System and Method for Measuring Oxidative Potential of Atmospheric Particulate Matter
A cost-effective and durable system for measuring oxidative potential of atmospheric particulate matter using a tungsten halogen visible light source and optical filter addresses the high cost and maintenance issues of existing systems, offering precise and efficient measurements.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2025/107252
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2024-07-31
- Filing Date
- 2025-07-07
- Publication Date
- 2026-02-05
AI Technical Summary
Existing automated systems for measuring the oxidative potential of atmospheric particulate matter using the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay are expensive and require frequent maintenance due to the use of deuterium-tungsten halogen UV-VIS light sources and long pathlength flow cells.
A system utilizing a tungsten halogen visible light source combined with an optical filter and a 1-cm flow cell, which converts broadband light to narrowband light for absorbance detection, reducing costs and maintenance needs, while maintaining measurement accuracy.
The system provides cost-effective and durable measurements with high precision and low limit of detection, suitable for both offline and online applications, and requires less frequent maintenance compared to traditional systems.
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Figure CN2025107252_05022026_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
System and Method for Measuring Oxidative Potential of Atmospheric Particulate MatterCROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims priority to the U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 63 / 677,423, filed July 31, 2024, entitled “Automated Oxidative Potential Measurement Instrument for Atmospheric Particulate Matter using Dithiothreitol (DTT) Assay” , which is incorporated herein by reference as to its entirety. FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE
[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to systems and methods for measuring oxidative potential (OP) of atmospheric particulate matter.BACKGROUND
[0003] Reference to any prior art in the specification is not an acknowledgment or suggestion that this prior art forms part of the common general knowledge in any jurisdiction or that this prior art could reasonably be expected to be understood, regarded as relevant, and / or combined with other pieces of prior art by a skilled person in the art.
[0004] The oxidative potential (OP) of airborne particulate matter (PM) refers to its ability to either consume antioxidants or stimulate the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can adversely impact biological cells. This capacity is increasingly recognized as a significant indicator of PM toxicity, measuring the oxidative potential helps to understand the harmful effects airborne particulate matter can have on human health and the environment.
[0005] Among the various techniques available for quantifying OP, the acellular dithiothreitol (DTT) assay stands out due to its ease of use and relevance to multiple health endpoints. In the DTT assay, DTT is used to interact with the redox-active components of particulate matter, which leads to the generation of ROS. The more DTT consumed, the higher the oxidative potential of the sample, indicating that the particles have a greater capacity to generate ROS. Although there are many alternate solutions available in the market in which dithiothreitol (DTT) is used and an OP measuring instrument is made for atmospheric particulate, they typically have limitations. For example, in some existing automated systems utilizing the acellular dithiothreitol (DTT) assay, a deuterium-tungsten halogen UV-VIS light source and a long pathlength flow cell are used, making such systems expensive and requiring frequent maintenance.
[0006] It is an object of the present disclosure to overcome or substantially ameliorate one or more of the disadvantages of prior art, or at least to provide a useful alternative.SUMMARY
[0007] According to first aspect of the present disclosure, there is provided a system for measuring oxidative potential (OP) of atmospheric particulate matter. The system comprises a sample module, a solution distribution module, a mixing and heating module and a detection module. The sampler module is configured to collect a liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter. The solution distribution module is configured to transfer the liquid sample solution, one or more chemical agents and reaction products thereof. The mixing and heating module is configured to receive the liquid sample solution and one or more chemical agents, wherein the atmospheric particulate matter reacts with one or more chemical agents at a predetermined temperature in the mixing and heating module. The detection module is configured to detect an optical absorbance of a target compound in the reaction products, the detection module comprises a visible light source; an optical filter coupled with the visible light source; a flow cell configured to receive the reaction products; and a spectrometer configured to detect light emitted from the visible light source and passing through the optical filter and flow cell.
[0008] In one embodiment, the one or more chemical agents comprise dithiothreitol (DTT) and 5, 5’-dithiobis- (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) , and the target compound comprises 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoic acid (TNB) .
[0009] In one embodiment, the visible light source comprises a tungsten halogen visible light source.
[0010] In one embodiment, the light emitted from the visible light source comprises a broadband light having a peak intensity at a first wavelength, and the optical filter is configured to convert the broadband light into a narrowband light having a peak intensity at a second wavelength different from the first wavelength.
[0011] In one embodiment, the second wavelength is approximate an absorbance wavelength of the target compound.
[0012] In one embodiment, the detection module is configured to take multiple consecutive readings of the optical absorbance of the target compound, and the system is configured to calculate an average value based on the multiple consecutive readings.
[0013] According to second aspect of the present disclosure, there is provided a method of measuring oxidative potential (OP) of atmospheric particulate matter. The method comprises collecting a liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter using a sampler module; transferring the liquid sample solution and one or more chemical reagents to a mixing and heating module using a solution distribution module, wherein the atmospheric particulate matter reacts with one or more chemical agents at a predetermined temperature in the mixing and heating module; transferring reaction products of the reaction between the atmospheric particulate matter and one or more chemical agents to a flow cell of a detection module; and detecting an optical absorbance of a target compound in the reaction products using the detection module. Detecting an optical absorbance of a target compound in the reaction products using the detection module comprises providing a light from a visible light source to the flow cell, wherein the light is filtered by an optical filter coupled with the visible light source; and detecting the light passing through the optical filter and flow cell using a spectrometer.
[0014] In one embodiment, the one or more chemical agents comprise dithiothreitol (DTT) and 5, 5’-dithiobis- (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) , and the target compound comprises 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoic acid (TNB) .
[0015] In one embodiment, the liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter is collected over a predefined time period.
[0016] In one embodiment, the liquid sample solution and one or more chemical reagents are transferred to the mixing and heating module at predefined time intervals.
[0017] In one embodiment, the reaction products of the reaction between the atmospheric particulate matter and the one or more chemical agents are transferred to the flow cell after a predefined mixing time.
[0018] In one embodiment, the light emitted from the visible light source comprises a broadband light having a peak intensity at a first wavelength, and providing the light from the visible light source to the flow cell comprises converting the broadband light into a narrowband light having a peak intensity at a second wavelength different from the first wavelength using the optical filter.
[0019] In one embodiment, the second wavelength is approximate an absorbance wavelength of the target compound.
[0020] In one embodiment, detecting the optical absorbance of the target compound in the reaction products comprises taking multiple consecutive readings of the optical absorbance of the target compound and calculating an average value based on the multiple consecutive readings.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0021] The detailed description is set forth with reference to the accompanying drawings. The drawings are provided for purposes of illustration only and merely depict example embodiments of the disclosure. The drawings are provided to facilitate understanding of the disclosure and shall not be deemed to limit the breadth, scope, or applicability of the disclosure. The drawings are not to scale, unless otherwise disclosed. Certain parts of the drawings are exaggerated for explanation purposes and shall not be considered limiting unless otherwise specified. Embodiments of the disclosure are described hereinafter with reference to the following drawings, in which:
[0022] FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a system for measuring oxidative potential of atmospheric particulate matter according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.
[0023] FIG. 2 shows a graph illustrating the light intensity before and after applying the optical filter according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.
[0024] FIG. 3 shows a schematic diagram illustrating a temporal sequence for analysis of an online sample according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.
[0025] FIG. 4, comprising 4 (a) and 4 (b) , shows exemplary plots of the time series of raw absorbance during one assay analysis and the normalized absorbance versus incubation time for different types of sample solutions.
[0026] FIG. 5 shows a scatter plot of DTT concentration and absorbance at 412 nm using the system according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.
[0027] FIG. 6 shows a graph illustrating a comparison of DDT assay-based OP (OPDTT) measurements between the automated system according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure and a manual system.
[0028] FIG. 7 shows time series of observed hourly OP expressed as per unit sampled air volume (OPv) , PM2.5 and selected components during a field application period using the system according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0029] The present disclosure will now be described with reference to the following examples which should be considered in all respects as illustrative and non-restrictive.
[0030] Throughout the description and the claims, the words “comprise” , “comprising” , and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense; that is to say, in the sense of “including, but not limited to” .
[0031] Furthermore, as used herein and unless otherwise specified, the use of the ordinal adjectives “first” , “second” , etc., to describe a common object, merely indicate that different instances of like objects are being referred to, and are not intended to imply that the objects so described must be in a given sequence, either temporally, spatially, in ranking, or in any other manner.
[0032] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system 10 for measuring oxidative potential of atmospheric particulate matter according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure. Generally, the system 10 comprises a sampler module 100, a solution distribution module 200, a mixing and heating module 300, and a detection module 400.
[0033] The sampler module 100 is configured to collect a liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter. It can function in an offline mode for manual analysis or an online mode for real-time monitoring. In a non-limiting example, the offline version may be achieved by an autosampler that transfers filter extracts, i.e. water-soluble particulate matter (wsPM) . The online version of water-soluble PM sampling may be achieved through a Particle Into Liquid Sampler (PILS) , for example.
[0034] The solution distribution module 200 comprises a plurality of pumps in the form of two programmable syringe pumps 202 and 204 equipped with 1 mL and 5 mL syringes respectively. The pumps 202 and 204, in coordination with valves (not shown in FIG. 1 for brevity) , can be controlled to deliver various types of solutions, such as sample solutions, chemical reagents, reaction products thereof, and washing / buffer solutions.
[0035] The chemical agents may include dithiothreitol (DTT) and 5, 5’ -dithiobis- (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) , and in this case the reaction products may include 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoic acid (TNB) . Although DTNB is widely used in a colorimetric method for DTT assay, in alternate embodiments, other possible colorimetric approaches or alternatives can be used to form other colored products for absorbance monitoring.
[0036] The mixing and heating module 300 comprises a heating mixer 302 maintained at a constant temperature and speed. For example, a constant temperature of 37.0℃ may be used to simulate body temperature and the constant speed may be 600 rounds per minute (rpm) . In one non-limiting implementation, a plurality of vials in the form of three types of vials –a preheat vial (PV) , a reaction vial (RV) , and a mixing vial (MV) –are placed in the heating mixer 302. The plurality of vials are used at different stages of the measurement process, as will be described in further detail below.
[0037] While the exemplary embodiment utilises the above-described configuration, it should be understood that these components and parameters are illustrative and not limiting. Other types and numbers of pumps, syringes and vials, as well as different sizes, materials, temperature settings, volumes, and mixing speeds may be selected. Such variations are considered within the scope of the present disclosure.
[0038] The detection module 400 comprises a visible (VIS) light source 402, an optical filter 404 coupled with the visible light source 402, a flow cell 406 configured to receive the reaction products conveyed by the solution distribution module 200, and a spectrometer 408. The spectrometer 408 is configured to detect light which is emitted from the visible light source 402 and which passes through the optical filter 404 and flow cell 406. The detection signal from the spectrometer 408 is analysed to determine the oxidative potential of the atmospheric particulate matter.
[0039] In an example, the visible light source 402 may be a tungsten halogen visible light source, the optical filter 404 may be a violet optical filter, and the flow cell 406 may have a path length of 1cm. However, any other types of visible light source, optical filter and flow cell may be chosen within the scope of the present disclosure.
[0040] FIG. 2 shows a graph illustrating the light intensity before and after applying the optical filter using a tungsten halogen visible light source according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 2, without the influence of the violet optical filter 404, the VIS light source 402 produces a broadband light in the region of 300-1,000 nm, with maximum intensity at approximately 600 nm. Since the violet optical filter 404 blocks light within the 500-1000 nm range, the use of the violet optical filter 404 in example embodiments allows maximum transmittance of light near a predetermine monitoring wavelength, e.g. 412 nm, without saturating the spectrometer 408. In other words, the optical filter 404 converts the broadband light into a narrowband light having a peak intensity at a different wavelength. Specifically, the violet optical filter is configured to selectively transmit light within a specific wavelength range while blocking others. In this non-limiting example, the filter blocks light with wavelengths from 500 nm to 1000 nm, which represents a significant portion of the broadband light spectrum produced by the visible light source. By eliminating these longer wavelengths, the filter restricts the output to a narrower band of light. This results in a more focused wavelength range that is ideal for monitoring applications, as it can reduce the interference from the light with unwanted wavelengths that may affect measurements. Additionally, the optical filter is configured to allow maximum transmittance of light around a predetermined monitoring wavelength, such as 412 nm. By blocking longer wavelengths and selectively transmitting shorter wavelengths, the filter effectively shifts the peak intensity of the transmitted light to the desired wavelength. This means that while the original light source may have had its peak intensity around 600 nm, the filter alters this distribution, resulting in a new peak around 412 nm. This shift is important because it aligns the light output with the specific wavelength needed for accurate monitoring and analysis, ensuring that the spectrometer can detect and analyze the light without being overwhelmed by the broader spectrum of the original light source.
[0041] As described above, example embodiments provide a system capable of measuring OP by the DTT assay of ambient PM. The system can be automated and includes a sampler, a solution distribution module, a mixing and heating module, and a miniature spectrometer. Compared with previous automated systems, the system according to example embodiments can provide improvement in operation through using a more durable visible light source and a simpler flow cell. For example, the present system utilizes a visible light source combined with an optical filter instead of a traditional ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) light source, achieving comparable performance in monitoring the absorbance intensity ratio at 412 nm and 750 nm, while offering significant advantages in cost and durability. Unlike the commonly used deuterium-tungsten UV-VIS light source, a visible light source combined with an optical filter can be three times more cost-effective. Additionally, the VIS light source can offer a longer lifespan (10,000 hours) than the lifespan of the UV-VIS light source (1,000 hours) . The present system also utilizes a 1-cm flow cell instead of the commonly used long pathlength flow cell (e.g., Liquid Waveguide Capillary Cells, LWCC) , which is approximately ten times more expensive. Unlike prior systems that use a long pathlength flow cell and require dilution of solution before absorbance monitoring, the present system can achieve more efficient measurement with a smaller flow cell. As tested, the 1 cm flow cell can provide an excellent linear concentration-absorbance response relationship for the DTT concentrations encountered, without resorting to a longer optical path, such as the 100 cm LWCC used in the previous OPDTT systems. The 1 cm flow cell can provide additional advantages due to its reduced size and easier maintenance compared to the bulkier 100 cm LWCC, further enhancing the appeal of the present system. Advantageously, the present system can provide a low limit of detection (LOD=0.03 μM / min) and a high precision (CV=2-8%) , which are comparable to the off-line method. The present system generally requires less frequent maintenance (weekly) , and is thus more desirable for field deployment for online measurement.
[0042] An example operation of the system 10 is now provided with reference to FIG. 3. It will be appreciated that while this example is made in the context of an online measurement, the system 10 can be used for offline measurement.
[0043] FIG. 3 shows a schematic diagram illustrating a temporal sequence for analysis of an online sample according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure. In this example, the system 10 (FIG. 1) operates with an hourly time resolution. Briefly, in each current hour (denoted as HH) , the system 10 completes an assay cycle measuring the OPDTT of the air sample collected in the hour before the preceding hour (denoted as HH-2) . Meanwhile, the wsPM sample in the previous hour (denoted as HH-1) is placed in the Preheat Vial to ensure it is conditioned to a predetermined temperature, e.g. 37℃, and ready for OPDTT analysis in the next hour.
[0044] For example, immediately at the end of the sample collection hour, a selected quantity, e.g. 8 mL out of the 20 mL sample solution, is transferred to the Preheat Vial by one of the plurality of pumps, e.g. the syringe pump #1 (SP1) . The remaining solution is either discarded as waste or transferred to a vial in the fraction collector for other measurements. Following this, 2 mL 0.1 M phosphate buffer (PB) is added to mix with the 8 mL wsPM in the Preheat Vial. Six minutes before the end of this conditioning hour, an 8-mL aliquot of the mixture is transferred by SP1 to the Reaction Vial and is ready for the OPDTT analysis.
[0045] At the current hour mark (HH: 00 min) , 2 mL 0.5 mM DTT is added to the Reaction Vial by another one of the plurality of pumps, e.g. the syringe pump #2 (SP2) , initiating the DTT assay reaction. It will be appreciated that the initial DTT concentration is now 100 μM after dilution with the wsPM extract-PB mixture. Subsequently, at every 5 min interval (i.e., at HH: 05, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 min) , SP1 transfers 2.4 mL of 0.1 mM DTNB into the Mixing Vial, and SP2 transfers 0.6 mL of DTT incubation solution from the Reaction Vial into the Mixing Vial, where DTNB quenches excess DTT (i.e. reacts with DTT) to form a reaction product TNB. After a mixing time of 3 minutes, SP1 transfers the solution in the Mixing Vial into the 1 cm flow cell 406 (FIG. 1) for absorbance monitoring. The absorbance result can be directly used to construct the absorbance (A) vs incubation time (t) plot. In some embodiments, for each solution, multiple consecutive readings may be taken and the average can be used. Following the last absorbance reading, the system 10 initiates a washing step to clean all the tubing, after which it is ready to start the next cycle.
[0046] FIG. 4 (a) and FIG. 4 (b) show exemplary plots of the time series of raw absorbance during one assay analysis and the normalized absorbance vs. incubation time constructed through such analysis using the system of the example embodiment. The normalized absorbance reflects the remaining DTT in mixed solution for absorbance monitoring. In DTT assay for quantifying OP, the rate of DTT consumption (i.e., the slope of absorbance curve) correlates to the OP in the sample. In other words, a steeper slope, such as that in FIG. 4 (b) , indicates higher oxidative potential (OP) in the sample solution than reagent blank.
[0047] While the exemplary embodiment utilises the above-described time resolution and sampling frequency, it will be appreciated that alternative time resolutions and sampling frequencies may be selected in other embodiments, for example, in response to fast-changing environmental conditions. Further, volumes and concentrations of various solutions may be adjusted depending on operational requirements. Such variations are considered within the scope of the present disclosure.
[0048] The performance of the system of the example embodiments has been further reviewed. FIG. 5 shows a scatter plot of DTT concentration and absorbance at 412 nm utilising the system according to the example embodiments. It is noted that the current set-up of absorption measurement provides a linear absorbance range of 0-0.8, corresponding to a linear range of 0-25 μM for DTT concentration. In DTT assay protocol described above with reference to FIG. 4, the reaction solution, initially containing 100 μM DTT, is quenched and diluted with a 4-fold volume of a DTNB solution, resulting in a final solution with an absorbance of 0.6, corresponding to 20 μM DTT, if no DTT-consumption substances are present in the sample. The scatter plot shown in FIG. 5 indicates that the present system can provide an excellent linear concentration-absorbance response relationship for the DTT concentrations encountered, without resorting to a longer optical path, such as the 100 cm LWCC used in the previous OPDTT systems. The 1 cm flow cell can provide additional advantages due to its reduced size and easier maintenance compared to the bulkier 100 cm LWCC, further adding to the appeal of the present system.
[0049] FIG. 6 shows a graph illustrating a comparison of OPDTT measurements between the automated system of the example embodiments and the manual operation. To examine the consistency (accuracy) of the automated system, the OPDTT values of Cu2+ standard solution at six different concentration levels (0, 4, 5, 25, 50, 100 nm) obtained by the automated system are compared with those analyzed manually by a UV-VIS spectrometer (Lambda 1050+, PerkinElmer, USA) following the same experimental protocol. As shown in FIG. 6, the online system according to example embodiments demonstrates great consistency with the offline manual method, as evidenced by a near-unity slope (1.06±0.05) , a negligible intercept (-0.02±0.02) , and a high coefficient of determination (R2: 0.99) .
[0050] As an example of online hourly OP measurement result, FIG. 7 shows the time series of observed hourly OPv, PM2.5 and selected components during a field application period using the system according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure. The system records a rapid rise in OPv, as shown by line 702, in sync with increasing in Cu shown by line 704, which demonstrates that the system can be deployed to monitor short-duration health-related emission events (e.g., fireworks, fires, or biomass burning) and episodes.
[0051] It will further be appreciated that any of the features in the above embodiments of the disclosure may be combined together and are not necessarily applied in isolation from each other. Similar combinations of two or more features from the above described embodiments or preferred forms of the disclosure can be readily made by one skilled in the art.
[0052] Unless otherwise defined, the technical and scientific terms used herein have the plain meanings as commonly understood by those skill in the art to which the example embodiments pertain. It will be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that numerous variations and / or modifications may be made to the above-described embodiments, without departing from the broad general scope of the present disclosure. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive.
Claims
1.A system for measuring oxidative potential (OP) of atmospheric particulate matter, the system comprising:a sampler module configured to collect a liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter;a solution distribution module configured to transfer the liquid sample solution, one or more chemical agents and reaction products thereof;a mixing and heating module configured to receive the liquid sample solution and the one or more chemical agents, wherein the atmospheric particulate matter reacts with the one or more chemical agents at a predetermined temperature in the mixing and heating module; anda detection module configured to detect an optical absorbance of a target compound in the reaction products, the detection module comprising:a visible light source;an optical filter coupled with the visible light source;a flow cell configured to receive the reaction products; anda spectrometer configured to detect light emitted from the visible light source and passing through the optical filter and flow cell.2.The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more chemical agents comprise dithiothreitol (DTT) and 5, 5’-dithiobis- (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) , and wherein the target compound comprises 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoic acid (TNB) .3.The system of claim 1, wherein the visible light source comprises a tungsten halogen visible light source.4.The system of claim 1, wherein the light emitted from the visible light source comprises a broadband light having a peak intensity at a first wavelength, and wherein the optical filter is configured to convert the broadband light into a narrowband light having a peak intensity at a second wavelength different from the first wavelength.5.The system of claim 4, wherein the second wavelength is approximate an absorbance wavelength of the target compound.6.The system of claim 1, wherein the detection module is configured to take multiple consecutive readings of the optical absorbance of the target compound, and wherein the system is configured to calculate an average value based on the multiple consecutive readings.7.A method of measuring oxidative potential (OP) of atmospheric particulate matter, the method comprising:collecting a liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter using a sampler module;transferring the liquid sample solution and one or more chemical reagents to a mixing and heating module using a solution distribution module, wherein the atmospheric particulate matter reacts with the one or more chemical agents at a predetermined temperature in the mixing and heating module;transferring reaction products of the reaction between the atmospheric particulate matter and the one or more chemical agents to a flow cell of a detection module; anddetecting an optical absorbance of a target compound in the reaction products using the detection module, wherein detecting comprises:providing a light from a visible light source to the flow cell, wherein the light is filtered by an optical filter coupled with the visible light source; anddetecting the light passing through the optical filter and flow cell using a spectrometer.8.The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more chemical agents comprise dithiothreitol (DTT) and 5, 5’-dithiobis- (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) , and wherein the target compound comprises 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoic acid (TNB) .9.The method of claim 7, wherein the liquid sample solution of the atmospheric particulate matter is collected over a predefined time period.10.The method of claim 7, wherein the liquid sample solution and one or more chemical reagents are transferred to the mixing and heating module at predefined time intervals.11.The method of claim 7, wherein the reaction products of the reaction between the atmospheric particulate matter and the one or more chemical agents are transferred to the flow cell after a predefined mixing time.12.The method of claim 7, wherein the light emitted from the visible light source comprises a broadband light having a peak intensity at a first wavelength, and wherein providing the light from the visible light source to the flow cell comprises converting the broadband light into a narrowband light having a peak intensity at a second wavelength different from the first wavelength using the optical filter.13.The method of claim 12, wherein the second wavelength is approximate an absorbance wavelength of the target compound.14.The method of claim 7, wherein detecting the optical absorbance of the target compound in the reaction products comprises taking multiple consecutive readings of the optical absorbance of the target compound and calculating an average value based on the multiple consecutive readings.
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