Particle injectors and methods of use thereof

Abstract

Disclosed herein are particle injectors, such as for particle beam and / or particle accelerator devices, and methods of use thereof. Particle injectors comprise an injection stage, where the source of plurality of particles flow along a path away from the injection stage, and an ionization stage, where an ionization laser ionized the plurality of particles and the plurality of particles are directed downstream from the ionization stage.

Description

10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 PARTICLE INJECTORS AND METHODS OF USE THEREOF CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application 63 / 558,799, filed February 28, 2024, and U.S. Provisional Application 63 / 710,780, filed October 23, 2024, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND

[0002] Various devices or experiments require a source of nanoparticles mixed with gas. One such device, for instance, is a nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator (NA-LWFA). In a nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator, the nanoparticles are produced directly inside the gas target (GT) through laser ablation of various materials. SUMMARY

[0003] The geometry of existing nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerators may be less flexible than would be beneficial because the source of nanoparticles is locked inside the gas target. Particle injectors with more flexible conditions and geometry are beneficial. The devices, methods, and systems discussed herein address these and other benefits.

[0004] In accordance with the purposes of the disclosed devices, methods, and systems as embodied and broadly described herein, the disclosed subject matter relates to particle injectors, such as for particle beam device, particle accelerator devices, or both, and methods of use thereof. Applicant has recognized that there is an unmet need for new methods and uses of particle injectors. Methods and uses of the present disclosure may be used to further particle acceleration technology by allowing for increased research opportunity in the field.

[0005] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a particle injector for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both. The particle injector may comprise an injection stage comprising a source of a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for particle flow, and wherein the path is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage and an ionization stage comprising an ionization laser, wherein the ionization laser is configured to ionize the plurality of particles, and wherein ionized particles are configured to be directed to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization stage. In some embodiments, the particle injector is configured for a particle accelerator, particle beam device, or both.

[0006] In some embodiments, the injection stage comprises a solid target and an ablation laser, wherein the ablation laser is configured to interact with the solid target to form a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, and wherein the10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 fluid is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage. In some embodiments, the acceleration region and the ionization stage are within a common spatial region.

[0007] In some embodiments, the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles are nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the particles have a substantially spherical shape.

[0008] In some embodiments, the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser. In some embodiments, the ionization stage and the injection stage are located in spatially distinct locations. In some embodiments, the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed. In some embodiments, the fluid flows through a wall consisting of multiple surfaces. In some embodiments, the wall consists of a fluid low inlet, a chamber, a window, and a fluid flow outlet, wherein the inlet, outlet, and window are situated on different surfaces. In some embodiments, the inlet is configured to receive a fluid, wherein the chamber comprises a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber is configured to carry the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet, and wherein the fluid flow travels downstream to the ionization stage. In some embodiments, the fluid flow comprises a gas. In some embodiments, the gas comprises helium. In some embodiments, the chamber contains the target. In some embodiments, the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion. In some embodiments, the target is removable, replaceable, or both. In some embodiments, the window is located on the surface between the ablation laser and the target, and wherein the target is on a surface opposite and spaced apart so as to allow fluid flow between.

[0009] In some embodiments, the ablation laser passes through the window to interact with the target. In some embodiments, the ablation laser passes through a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target. In some embodiments, the focusing element comprises a lens. In some embodiments, the ionization laser is configured to interact with the particles and fluid material after the particle and fluid material have passed out of the outlet. In some embodiments, the ionized articles and fluid are configured to flow to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization and injection stages.

[0010] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for injecting particles for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both. The method may comprise: (a) at a first location, ablating of a solid target with an ablation laser, thereby forming particles; (b) transporting the10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 particles via a fluid flow from the first location to a second location, wherein the first location and the second location are distinct; (c) at the second location, ionizing the particles ablated in (a) and fluid material with an ionization laser to form ionized material and free electrons; and (d) accelerating the particles ionized in (c), fluid material, and free electrons.

[0011] In some embodiments, the method step (a) further comprises (i) ablating the solid target with the laser beam to generate a particle within a chamber, (ii) injecting a fluid into the inlet, and (iii) flowing the fluid through the chamber, thereby transporting the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet. In some embodiments, the fluid is a gas. In some embodiments, the gas comprises helium. In some embodiments, the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the particles are nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the particles have a substantially spherical shape. In some embodiments, the chamber contains the target. In some embodiments, the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion. In some embodiments, the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

[0012] In some embodiments, the method step (c) further comprises bombarding the fluid material and particles, thereby producing ions of the fluid material, particle ions, and the free electrons. In some embodiments, the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser. In some embodiments, the method step (d) further comprises accelerating the particles and electrons by a suitable method. In some embodiments, the method step (d) occurs in a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

[0013] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a particle injector for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both. The particle injector comprises a chamber defined by a wall; the wall defining an inlet and an outlet, the chamber fluidly connecting the inlet to the outlet; the wall further defining a window; a target disposed within the chamber opposite and spaced apart from the window; wherein when assembled together with an ablation laser disposed outside the chamber and configured to generate a laser beam, then the laser beam traverses the window to ablate the target, thereby generating a particle within the chamber from the target; wherein the window comprises a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam; wherein the chamber provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet that traverses the laser beam.

[0014] In some embodiments, the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion, for example to provide access for removing the target, replacing the target, or both. In some embodiments, the particle injector further comprises10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both. In some embodiments, the focusing element comprises a lens.

[0015] In some embodiments, the target is removable, replaceable, or both. In some embodiments, the target comprises a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the target comprises a metal. In some embodiments, the target comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0016] In some embodiments, the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 100 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm. In some embodiments, the particle has a substantially spherical shape. In some embodiments, the particle is a single particle. In some embodiments, the particle is a plurality of particles.

[0017] In some embodiments, the particle injector further comprises the ablation laser. In some embodiments, the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed. In some embodiments, the inlet is configured to receive a gas, the chamber providing path for gas flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the gas flowing through the chamber carries the particle and gas out of the chamber through the outlet. In some embodiments, the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some embodiments, the gas comprises helium.

[0018] In some embodiments, a method is implemented comprising using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both. In some embodiments, the method comprises ablating the target with the laser beam to generate a particle within the chamber, injecting a gas into the inlet and flowing the gas through the chamber, such that the gas flowing through the chamber carries the particle and gas out of the chamber through the outlet. In some embodiments, the method gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some embodiments, the method gas comprises helium.

[0019] In some embodiments, the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises the particle injector. In some embodiments, the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises an aerodynamic lens device. In some embodiments, the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator. In some embodiments, the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

[0020] In some embodiments, the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises: an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, the gas target being upstream from the particle10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 injector; the accelerator chamber being configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein; wherein the accelerator chamber is configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave (e.g., a wakefield) comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons; and wherein the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield.

[0021] In some embodiments, the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that is greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle. In some embodiments, the particle comprises a metallic particle. In some embodiments, the metallic particle comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 100 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm. In some embodiments, the particle has a substantially spherical shape. In some embodiments, the particle is a single particle. In some embodiments, the particle is a plurality of particles. In some embodiments, the gas comprises helium. In some embodiments, the pulse comprises a laser pulse. In some embodiments, the device further comprises a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse. In some embodiments, the gas target comprises a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both. In some embodiments, the gas target comprises a gas nozzle.

[0022] In some embodiments, a method of generating an electron beam using the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both is implemented. In some embodiments, a method of using the electron beam generated is implemented. In some embodiments, a method of accelerating an electron using the device is implemented. In some embodiments, a method of using the accelerated electron generated is implemented.

[0023] Additional advantages of the disclosed devices, systems, and methods will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description. The advantages of the disclosed devices, systems, and methods will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the disclosed devices, systems, and methods, as claimed.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0024] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such contradictory material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0025] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also “Figure” and “FIG.” herein), of which:

[0026] Figure 1A is a three-dimensional view of the nanoparticle injector.

[0027] Figure 1B is a section view of the nanoparticle injector with numbered elements.

[0028] Figure 2 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0029] Figure 3 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0030] Figure 4 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0031] Figure 5 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0032] Figure 6 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0033] Figure 7 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0034] Figure 8 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0035] Figure 9 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0036] Figure 10 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0037] Figure 11 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0038] Figure 12 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0039] Figure 13 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0040] Figure 14 is a schematic illustration of an example particle injector as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0041] Figure 15 is a schematic illustration of a side view an example asymmetric nozzle as disclosed herein according to one embodiment.

[0042] Figure 16 is a schematic illustration of another view of the example asymmetric nozzle of Figure 15.

[0043] Figure 17 is a schematic illustration of a plan view of the example asymmetric nozzle of Figure 15 and Figure 16.

[0044] Figure 18 is a schematic illustration of a plan view of the example asymmetric nozzle of Figure 15 and Figure 16.

[0045] Figure 19 is a schematic illustration of an example asymmetric nozzle as disclosed herein according to one embodiment with a wire coupled to the outlet.

[0046] Figure 20 is a schematic illustration of a plan view of the example asymmetric nozzle of Figure 19. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0047] The devices, methods, and systems described herein may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of specific aspects of the disclosed subject matter and the Examples included therein. In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will be made to a number of terms, which shall be defined to have the following meanings.

[0048] Whenever the term “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0049] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0050] Certain inventive embodiments herein contemplate numerical ranges. When ranges are present, the ranges include the range endpoints. Additionally, every sub range and value within the range is present as if explicitly written out.

[0051] The term “about” or “approximately” may mean within an acceptable error range for the particular value, which will depend in part on how the value is measured or determined, e.g., the limitations of the measurement system. For example, “about” may mean within 1 or more than 1 standard deviation, per the practice in the art. Alternatively, “about” may mean a range of up to 20%, up to 10%, up to 5%, or up to 1% of a given value. Where particular values are described in the application and claims, unless otherwise stated the term “about” meaning within an acceptable error range for the particular value may be assumed. PARTICLE INJECTORS

[0052] Disclosed herein are particle injectors for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

[0053] In some examples, a particle injector for a particle accelerator, particle beam device, or both may comprise an injection stage and an ionization stage. In some examples, the injection stage may comprise a source of a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for particle flow, and wherein the path may be configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage. In some examples, the ionization stage may comprise an ionization laser which may be configured to ionize both the particle and fluid material. In some examples, the ionized particles and fluid material may be configured to be directed to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization stage.

[0054] For example, referring now to Figure 2 – Figure 5, disclosed herein may be a particle injector 1000 for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the particle injector 1000 comprising a chamber 1002 defined by a wall 1004. In some examples, the wall 1004 may define an inlet 1006 and an outlet 1008. In some examples, the chamber 1002 may fluidly connect the inlet 1006 to the outlet 1008. In some examples, the wall 1004 may further define a window 1010. In some examples, the particle injector may further comprise a target 1012 disposed within the chamber 1002 opposite and spaced apart from the window 1010.

[0055] In some examples, when assembled together with an ablation laser 1014 disposed outside the chamber 1002 and configured to generate a laser beam 1016, the laser beam 1016 may traverse the window 1010 to ablate the target 1012, thereby generating a particle 1018 within the chamber 1002 from the target 1012. In some examples, the window 1010 may comprise a10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 material that may be substantially transparent to the laser beam 1016. In some examples, the chamber 1002 may provide a path for fluid flow from the inlet 1006 to the outlet 1008 that traverses the laser beam 1016.

[0056] In some examples, the chamber 1002 may comprise a top portion 1002a and a bottom portion 1002b, the top portion 1002a being separable from the bottom portion 1002b, for example to provide access for removing the target, replacing the target, or both 1012.

[0057] Referring now to Figure 4 and Figure 5, in some examples the particle injector 1000 may further comprise a focusing element 1020 configured to focus the laser beam 1016 onto the target 1012, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both 1010. In some examples, the focusing element 1020 may comprise a lens. In some examples, the target 1012 may be removable, replaceable, or both.

[0058] In some examples, the target 1012 can comprise any suitable material. In some examples, the target 1012 can comprise a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. In some examples, the target 1012 can, for example, comprise a semiconductor, a ceramic, a transparent conducing oxide, a polymer, a carbon material, a metal , an alloy, a nitride, an oxide, a silicide, a germanide, a carbide, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0059] In some examples, the target 1012 can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0060] In some examples, the target 1012 may comprise a metal. In some examples, the target 1012 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the target 1012 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0061] In some examples, the particle 1018 may be made of the ablated target 1012.

[0062] In some examples, a particle and the particle may include any number of particles in any arrangement. In some examples, the particle 1018 may be a single particle. In some examples, the particle 1018 may be a plurality of particles, such as 2 or more; 3 or more; 4 or more; 5 or more; 10 or more; 15 or more; 20 or more; 25 or more; 30 or more; 40 or more; 50 or more; 75 or more; 100 or more; 150 or more; 200 or more; 250 or more; 300 or more; 400 or more; 500 or more; 750 or more; 1000 or more; 1500 or more; 2000 or more; 2500 or more; 3000 or more;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 4000 or more; 5000 or more; 7500 or more; 1 × 104or more; 2.5 × 104or more; 5 × 104or more; 7.5 × 104or more; 1 × 105or more; 2.5 × 105or more; 5× 105or more; 7.5 × 105or more; 1 × 106or more; 5 × 106or more; 1 × 107or more; 5 × 107or more; 1 × 108or more; 5 × 108or more; 1 × 109or more; 5 × 109or more; 1 × 1010or more; 1 × 1011or more; 1 × 1012or more; 1 × 1013or morel 1 × 1014or more; 1 × 1015or more; 1 × 1016or more; 1 × 1017or more; 1 × 1018or more; 1 × 1019or more; or 1 × 1020or more.

[0063] In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise any suitable material. In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle 1018 can, for example, comprise a semiconductor, a ceramic, a transparent conducing oxide, a polymer, a carbon material, a metal , an alloy, a nitride, an oxide, a silicide, a germanide, a carbide, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0064] In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0065] In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise a metal. In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0066] In some examples, the particle 1018 can have an average particle size. “Average particle size” and “mean particle size” are used interchangeably herein, and generally refer to the statistical mean particle size of the particles in a population of particles. In some examples, the average particle size for a plurality of particles with a substantially spherical shape can comprise the average diameter of the plurality of particles. In some examples, the particle with a substantially spherical shape, the diameter of a particle can be a hydrodynamic diameter. In some examples, the hydrodynamic diameter of a particle can be the largest linear distance between two points on the surface of the particle. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by scanning electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by transmission electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by atomic force microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 measured by x-ray microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by dynamic light scattering.

[0067] In some examples, the particle 1018 can have an average particle size of about 1 nanometer (nm) or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 2 nm or more, about 3 nm or more, about 4 nm or more, about 5 nm or more, about 6 nm or more, about 7 nm or more, about 8 nm or more, about 9 nm or more, about 10 nm or more, about 15 nm or more, about 20 nm or more, about 25 nm or more, about 30 nm or more, about 35 nm or more, about 40 nm or more, about 45 nm or more, about 50 nm or more, about 60 nm or more, about 70 nm or more, about 80 nm or more, about 90 nm or more, about 100 nm or more, about 125 nm or more, about 150 nm or more, about 175 nm or more, about 200 nm or more, about 225 nm or more, about 250 nm or more, about 300 nm or more, about 350 nm or more, about 400 nm or more, about 450 nm or more, about 500 nm or more, about 600 nm or more, about 700 nm or more, about 800 nm or more, about 900 nm or more, about 1 micrometers (microns, µm) or more, about 1.25 µm or more, about 1.5 µm or more, about 1.75 µm or more, about 2 µm or more, about 2.5 µm or more, about 3 µm or more, about 3.5 µm or more, about 4 µm or more, about 4.5 µm or more, about 5 µm or more, about 6 µm or more, about 7 µm or more, about 8 µm or more, about 9 µm or more, about 10 µm or more. In some examples, the particle 1018 can have an average particle size of about 10 micrometers (microns, µm) or less. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 9 µm or less, about 8 µm or less, about 7 µm or less, about 6 µm or less, about 5 µm or less, about 4.5 µm or less, about 4 µm or less, about 3.5 µm or less, about 3 µm or less, about 2.5 µm or less, about 2 µm or less, about 1.75 µm or less, about 1.5 µm or less, about 1.25 µm or less, about 1 µm or less, about 900 nm or less, about 800 nm or less, about 700 nm or less, about 600 nm or less, about 500 nm or less, about 450 nm or less, about 400 nm or less, about 350 nm or less, about 300 nm or less, about 250 nm or less, about 225 nm or less, about 200 nm or less, about 175 nm or less, about 150 nm or less, about 125 nm or less, about 100 nm or less, about 90 nm or less, about 80 nm or less, about 70 nm or less, about 60 nm or less, about 50 nm or less, about 45 nm or less, about 40 nm or less, about 35 nm or less, about 30 nm or less, about 25 nm or less, about 20 nm or less, about 15 nm or less, about 10 nm or less, about 9 nm or less, about 8 nm or less, about 7 nm or less, about 6 nm or less, about 5 nm or less, about 4 nm or less, about 3 nm or less, or about 2 nm or less. In some examples, the average particle size of the particle 1018 can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. In some examples, the particle 1018 can have an average particle size of from about 1 nanometer (nm) to about 10 micrometers (microns, µm). In some examples, the particle10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 can have an average particle size of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 10 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 1000 nm, from about 1000 nm to about 10 µm, from about 10 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 9 µm, from about 10 nm to about 9 µm, or from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm. In some examples, the particle 1018 can have an average particle size of from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm, or from about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

[0068] In some examples, the particle 1018 can be substantially monodisperse. “Monodisperse” and “homogeneous size distribution,” as used herein, and generally describe a population of particles where all of the particles are the same or nearly the same size. In some examples, the monodisperse distribution may refer to particle distributions in which 80% of the distribution, 85% of the distribution, 90% of the distribution, or 95% of the distribution lie within 25% of the median particle size, within 20% of the median particle size, within 15% of the median particle size, within 10% of the median particle size, or within 5% of the median particle size.

[0069] In some examples, the particle 1018 can comprise a particle of any shape. In some examples, the shape may be a sphere, a rod, a quadrilateral, an ellipse, a triangle, a polygon, etc.. In some examples, the particle 1018 can have a regular shape, an irregular shape, an isotropic shape, or an anisotropic shape. In some examples, the particle 1018 may have a substantially spherical shape.

[0070] In some examples, the particle injector 1000 may further comprise the ablation laser 1014.

[0071] In some examples, the ablation laser 1014 can comprise any suitable laser. In some examples, the ablation laser 1014 may be a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam 1016 may be pulsed. In some examples, the pulse duration can be nanoseconds, picoseconds, or femtoseconds long.

[0072] In some examples, the fluid is a gas.

[0073] In some examples, the inlet 1006 may be configured to receive a gas, the chamber 1002 providing path for gas flow from the inlet 1006 to the outlet 1008, such that the gas flowing through the chamber 1002 carries the particle 1018 and gas out of the chamber 1002 through the outlet 1008.

[0074] In some examples, the gas may be provided to the chamber 1002 at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 0.01 PSI to about 25 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 25 PSI to about 50 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 50 PSI to about 75 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 75 PSI to about 100 PSI. In some examples,10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 the gas pressure may be from about 100 PSI to about 200 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 200 PSI to about 300 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 300 PSI to about 400 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 400 PSI to about 500 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 500 PSI to about 600 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 600 PSI to about 700 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 700 PSI to about 800 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 800 PSI to about 900 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 900 PSI to about 1000 PSI.

[0075] In some examples, the gas may be any suitable gas. In some examples, the gas may comprise hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and the like, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the low-density gas may comprise helium.

[0076] Referring now to Figure 6 – Figure 14, disclosed herein is a particle injector 2000 for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the particle injector 2000 comprising an ablation stage 2100 and an ionization stage 2200, the ablation stage 2100 being upstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage 2200.

[0077] In some examples, the ablation stage 2100 can comprise a solid target 2112 and an ablation laser 2114, wherein the ablation laser 2114 is configured to ablate the solid target 2112 to form a particle 2118. In some examples, the ablation stage 2100 can further comprise a path for fluid flow 2120, such that fluid flow through the ablation stage 2100 is configured to carry the particle 2118 away from the ablation stage 2100 to the ionization stage 2200.

[0078] In some examples, the ionization stage 2200 can comprise an ionization laser 2202 configured to ionize the particle 2118 and fluid received from the ablation stage 2100, thereby forming ionized particles and ionized fluid. In some examples, the ionization stage 2200 can further comprise a path for fluid flow 2220, such that fluid flow through the ionization stage 2200 is configured to carry the ionized particle and ionized fluid away from the ionization stage 2200 to an acceleration stage 2300, the acceleration stage 2300 being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage 2200.

[0079] In some examples, the ionization laser 2202 may be distinct from the ablation laser 2114.

[0080] In some examples, the ionization stage 2200 and the ablation stage 2100 may be located in spatially distinct physical locations.

[0081] In some examples, the ablation stage 2100 can comprise a chamber 2102 defined by a wall 2104. In some examples, the wall 2104 can define an inlet 2106 and an outlet 2108. In some examples, the chamber 2102 can fluidly connect the inlet 2106 to the outlet 2108. In some examples, the wall 2104 can further define a window 2110. In some examples, the solid target10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 2112 can be disposed within the chamber 2102, such as opposite and spaced apart from the window 2110.

[0082] In some examples, the ablation laser 2114 may be disposed outside the chamber 2102 and is configured to generate a laser beam 2116, then the laser beam 2116 traverses the window 2110 to ablate the solid target 2112, thereby generating the particle 2118 within the chamber 2102 from the solid target 2112. In some examples, the window 2110 may comprise a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam 2116.

[0083] In some examples, the chamber 2102 can comprise a top portion 2102a and a bottom portion 2102b, the top portion 2102a being separable from the bottom portion 2102b, for example to provide access for removing the solid target, replacing the solid target, or both 2112.

[0084] In some examples, the particle injector 2000 may further comprise a focusing element 2020 configured to focus the laser beam 2116 onto the solid target 2112, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both 2110. In some examples, the focusing element 2020 may comprise a lens.

[0085] In some examples, the solid target 2112 may be removable, replaceable, or both.

[0086] The solid target 2112 can comprise any suitable material. For example, the solid target 2112 can comprise a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. The solid target 2112 can, for example, comprise a semiconductor, a ceramic, a transparent conducing oxide, a polymer, a carbon material, a metal, an alloy, a nitride, an oxide, a silicide, a germanide, a carbide, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0087] In some examples, the solid target 2112 can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0088] In some examples, the solid target 2112 may comprise a metal. In some examples, the solid target 2112 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the solid target 2112 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0089] The particle 2118 can be made of the ablated solid target 2112.

[0090] As used herein, “a particle” and “the particle” are meant to include any number of particles in any arrangement. In some examples, the particle 2118 can be a single particle. In10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 some examples, the particle 2118 can be a plurality of particles. In some examples, the plurality of particles may be 2 or more; 3 or more; 4 or more; 5 or more; 10 or more; 15 or more; 20 or more; 25 or more; 30 or more; 40 or more; 50 or more; 75 or more; 100 or more; 150 or more; 200 or more; 250 or more; 300 or more; 400 or more; 500 or more; 750 or more; 1000 or more; 1500 or more; 2000 or more; 2500 or more; 3000 or more; 4000 or more; 5000 or more; 7500 or more; 1 × 104or more; 2.5 × 104or more; 5 × 104or more; 7.5 × 104or more; 1 × 105or more; 2.5 × 105or more; 5× 105or more; 7.5 × 105or more; 1 × 106or more; 5 × 106or more; 1 × 107or more; 5 × 107or more; 1 × 108or more; 5 × 108or more; 1 × 109or more; 5 × 109or more; 1 × 1010or more; 1 × 1011or more; 1 × 1012or more; 1 × 1013or morel 1 × 1014or more; 1 × 1015or more; 1 × 1016or more; 1 × 1017or more; 1 × 1018or more; 1 × 1019or more; or 1 × 1020or more.

[0091] The particle 2118 may comprise any suitable material. For example, the particle 2118 may comprise a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. The particle 2118 can, for example, comprise a semiconductor, a ceramic, a transparent conducing oxide, a polymer, a carbon material, a metal, an alloy, a nitride, an oxide, a silicide, a germanide, a carbide, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0092] In some examples, the particle 2118 can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0093] In some examples, the particle 2118 may comprise a metal. In some examples, the particle 2118 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle 2118 may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0094] The particle 2118 can have an average particle size. “Average particle size” and “mean particle size” are used interchangeably herein, and generally refer to the statistical mean particle size of the particles in a population of particles. For example, the average particle size for a plurality of particles with a substantially spherical shape can comprise the average diameter of the plurality of particles. For a particle with a substantially spherical shape, the diameter of a particle can refer, for example, to the hydrodynamic diameter. As used herein, the hydrodynamic diameter of a particle can refer to the largest linear distance between two points on the surface of10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 the particle. Mean particle size can be measured by evaluation by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, x-ray microscopy, dynamic light scattering, or a combination thereof.

[0095] In some examples, the particle 2118 can have an average particle size of 1 nanometer (nm) or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of 2 nm or more, 3 nm or more, 4 nm or more, 5 nm or more, 6 nm or more, 7 nm or more, 8 nm or more, 9 nm or more, 10 nm or more, 15 nm or more, 20 nm or more, 25 nm or more, 30 nm or more, 35 nm or more, 40 nm or more, 45 nm or more, 50 nm or more, 60 nm or more, 70 nm or more, 80 nm or more, 90 nm or more, 100 nm or more, 125 nm or more, 150 nm or more, 175 nm or more, 200 nm or more, 225 nm or more, 250 nm or more, 300 nm or more, 350 nm or more, 400 nm or more, 450 nm or more, 500 nm or more, 600 nm or more, 700 nm or more, 800 nm or more, 900 nm or more, 1 micrometers (microns, µm) or more, 1.25 µm or more, 1.5 µm or more, 1.75 µm or more, 2 µm or more, 2.5 µm or more, 3 µm or more, 3.5 µm or more, 4 µm or more, 4.5 µm or more, 5 µm or more, 6 µm or more, 7 µm or more, 8 µm or more, or 9 µm or more. In some examples, the particle 2118 can have an average particle size of 10 micrometers (microns, µm) or less. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of 9 µm or less, 8 µm or less, 7 µm or less, 6 µm or less, 5 µm or less, 4.5 µm or less, 4 µm or less, 3.5 µm or less, 3 µm or less, 2.5 µm or less, 2 µm or less, 1.75 µm or less, 1.5 µm or less, 1.25 µm or less, 1 µm or less, 900 nm or less, 800 nm or less, 700 nm or less, 600 nm or less, 500 nm or less, 450 nm or less, 400 nm or less, 350 nm or less, 300 nm or less, 250 nm or less, 225 nm or less, 200 nm or less, 175 nm or less, 150 nm or less, 125 nm or less, 100 nm or less, 90 nm or less, 80 nm or less, 70 nm or less, 60 nm or less, 50 nm or less, 45 nm or less, 40 nm or less, 35 nm or less, 30 nm or less, 25 nm or less, 20 nm or less, 15 nm or less, 10 nm or less, 9 nm or less, 8 nm or less, 7 nm or less, 6 nm or less, 5 nm or less, 4 nm or less, 3 nm or less, or 2 nm or less. The average particle size of the particle 2118 can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the particle 2118 can have an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (microns, µm). In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from 1 nm to 100 nm, from 100 nm to 10 µm, from 1 nm to 10 nm, from 10 nm to 100 nm, from 100 nm to 1000 nm, from 1000 nm to 10 µm, from 10 nm to 10 µm, from 25 nm to 10 µm, from 50 nm to 10 µm, from 100 nm to 10 µm, from 250 nm to 10 µm, from 500 nm to 10 µm, from 750 nm to 10 µm, from 1 µm to 10 µm, from 1 nm to 9 µm, from 1 nm to 5 µm, from 1 nm to 1 µm, from 1 nm to 750 nm, from 1 nm to 500 nm, from 1 nm to 250 nm, from 10 nm to 9 µm, from 25 nm to 5 µm, from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm. In some examples, the particle 2118 can have an average particle size of from 110046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

[0096] In some examples, the particle 2118 can be substantially monodisperse. “Monodisperse” and “homogeneous size distribution,” as used herein, and generally describe a population of particles where all of the particles are the same or nearly the same size. As used herein, a monodisperse distribution refers to particle distributions in which 80% of the distribution, e.g., 85% of the distribution, 90% of the distribution, or 95% of the distribution lie within 25% of the median particle size, within 20% of the median particle size, within 15% of the median particle size, within 10% of the median particle size, or within 5% of the median particle size.

[0097] The particle 2118 can comprise a particle of any shape. In some examples, the shape may be a sphere, a rod, a quadrilateral, an ellipse, a triangle, a polygon, etc. In some examples, the particle 2118 can have a regular shape, an irregular shape, an isotropic shape, or an anisotropic shape. In some examples, the particle 2118 has a substantially spherical shape.

[0098] In some examples, the particle injector 2000 may further comprise the ablation laser 2114.

[0099] The ablation laser 2114 can comprise any suitable laser. In some examples, the ablation laser 2114 may be a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam 2116 can be pulsed. In some examples, the pulse duration can be nanoseconds, picoseconds, or femtoseconds long.

[0100] In some examples, the inlet 2106 may be configured to receive a fluid and the chamber 2102 provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet 2106 to the outlet 2108 such that the fluid flowing through the chamber 2102 is configured to carry the particle 2118 and fluid out of the chamber 2102 through the outlet 2108 towards the ionization stage 2200.

[0101] In some examples, the fluid may comprise a gas.

[0102] In some examples, the gas can be provided to the chamber 2102 at a pressure of 0.01 pounds per square inch (PSI) or more. In some examples, the gas can be provided to the chamber at a pressure of 0.025 PSI or more, 0.05 PSI or more, 0.075 PSI or more, 0.1 PSI or more, 0.25 PSI or more, 0.5 PSI or more, 0.75 PSI or more, 1 PSI or more, 1.5 PSI or more, 2 PSI or more, 2.5 PSI or more, 3 PSI or more, 3.5 PSI or more, 4 PSI or more, 4.5 PSI or more, 5 PSI or more, 6 PSI or more, 7 PSI or more, 8 PSI or more, 9 PSI or more, 10 PSI or more, 15 PSI or more, 20 PSI or more, 25 PSI or more, 30 PSI or more, 35 PSI or more, 40 PSI or more, 45 PSI or more, 50 PSI or more, 60 PSI or more, 70 PSI or more, 80 PSI or more, 90 PSI or more, 100 PSI or more, 125 PSI or more, 150 PSI or more, 175 PSI or more, 200 PSI or more, 225 PSI or more, 250 PSI or more, 300 PSI or more, 350 PSI or more, 400 PSI or more, 450 PSI or more, 500 PSI or more, 550 PSI or more, 600 PSI or more, 650 PSI or more, 700 PSI or more, 750 PSI or more, 800 PSI or more, 850 PSI or more, or 900 PSI or more. In some examples, the gas can be10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 provided to the chamber 2102 at a pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI) or less. In some examples, the gas can be provided to the chamber at a pressure of 950 PSI or less, 900 PSI or less, 850 PSI or less, 800 PSI or less, 750 PSI or less, 700 PSI or less, 650 PSI or less, 600 PSI or less, 550 PSI or less, 500 PSI or less, 450 PSI or less, 400 PSI or less, 350 PSI or less, 300 PSI or less, 250 PSI or less, 225 PSI or less, 200 PSI or less, 175 PSI or less, 150 PSI or less, 125 PSI or less, 100 PSI or less, 90 PSI or less, 80 PSI or less, 70 PSI or less, 60 PSI or less, 50 PSI or less, 45 PSI or less, 40 PSI or less, 35 PSI or less, 30 PSI or less, 25 PSI or less, 20 PSI or less, 15 PSI or less, 10 PSI or less, 9 PSI or less, 8 PSI or less, 7 PSI or less, 6 PSI or less, 5 PSI or less, 4.5 PSI or less, 4 PSI or less, 3.5 PSI or less, 3 PSI or less, 2.5 PSI or less, 2 PSI or less, 1.5 PSI or less, 1 PSI or less, 0.75 PSI or less, 0.5 PSI or less, 0.25 PSI or less, 0.1 PSI or less, 0.075 PSI or less, or 0.05 PSI or less. The pressure at which the gas is provided to the chamber 2102 can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the gas can be provided to the chamber 2102 at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some examples, the gas can be provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 500 PSI, from 500 to 1000 PSI, from 0.01 to 200 PSI, from 200 to 400 PSI, from 400 to 600 PSI, from 600 to 800 PSI, from 800 to 1000 PSI, from 0.01 to 100 PSI, from 100 to 200 PSI, from 200 to 300 PSI, from 300 to 400 PSI, from 400 to 500 PSI, from 500 to 600 PSI, from 600 to 700 PSI, from 700 to 800 PSI, from 800 to 900 PSI, from 900 to 1000 PSI, from 0.01 to 800 PSI, from 0.01 to 600 PSI, from 0.01 to 400 PSI, from 0.01 to 75 PSI, from 0.01 to 50 PSI, from 0.01 to 25 PSI, from 0.01 to 10 PSI, from 0.01 to 1 PSI, from 1 to 1000 PSI, from 10 to 1000 PSI, from 25 to 1000 PSI, from 50 to 1000 PSI, from 75 to 1000 PSI, from 100 to 1000 PSI, from 200 to 1000 PSI, from 400 to 1000 PSI, from 600 to 1000 PSI, from 1 to 900 PSI, from 5 to 800 PSI, from 10 to 700 PSI, from 25 to 600 PSI, or from 50 to 500 PSI).

[0103] The gas can comprise any suitable gas. In some examples, the gas may comprise hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and the like, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the gas can comprise a low-density gas. In some examples, the gas can comprise helium.

[0104] In some examples, the ionization laser 2202 may be configured to interact with the particle 2118 and the fluid after the particle 2118 and the fluid have exited the ablation stage 2100 by passing through the outlet 2108. In some examples, the ionized particle and ionized fluid may be configured to flow away from the ionization stage 2200 to an acceleration stage 2300, the acceleration stage 2300 being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage 2200.

[0105] In some examples, the particle injector 2000 may further comprise the ionization laser10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 2202.

[0106] The ionization laser 2202 can comprise any suitable laser. In some examples, the ionization laser 2202 is a pulsed laser. In some examples, the pulse duration can be nanoseconds, picoseconds, or femtoseconds long. METHODS OF USE

[0107] Also disclosed herein are methods of use of any of the particle injectors described herein. In some examples, the methods can comprise using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

[0108] In some examples, the method of use of the particle injector may comprise ablation of a target with an ablation laser so as to create particles that may be transported via a fluid flow; ionization of the ablated particles and fluid material with an ionization laser, at a physically distinct location downstream of the ablation to form ionized material and free elections; and acceleration of the ionized particles, fluid material, and free electrons.

[0109] In some examples, the fluid may be a gas.

[0110] In some examples, the method may comprise ablating the target with the laser beam to generate a particle within the chamber, injecting a gas into the inlet and flowing the gas through the chamber, such that the gas flowing through the chamber carrier the particle and gas out of the chamber through the outlet.

[0111] In some examples, the gas may be provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 0.01 PSI to about 25 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 25 PSI to about 50 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 50 PSI to about 75 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 75 PSI to about 100 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 100 PSI to about 200 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 200 PSI to about 300 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 300 PSI to about 400 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 400 PSI to about 500 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 500 PSI to about 600 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 600 PSI to about 700 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 700 PSI to about 800 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 800 PSI to about 900 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 900 PSI to about 1000 PSI.

[0112] In some examples, the gas can comprise any suitable gas. In some examples, the gas may comprise hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and the like, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the low-density gas may comprise helium.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0113] In some examples, the target can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0114] In some examples, the target may comprise a metal. In some examples, the target may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the target may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0115] In some examples, the particle may be made of the ablated target.

[0116] In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal. In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0117] In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size. “Average particle size” and “mean particle size” are used interchangeably herein, and generally refer to the statistical mean particle size of the particles in a population of particles. In some examples, the average particle size for a plurality of particles with a substantially spherical shape can comprise the average diameter of the plurality of particles. In some examples, the particle with a substantially spherical shape, the diameter of a particle can be a hydrodynamic diameter. In some examples, the hydrodynamic diameter of a particle can be the largest linear distance between two points on the surface of the particle. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by scanning electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by transmission electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by atomic force microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by x-ray microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by dynamic light scattering.

[0118] In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 1 nanometer (nm) or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 2 nm or more, about 3 nm or more, about 4 nm or more, about 5 nm or more, about 6 nm or more, about 7 nm or more, about 8 nm or more, about 9 nm or more, about 10 nm or more, about 15 nm or10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 more, about 20 nm or more, about 25 nm or more, about 30 nm or more, about 35 nm or more, about 40 nm or more, about 45 nm or more, about 50 nm or more, about 60 nm or more, about 70 nm or more, about 80 nm or more, about 90 nm or more, about 100 nm or more, about 125 nm or more, about 150 nm or more, about 175 nm or more, about 200 nm or more, about 225 nm or more, about 250 nm or more, about 300 nm or more, about 350 nm or more, about 400 nm or more, about 450 nm or more, about 500 nm or more, about 600 nm or more, about 700 nm or more, about 800 nm or more, about 900 nm or more, about 1 micrometers (microns, µm) or more, about 1.25 µm or more, about 1.5 µm or more, about 1.75 µm or more, about 2 µm or more, about 2.5 µm or more, about 3 µm or more, about 3.5 µm or more, about 4 µm or more, about 4.5 µm or more, about 5 µm or more, about 6 µm or more, about 7 µm or more, about 8 µm or more, about 9 µm or more, about 10 µm or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 10 micrometers (microns, µm) or less. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 9 µm or less, about 8 µm or less, about 7 µm or less, about 6 µm or less, about 5 µm or less, about 4.5 µm or less, about 4 µm or less, about 3.5 µm or less, about 3 µm or less, about 2.5 µm or less, about 2 µm or less, about 1.75 µm or less, about 1.5 µm or less, about 1.25 µm or less, about 1 µm or less, about 900 nm or less, about 800 nm or less, about 700 nm or less, about 600 nm or less, about 500 nm or less, about 450 nm or less, about 400 nm or less, about 350 nm or less, about 300 nm or less, about 250 nm or less, about 225 nm or less, about 200 nm or less, about 175 nm or less, about 150 nm or less, about 125 nm or less, about 100 nm or less, about 90 nm or less, about 80 nm or less, about 70 nm or less, about 60 nm or less, about 50 nm or less, about 45 nm or less, about 40 nm or less, about 35 nm or less, about 30 nm or less, about 25 nm or less, about 20 nm or less, about 15 nm or less, about 10 nm or less, about 9 nm or less, about 8 nm or less, about 7 nm or less, about 6 nm or less, about 5 nm or less, about 4 nm or less, about 3 nm or less, or about 2 nm or less). In some examples, the average particle size can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from about 1 nanometer (nm) to about 10 micrometers (microns, µm). In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 10 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 1000 nm, from about 1000 nm to about 10 µm, from about 10 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 9 µm, from about 10 nm to about 9 µm, or from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm). In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm, or from about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

[0119] In some examples, the particle can be substantially monodisperse. “Monodisperse” and10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 “homogeneous size distribution,” as used herein, and generally describe a population of particles where all of the particles are the same or nearly the same size. In some examples, the monodisperse distribution may refer to particle distributions in which 80% of the distribution, 85% of the distribution, 90% of the distribution, or 95% of the distribution lie within 25% of the median particle size, within 20% of the median particle size, within 15% of the median particle size, within 10% of the median particle size, or within 5% of the median particle size.

[0120] In some examples, the particle can comprise a particle of any shape. In some examples, the shape may be a sphere, a rod, a quadrilateral, an ellipse, a triangle, a polygon, etc.). In some examples, the particle can have a regular shape, an irregular shape, an isotropic shape, or an anisotropic shape. In some examples, the particle may have a substantially spherical shape.

[0121] In some examples, the fluid material and particles may flow from the ablation location to distinctly separate ionization location.

[0122] In some examples, the method further may comprise the flow of the particle and fluid into the ionization location, wherein the ablated particle and fluid may be ionized with a specific ionization laser to form ionized particles and release of electrons. In some examples, the ionization laser may ionize both the particle and the fluid material, allowing electron release from both. In some examples, the ionized particles, ionized fluid material, and electrons may flow from the ionization location to the remainder of the acceleration.

[0123] In some examples, the method further may comprise the acceleration of the ionized particles, ionized fluid, and electrons (ionized group) that have flowed from the ionization stage. In some examples, the ionized group may flow directly from the ionization phase. In some examples, the ionized group may flow through intermediate stages from the ionization stage. In some examples, the ionized group may be accelerated via wakefield electron acceleration. PARTICLE ACCELERATORS AND PARTICLE BEAM DEVICES

[0124] Also described herein are particle accelerators, a particle beam devices, or both comprising any of the particle injectors described herein.

[0125] In some examples, the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both may comprise an aerodynamic lens device.

[0126] In some examples, the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both may comprise a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator. In some examples, the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator may comprise a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

[0127] In some examples, the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator may comprise an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, with the gas target being upstream from the particle injector. In some examples, the accelerator chamber may be a single accelerator10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 chamber.

[0128] In some examples, the accelerator chamber may be configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein.

[0129] In some examples, the gas may be provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI). In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 0.01 PSI to about 25 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 25 PSI to about 50 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 50 PSI to about 75 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 75 PSI to about 100 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 100 PSI to about 200 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 200 PSI to about 300 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 300 PSI to about 400 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 400 PSI to about 500 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 500 PSI to about 600 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 600 PSI to about 700 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 700 PSI to about 800 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 800 PSI to about 900 PSI. In some examples, the gas pressure may be from about 900 PSI to about 1000 PSI.

[0130] In some examples, the gas can comprise any suitable gas. In some examples, the gas may comprise hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and the like, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the low-density gas may comprise helium.

[0131] In some examples, the accelerator chamber may be distinctly spatially different from the ionization stage. In some examples, the accelerator chamber may be combined with the ionization stage.

[0132] In some examples, the accelerator chamber may be configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons. In some examples, the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield, for example to thereby generate an electron beam. In some examples, when the acceleration length may be long enough, initial acceleration in the wakefield can be followed by further acceleration in a plasma wakefield (PWFA) driven by the initial wakefield accelerated electron bunch. In some examples, the electrons accelerated in this second process can reach even higher energies.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0133] In some examples, the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that may be greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle.

[0134] In some examples, the accelerator chamber may have a proximal end and a distal end, the proximal end being the end configured to receive the pulse. In some examples, the particle may be located at or near the proximal end of the accelerator chamber. In some examples, the particle can be located at or near the distal end of the accelerator chamber. In some examples, the particle may comprise a plurality of particles distributed throughout the accelerator chamber. In some examples, the plurality of particles can, for example, be distributed throughout the accelerator chamber homogeneously, inhomogeneously, in an order, or randomly.

[0135] In some examples, a particle and the particle may include any number of particles in any arrangement. In some examples, the particle may be a single particle. In some examples, the particle may be a plurality of particles. In some examples, the plurality of particles may be 2 or more; 3 or more; 4 or more; 5 or more; 10 or more; 15 or more; 20 or more; 25 or more; 30 or more; 40 or more; 50 or more; 75 or more; 100 or more; 150 or more; 200 or more; 250 or more; 300 or more; 400 or more; 500 or more; 750 or more; 1000 or more; 1500 or more; 2000 or more; 2500 or more; 3000 or more; 4000 or more; 5000 or more; 7500 or more; 1 × 104or more; 2.5 × 104or more; 5 × 104or more; 7.5 × 104or more; 1 × 105or more; 2.5 × 105or more; 5× 105or more; 7.5 × 105or more; 1 × 106or more; 5 × 106or more; 1 × 107or more; 5 × 107or more; 1 × 108or more; 5 × 108or more; 1 × 109or more; 5 × 109or more; 1 × 1010or more; 1 × 1011or more; 1 × 1012or more; 1 × 1013or morel 1 × 1014or more; 1 × 1015or more; 1 × 1016or more; 1 × 1017or more; 1 × 1018or more; 1 × 1019or more; or 1 × 1020or more).

[0136] In some examples, the particle can comprise any suitable material. In some examples, the particle can comprise a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle can, for example, comprise a semiconductor, a ceramic, a transparent conducing oxide, a polymer, a carbon material, a metal, an alloy, a nitride, an oxide, a silicide, a germanide, a carbide, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0137] In some examples, the particle can comprise Be, B, C, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, or a combination thereof.

[0138] In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal. In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Be, Mg, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Ba, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 combinations thereof. In some examples, the particle may comprise a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0139] In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size. “Average particle size” and “mean particle size” are used interchangeably herein, and generally refer to the statistical mean particle size of the particles in a population of particles. In some examples, the average particle size for a plurality of particles with a substantially spherical shape can comprise the average diameter of the plurality of particles. In some examples, the particle with a substantially spherical shape, the diameter of a particle can be a hydrodynamic diameter. In some examples, the hydrodynamic diameter of a particle can be the largest linear distance between two points on the surface of the particle. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by scanning electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by transmission electron microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by atomic force microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by x-ray microscopy. In some examples, the mean particle size may be measured by dynamic light scattering.

[0140] In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 1 nanometer (nm) or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 2 nm or more, about 3 nm or more, about 4 nm or more, about 5 nm or more, about 6 nm or more, about 7 nm or more, about 8 nm or more, about 9 nm or more, about 10 nm or more, about 15 nm or more, about 20 nm or more, about 25 nm or more, about 30 nm or more, about 35 nm or more, about 40 nm or more, about 45 nm or more, about 50 nm or more, about 60 nm or more, about 70 nm or more, about 80 nm or more, about 90 nm or more, about 100 nm or more, about 125 nm or more, about 150 nm or more, about 175 nm or more, about 200 nm or more, about 225 nm or more, about 250 nm or more, about 300 nm or more, about 350 nm or more, about 400 nm or more, about 450 nm or more, about 500 nm or more, about 600 nm or more, about 700 nm or more, about 800 nm or more, about 900 nm or more, about 1 micrometers (microns, µm) or more, about 1.25 µm or more, about 1.5 µm or more, about 1.75 µm or more, about 2 µm or more, about 2.5 µm or more, about 3 µm or more, about 3.5 µm or more, about 4 µm or more, about 4.5 µm or more, about 5 µm or more, about 6 µm or more, about 7 µm or more, about 8 µm or more, about 9 µm or more, about 10 µm or more. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 10 micrometers (microns, µm) or less. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of about 9 µm or less, about 8 µm or less, about 7 µm or less, about 6 µm or less, about 5 µm or less, about 4.5 µm or less, about 4 µm or less, about 3.5 µm or less, about 3 µm or less, about 2.5 µm or less, about 2 µm or less, about 1.75 µm or10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 less, about 1.5 µm or less, about 1.25 µm or less, about 1 µm or less, about 900 nm or less, about 800 nm or less, about 700 nm or less, about 600 nm or less, about 500 nm or less, about 450 nm or less, about 400 nm or less, about 350 nm or less, about 300 nm or less, about 250 nm or less, about 225 nm or less, about 200 nm or less, about 175 nm or less, about 150 nm or less, about 125 nm or less, about 100 nm or less, about 90 nm or less, about 80 nm or less, about 70 nm or less, about 60 nm or less, about 50 nm or less, about 45 nm or less, about 40 nm or less, about 35 nm or less, about 30 nm or less, about 25 nm or less, about 20 nm or less, about 15 nm or less, about 10 nm or less, about 9 nm or less, about 8 nm or less, about 7 nm or less, about 6 nm or less, about 5 nm or less, about 4 nm or less, about 3 nm or less, or about 2 nm or less. In some examples, the average particle size can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from about 1 nanometer (nm) to about 10 micrometers (microns, µm). In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 10 nm to about 100 nm, from about 100 nm to about 1000 nm, from about 1000 nm to about 10 µm, from about 10 nm to about 10 µm, from about 1 nm to about 9 µm, from about 10 nm to about 9 µm, or from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm). In some examples, the particle can have an average particle size of from about 1 nm to about 1000 nm, or from about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

[0141] In some examples, the particle can be substantially monodisperse. “Monodisperse” and “homogeneous size distribution,” as used herein, and generally describe a population of particles where all of the particles are the same or nearly the same size. In some examples, the monodisperse distribution refers to particle distributions in which 80% of the distribution, 85% of the distribution, 90% of the distribution, or 95% of the distribution lie within 25% of the median particle size, within 20% of the median particle size, within 15% of the median particle size, within 10% of the median particle size, or within 5% of the median particle size.

[0142] In some examples, the particle can comprise a particle of any shape. In some examples, the shape may be a sphere, a rod, a quadrilateral, an ellipse, a triangle, a polygon, etc.). In some examples, the particle can have a regular shape, an irregular shape, an isotropic shape, or an anisotropic shape. In some examples, the particle may have a substantially spherical shape.

[0143] In some examples, the pulse comprises a laser pulse. In some examples, the device can further comprise a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse. In some examples, the laser source can comprise any suitable laser source.

[0144] In some examples, the gas target can comprise any suitable gas target. In some examples, the gas target may comprise a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0145] In some examples, the gas target may comprise a gas nozzle. In some examples, the gas nozzle may comprise any suitable gas nozzle, such as an asymmetric nozzle or symmetric nozzle. In some examples, the nozzle may comprise an inlet, an outlet spaced apart from and in fluid communication with the inlet, and a chamber fluidly coupling the inlet to the outlet. In some examples, the inlet may be configured to receive a gas at a pressure. In some examples, the outlet may be configured to release the gas with a gas density profile. In some examples, the density profile may comprise a substantially flat-topped or ramped profile for a distance of at least 5 millimeters. In some examples, the density profile may comprise a substantially flat- topped or ramped profile for a distance of 5 millimeters. In some examples, the inlet and outlet comprise geometrically similar cross-sectional shapes. In some examples, the geometrically similar cross-sectional shapes comprise shapes which are obtained from one another by uniformly scaling. In some examples, the inlet and the outlet comprise a geometric center, wherein the geometric center of the inlet is translated relative to a geometric center of the outlet along an axis perpendicular to an axis of propagation of the gas. In some examples, the area defined by the inlet is smaller than the area defined the outlet. In some examples, the corresponding inlet and outlet are rectangular.

[0146] In some examples, the outlet length is the largest straight line distance between two points in the outlet, and the outlet width is the largest straight line distance between two points along a line perpendicular to the outlet length in the outlet. In some examples, the outlet length is longer than the outlet width. In some examples, the outlet length is 5 centimeters and the outlet width is 2 millimeters. In some examples, the outlet width is 1 millimeter to 2 millimeters. In some examples, the longitudinal distance between the inlet and the outlet is 30 centimeters. In some examples, the width of the outlet to the longitudinal distance possesses a ratio of 1:5. In some examples, the width of the outlet to the longitudinal distance possesses a ratio of at least 1:5. In some examples, the width of the outlet to the longitudinal distance possesses a ratio of 1:6. In some examples, the internal width of the longitudinal space between the inlet and outlet is equal to or less than the width of the outlet. In some examples, the inlet, the outlet, the distance between the inlet and the outlet, and a gas density are collectively configured to form the substantially flat-top or ramped profile.

[0147] In some examples, the density profile may be substantially flat-topped or ramped for a distance of 2 centimeters. In some examples, the density profile may be substantially flat-topped or ramped for a distance of at least 2 centimeters. In some examples, the gas may be helium. In some examples, the gas may have a pressure of 100 kilopascals. In some examples, the gas density may be 1 x 1018atoms / cm3. In some examples, the gas density may be at most 1 x 101810046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 atoms / cm3. In some examples, the device may be further comprising a wire coupled to the outlet. In some examples, the wire diameter may be 200 µm.

[0148] Also disclosed herein are methods of generating an electron beam using any of the devices disclosed herein. Also disclosed herein are methods of using any of the electron beams generated by any of the methods disclosed herein.

[0149] Also disclosed herein are methods of accelerating an electron using any of the devices disclosed herein. Also disclosed herein are methods of using any of the accelerated electrons generated by any of the methods disclosed herein. ASYMMETRIC NOZZLES FOR LASER WAKEFIELD ELECTRON ACCELERATORS

[0150] Also described herein are asymmetric nozzles for laser wakefield electron accelerators.

[0151] For example, referring now to Figure 15-Figure 20, disclosed herein is an asymmetric nozzle 100 for a laser wakefield electron accelerator, the asymmetric nozzle 100 comprising an inlet 110 defining an inlet profile 112. The asymmetric nozzle 100 further comprises a throat 120 extending from the inlet 110. The asymmetric nozzle 100 further comprises an outlet 140 spaced apart from and in fluid communication with the inlet 110, the outlet 140 defining an outlet plane 142, an outlet profile 144 in the outlet plane 142 and corresponding to the inlet profile 112, an outlet length L, and an outlet width W. The asymmetric nozzle 100 further comprises a chamber 130 fluidly coupling the throat 120 and the outlet 140 and defining a chamber height H.

[0152] The throat and the chamber can independently be formed of any suitable material. For example, the throat and the chamber can independently comprise a polymer, a composite material, a metal, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the throat and the chamber can be integrally formed.

[0153] The inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 can comprise any suitable shape, wherein the shape may be circular, ovate, ovoid, elliptic, triangular, rectangular, polygonal, etc.. In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 may be circular, ovate, ovoid, elliptic, triangular, polygonal, etc.

[0154] In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 can have a similar shape. In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 can have the same shape. In some examples, the inlet profile 112 can have a shape that is the mirror image of the outlet profile 144, or vice-versa. In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 can have a shape, where the shape of the inlet profile 112 can be obtained from the shape of the outlet profile 144, or vice-versa, for example by scaling the shape. In some examples, scaling the shape may include enlarging or reducing, optionally together with translation, rotation, reflection, or a combination thereof.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0155] In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 may comprise a geometric center, wherein the geometric center of the inlet profile is translated relative to the geometric center of the outlet profile along an axis perpendicular to and axis of propagation of the gas.

[0156] In some examples, an area defined by the inlet profile 112 may be smaller than an area defined by the outlet profile 144.

[0157] In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 may be rectangular.

[0158] The outlet length L may be the largest straight line distance between two points in the outlet plane 142, and the outlet width W is the largest straight line distance between two points along a line perpendicular to the outlet length L in the outlet plane 142.

[0159] In some examples, the outlet width W may be less than the outlet length L (e.g., the outlet length L is longer than the outlet width W).

[0160] In some examples, the outlet width W may be 50% or less of the outlet length L. In some examples, the outlet width may be 45% or less, 40% or less, 35% or less, 30% or less, 25% or less, 20% or less, 15% or less, 10% or less, or 5% or less of the outlet length. In some examples, the outlet width W may be 40% or less of the outlet length L. In some examples, the outlet width W is 30% or less of the outlet length L. In some examples, the outlet width W may be 20% or less of the outlet length L. In some examples, the outlet width W may be 10% or less of the outlet length L.

[0161] In some examples, the outlet width W may be 0.1 millimeters (mm) or more. In some examples, the outlet width W may be 0.25 mm or more, 0.5 mm or more, 0.75 mm or more, 1 mm or more, 1.25 mm or more, 1.5 mm or more, 1.75 mm or more, 2 mm or more, 2.25 mm or more, 2.5 mm or more, 2.75 mm or more, 3 mm or more, 3.25 mm or more, 3.5 mm or more, 3.75 mm or more, 4 mm or more, 4.25 mm or more, 4.5 mm or more, or 4.75 mm or more. In some examples, the outlet width W may be 5 millimeters (mm) or less In some examples, the outlet width W may be 4.75 mm or less, 4.5 mm or less, 4.25 mm or less, 4 mm or less, 3.75 mm or less, 3.5 mm or less, 3.25 mm or less, 3 mm or less, 2.75 mm or less, 2.5 mm or less, 2.25 mm or less, 2 mm or less, 1.75 mm or less, 1.5 mm or less, 1.25 mm or less, 1 mm or less, 0.75 mm or less, or 0.5 mm or less). The outlet width W can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the outlet width W can be from 0.1 to 5 millimeters (mm). In some examples, the outlet width W may be from 0.1 to 2.5 mm, from 2.5 to 5 mm, from 0.1 to 1 mm, from 1 to 2 mm, from 2 to 3 mm, from 3 to 4 mm, from 4 to 5 mm, from 0.1 to 4 mm, from 0.1 to 3 mm, from 0.1 to 2 mm, from 0.1 to 0.5 mm, from 0.5 to 5 mm, from 1 to 5 mm, from 2 to 5 mm, from 3 to 5 mm, from 0.5 to 4 mm, or10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 from 1 to 3 mm). In some examples, the outlet width W can be from 1 to 3 millimeters, such as 2 millimeters. In some examples, the outlet width W can be from 0.1 to 1 mm.

[0162] In some examples, the outlet length L may be 1 millimeter (mm) or more. In some examples, the outlet length L may be 2 mm or more, 3 mm or more, 4 mm or more, 5 mm or more, 6 mm or more, 7 mm or more, 8 mm or more, 9 mm or more, 1 centimeter (cm) or more, 2 cm or more, 3 cm or more, 4 cm or more, 5 cm or more, 10 cm or more, 15 cm or more, 20 cm or more, 25 cm or more, 30 cm or more, 35 cm or more, 40 cm or more, 45 cm or more, 50 cm or more, 60 cm or more, 70 cm or more, 80 cm or more, 90 cm or more, 100 cm or more, 125 cm or more, 150 cm or more, 175 cm or more, 200 cm or more, 225 cm or more, 250 cm or more, 300 cm or more, 350 cm or more, 400 cm or more, or 450 cm or more. In some examples, the outlet length L may be 500 centimeters (cm) or less. In some examples, the outlet length L may be 450 cm or less, 400 cm or less, 350 cm or less, 300 cm or less, 250 cm or less, 225 cm or less, 200 cm or less, 175 cm or less, 150 cm or less, 125 cm or less, 100 cm or less, 90 cm or less, 80 cm or less, 70 cm or less, 60 cm or less, 50 cm or less, 45 cm or less, 40 cm or less, 35 cm or less, 30 cm or less, 25 cm or less, 20 cm or less, 15 cm or less, 10 cm or less, 5 cm or less, 4 cm or less, 3 cm or less, 2 cm or less, 1 cm or less, 9 millimeters (mm) or less, 8 mm or less, 7 mm or less, 6 mm or less, 5 mm or less, 4 mm or less, 3 mm or less, or 2 mm or less. The outlet length L can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the outlet length L can be from 1 millimeter (mm) to 500 centimeters (cm). In some examples, the outlet length L may be from 1 millimeter to 250 centimeters, from 250 centimeters to 500 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 100 centimeters, from 100 to 200 centimeters, from 200 to 300 centimeters, from 300 to 400 centimeters, from 400 to 500 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 400 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 300 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 200 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 100 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 50 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 25 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 10 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 5 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 1 centimeter, or from 1 centimeter to 10 centimeters. In some examples, the outlet length L can be from 1 millimeter to 10 centimeters. In some examples, the outlet length L may be from 1 centimeter to 10 centimeters, such as 5 centimeters. In some examples, the outlet length L may be from 1 millimeter (mm) to 1 centimeter (cm).

[0163] In some examples, the outlet length L can be selected in relation to the chamber height H. For example, when the chamber height H increases, the outlet length L may also increase. Conversely, when the chamber height H decreases, the outlet length L may decrease.

[0164] In some examples, the chamber 130 may define a linearly expanding volume.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0165] The chamber can define a longitudinal axis 132. In some examples, the inlet profile 112 and the outlet profile 144 can be defined perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 132. In some examples, the chamber 130 can define a longitudinal axis 132 centered in the inlet 110, and the chamber 130 can define an expanding volume that expands in a single direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 132 between the throat 120 and the outlet 140.

[0166] In some examples, the chamber 130 can include a first wall 134 coplanar with the throat 120 and a second wall 136 arranged obliquely to the throat 120. For example, the second wall 136 can be arranged at an angle (e.g., α, as shown in Figure 17) of greater than 0°. In some examples, the second wall can be arranged at an angle of 5° or more, 10° or more, 15° or more, 20° or more, 25° or more, 30° or more, 35° or more, 40° or more, 45° or more, 50° or more, 55° or more, 60° or more, 65° or more, or 70° or more. In some examples, the second wall 136 can be arranged at an angle (e.g., α, as shown in Figure 17) of 75° or less. In some examples, the second wall can be arranged at an angle of 70° or less, 65° or less, 60° or less, 55° or less, 50° or less, 45° or less, 40° or less, 35° or less, 30° or less, 25° or less, 20° or less, 15° or less, 10° or less, or 5° or less. The angle at which the second wall 136 is arranged (e.g., α, as shown in Figure 17) can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the second wall 136 can be arranged at an angle (e.g., α, as shown in Figure 17) of from greater than 0° to 75°. In some examples, the second wall can be arranged at an angle of from greater than 0° to 37.5°, from 37.5° to 75°, from greater than 0° to 25°, from 25° to 50°, from 50° to 75°, from greater than 0° to 60°, from greater than 0° to 45°, from greater than 0° to 30°, from greater than 0° to 15°, from greater than 0° to 10°, from 1° to 75°, from 5° to 75°, from 10° to 75°, from 15° to 75°, from 30° to 75°, from 45° to 75°, from 60° to 75°, from 1° to 70°, from 5° to 65°, or from 10° to 60°. In some examples, the second wall 136 can be arranged at an angle (e.g., α, as shown in Figure 17), wherein the angle is acute.

[0167] In some examples, the chamber height H can, for example, be 1 millimeter (mm) or more. In some examples, the chamber height H can be 2 mm or more, 3 mm or more, 4 mm or more, 5 mm or more, 6 mm or more, 7 mm or more, 8 mm or more, 9 mm or more, 1 centimeter (cm) or more, 2 cm or more, 3 cm or more, 4 cm or more, 5 cm or more, 10 cm or more, 15 cm or more, 20 cm or more, 25 cm or more, 30 cm or more, 35 cm or more, 40 cm or more, 45 cm or more, 50 cm or more, 55 cm or more, 60 cm or more, 65 cm or more, 70 cm or more, 75 cm or more, 80 cm or more, 85 cm or more, or 90 cm or more). In some examples, the chamber height H can be 100 centimeters (cm) or less. In some examples, the chamber height H can be 95 cm or less, 90 cm or less, 85 cm or less, 80 cm or less, 75 cm or less, 70 cm or less, 65 cm or less, 60 cm or less, 55 cm or less, 50 cm or less, 45 cm or less, 40 cm or less, 35 cm or less, 3010046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 cm or less, 25 cm or less, 20 cm or less, 15 cm or less, 10 cm or less, 5 cm or less, 4 cm or less, 3 cm or less, 2 cm or less, 1 cm or less, 9 millimeters (mm) or less, 8 mm or less, 7 mm or less, 6 mm or less, 5 mm or less, 4 mm or less, 3 mm or less, or 2 mm or less. The chamber height H can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the chamber height H can be from 1 millimeter (mm) to 100 centimeters (cm). In some examples, the chamber height H can be from 1 millimeter to 50 centimeters, from 50 centimeters to 100 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 10 centimeters, from 10 to 20 centimeters, from 20 to 30 centimeters, from 30 to 40 centimeters, from 40 to 50 centimeters, from 50 to 60 centimeters, from 60 to 70 centimeters, from 70 to 80 centimeters, from 80 to 90 centimeters, from 90 to 100 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 80 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 60 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 40 centimeters, from 1 millimeter to 10 centimeters, from 1 centimeter to 100 centimeters, from 10 to 100 centimeters, from 20 to 100 centimeters, from 40 to 100 centimeters, from 60 to 100 centimeters, from 1 to 90 centimeters, from 5 to 80 centimeters, from 10 to 60 centimeters, or from 20 to 40 centimeters. In some examples, the chamber height H can be from 20 centimeters to 40 centimeters, such as 30 centimeters (cm).

[0168] In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle may define a volume of 0.05 cm3or more. In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle may define a volume of 0.1 cm3or more; 0.2 cm3or more; 0.3 cm3or more; 0.4 cm3or more; 0.5 cm3or more; 0.75 cm3or more; 1 cm3or more; 1.25 cm3or more; 1.5 cm3or more; 2 cm3or more; 2.5 cm3or more; 3 cm3or more; 3.5 cm3or more; 4 cm3or more; 4.5 cm3or more; 5 cm3or more; 6 cm3or more; 7 cm3or more; 8 cm3or more; 9 cm3or more; 10 cm3or more; 15 cm3or more; 20 cm3or more; 25 cm3or more; 30 cm3or more; 35 cm3or more; 40 cm3or more; 45 cm3or more; 50 cm3or more; 60 cm3or more; 70 cm3or more; 80 cm3or more; 90 cm3or more; 100 cm3or more; 125 cm3or more; 150 cm3or more; 175 cm3or more; 200 cm3or more; 225 cm3or more; 250 cm3or more; 300 cm3or more; 350 cm3or more; 400 cm3or more; 450 cm3or more; 500 cm3or more; 600 cm3or more; 700 cm3or more; 800 cm3or more; 900 cm3or more; 1000 cm3or more; 1250 cm3or more; 1500 cm3or more; 1750 cm3or more; 2000 cm3or more; 2250 cm3or more; 2500 cm3or more; 3000 cm3or more; 3500 cm3or more; 4000 cm3or more; 4500 cm3or more; 5000 cm3or more; 6000 cm3or more; 7000 cm3or more; 8000 cm3or more; 9000 cm3or more; 10,000 cm3or more; 12,500 cm3or more; 15,000 cm3or more; 17,500 cm3or more; 20,000 cm3or more; 22,500 cm3or more; 25,000 cm3or more; 30,000 cm3or more; 35,000 cm3or more; 40,000 cm3or more; 45,000 cm3or more; 50,000 cm3or more; 60,000 cm3or more; 70,000 cm3or more; 80,000 cm3or more; 90,000 cm3or more; 100,000 cm3or more; 125,000 cm3or more; 150,000 cm3or more;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 175,000 cm3or more; 200,000 cm3or more; 225,000 cm3or more; 250,000 cm3or more; 300,000 cm3or more; 350,000 cm3or more; 400,000 cm3or more; or 450,000 cm3or more.

[0169] In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle may define a volume of 500,000 cm3or less. In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle may define a volume of 450,000 cm3or less; 400,000 cm3or less; 350,000 cm3or less; 300,000 cm3or less; 250,000 cm3or less; 225,000 cm3or less; 200,000 cm3or less; 175,000 cm3or less; 150,000 cm3or less; 125,000 cm3or less; 100,000 cm3or less; 90,000 cm3or less; 80,000 cm3or less; 70,000 cm3or less; 60,000 cm3or less; 50,000 cm3or less; 45,000 cm3or less; 40,000 cm3or less; 35,000 cm3or less; 30,000 cm3or less; 25,000 cm3or less; 22,500 cm3or less; 20,000 cm3or less; 17,500 cm3or less; 15,000 cm3or less; 12,500 cm3or less; 10,000 cm3or less; 9000 cm3or less; 8000 cm3or less; 7000 cm3or less; 6000 cm3or less; 5000 cm3or less; 4500 cm3or less; 4000 cm3or less; 3500 cm3or less; 3000 cm3or less; 2500 cm3or less; 2250 cm3or less; 2000 cm3or less; 1750 cm3or less; 1500 cm3or less; 1250 cm3or less; 1000 cm3or less; 900 cm3or less; 800 cm3or less; 700 cm3or less; 600 cm3or less; 500 cm3or less; 450 cm3or less; 400 cm3or less; 350 cm3or less; 300 cm3or less; 250 cm3or less; 225 cm3or less; 200 cm3or less; 175 cm3or less; 150 cm3or less; 125 cm3or less; 100 cm3or less; 90 cm3or less; 80 cm3or less; 70 cm3or less; 60 cm3or less; 50 cm3or less; 45 cm3or less; 40 cm3or less; 35 cm3or less; 30 cm3or less; 25 cm3or less; 20 cm3or less; 15 cm3or less; 10 cm3or less; 9 cm3or less; 8 cm3or less; 7 cm3or less; 6 cm3or less; 5 cm3or less; 4.5 cm3or less; 4 cm3or less; 3.5 cm3or less; 3 cm3or less; 2.5 cm3or less; 2 cm3or less; 1.5 cm3or less; 1.25 cm3or less; 1 cm3or less; 0.75 cm3or less; 0.5 cm3or less; 0.4 cm3or less; 0.3 cm3or less; or 0.2 cm3or less.

[0170] The volume defined by the asymmetric nozzle can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the asymmetric nozzle can define a volume of from 0.05 cm3to 500,00 cm3. In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle can define a volume of from 0.05 to 500 cm3; from 500 to 500,000 cm3; from 0.05 to 0.5 cm3; from 0.5 to 5 cm3; from 5 to 50 cm3; from 50 to 500 cm3; from 500 to 5000 cm3; from 5000 to 50,000 cm3; from 50,000 to 500,000 cm3; from 0.05 to 50,000 cm3; from 0.05 to 5,000 cm3; from 0.05 to 500 cm3; from 0.05 to 50 cm3; from 0.05 to 5 cm3; from 0.5 to 500,000 cm3; from 5 to 500,000 cm3; from 50 to 500,000 cm3; from 500 to 500,000 cm3; from 5000 to 500,000 cm3; from 0.1 to 400,000 cm3; from 1 to 250,000 cm3; or from 10 to 100,000 cm3).

[0171] The asymmetric nozzle 100 can, in some examples, further comprise a wire 150 coupled to the outlet 140, for example as shown in Figure 19 and Figure 20. In some examples, the wire 150 can bisect the outlet 140. In some examples, the wire 150 can extend parallel to the outlet length L.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0172] The wire 150 can be formed of any suitable material. For example, the wire 150 can comprise a polymer, a composite material, a metal, or a combination thereof.

[0173] The wire 150 can have a dimension along the direction of the outlet width W. In some examples, the dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be 10 micrometers (μm) or more. In some examples, the dimension of the wire along the direction of the outlet width W can be 15 μm or more, 20 μm or more, 25 μm or more, 30 μm or more, 35 μm or more, 40 μm or more, 45 μm or more, 50 μm or more, 60 μm or more, 70 μm or more, 80 μm or more, 90 μm or more, 100 μm or more, 125 μm or more, 150 μm or more, 175 μm or more, 200 μm or more, 225 μm or more, 250 μm or more, 300 μm or more, 350 μm or more, 400 μm or more, 450 μm or more, 500 μm or more, 600 μm or more, 700 μm or more, 800 μm or more, or 900 μm or more. In some examples, the dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be 1000 micrometers (μm) or less. In some examples, the dimension of the wire along the direction of the outlet width W can be 900 μm or less, 800 μm or less, 700 μm or less, 600 μm or less, 500 μm or less, 450 μm or less, 400 μm or less, 350 μm or less, 300 μm or less, 250 μm or less, 225 μm or less, 200 μm or less, 175 μm or less, 150 μm or less, 125 μm or less, 100 μm or less, 90 μm or less, 80 μm or less, 70 μm or less, 60 μm or less, 50 μm or less, 45 μm or less, 40 μm or less, 35 μm or less, 30 μm or less, 25 μm or less, 20 μm or less, or 15 μm or less. The dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be from 10 to 1000 micrometers (μm). In some examples, the dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be from 10 to 500 μm, from 500 to 1000 μm, from 10 to 200 μm, from 200 to 400 μm, from 400 to 600 μm, from 600 to 800 μm, from 800 to 1000 μm, from 10 to 100 μm, from 100 to 200 μm, from 200 to 300 μm, from 300 to 400 μm, from 400 to 500 μm, from 500 to 600 μm, from 600 to 700 μm, from 700 to 800 μm, from 800 to 900 μm, from 900 to 1000 μm, from 10 to 800 μm, from 10 to 600 μm, from 10 to 400 μm, from 10 to 50 μm, from 25 to 1000 μm, from 50 to 1000 μm, from 100 to 1000 μm, from 200 to 1000 μm, from 400 to 1000 μm, from 600 to 1000 μm, from 25 to 800 μm, from 50 to 600 μm, from 75 to 500 μm, or from 100 to 300 μm. In some examples, dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be from 100 to 300 micrometers, such as 200 micrometers.

[0174] In some examples, the asymmetric nozzle 100 can provide a path for gas flow from the inlet 110 to the outlet 140. For example, the inlet 110 can be configured to receive a gas at a pressure, and the outlet 140 can be configured to release the gas with a gas density profile.

[0175] In some examples, the gas density profile can have a longitudinal profile along the outlet10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 length L and a transverse profile along the outlet width W. The longitudinal profile can be controlled by the chamber height H, the outlet length L, or both. For example, the chamber height H, the outlet length L, or both can be selected to control the longitudinal profile. The transverse profile can be controlled by the presence or absence of the wire 150, and, when the wire 150 is present, the transverse profile can be further controlled by the dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W. For example, when the wire 150 is present, the dimension of the wire 150 along the direction of the outlet width W can be selected to control the transverse profile of the gas density profile. The gas density profile can be further controlled by the pressure of the gas at the inlet.

[0176] In some examples, the longitudinal profile can be flat-topped or density tapered.

[0177] In some examples, the transverse profile can be parabolic.

[0178] In some examples, the gas density profile may comprise a substantially flat-topped or ramped profile.

[0179] In some examples, the gas density profile may be substantially flat-topped or tamped for a distance of at least 2 centimeters.

[0180] In some examples, the inlet profile, the outlet profile, the chamber height, and the gas density may be collectively configured to control the gas density profile.

[0181] In some examples, the inlet profile, the outlet profile, the chamber height, and the gas density may be collectively configured to control the gas density profile to be substantially flat- topped or ramped.

[0182] The gas can comprise any suitable gas. In some examples, the gas can comprise hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and the like, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the gas can comprise helium.

[0183] In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of 0.1 kilopascals or more. In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of 0.25 kilopascals or more, 0.5 kilopascals or more, 0.75 kilopascals or more, 1 kilopascals or more, 1.5 kilopascals or more, 2 kilopascals or more, 2.5 kilopascals or more, 3 kilopascals or more, 3.5 kilopascals or more, 4 kilopascals or more, 4.5 kilopascals or more, 5 kilopascals or more, 6 kilopascals or more, 7 kilopascals or more, 8 kilopascals or more, 9 kilopascals or more, 10 kilopascals or more, 15 kilopascals or more, 20 kilopascals or more, 25 kilopascals or more, 30 kilopascals or more, 35 kilopascals or more, 40 kilopascals or more, 45 kilopascals or more, 50 kilopascals or more, 60 kilopascals or more, 70 kilopascals or more, 80 kilopascals or more, 90 kilopascals or more, 100 kilopascals or more, 125 kilopascals or more, 150 kilopascals or more, 175 kilopascals or more, 200 kilopascals or more, 225 kilopascals or more, 250 kilopascals or more, 300 kilopascals or10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 more, 350 kilopascals or more, 400 kilopascals or more, 450 kilopascals or more, 500 kilopascals or more, 600 kilopascals or more, 700 kilopascals or more, 800 kilopascals or more, or 900 kilopascals or more. In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of 1000 kilopascals or less. In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of 900 kilopascals or less, 800 kilopascals or less, 700 kilopascals or less, 600 kilopascals or less, 500 kilopascals or less, 450 kilopascals or less, 400 kilopascals or less, 350 kilopascals or less, 300 kilopascals or less, 250 kilopascals or less, 225 kilopascals or less, 200 kilopascals or less, 175 kilopascals or less, 150 kilopascals or less, 125 kilopascals or less, 100 kilopascals or less, 90 kilopascals or less, 80 kilopascals or less, 70 kilopascals or less, 60 kilopascals or less, 50 kilopascals or less, 45 kilopascals or less, 40 kilopascals or less, 35 kilopascals or less, 30 kilopascals or less, 25 kilopascals or less, 20 kilopascals or less, 15 kilopascals or less, 10 kilopascals or less, 9 kilopascals or less, 8 kilopascals or less, 7 kilopascals or less, 6 kilopascals or less, 5 kilopascals or less, 4.5 kilopascals or less, 4 kilopascals or less, 3.5 kilopascals or less, 3 kilopascals or less, 2.5 kilopascals or less, 2 kilopascals or less, 1.5 kilopascals or less, 1 kilopascals or less, 0.75 kilopascals or less, 0.5 kilopascals or less, or 0.25 kilopascals or less. The pressure of the gas at the inlet can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of from 0.1 to 1000 kilopascals. In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of from 0.1 to 500 kilopascals, from 500 to 1000 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 200 kilopascals, from 200 to 400 kilopascals, from 400 to 600 kilopascals, from 600 to 800 kilopascals, from 800 to 1000 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 100 kilopascals, from 100 to 200 kilopascals, from 200 to 300 kilopascals, from 300 to 400 kilopascals, from 400 to 500 kilopascals, from 500 to 600 kilopascals, from 600 to 700 kilopascals, from 700 to 800 kilopascals, from 800 to 900 kilopascals, from 900 to 1000 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 800 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 600 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 400 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 50 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 25 kilopascals, from 0.1 to 10 kilopascals, from 1 to 1000 kilopascals, from 10 to 1000 kilopascals, from 25 to 1000 kilopascals, from 50 to 1000 kilopascals, from 100 to 1000 kilopascals, from 200 to 1000 kilopascals, from 400 to 1000 kilopascals, from 600 to 1000 kilopascals, from 1 to 800 kilopascals, from 10 to 600 kilopascals, from 25 to 500 kilopascals, from 50 to 400 kilopascals, or from 50 to 150 kilopascals. In some examples, the gas can have a pressure at the inlet of from 10 to 1000 kilopascals, such as 100 kilopascals.

[0184] In some examples, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of 1 × 1012atoms / cm3or more. In some examples, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of 5 × 1012atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1013atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1013atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 101410046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1014atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1015atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1015atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1016atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1016atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1017atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1017atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1018atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1018atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1019atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1019atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1020atoms / cm3or more, 5 × 1020atoms / cm3or more, 1 × 1021atoms / cm3or more, or 5 × 1021atoms / cm3or more. In some examples, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of 1 × 1022atoms / cm3or less. In some examples, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of 5 × 1021atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1021atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1020atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1020atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1019atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1019atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1018atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1018atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1017atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1017atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1016atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1016atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1015atoms / cm3or less, 1× 1015atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1014atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1014atoms / cm3or less, 5 × 1013atoms / cm3or less, 1 × 1013atoms / cm3or less, or 5 × 1012atoms / cm3or less. The density of the gas upon exiting the outlet can range from any of the minimum values described above to any of the maximum values described above. For example, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1022atoms / cm3. In some examples, the gas can have a density upon exiting the outlet of from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1017, from 1 × 1017to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1014, from 1 × 1014to 1 × 1016, from 1 × 1016to 1 × 1018, from 1 × 1018to 1 × 1020, from 1 × 1020to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1013, from 1 × 1013to 1 × 1014, from 1 × 1014to 1 × 1015, from 1 × 1015to 1 × 1016, from 1 × 1016to 1 × 1017, from 1 × 1017to 1 × 1018, from 1 × 1018to 1 × 1019, from 1 × 1019to 1 × 1020, from 1 × 1020to 1 × 1021, from 1 × 1021to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1020, from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1018, from 1 × 1012to 1 × 1016, from 1 × 1014to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1016to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1018to 1 × 1022, from 1 × 1013to 1 × 1021, from 1 × 1014to 1 × 1020, or from 1 × 1016to 1 × 1020). In some examples, the gas has a density of less than 1 × 1018atoms / cm3. In some examples, the gas has a density of 1 × 1018atoms / cm3or more. EXAMPLES

[0185] The following examples are provided to further illustrate some embodiments of the present disclosure, but are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure; it will be understood by their exemplary nature that other procedures, methodologies, or techniques known to those skilled in the art may alternatively be used. Example 1: Nanoparticle Injector

[0186] A method and apparatus may be applied to generate and inject nanoparticles into gas targets. In some examples, the nanoparticles are generated through laser ablation of a metallic or10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 non-metallic plate into a mixing chamber. In some examples, the chamber has an inlet through which gas flows, mixes uniformly with nanoparticles, and may be further transported through an outlet connected to various gas targets.

[0187] Various devices or experiments utilize a source of nanoparticles mixed with gas. One such device, for instance, is a nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator (NA-LWFA) [1]. A nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator is a technique that uses a high-intensity laser to create Langmuir plasma waves called wakefields [2]. The wakefield traps the background plasma electrons in specific conditions and accelerates them toward relativistic energies. The role of the nanoparticles present in the plasma is to trigger the injection of the electrons into the wakefield and, consequently, control the quality of the accelerated electron bunches. So far, in a nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator, the nanoparticles are produced directly inside the gas target (GT) through laser ablation [3] of various materials. The gas target can be a gas cell [4] or a gas nozzle [1]. The geometry of existing nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerators is not flexible because the source of nanoparticles is locked inside the gas target with the ablation laser in a fixed position, thus not permitting any tilt or translation of the gas target.

[0188] In some examples herein, a nanoparticle injector is described that is decoupled from the gas target and can be installed anywhere upstream of the gas target. In these examples, the use of the nanoparticle injector is not restricted to nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator, as it can be used, for instance, in conjunction with an aerodynamic lens [5] as a source of nanoparticles without the gas carrier.

[0189] In some examples, as indicated by Figure 1A in a 3D model and Figure 1B in a section view, a particle injector may comprise the following elements: 1. Gas inlet 2. Gas outlet 3. Bottom reaction chamber 4. Top reaction chamber 5. Removable plate 6. Window 7. Focusing lens 8. Ablation laser 9. Nanoparticles

[0190] In some examples, an ablation pulsed laser 8 with a pulse duration that can be nanosecond, picosecond, or femtosecond long may be focused by a focusing lens 7 through a window 6 onto the surface of a replaceable plate 5. In some examples, the plate can be made of10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 pure or alloy material, usually in solid form, and may be placed on the bottom of the reaction chamber assembly 3, 4. In some examples, the reaction chamber assembly 3, 4 may be perfectly sealed from the exterior environment and can support up to 1000 PSI internal pressures. In some examples, the focused laser ablates the surfaces of the plate and creates a plasma plume that mainly contains nanoparticles 9 made of the ablated material. In some examples, gas, usually inert but not limited to, may be fed continuously or in pulsed mode through the gas inlet 1 and flows into the reaction chamber assembly 3, 4, where it mixes uniformly with the nanoparticles and flows through the gas inlet 2 into a gas target or other unspecified devices. Example 2: Nanoparticle Injector

[0191] A method and apparatus may be used to generate and inject nanoparticles into gas targets. In some examples, the nanoparticles are generated through laser ablation of a metallic or non-metallic plate into a mixing chamber. In some examples, the chamber has an inlet through which gas flows, mixes uniformly with nanoparticles, and may be further transported through an outlet connected to various gas targets. In some examples, the methods and devices described herein provide a source of nanoparticles that can be used in plasma-based wakefield accelerators and other application where it may be suitable.

[0192] In some examples, the ablator may be integrated with the gas cell or nozzle. In the methods and devices described herein, separates the ablator and the gas cell or nozzle into individual stages that can be controlled separately.

[0193] In some examples, by separating the nanoparticle production from the acceleration process, one gains independent control over the nanoparticle creation. In some examples, a wider range of timing options, nanoparticle materials, densities, and numbers may be attained. In some examples, the nanoparticle creation apparatus may be moved outside the acceleration chamber offering a wider range of placement options, space requirements and electronic shielding. In some examples, integration of the nanoparticle injector with existing gas cells and gas nozzle targets may take place. References

[0194] The following references are referred to by number throughout the specification: [1] Aniculaesei C et al. “Proof-of-Principle Experiment for Nanoparticle-Assisted Laser Wakefield Electron Acceleration,” Phys. Rev. Applied, 2019, 12, 044041; [2] Tajima T et al. “Laser Electron Accelerator,” Phys. Rev. Lett.1979, 43, 267; [3] Kim M. et al. “Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Laser Ablation: A Review,” KONA Powder and Particle Journal, 2017, 34, 80-90;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 [4] Aniculaesei C et al. “Novel gas target for laser wakefield accelerators,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.2018, 89(2), 025110; and [5] Liu P. et al. “Generating Particle Beams of Controlled Dimensions and Divergence: II. Experimental Evaluation of Particle Motion in Aerodynamic Lenses and Nozzle Expansions,” Aerosol Science and Technology, 1995, 22(2), 314-324; each of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. EXEMPLARY ASPECTS

[0195] In view of the described compositions, devices, systems, and methods, herein below are described certain more particularly described aspects of the inventions. The particularly recited aspects should not, however, be interpreted to have any limiting effect on any different claims containing different or more general teachings described herein or that the “particular” aspects are somehow limited in some way other than the inherent meanings of the language and formulas literally used therein.

[0196] Example 1: A particle injector for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the particle injector comprising: an injection stage comprising a source of a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for particle flow, and wherein the path is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage; and an ionization stage comprising: an ionization laser, wherein the ionization laser is configured to ionize the plurality of particles, wherein ionized particles are configured to be directed to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization stage.

[0197] Example 2: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the injection stage comprises a solid target and an ablation laser, wherein the ablation laser is configured to interact with the solid target to form a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, and wherein the fluid is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage.

[0198] Example 3: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the acceleration region and the ionization stage are within a common spatial region.

[0199] Example 4: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.

[0200] Example 5: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0201] Example 6: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the plurality of particles are nanoparticles.

[0202] Example 7: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 6, wherein the particles have an average size from 1 nanometer to 10 micrometers.

[0203] Example 8: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 6, wherein the particles have a substantially spherical shape.

[0204] Example 9: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

[0205] Example 10: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the ionization stage and the injection stage are located in spatially distinct locations.

[0206] Example 11: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.

[0207] Example 12: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the fluid flows through a wall consisting of multiple surfaces.

[0208] Example 13: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 12, wherein the wall consists of a fluid low inlet, a chamber, a window, and a fluid flow outlet, wherein the inlet, outlet, and window are situated on different surfaces.

[0209] Example 14: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 13, wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid, wherein the chamber comprises a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber is configured to carry the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet, and wherein the fluid flow travels downstream to the ionization stage.

[0210] Example 15: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the fluid flow comprises a gas.

[0211] Example 16: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 15, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0212] Example 17: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 15, wherein the gas has a pressure of 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

[0213] Example 18: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 13, wherein the chamber contains the target.

[0214] Example 19: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 13, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion.

[0215] Example 20: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 18,10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

[0216] Example 21: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 13, wherein the window is located on the surface between the ablation laser and the target, and wherein the target is on a surface opposite and spaced apart so as to allow fluid flow between.

[0217] Example 22: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 21, wherein the ablation laser passes through the window to interact with the target.

[0218] Example 23: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the ablation laser passes through a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target.

[0219] Example 24: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 23, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

[0220] Example 25: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 2, wherein the ionization laser is configured to interact with the particles and fluid material after the particle and fluid material have passed out of the outlet.

[0221] Example 26: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 1, wherein the ionized articles and fluid are configured to flow to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization and injection stages.

[0222] Example 27: A particle injector for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the particle injector comprising: a chamber defined by a wall; the wall defining an inlet and an outlet, the chamber fluidly connecting the inlet to the outlet; the wall further defining a window; a target disposed within the chamber opposite and spaced apart from the window; wherein when assembled together with an ablation laser disposed outside the chamber and configured to generate a laser beam, then the laser beam traverses the window to ablate the target, thereby generating a particle within the chamber from the target; wherein the window comprises a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam; wherein the chamber provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, for example wherein the path for fluid flow traverses the laser beam.

[0223] Example 28: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 27, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion, for example to provide access for removing the target, replacing the target, or both.

[0224] Example 29: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 27 or example 28, further comprising a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0225] Example 30: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 29, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

[0226] Example 31: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-30, wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

[0227] Example 32: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-31, wherein the target comprises a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

[0228] Example 33: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-32, wherein the target comprises a metal.

[0229] Example 34: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-33, wherein the target comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0230] Example 35: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-34, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

[0231] Example 36: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-35, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

[0232] Example 37: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-36, wherein the particle is a single particle.

[0233] Example 38: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-36, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

[0234] Example 39: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-38, wherein the particle injector further comprises the ablation laser.

[0235] Example 40: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-39, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.

[0236] Example 41: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-40, wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid, the chamber providing path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber carries the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

[0237] Example 42: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-41, wherein the fluid is a gas.

[0238] Example 43: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 42, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0239] Example 44: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 42 or example 43, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0240] Example 45: A method of use of the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-44, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

[0241] Example 46: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 45, wherein the method comprises ablating the target with the laser beam to generate a particle within the chamber, injecting a fluid into the inlet and flowing the fluid through the chamber, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber carries the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

[0242] Example 47: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 46, wherein the fluid is a gas.

[0243] Example 48: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 47, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

[0244] Example 49: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 47 or example 48, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0245] Example 50: A particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprising the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 27-44.

[0246] Example 51: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 50, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises an aerodynamic lens device.

[0247] Example 52: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 50, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

[0248] Example 53: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 52, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

[0249] Example 54: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 52 or example 53, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises: an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, the gas target being upstream from the particle injector; the accelerator chamber being configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein; wherein the accelerator chamber is configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons; and wherein the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield.

[0250] Example 55: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 54, wherein the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that is greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle.

[0251] Example 56: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 54 or example 55, wherein the particle comprises a metallic particle.

[0252] Example 57: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 56, wherein the metallic particle comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0253] Example 58: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-57, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

[0254] Example 59: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-58, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

[0255] Example 60: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-59, wherein the particle is a single particle.

[0256] Example 61: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-59, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

[0257] Example 62: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-61, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0258] Example 63: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 54-62, wherein the pulse comprises a laser pulse.

[0259] Example 64: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 63, further comprising a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse.

[0260] Example 65: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 53-64, wherein the gas target comprises a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both.

[0261] Example 66: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 53-65, wherein the gas target comprises a gas nozzle.

[0262] Example 67: A method of generating an electron beam using the device of any examples herein, particularly examples 50-66.

[0263] Example 68: A method of using the electron beam generated by the method of any10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 examples herein, particularly example 67.

[0264] Example 69: A method of accelerating an electron using the device of any examples herein, particularly examples 50-66.

[0265] Example 70: A method of using the accelerated electron generated by the method of any examples herein, particularly example 69.

[0266] Example 71: A particle injector for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the particle injector comprising: an ablation stage and an ionization stage, the ablation stage being upstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage; the ablation stage comprising: a solid target and an ablation laser, wherein the ablation laser is configured to ablate the solid target to form a particle; wherein the ablation stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, such that fluid flow through the ablation stage is configured to carry the particle away from the ablation stage to the ionization stage; the ionization stage comprising: an ionization laser configured to ionize the particle and fluid received from the ablation stage, thereby forming ionized particles and ionized fluid; wherein the ionization stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, such that fluid flow through the ionization stage is configured to carry the ionized particle and ionized fluid away from the ionization stage to an acceleration stage, the acceleration stage being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage.

[0267] Example 72: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 71, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

[0268] Example 73: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 71 or example 72, wherein the ionization stage and the ablation stage are located in spatially distinct physical locations.

[0269] Example 74: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-73, wherein the ablation stage comprises: a chamber defined by a wall; the wall defining an inlet and an outlet, the chamber fluidly connecting the inlet to the outlet; the wall further defining a window; wherein the solid target is disposed within the chamber opposite and spaced apart from the window; wherein the ablation laser is disposed outside the chamber and configured to generate a laser beam, then the laser beam traverses the window to ablate the solid target, thereby generating the particle within the chamber from the solid target; wherein the window comprises a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam; wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid and the chamber provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet such that the fluid flowing through the chamber is configured to carry the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet towards the ionization stage.

[0270] Example 75: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 74,10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion, for example to provide access for removing the solid target, replacing the solid target, or both.

[0271] Example 76: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 74 or example 75, further comprising a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the solid target, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both.

[0272] Example 77: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 76, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

[0273] Example 78: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 74-77, wherein the solid target is removable, replaceable, or both.

[0274] Example 79: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-78, wherein the solid target comprises a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

[0275] Example 80: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-79, wherein the solid target comprises a metal.

[0276] Example 81: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-80, wherein the solid target comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0277] Example 82: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-81, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

[0278] Example 83: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-82, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

[0279] Example 84: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-83, wherein the particle is a single particle.

[0280] Example 85: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-83, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

[0281] Example 86: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-85, wherein the particle injector further comprises the ablation laser.

[0282] Example 87: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-86, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.

[0283] Example 88: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-87, wherein the fluid comprises a gas.

[0284] Example 89: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 88,10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

[0285] Example 90: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly example 88 or example 89, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0286] Example 91: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-90, wherein the ionization laser is configured to interact with the particle and the fluid after the particle and the fluid have exited the ablation stage by passing through the outlet.

[0287] Example 92: The particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-91, wherein the ionized particle and ionized fluid are configured to flow away from the ionization stage to an acceleration stage, the acceleration stage being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage.

[0288] Example 93: A method of use of the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-92, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

[0289] Example 94 : A method for injecting particles for a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both, the method comprising: at a first location, ablating of a solid target with an ablation laser, thereby forming particles; transporting the particles via a fluid flow from the first location to a second location, wherein the first location and the second location are distinct; at the second location, ionizing the particles ablated in (a) and fluid material with an ionization laser to form ionized material and free electrons; and accelerating the particles ionized in (c), fluid material, and free electrons.

[0290] Example 95: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein (a) comprises (i) ablating the solid target with the laser beam to generate a particle within a chamber, (ii) injecting a fluid into the inlet, and (iii) flowing the fluid through the chamber, thereby transporting the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

[0291] Example 96: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 95, wherein the fluid is a gas.

[0292] Example 97: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 96, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0293] Example 98: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

[0294] Example 99: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0295] Example 100: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 98, wherein the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0296] Example 101: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the particles are nanoparticles.

[0297] Example 102: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 100, wherein the particles have a substantially spherical shape.

[0298] Example 103: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 95, wherein the chamber contains the target.

[0299] Example 104: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 95, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion.

[0300] Example 105: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 102, wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

[0301] Example 106: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein (c) comprises bombarding the fluid material and particles, thereby producing ions of the fluid material, particle ions, and the free electrons.

[0302] Example 107: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

[0303] Example 108: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein (d) comprises accelerating the particles and electrons by a suitable method.

[0304] Example 109: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein (d) occurs in a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

[0305] Example 110: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71¬92.

[0306] Example 111: The method of any examples herein, particularly example 94, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 74¬92, such that the method comprises ablating the solid target with the laser beam to generate the particle within the chamber, injecting a fluid into the inlet, and flowing the fluid through the chamber, thereby transporting the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

[0307] Example 112: A particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprising the particle injector of any examples herein, particularly examples 71-92.

[0308] Example 113: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 112, wherein the10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises an aerodynamic lens device.

[0309] Example 114: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 112, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

[0310] Example 115: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 114, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

[0311] Example 116: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 114 or example 115, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises: an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, the gas target being upstream from the particle injector; the accelerator chamber being configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein; wherein the accelerator chamber is configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons; and wherein the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield.

[0312] Example 117: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 116, wherein the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that is greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle.

[0313] Example 118: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 116 or example 117, wherein the particle comprises a metallic particle.

[0314] Example 119: The device of any examples herein, particularly example 118, wherein the metallic particle comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

[0315] Example 120: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-119, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm , or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

[0316] Example 121: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-120, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

[0317] Example 122: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-121, wherein the particle is a single particle.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602

[0318] Example 123: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-122, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

[0319] Example 124: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-123, wherein the gas comprises helium.

[0320] Example 125: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 116-124, wherein the pulse comprises a laser pulse.

[0321] Example 126: The device of 125, further comprising a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse.

[0322] Example 127: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 115-126, wherein the gas target comprises a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both.

[0323] Example 128: The device of any examples herein, particularly examples 115-127, wherein the gas target comprises a gas nozzle.

[0324] Example 129: A method of generating an electron beam using the device of any examples herein, particularly examples 112-128.

[0325] Example 130: A method of using the electron beam generated by the method of any examples herein, particularly example 129.

[0326] Example 131: A method of accelerating an electron using the device of any examples herein, particularly examples 112-128.

[0327] Example 132: A method of using the accelerated electron generated by the method of any examples herein, particularly example 131.

[0328] While preferred embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present disclosure may be employed in practicing the present disclosure. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present disclosure and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. A particle injector, the particle injector comprising: an injection stage comprising a source of a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for particle flow, and wherein the path is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage; and an ionization stage comprising: an ionization laser, wherein the ionization laser is configured to ionize the plurality of particles, wherein ionized particles are configured to be directed to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization stage.

2. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the injection stage comprises a solid target and an ablation laser, wherein the ablation laser is configured to interact with the solid target to form a plurality of particles, wherein the injection stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, and wherein the fluid is configured to carry the plurality of particles away from the injection stage.

3. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the acceleration region and the ionization stage are within a common spatial region.

4. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.

5. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

6. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the plurality of particles are nanoparticles.

7. The particle injector of claim 6, wherein the particles have an average size from 1 nanometer to 10 micrometers.

8. The particle injector of claim 6, wherein the particles have a substantially spherical shape.

9. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

10. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the ionization stage and the injection stage are located in spatially distinct locations.

11. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.

12. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the fluid flows through a wall consisting of multiple surfaces.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 13. The particle injector of claim 12, wherein the wall consists of a fluid low inlet, a chamber, a window, and a fluid flow outlet, wherein the inlet, outlet, and window are situated on different surfaces.

14. The particle injector of claim 13, wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid, wherein the chamber comprises a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber is configured to carry the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet, and wherein the fluid flow travels downstream to the ionization stage.

15. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the fluid flow comprises a gas.

16. The particle injector of claim 15, wherein the gas comprises helium.

17. The particle injector of claim 15, wherein the gas has a pressure from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

18. The particle injector of claim 13, wherein the chamber contains the target.

19. The particle injector of claim 13, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion.

20. The particle injector of claim 18, wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

21. The particle injector of claim 13, wherein the window is located on the surface between the ablation laser and the target, and wherein the target is on a surface opposite and spaced apart so as to allow fluid flow between.

22. The particle injector of claim 21, wherein the ablation laser passes through the window to interact with the target.

23. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the ablation laser passes through a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target.

24. The particle injector of claim 23, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

25. The particle injector of claim 2, wherein the ionization laser is configured to interact with the particles and fluid material after the particle and fluid material have passed out of the outlet.

26. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the ionized articles and fluid are configured to flow to an acceleration region downstream from the ionization and injection stages.

27. The particle injector of claim 1, wherein the particle injector is configured for a particle accelerator, particle beam device, or both.

28. A particle injector, the particle injector comprising: a chamber defined by a wall; the wall defining an inlet and an outlet, the chamber fluidly connecting the inlet to the outlet;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 the wall further defining a window; a target disposed within the chamber opposite and spaced apart from the window; wherein when assembled together with an ablation laser disposed outside the chamber and configured to generate a laser beam, then the laser beam traverses the window to ablate the target, thereby generating a particle within the chamber from the target; wherein the window comprises a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam; wherein the chamber provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, for example wherein the path for fluid flow traverses the laser beam.

29. The particle injector of claim 28, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion, for example to provide access for removing the target, replacing the target, or both.

30. The particle injector of claim 28 or claim 29, further comprising a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the target, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both.

31. The particle injector of claim 30, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

32. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-31, wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

33. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-32, wherein the target comprises a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

34. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-33, wherein the target comprises a metal.

35. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-34, wherein the target comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

36. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-35, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

37. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-36, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

38. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-37, wherein the particle is a single particle.

39. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-37, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

40. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-39, wherein the particle injector further comprises the ablation laser.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 41. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-40, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.

42. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-41, wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid, the chamber providing path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber carries the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

43. The particle injector of any one of claims 28-42, wherein the fluid is a gas.

44. The particle injector of claim 43, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

45. The particle injector of claim 43 or claim 44, wherein the gas comprises helium.

46. A method of use of the particle injector of any one of claims 28-45, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein the method comprises ablating the target with the laser beam to generate a particle within the chamber, injecting a fluid into the inlet and flowing the fluid through the chamber, such that the fluid flowing through the chamber carries the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein the fluid is a gas.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

50. The method of claim 48 or claim 49, wherein the gas comprises helium.

51. A particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprising the particle injector of any one of claims 28-45.

52. The device of claim 51, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises an aerodynamic lens device.

53. The device of claim 51, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

54. The device of claim 53, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

55. The device of claim 53 or claim 54, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises: an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, the gas target being upstream from the particle injector;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 the accelerator chamber being configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein; wherein the accelerator chamber is configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons; and wherein the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield.

56. The device of claim 55, wherein the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that is greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle.

57. The device of claim 55 or claim 56, wherein the particle comprises a metallic particle.

58. The device of claim 57, wherein the metallic particle comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

59. The device of any one of claims 55-58, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

60. The device of any one of claims 55-59, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

61. The device of any one of claims 55-60, wherein the particle is a single particle.

62. The device of any one of claims 55-60, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

63. The device of any one of claims 55-62, wherein the gas comprises helium.

64. The device of any one of claims 55-63, wherein the pulse comprises a laser pulse.

65. The device of claim 64, further comprising a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse.

66. The device of any one of claims 54-65, wherein the gas target comprises a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both.

67. The device of any one of claims 54-66, wherein the gas target comprises a gas nozzle.

68. A method of generating an electron beam using the device of any one of claims 51-67.

69. A method of using the electron beam generated by the method of claim 68.

70. A method of accelerating an electron using the device of any one of claims 51-67.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 71. A method of using the accelerated electron generated by the method of claim 70.

72. The particle injector of claim 28, wherein the particle injector is configured for a particle accelerator, particle beam device, or both.

73. A particle injector, the particle injector comprising: an ablation stage and an ionization stage, the ablation stage being upstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage; the ablation stage comprising: a solid target and an ablation laser, wherein the ablation laser is configured to ablate the solid target to form a particle; wherein the ablation stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, such that fluid flow through the ablation stage is configured to carry the particle away from the ablation stage to the ionization stage; the ionization stage comprising: an ionization laser configured to ionize the particle and fluid received from the ablation stage, thereby forming ionized particles and ionized fluid; wherein the ionization stage further comprises a path for fluid flow, such that fluid flow through the ionization stage is configured to carry the ionized particle and ionized fluid away from the ionization stage to an acceleration stage, the acceleration stage being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage.

74. The particle injector of claim 73, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

75. The particle injector of claim 73 or claim 74, wherein the ionization stage and the ablation stage are located in spatially distinct physical locations.

76. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-75, wherein the ablation stage comprises: a chamber defined by a wall; the wall defining an inlet and an outlet, the chamber fluidly connecting the inlet to the outlet; the wall further defining a window; wherein the solid target is disposed within the chamber opposite and spaced apart from the window; wherein the ablation laser is disposed outside the chamber and configured to generate a laser beam, then the laser beam traverses the window to ablate the solid target, thereby generating the particle within the chamber from the solid target;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 wherein the window comprises a material that is substantially transparent to the laser beam; wherein the inlet is configured to receive a fluid and the chamber provides a path for fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet such that the fluid flowing through the chamber is configured to carry the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet towards the ionization stage.

77. The particle injector of claim 76, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion, for example to provide access for removing the solid target, replacing the solid target, or both.

78. The particle injector of claim 76 or claim 77, further comprising a focusing element configured to focus the laser beam onto the solid target, for example before traversing the window, after traversing the window, or both.

79. The particle injector of claim 78, wherein the focusing element comprises a lens.

80. The particle injector of any one of claims 76-79, wherein the solid target is removable, replaceable, or both.

81. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-80, wherein the solid target comprises a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof.

82. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-81, wherein the solid target comprises a metal.

83. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-82, wherein the solid target comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

84. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-83, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

85. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-84, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

86. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-85, wherein the particle is a single particle.

87. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-85, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

88. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-87, wherein the particle injector further comprises the ablation laser.

89. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-88, wherein the ablation laser is a pulsed laser, such that the laser beam is pulsed.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 90. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-89, wherein the fluid comprises a gas.

91. The particle injector of claim 90, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

92. The particle injector of claim 90 or claim 91, wherein the gas comprises helium.

93. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-92, wherein the ionization laser is configured to interact with the particle and the fluid after the particle and the fluid have exited the ablation stage by passing through the outlet.

94. The particle injector of any one of claims 73-93, wherein the ionized particle and ionized fluid are configured to flow away from the ionization stage to an acceleration stage, the acceleration stage being downstream from and fluidly connected to the ionization stage.

95. A method of use of the particle injector of any one of claims 73-94, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector in a particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both.

96. A method for injecting particles, the method comprising: (a) at a first location, ablating of a solid target with an ablation laser, thereby forming particles; (b) transporting the particles via a fluid flow from the first location to a second location, wherein the first location and the second location are distinct; (c) at the second location, ionizing the particles ablated in (a) and fluid material with an ionization laser to form ionized material and free electrons; and (d) accelerating the particles ionized in (c), fluid material, and free electrons.

97. The method of claim 96, wherein (a) comprises (i) ablating the solid target with the laser beam to generate a particle within a chamber, (ii) injecting a fluid into the inlet, and (iii) flowing the fluid through the chamber, thereby transporting the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

98. The method of claim 97, wherein the fluid is a gas.

99. The method of claim 98, wherein the gas comprises helium.

100. The method of claim 96, wherein the gas is provided to the chamber at a pressure of from 0.01 to 1000 pounds per square inch (PSI).

101. The method of claim 96, wherein the target is selected from the group comprising a metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.

102. The method of claim 101, wherein the target is a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

103. The method of claim 96, wherein the particles are nanoparticles.

104. The method of claim 103, wherein the particles have a substantially spherical shape.10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 105. The method of claim 97, wherein the chamber contains the target.

106. The method of claim 97, wherein the chamber comprises a top portion and a bottom portion, the top portion being separable from the bottom portion.

107. The method of claim 105, wherein the target is removable, replaceable, or both.

108. The method of claim 96, wherein (c) comprises bombarding the fluid material and particles, thereby producing ions of the fluid material, particle ions, and the free electrons.

109. The method of claim 96, wherein the ionization laser is distinct from the ablation laser.

110. The method of claim 96, wherein (d) comprises accelerating the particles and electrons by a suitable method.

111. The method of claim 96, wherein (d) occurs in a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

112. The method of claim 96, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector of any one of claims 73-94.

113. The method of claim 96, wherein the method comprises using the particle injector of any one of claims 76-94, such that the method comprises ablating the solid target with the laser beam to generate the particle within the chamber, injecting a fluid into the inlet, and flowing the fluid through the chamber, thereby transporting the particle and fluid out of the chamber through the outlet.

114. A particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprising the particle injector of any one of claims 73-94.

115. The device of claim 114, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises an aerodynamic lens device.

116. The device of claim 114, wherein the particle accelerator, a particle beam device, or both comprises a particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator.

117. The device of claim 116, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises a gas target upstream from the particle injector.

118. The device of claim 116 or claim 117, wherein the particle-assisted wakefield electron accelerator comprises: an accelerator chamber upstream from a gas target, the gas target being upstream from the particle injector; the accelerator chamber being configured to receive a gas and a particle from the gas target and the particle injector, such that the accelerator chamber includes the gas and the particle therein;10046-580WO1; 8212 HEG; WSGR Docket No.62279-704.601 and 62279-704.602 wherein the accelerator chamber is configured to receive a pulse, the pulse being configured to: ionize at least a portion of the gas, thereby generating a plasma wave comprising electrons in the accelerator chamber; and ionize at least a portion of the particle, thereby generating free electrons; wherein at least a portion of the electrons from the plasma and at least a portion of the free electrons are injected into the wakefield, the portion of the electrons from the plasma and the portion of the free electrons being the injected electrons; and wherein the injected electrons are accelerated by the wakefield.

119. The device of claim 118, wherein the injected electrons are accelerated to an energy that is greater than the energy generated in the absence of the particle.

120. The device of claim 118 or claim 119, wherein the particle comprises a metallic particle.

121. The device of claim 120, wherein the metallic particle comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and combinations thereof.

122. The device of any one of claims 118-121, wherein the particle has an average particle size of from 1 nanometer (nm) to 10 micrometers (µm), from 1 nm to 1000 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm.

123. The device of any one of claims 118-122, wherein the particle has a substantially spherical shape.

124. The device of any one of claims 118-123, wherein the particle is a single particle.

125. The device of any one of claims 118-124, wherein the particle is a plurality of particles.

126. The device of any one of claims 118-125, wherein the gas comprises helium.

127. The device of any one of claims 118-126, wherein the pulse comprises a laser pulse.

128. The device of 127, further comprising a laser source configured to generate the laser pulse.

129. The device of any one of claims 117-128, wherein the gas target comprises a gas cell, a gas nozzle, or both.

130. The device of any one of claims 117-129, wherein the gas target comprises a gas nozzle.

131. A method of generating an electron beam using the device of any one of claims 114-130.

132. A method of using the electron beam generated by the method of claim 131.

133. A method of accelerating an electron using the device of any one of claims 114-130.

134. A method of using the accelerated electron generated by the method of claim 133.

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