservoir temperature ranges from 20 to 30 °C (Coskuner et al., 2015). Cold heavy oil production with sand production (CHOPS) has been effective in recovering some oil, and commonly results in produced reservoirs that have high subsequent water injectivity and storage capacity for injected aqueous fluids. However, the reservoirs contained heavy oil and are a good setting for geological timescale biodegradation (low temperature, low water salinity). Seal quality is low for gases such as CO2 and methane, which would be a product of organic matter degradation in the absence of organic matter stabilization. Storage of SOMA carbon vectors would require modifying organic matter via the SOMA processes described herein and / or altering the reservoir conditions to ensure long-term storage. For example, modification of the injection and reservoir environments by co-injection of more saline fluids and biocides might be considered.

[0084] In one or more examples, the present disclosure generally provides:1. A method of forming a carbon storage vector, the method comprising: providing a feedstock that comprises a reactive saccharide, an amino-functionalized component, and / or an alkenyl-functionalized component; thermally treating the feedstock; and forming a carbon storage vector.2. The method of example 1 , further comprising pre-treating the feedstock, the pretreating comprising pyrolysis, ionizing radiation treatment, or a combination thereof.3. The method of example 1 or 2, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating at a temperature of >159°C; or at a temperature between >159°C to about 600 °C, or between about 160°C to about 550 °C, or between about 180°C to about 550 °C. In one or more embodiments, the thermal treatment comprises low temperature pyrolysis. Low temperature pyrolysis and / or slow pyrolysis may be selected to support - if not promote - crosslinking reactions, condensation reactions, etc. Low temperature pyrolysis and / or slow pyrolysis may be selected to maintain higher molecular weight compounds making up the feedstock, and / or to form higher molecular weight compounds from the feedstock via the crosslinking reactions, condensation reactions, etc. Maintaining and / or creating higher molecular weight compounds may aid in the recalcitrance of subsequently formed SOMA. Low temperature pyrolysis and / or slow pyrolysis may be selected over fast pyrolysis, as fast pyrolysis tends to promote volatilization of feedstock components, and / or the thermal breakdown / degradation of the feedstock into lower molecular weight compounds.4. The method of any one of examples 1 to 3, wherein the feedstock comprises nonfossilized organic material.5. The method of any one of examples 1 to 4, wherein, when the feedstock comprises a reactive saccharide and an amino-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises the reactive saccharide reacting with the amino-functionalized component; and forming a mixture comprising melanoidins.6. The method of any one of examples 1 to 5, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under alkaline conditions.7. The method of any one of examples 1 to 6, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under aqueous conditions.8. The method of any one of examples 1 to 7, wherein the reactive saccharide comprises starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.9. The method of any one of examples 1 to 8, wherein the amino-functionalized component comprises amino-functionalized saccharides, proteins, amino acids, or derivatives thereof, or a combination thereof.10. The method of any one of examples 1 to 9, wherein the amino-functionalized saccharides comprises amino-functionalized starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.11. The method of any one of examples 1 to 10, wherein the amino-functionalized component comprises ammonium hydroxide, ammonia, or a combination thereof.12. The method of any one of examples 1 to 11 , wherein the feedstock further comprises a hydroxyl-functionalized component, and thermally treating the feedstock further comprises the mixture comprising melanoidins reacting with the hydroxyl-functionalized component.13. The method of any one of examples 1 to 12, wherein the hydroxyl-functionalized component comprises phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combination thereof; or phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combination thereof derived from ester-functionalized components. In one or more embodiments, the ester-functionalized components comprise glycerides, triglycerides, vegetable oils, animal fats, seed oils, or a combination thereof.14. The method of any one of examples 1 to 13, wherein the phenols are derived from lignin in the feedstock.15. The method of any one of examples 1 to 14, wherein the carboxylic acids and / or alcohols are derived from lipids in the feedstock.16. The method of any one of examples 1 to 15, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average double bond equivalent between about 0 to about 45. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises an average double bond equivalent between about 0 to about 45 as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average double bond equivalent between about 0 to about 45 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.17. The method of any one of examples 1 to 16, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1 as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratioof about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.18. The method of any one of examples 1 to 17, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5 as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.19. The method of any one of examples 1 to 18, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2 as measured by high- resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.20. The method of any one of examples 1 to 19, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.21. The method of any one of examples 1 to 20, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.22. The method of any one of examples 1 to 21 , wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.23. The method of any one of examples 1 to 22, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.24. The method of any one of examples 1 to 23, further comprising post-treating the carbon storage vector, the post-treatment comprising thermally treating the carbon storage vector in the presence of elemental sulfur; and forming a vulcanized carbon storage vector.25. The method of example 24, wherein thermally treating the carbon storage vector comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.26. The method of example 24 or 25, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises disulfide crosslinks.27. The method of any one of examples 1 to 26, wherein, when the feedstock comprises an alkenyl-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur and vulcanizing the alkenyl- functionalized component. In one or more embodiments, the alkenyl-functionalized component comprises unsaturated lipids, alkenyl-rich biomass, pyrolysis oils, or a combination thereof.28. The method of example 27, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.29. The method of example 27 or 28, wherein thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur comprises the elemental sulfur reacting with the alkenyl-functionalized component.30. The method of any one of examples 27 to 29, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.31. The method of any one of examples 27 to 30, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.32. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of examples 1 to 26.33. The vector of example 32, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a hydrogen- to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1 as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1 .1 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.34. The vector of example 32 or 33, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about0.5. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5 as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.35. The vector of any one of examples 32 to 34, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2 as measured by high- resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2 exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.36. The vector of any one of examples 32 to 35, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da. In one or more embodiments, the carbon storage vector comprises the carbon storage vector comprises an average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da as measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. In one or more embodiments, the average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da exhibited by the carbon storage vector is a result of the complex, functionalized and / or polymerized organic compounds that the vector is composed of.37. The vector of any one of examples 32 to 36, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.58. The vector of any one of examples 32 to 37, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.38. The vector of any one of examples 32 to 38, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.39. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of examples 27 to 31.40. The vector of example 40, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.41. The vector of example 40 or 41 , wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.42. A method of storing carbon, the method comprising assessing a sequestration site; optionally modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector; and sequestering the carbon storage vector of any one of examples 32 to 42 in the sequestration site.43. The storing method of example 43, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.44. The storing method of example 43 or 44, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.45. The storing method of any one of examples 43 to 45, wherein the sequestration site comprises high concentrations of salt, a temperature >80 °C, or a combination thereof.46. The storing method of any one of examples 43 to 46, wherein assessing a sequestration site comprises assessing the site for: microbes; salinity; concentration of dissolved oxygen; concentration of total organic carbon; mineral composition; water saturation; nitrate concentration; sulfate concentration; and / or temperature.47. The storing method of any one of examples 43 to 47, wherein, if modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector, the modifying comprises increasing site salinity by adding salt or more saline water; and / or decreasing microbe activity by adding biocides.48. The storing method of any one of examples 43 to 48, wherein sequestering the carbon storage vector in the sequestration site comprises sequestering the vector in soils at a depth of at least 60 cm; or sequestering the vector in a geological reservoir at a depth between about 200m to about 6 km; or sequestering the vector in an oceanic reservoir. In one or more embodiments, the oceanic reservoir is at a depth below the photic zone. In one or more embodiments, the photic zone is at a depth of 0 m to 200 m from the ocean surface. In one or more embodiments, the oceanic reservoir is at a depth greater than 200 m from the ocean surface.49. A method of modifying a property of a carbon storage vector, the method comprising contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector to modify a property of the carbon storage vector.50. The method of example 50, wherein the oxidant comprises a peroxide.51. The method of example 50 or 51 , wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting for > 24 hours; < 1min to about 24 hours; about <1 min to about 12 hours; about <1 min to about 8 hours; about <1 min to about 4hours; about <1 min to about 2 hours; or about < 1 hour.52. The method of example any one of 50 to 52, wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting at ambient temperature; or above ambient temperature.53. The method of example any one of 50 to 52, wherein the property is water solubility, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector comprises increasing water solubility of the carbon storage vector.55. A method of determining a carbon offset, the method comprising performing a feedstock-refining process; performing a life-cycle analysis of the feedstock-refining process, and determining the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstock-refining process; performing the method of any one of examples 1 to 31 on organic waste produced by the feedstock-refining process, and producing a carbon storage vector; performing a life-cycle analysis on the carbon storage vector, and determining the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; determining the differential between the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstock-refining process and the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; and translating the differential into a carbon offset. In one or more embodiments, the feedstock-refining process comprises delignification. In one or more embodiments, translating the differential into a carbon offset comprises a calculation based on the life-cycle analysis, wherein [total CO2 equivalents related to production and storage of carbon storage vector] MINUS [CO2 equivalents contained in unit mass of carbon storage vector] = carbon offset.56. The method of example 55, wherein the carbon offset is a saleable carbon credit. In one or more embodiments, the carbon credit is an intangible asset that may be traded or purchased to off-set carbon emissions. In one or more embodiments, the carbon credit becomes saleable on the carbon market. In one or more embodiments, the carbon credit is bought and / or sold via a carbon broker representing a company who has put out a request for carbon credits to offset their emissions. In one or more embodiments, the company purchases the intangible asset that is the carbon credit - for example, via the carbon broker - to offset the carbon emissions of their own processes.57. The method of example 55 or 56, wherein performing the life-cycle analysis comprises performing life-cycle data analysis on a computer. In one or more embodiments, performingthe life-cycle analysis comprises using a life-cycle analysis software to perform the data analysis. In one or more embodiments, performing the life-cycle analysis comprises using a spreadsheet program to perform the data analysis.

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[0112] The embodiments described herein are intended to be examples only. Alterations, modifications, and / or variations can be effected to the particular embodiments by those of skill in the art. The scope of the claims should not be limited by the particular embodiments set forth herein, but should be construed in a manner consistent with the specification as a whole.

[0113] The aspects, embodiments, and / or examples of the present disclosure being thus described, it should be recognized that said aspects, embodiments, and / or examples may be varied in ways that do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, and that said variations are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.

[0114] All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

Claims

We Claim:1 . A method of forming a carbon storage vector, the method comprising: providing a feedstock that comprises a reactive saccharide, an amino-functionalized component, and / or an alkenyl-functionalized component; thermally treating the feedstock; and forming a carbon storage vector.

2. The method of claim 1 , further comprising pre-treating the feedstock, the pre-treating comprising pyrolysis, ionizing radiation treatment, or a combination thereof.

3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating at a temperature of >159°C; or at a temperature between >159°C to about 600 °C, or between about 160°C to about 550 °C, or between about 180°C to about 550 °C.

4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the feedstock comprises non-fossilized organic material.

5. The method of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein, when the feedstock comprises a reactive saccharide and an amino-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises the reactive saccharide reacting with the amino-functionalized component; and forming a mixture comprising melanoidins.

6. The method of any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under alkaline conditions.

7. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating under aqueous conditions.

8. The method of any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein the reactive saccharide comprises starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

9. The method of any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the amino-functionalized component comprises amino-functionalized saccharides, proteins, amino acids, or derivatives thereof, or a combination thereof.

10. The method of any one of claims 1 to 9, wherein the amino-functionalized saccharides comprises amino-functionalized starch, glycogen, galactogen, cellulose, chitin, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

11. The method of any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein the amino-functionalized component comprises ammonium hydroxide, ammonia, or a combination thereof.

12. The method of any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the feedstock further comprises a hydroxyl-functionalized component, and thermally treating the feedstock further comprises the mixture comprising melanoidins reacting with the hydroxyl-functionalized component.

13. The method of any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein the hydroxyl-functionalized component comprises phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combination thereof; or phenols, carboxylic acids, alcohols, or a combination thereof derived from ester- functionalized components in the feedstock.

14. The method of any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the phenols are derived from lignin in the feedstock.

15. The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the carboxylic acids and / or alcohols are derived from lipids in the feedstock.

16. The method of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average double bond equivalent between about 0 to about 45.

17. The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average hydrogen-to-carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1 ; less than about 1 ; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1.

18. The method of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average oxygen-to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5.

19. The method of any one of claims 1 to 18, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2.

20. The method of any one of claims 1 to 19, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an average molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da.

21. The method of any one of claims 1 to 20, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.

22. The method of any one of claims 1 to 21 , wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.

23. The method of any one of claims 1 to 22, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.

24. The method of any one of claims 1 to 23, further comprising post-treating the carbon storage vector, the post- treatment comprising thermally treating the carbon storage vector in the presence of elemental sulfur; and forming a vulcanized carbon storage vector.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein thermally treating the carbon storage vector comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.

26. The method of claim 24 or 25, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises disulfide crosslinks.

27. The method of any one of claims 1 to 26, wherein, when the feedstock comprises an alkenyl-functionalized component, thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur, andvulcanizing the alkenyl-functionalized component.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein thermally treating the feedstock comprises thermally treating the carbon storage vector at temperature >159°C.

29. The method of claim 27 or 28, wherein thermally treating the feedstock in the presence of elemental sulfur comprises the elemental sulfur reacting with the alkenyl-functionalized component.

30. The method of any one of claims 27 to 29, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.

31. The method of any one of claims 27 to 30, wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.

32. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of claims 1 to 26.

33. The vector of claim 32, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a hydrogen-to- carbon (H / C) molar ratio of about 1; less than about 1; or of about 0.5 to about 1.1.

34. The vector of claim 32 or 33, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises an oxygen- to-carbon (O / C) molar ratio of about 0.5; of less than about 0.5; or about 0.2 to about 0.5.

35. The vector of any one of claims 32 to 34, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a nitrogen-to-carbon (N / C) molar ratio of about 0 to about 0.2.

36. The vector of any one of claims 32 to 35, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises a molecular weight of about 200 Da to about 700 Da.

37. The vector of any one of claims 32 to 36, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises volatile carbon at a wt% of <30wt%, or <25wt%.

38. The vector of any one of claims 32 to 37, wherein the carbon storage vector comprises refractory carbon at a wt% of >70wt%; or >80wt%.

39. The vector of any one of claims 32 to 38, wherein the carbon storage vector exhibits a subsurface durability of >100 years; or >140 years.

40. A carbon storage vector formed by the method of any one of claims 27 to 31 .

41. The vector of claim 40, wherein the carbon storage vector is a vulcanized carbon storage vector comprising disulfide crosslinks.

42. The vector of claim 40 or 41 , wherein the vulcanized carbon storage vector comprises between <1wt% to about 50 wt% sulfur, or about 5wt% to 50wt% sulfur, or >50wt% sulfur.

43. A method of storing carbon, the method comprising assessing a sequestration site; optionally modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector; and sequestering the carbon storage vector of any one of claims 32 to 42 in the sequestration site.

44. The storing method of claim 43, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.

45. The storing method of claim 43 or 44, wherein the sequestration site is a soil, a geological reservoir, or an oceanic water body reservoir.

46. The storing method of any one of claims 43 to 45, wherein the sequestration site comprises high concentrations of salt, a temperature >80 °C, or a combination thereof.

47. The storing method of any one of claims 43 to 46, wherein assessing a sequestration site comprises assessing the site for: microbes;salinity; concentration of dissolved oxygen; concentration of total organic carbon; mineral composition; water saturation; nitrate concentration; sulfate concentration; and / or temperature.

48. The storing method of any one of claims 43 to 47, wherein, if modifying properties of the sequestration site for preparing the site to receive a carbon storage vector, the modifying comprises increasing site salinity by adding salt or more saline water; and / or decreasing microbe activity by adding biocides.

49. The storing method of any one of claims 43 to 48, wherein sequestering the carbon storage vector in the sequestration site comprises sequestering the vector in soils at a depth of at least 60 cm; or sequestering the vector in a geological reservoir at a depth between about 200m to about 6 km; or sequestering the vector in an oceanic reservoir.

50. A method of modifying a property of a carbon storage vector, the method comprising contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector to modify a property of the carbon storage vector.

51. The method of claim 50, wherein the oxidant comprises a peroxide.

52. The method of claim 50 or 51 , wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting for > 24 hours; < 1min to about 24 hours; about <1 min to about 12 hours; about <1 min to about 8 hours; about <1 min to about 4hours; about <1 min to about 2 hours; or about < 1 hour.

53. The method of claim any one of 50 to 52, wherein contacting the carbon storage vector with an oxidant comprises contacting at ambient temperature; or above ambient temperature.

54. The method of claim any one of 50 to 52, wherein the property is water solubility, and oxidizing at least a portion of the carbon storage vector comprises increasing water solubility of the carbon storage vector.

55. A method of determining a carbon offset, the method comprising performing a feedstock-refining process; performing a life-cycle analysis of the feedstock-refining process, and determining the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstock-refining process; performing the method of any one of claims 1 to 31 on organic waste produced by the feedstock-refining process, and producing a carbon storage vector; performing a life-cycle analysis on the carbon storage vector, and determining the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; determining the differential between the concentration of CO2 emitted by the feedstockrefining process and the concentration of CO2 stored in the carbon storage vector; and translating the differential into a carbon offset.

56. The method of claim 55, wherein the carbon offset is a saleable carbon credit.

57. The method of claim 55 or 56, wherein performing the life-cycle analysis comprises performing life-cycle data analysis on a computer.

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