Method for taxonomic and strain type identification of bacteria and archaea

Abstract

The present invention relates to a method for identifying microorganisms strain types, especially of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies, using a single locus sequence typing technique in a sample. The present invention is furthermore related to a kit for use in said method, as well as to the use of a pharmaceutically effective amount of at least one antibacterial agent or at least one antiarchaeal agent against the strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies identified after step e) in the method according to the present invention for treating a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

Description

[0001] METHOD FOR TAXONOMIC AND STRAIN TYPE IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA

[0002] TECHNICAL FIELD

[0003] The present invention relates to a method for identifying microorganisms strain types, especially strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies, using a single locus sequence typing technique in a sample. The present invention is furthermore related to a kit for use in said method. Another object of the present invention is the use of antibacterial agents or antiarchaeal agents against said identified strain types for treating a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0004] BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0005] The identification and differentiation of microbial species, particularly bacteria, archaea and fungi, is essential in a wide range of fields including clinical and veterinary diagnostics, epidemiology, human and veterinary microbiomics and metagenomics, environmental monitoring, and food safety.

[0006] Traditional methods for microbial identification often rely on cultivation-based techniques, which can be time-consuming, labor-intensive, and may fail to identify non-culturable or slow-growing organisms.

[0007] Strain of species and subspecies resolution in bacterial diagnostics has become increasingly important in recent years, as it offers crucial insights for clinical decision-making, epidemiological investigations, and public health interventions.

[0008] Traditional methods of bacterial identification often lack the precision needed to differentiate between closely related strains, which can have significant implications for patient care and outbreak management.

[0009] Bacterial and / or archaeal species commonly possess multiple, non-identical copies of ribosomal RNA operons (rm) distributed across their genomes. Despite the variability of single ribosomal genes within the ribosomal RNA operon, the 16S rRNA gene is used as a standard gene for phylogenetic analysis. Additionally, sequence variations are observed in the 23S and 5S rRNA genes and the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of the multiple ribosomal RNA operons within the genome.

[0010] The sequencing of specific gene targets, such as the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, has become a cornerstone for cultivation-free identification and classification of bacteria and archaea at species level. However, the limitations of the marker gene 16S rRNA gene in strain type resolution are primarily due to its highly conserved nature, which does not exhibit sufficient variability to differentiate between closely related strains. Additionally, the complexity of microbial populations, coupled with the presence of polymicrobial or contaminated samples, further complicates the ability to accurately resolve strains using existing sequencing methods.

[0011] The ability to accurately identify and characterize bacterial and / or archaeal strains at high resolution is critical for several reasons: Strain-level identification can reveal important differences in virulence, antibiotic resistance profiles, and host interactions, allowing for more targeted and effective treatments. High-resolution typing enables better tracking of disease outbreaks, helping to identify sources of infection and transmission routes more accurately. Accurate strain identification can guide more appropriate antibiotic use, potentially slowing the development of resistance. In microbiome studies, strain-level resolution provides a more nuanced understanding of microbial community dynamics and host-microbe interactions and biomarker discovery of keystone strains.

[0012] Determination of engraftment of bacterial and / or archaeal strain types derived from Living Biological Products (LBPs), probiotics or bacterial and / or archaeal strain types used for biotechnological applications in bioreactors, human and animal hosts, or fermented food product is critical to prove persistence of such strain types and requested by regulatory agencies, such as FDA, EMA and EFSA.

[0013] There is therefore a need for improved methods that enhance the resolution of strain typing of microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, and fungi. These methods would provide more precise and accurate identification at the strain level, filling the gaps left by current approaches. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0014] The present invention provides a method for identifying strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies in a sample, the method comprising the steps of:

[0015] a) obtaining a sample containing one or more strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies;

[0016] b) extracting DNA from said sample;

[0017] c) detecting from the extracted DNA the presence of at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene;

[0018] d) analyzing said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences as predictive of the identity of strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies and comparing the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences with reference sequences of bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon in a rm-database; and e) identifying the strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies based on the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode sequences of bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operons detected in the sample.

[0019] The present invention also provides a kit for use in said method comprising a) at least one set of primers comprising forward primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene and reverse primers targeting the 5S rRNA gene wherein the sequence of the forward primer is SEQ ID NO: 3 and the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:2;

[0020] b) instructions for use to detect the presence in a sample of polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

[0021] DETAILED DESC IPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0022] In one aspect, the present invention relates to a method for identifying microorganism strain types in a sample, the method comprising the steps of:

[0023] a) obtaining a sample containing one or more microorganism strain types; b) extracting DNA from said sample; c) detecting from the extracted DNA the presence of at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a microorganism ribosomal RNA operon;

[0024] d) analyzing said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences as predictive of the identity of the microorganism strain types and comparing the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences with reference sequences of microorganisms ribosomal RNA operon in a rm-database; and

[0025] e) identifying the microorganism strain types based on the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode sequences of microorganisms ribosomal RNA operons detected in the sample,

[0026] wherein the microorganism strain types are preferably strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0027] This method is described in more detail below. Hereby, all preferences may be combined with each other, even if not explicitly mentioned.

[0028] The following definitions are supplied to facilitate the understanding of the present invention.

[0029] As used herein, the term "comprise" is generally used in the sense of include, that is to say permitting the presence of one or more features or components.

[0030] As used herein, the singular form "a", "an" and "the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0031] As used herein, a “sample” refers to a sample obtained from a subject or a sample taken from a natural environment, or a sample from a manufactured product.

[0032] As used herein, a “subject” is an animal, preferably, a mammal, more preferably, a human.

[0033] As used herein, an “polynucleotide” refers to a sequence of DNA residues that form a molecule. They can be found as single stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecule, or as double stranded DNA (dsDNA) molecule. As used herein, an “oligonucleotide” refers to a sequence of DNA residues as single stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecule.

[0034] As used herein, a microorganism “strain” is a group of microorganisms that belong to the same species but share certain genetic characteristics not found in other members of the species.

[0035] As used herein, “microorganisms”, such as bacteria, archaea, and fungi, have many strain types within a single species. Different “strain types” of an organism may have different biological characteristics, such as the ability to cause more severe diseases or to produce different metabolites.

[0036] Taxonomy involves describing and defining living organisms in terms of species and organizing them into hierarchical categories called taxa. As used herein, “species” are the fundamental taxonomic units of biological classification. As used herein, “subspecies” is a rank below species.

[0037] As used herein, “ribosomal RNA operons” (rm) in bacteria and archaea, typically codes for the 16S, 23S and 5S rRNAs, whereas “ribosomal RNA operons” in fungi codes for the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNAs.

[0038] The full-length sequence of a microorganism ribosomal RNA operon comprises polynucleotides coding for rRNAs and other regions such as non-coding regions which are known as “internal transcribed spacer” (ITS). In addition to ITS, the full-length sequence may also comprise one or more tRNA genes depending on the microorganism strain types.

[0039] As used herein, the “full-length sequence” of a ribosomal RNA operon comprises at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or at least 99% of the ribosomal RNA operon. For example, in the present invention, the full-length sequence of a ribosomal RNA operon may comprise the sequence resulting from a PCR reaction with a forward primer such as SEQ ID NO:3 complementary to the nucleotides sequence at the 3’ end of the antisense (3’ to 5’) strand of the target nucleotides sequence of the 16S rRNA gene and a reverse primer such as SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2 that are complementary to the 3’ end of the sense (5’ to 3’) strand of the target nucleotides sequence of the 5S rRNA gene.

[0040] Advantageously, the method may be configured to simultaneously detect a plurality of microorganisms such as bacteria, archaea and / or fungi in one sample.

[0041] In the present invention, the sample may be obtained from a subject and is preferably selected from the group consisting of whole blood, serum, saliva, sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, stool, amniotic fluid, tissue sample such as biopsy, synovial fluid, swab sample, or a sample containing liquid or solid colonies of bacteria and / or archaea.

[0042] Alternatively, the sample may be selected from the group consisting of food, food supplement, water, soil, air or filtered samples.

[0043] Preferably, the present invention relates to a method for identifying strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies in a sample the method comprising the steps of:

[0044] a) obtaining a sample containing one or more strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies;

[0045] b) extracting DNA from said sample;

[0046] c) detecting from the extracted DNA the presence of at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene;

[0047] d) analyzing said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences as predictive of the identity of strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies and comparing the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences with reference sequences of bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon in a rm-database; and e) identifying the strain types of bacterial and / or archael species and / or subspecies based on the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode sequences of bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operons detected in the sample.

[0048] Preferably, the sample containing one or more strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies is obtained from a subject. As used herein, a “strain type” of bacteria and / or archaea comprises genetic variants or subtypes of a species and / or subspecies of bacteria and / or archaea. One or more “sequence type” of a “strain type” can be determined by a Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) technique or any other strain typing technique known to the person skilled in the art such as e.g. pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, whole genome sequencing (WGS), MALDI-TOF MS, serotyping, and Core-genome SNP typing.

[0049] Advantageously, the method is a single locus sequence typing method for identifying strain types of species and / or subspecies of bacteria and / or archaea in a sample. The method is based on detecting polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene having sufficient variability to differentiate specifically between closely related strain types of bacteria and / or archaea.

[0050] Typically, bacterial and archaea ribosomal RNA operons are approximately 4800 bp to 7500 bp of nucleotides in length, with minor variants of 1700 bp to 3500 bp of nucleotides in length, wherein the 23S rRNA gene is missing.

[0051] As used herein, the full-length sequence of a bacterial and archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses all sequences from 5' to 3' including the 16S rRNA gene and 5S rRNA gene.

[0052] In an especially preferred embodiment the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene, preferably the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene, a 23S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene, more preferably the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene, at least one, preferably two, non-coding region(s) ITS, a 23S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene, most preferably the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene, at least one, preferably two, non-coding region(s) ITS, a 23S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene of at least 1700 bp, preferably of at least 4800 bp, more preferably of 4800 bp to 7500 bp of nucleotides in length. In another preferred embodiment the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene, preferably the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene, a 5S rRNA gene and at least one, preferably two, non-coding region(s) ITS in between these, more preferably the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses a contiguous polynucleotide spanning a 16S rRNA gene, a 23S rRNA gene, a 5S rRNA gene and at least one, preferably two, non-coding region(s) ITS in between these. Hereby the polynucleotide has preferably a length of at least 1700 bp, preferably of at least 4800 bp, more preferably of 4800 bp to 7500 bp of nucleotides.

[0053] Preferably, the bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3':

[0054] a) a 16S rRNA gene;

[0055] b) a non-coding region ITS1;

[0056] c) optionally one or more tRNA gene;

[0057] d) a 23S rRNA gene;

[0058] e) a non-coding region ITS2;

[0059] f) optionally one or more tRNA gene; and

[0060] g) a 5S rRNA gene,

[0061] or the bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3': a) a 16S rRNA gene;

[0062] b) a non-coding region ITS;

[0063] d) optionally one or more tRNA gene; and

[0064] e) a 5S rRNA gene.

[0065] More preferably, the bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3':

[0066] a) a 16S rRNA gene;

[0067] b) a non-coding region ITS1;

[0068] c) one or more tRNA gene;

[0069] d) a 23S rRNA gene;

[0070] e) a non-coding region ITS2; f) one or more tRNA gene; and

[0071] g) a 5S rRNA gene,

[0072] or the bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3': a) a 16S rRNA gene;

[0073] b) a non-coding region ITS;

[0074] d) one or more tRNA gene; and

[0075] e) a 5S rRNA gene.

[0076] ITS1 sequences located between the 16S and 23S ribosomal subunit genes comprise (i) nucleotide sequences with the proviso that tRNA are excluded, or (ii) nucleotide sequences comprising one or more tRNA.

[0077] ITS2 sequence located between the 23S and 5S ribosomal subunit genes comprise (i) nucleotide sequences with the proviso that tRNA are excluded, or (ii) nucleotide sequences comprising one or more tRNA.

[0078] Advantageously, in the present invention, the method does not require the sample to be cultured.

[0079] Bacterial and / or archaeal isolate may be cultivated under bacterial and / or archaeal growth conditions in step a) in order to extract a sufficient amount of DNA.

[0080] In the present invention, the detecting step c) may be carried out by a polymerase chain reaction using at least one set of primers for amplifying the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

[0081] A “primer” is a short oligonucleotide sequence with a specific sequence that binds to sequences in a single-stranded DNA molecule and provides a starting point for DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

[0082] Alternatively, the detecting step c) may be carried out by digesting the non-target DNA region while preserving the target region comprising the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene. In that case, primers will be used as delimiting sequences to detect which region not to be digested and to amplify. Preferably, the detecting step c) is carried out by a polymerase chain reaction using at least one set of primers for amplifying the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

[0083] In a preferred embodiment the detection of said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences in step c) is carried out in a single contiguous amplification product or a single-molecule read.

[0084] In the present invention, one or more set of primers can be used. The at least one set of primers preferably comprises forward primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene and reverse primers targeting the 5S rRNA gene.

[0085] Forward primers and reverse primers preferably comprise between 15 and 25 nucleotides in length, preferably between 17 and 23 nucleotides in length, more preferably 20 nucleotides in length.

[0086] Forward primers are preferably designed to target the 5’ of region of the 16S rRNA gene. For example, the sequence of the forward primer is

[0087] 5’-AGRRTTYGATYHTDGYTYAG-3’

[0088] wherein

[0089] R is A or C;

[0090] Y is C or T / U;

[0091] H is A or C or T / U; and

[0092] D is A or G or T / U.

[0093] Reverse primers are preferably designed to target the variable downstream region of the 5S rRNA gene. For example, the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from the group comprising

[0094] 5’- GTTCGGNATGGRWHSRGGYG-3’ and / or 5’-GTTCGRNAWGGDDHSRSGYG-3’ wherein

[0095] R is A or C;

[0096] N is A or C or G or T / U;

[0097] W is A or T / U; D is A or G or T / U;

[0098] H is A or C or T / U;

[0099] S is C or G; and

[0100] Y is C or T / U.

[0101] More preferably the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from the group comprising SEQ ID NO: 1 , SEQ ID NO: 2 and / or the sequence of the forward primer is SEQ ID NO: 3.

[0102] Any variation of the forward and reverse primers can be used. The variant primer may comprise at least 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 substitutions and / or deletions.

[0103] In one embodiment, the method may further comprise a step of preparing a DNA library comprising the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences detected after step c).

[0104] In another embodiment, the analyzing step d) is carried out by DNA sequencing analysis of said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences.

[0105] In the present invention, the sequencing of the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences amplified for example by PCR is carried out. Sequences of the said polynucleotides sequences obtained are compared with reference sequences of microorganism ribosomal RNA operon in a rm-database. The presence of the strain type of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies in a sample is determined if the sequencing of a polynucleotide sequence obtained is identical to that of a reference sequence in said rm-database so as to obtain an indication of the strain type.

[0106] A sample may contain multiple strain types of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0107] In step d), said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences form long reads by DNA sequencing analysis of approximately 1700-6000 nucleotides in length that cover the entire ribosomal RNA operon. The entire or full-length ribosomal RNA operon comprises at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or at least 99% of the ribosomal RNA operon. Advantageously, polymorphic sites are detected more reliably from long reads obtained by high throughput sequencing using long-read sequencing devices, enhancing the resolution of strain typing or sequence typing of bacteria and archaea.

[0108] In the present invention, the rm-database preferably comprises reference sequences of bacterial and archaeal ribosomal RNA operons and for each reference sequence, the taxonomic classification, the sequence type, and the serotype of the unique rm copies per genome as an indication of the strain type of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0109] As used herein, a “serotype” represents a subgroup of microorganisms within a species that share a unique set of surface antigens, allowing for more precise classification and epidemiological tracking of pathogens.

[0110] The rm-database will be regularly updated with new additional rm from complete bacterial or archaeal genomes. In addition, the rm-database will be updated with any other strain designation of the unique rm copies per genome. In the rm-database, one copy of redundant identical copies of the ribosomal operon from different strains or within the same genome will be maintained in the rm-database with multiple annotations indicating the presence of said sequence copy in different strains or within the same genome.

[0111] In addition to the identification of strain type of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies in a sample, the method is reliable for identifying bacteria and archaea ecotypes, clonal complexes, serotypes, pathovars, phagovars, genomovars in a sample using the rm database.

[0112] Preferably, the rm database comprises reference sequences of bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operons and for each reference sequence, the taxonomic classification, the sequence type, the serotype of the unique rm copies per genome, the bacterial and / or archaeal ecotype, the clonal complex, the pathovar, the genomovar and the lineage, as an indication of the strain type of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies. As used herein, “bacterial or archaeal ecotypes” are evolutionary lineages that are irreversibly separate, each with its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate. A species in the bacterial and archaeal world may be understood as an evolutionary lineage bound together by ecotype-specific periodic selection.

[0113] As used herein, a “clonal complex” represents a group of genetically similar bacterial or archaeal isolates, typically defined by MLST data, that are believed to share a recent common ancestor and are useful for understanding bacterial and / or archaeal population structures and epidemiology.

[0114] As used herein, a “pathovar” classification is based solely on symptoms and pathogenicity characteristics, without considering genetic or physical descriptions of the bacteria and / or archaea.

[0115] As used herein, a “genomovar” refers to genomic variants or variations within a species or group of closely related organisms.

[0116] As used herein, a “sequence type” (ST) in clinical microbiology is a numerical designation assigned to a microbial isolate based on the specific sequences of multiple housekeeping genes, as determined by core genome Multilocus Sequence Typing (cgMLST) or Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST). This system provides a standardized method for characterizing and comparing microbial strains, which is essential for epidemiological surveillance, outbreak investigation, and understanding the genetic relationships among pathogens.

[0117] As used herein, a” lineage” can be understood as a group of reference genomes inferred as being related to each other based on one or more similarities in the reference genomes.

[0118] Thus, the method of the invention may be useful in the diagnosis of diseases in a subject characterized by the presence of the strain type of bacterial and / or archaeal species and / or subspecies identified in the sample of said subject. In one embodiment, the bacteria may be a single or multi-drug resistant strain of bacteria.

[0119] The method may further comprise a step of treating the subject with at least one antibacterial agent or antiarchaeal agent against the strain types of species and / or subspecies of bacteria or archaea identified after step e).

[0120] Antibacterial agents exhibit antibacterial activity by killing or reducing the metabolic activity of pathogenic bacteria or archaea.

[0121] Thus, the method may further comprise a step of treating the subject by administering to said subject a pharmaceutically effective amount of an antibacterial or antiarchaeal agent selected from the group comprising Amoxicillin, Ampicillin (Pivampicillin, Hetacillin, Bacampicillin, Metampicillin, Talampicillin), Epicillin, Carbenicillin (Carindacillin), Ticarcillin, Temocillin, Azlocillin, Piperacillin, Mezlocillin, Mecillinam (Pivmecillinam), Sulbenicillin, Benzylpenicillin (G), Clometocillin, Benzathine benzylpenicillin, Procaine benzylpenicillin, Azidocillin, Penamecillin, Phenoxymethylpenicillin (V), Propicillin, Benzathine phenoxymethylpenicillin, Pheneticillin, Cioxacillin (Dicloxacillin, Flucloxacillin), Oxacillin, Meticillin, Nafcillin, Faropenem, Biapenem, Doripenem, Ertapenem, Imipenem, Meropenem, Panipenem, Tomopenem, Razupenem, Cefazolin, Cefacetrile, Cefadroxil, Cefalexin, Cefaloglycin, Cefalonium, Cefaloridine, Cefalotin, Cefapirin, Cefatrizine, Cefazedone, Cefazaflur, Cefradine, Cefroxadine, Ceftezole, Cefaclor, Cefamandole, Cefminox, Cefonicid, Ceforanide, Cefotiam, Cefprozil, Cefbuperazone, Cefuroxime, Cefuzonam, Cefoxitin, Cefotetan, Cefmetazole, Loracarbef, Cefixime, Ceftazidime, Ceftriaxone, Cefcapene, Cefdaloxime, Cefdinir, Cefditoren, Cefetamet, Cefmenoxime, Cefodizime, Cefoperazone, Cefotaxime, Cefpimizole, Cefpiramide, Cefpodoxime, Cefsulodin, Cefteram, Ceftibuten, Ceftiolene, Ceftizoxime, Flomoxef, Latamoxef, Cefepime, Cefozopran, Cefpirome, Cefquinome, Ceftobiprole, Ceftaroline, CXA-101, RWJ-54428, MC-04,546, ME1036, BAL30072, SYN 2416, Ceftiofur, Cefquinome, Cefovecin, Aztreonam, Tigemonam, Carumonam, RWJ-442831, RWJ-333441, and / or RWJ-333442. The method disclosed herein may be useful for the prevention, management or treatment of diseases or conditions caused by or related to bacterial or archaeal infection in a subject.

[0122] The subject can be a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to bacterial or archaeal infection, including but not limited to nosocomial infection, otitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, sinusitis, pleural empyema and endocarditis, intravascular or endothelial infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), occupational lung diseases and pulmonary hypertension.

[0123] In certain embodiments, the present invention is used to stratify patient cohorts in clinical studies based on the method described here. In further embodiments, the present invention is used to stratify subject cohorts and to predict treatment response to therapies in clinical studies (e.g. immunotherapies in cancer treatment). High-resolution microbiota profiles obtained as described herein are analyzed to define strata associated with prognosis or therapeutic benefit; such strata may be used prospectively to enrich enrollment for likely responders, balance randomization across risk / response groups, and guide adaptive allocation and prespecified response-focused subgroup analyses. The approach may also be applied retrospectively to archived specimens to assess response associations and inform future trial design, thereby improving statistical power and reducing required sample size.

[0124] In another embodiment, the method disclosed herein may be applied for the strain types of species and / or subspecies of microbiota or microbiome analyses and useful for the prevention, management or treatment of diseases or health conditions caused by or related to the strain types of species and / or subspecies of the microbiome or microbiota in a subject. For example, the microbiota’s strain types’ analysis may be carried out by amplification-based sequencing and the microbiome’s strain types’ analysis may be carried out by shotgun metagenomic sequencing of all DNA.

[0125] The diseases or health conditions caused by or related to the strain types of species and / or subspecies of the microbiome or microbiota can be for example selected from the group comprising gastrointestinal disorders, metabolic disorders, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, allergic and atopic conditions, neurological and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular diseases, skin conditions, respiratory conditions, cancer, genitourinary and reproductive health, metabolic bone diseases, infectious diseases, mental health disorders, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and allergic diseases.

[0126] Gastrointestinal disorders are for example selected from inflammatory bowel disease (ibd), crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome (ibs), celiac disease, colorectal cancer, clostridioides difficile infection, gastroesophageal reflux disease (gerd), peptic ulcer disease, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (sibo) and / or diverticular disease.

[0127] Metabolic Disorders are for example selected from Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, Metabolic Syndrome, Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), Hyperlipidemia (Dyslipidemia), and / or Insulin Resistance.

[0128] Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases are for example selected from Rheumatoid Arthritis, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Ankylosing Spondylitis, Psoriasis, Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis and / or Sjogren’s Syndrome.

[0129] Allergic and Atopic Conditions are for example selected from Asthma, Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema), Allergic Rhinitis (Hay Fever), Food Allergies and / or Eosinophilic Esophagitis. Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders are for example selected from autism spectrum disorders (ASD), Depression, Anxiety Disorders, Parkinson’s Disease, Alzheimer’s Disease, Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder and / or chronic fatigue syndrome / Myalgic Encephalomyelitis.

[0130] Cardiovascular Diseases are for example selected from Atherosclerosis, Hypertension (High Blood Pressure), coronary artery disease, and / or Heart Failure.

[0131] Skin Conditions are for example selected from Acne Vulgaris, Rosacea, Psoriasis, Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema), and / or Seborrheic Dermatitis.

[0132] Respiratory Conditions are for example selected from Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), Cystic Fibrosis, Asthma, and / or Allergic Rhinitis.

[0133] Cancers are for example selected from Colorectal Cancer, Gastric (Stomach) Cancer, Liver Cancer (Hepatocellular Carcinoma), Pancreatic Cancer, and / or Esophageal Cancer. Genitourinary and Reproductive Health are for example selected from Bacterial Vaginosis, Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs), Preterm Birth and Preterm Labor, Infertility, Endometriosis, and / or prostate diseases.

[0134] Metabolic Bone Diseases are for example selected from Osteoporosis, Osteoarthritis, and / or Rheumatoid Arthritis.

[0135] Infectious Diseases are for example selected from Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Progression, Helicobacter pylori Infection, Clostridioides difficile Infection, and / or Viral Infections (e.g., Influenza).

[0136] Mental Health Disorders are for example selected from Depression, Anxiety, Stress- Related Disorders, and / or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

[0137] In another aspect, the present invention relates to a kit for use in a method according to the present description comprising:

[0138] a) at least one set of primers comprising forward primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene and reverse primers targeting the 5S rRNA gene wherein the sequence of the forward primer is SEQ ID NO: 3 and the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:2; and

[0139] b) instructions for use to detect the presence in a sample of polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial and / or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

[0140] A further object of the present invention is the use of a pharmaceutically effective amount of at least one antibacterial agent or at least one antiarchaeal agent against the strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies identified after step e) in the method according to the present invention with the preferences as described above for treating a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0141] The disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies hereby preferably includes nosocomial infection, otitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, sinusitis, pleural empyema and endocarditis, intravascular or endothelial infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), occupational lung diseases and pulmonary hypertension. The disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies may also be a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection of the microbiome or microbiota of said human patient with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

[0142] The disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection of the microbiome or microbiota of said human patient with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies is preferably selected from gastrointestinal disorders, metabolic disorders, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, allergic and atopic conditions, neurological and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular diseases, skin conditions, respiratory conditions, cancer, genitourinary and reproductive health diseases, metabolic bone diseases, infectious diseases, mental health disorders, chronic kidney disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and / or allergic diseases.

[0143] EXAMPLES

[0144] 1 : Method for identifying

[0145]

[0146] of bacterial species and / or

[0147]

[0148] in a sam

[0149] The method comprises the following steps:

[0150]

[0151] DNA

[0152] High molecular weight (HMW) genomic DNA was extracted from a biological sample using a standardized extraction protocol for long-read sequencing. The quality and concentration of the extracted DNA were assessed using a Qubit fluorometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific), ensuring that all samples met the minimum threshold for purity and concentration required for downstream applications.

[0153] Primer

[0154] Ribosomal operon regions have been identified as the start (5’-region) of mature 16S rDNA gene (Condon et al., Microbial Rev. 59(4):623-45, 1995) and the end (3’-region) of the mature 5S rDNA gene. For example, forward primers (16SFP) targeting the 16S rDNA gene are selected from SEQ ID NO: 3.

[0155] SEQ ID NO:3 is 5’-AGRRTTYGATYHTDGYTYAG-3’ wherein

[0156] R is A or C;

[0157] Y is C or T / U;

[0158] H is A or C or T / U; and

[0159] D is A or G or T / U.

[0160] For example, reverse primers (5SRP) targeting the 5S rDNA gene are selected from SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:2.

[0161] SEQ ID NO:1 is 5’- GTTCGGNATGGRWHSRGGYG-3’ wherein

[0162] R is A or C;

[0163] N is a or c or g or t / u;

[0164] W is a or t / u;

[0165] H is a or c or t / u;

[0166] S is c or g; and

[0167] Y is c or t / u.

[0168] SEQ ID NO: 2 is 5’-GTTCGRNAWGGDDHSRSGYG-3’ wherein

[0169] R is A or C;

[0170] N is A or C or G or T / U;

[0171] W is A or T / U;

[0172] H is A or C or T / U;

[0173] S is C or G; and

[0174] Y is C or T / U.

[0175] Polymerase Chain Reaction

[0176] Ribosomal DNA was amplified using the primers 16SFP and 5SRP and the GoTaq® Long PCR Master Mix (M4021, Promega, Madison, USA) on a thermocycler. In detail, amplification of targeted DNA shall be carried out in 25-pl reaction volumes, each containing 5ng of DNA, 12.5 pL of Master Mix (1x concentration), 0.5 pM of forward and reverse primers, respectively, and adjust the total volume to 25 pl by the addition of high-performance liquid chromatography-grade H2O.

[0177] The PCR was started with 1) 2min initial denaturation at 94°C, 2) 30s at 94°C, 3) 30s at 52°C (48°C-54°C) for annealing, 4) 5min at 65°C for elongation (2-10min) and 5) 10 min for final extension at 65°C. Steps 2-4 were repeated for 20-35 cycles.

[0178] Library preparation

[0179] a. End-prep

[0180] End-repair and A-tailing of the DNA fragments were performed using the NEBNext Ultra II End Prep module (New England Biolabs) as part of the Oxford Nanopore Native Barcoding Kit protocol (Oxford Nanopore, Oxford, UK).

[0181] In this step, 1 pg of fragmented DNA was subjected to a combined end-repair and A-tailing reaction in a single tube. The reaction was carried out according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, the DNA was incubated with the NEBNext Ultra II End Prep reagents at 20°C for 5 minutes, followed by 65°C for 5 minutes. This process resulted in the repair of nicks, the generation of blunt ends, and the addition of a single adenine (A) nucleotide to the 3’ ends of the DNA fragments, preparing them for subsequent adapter ligation.

[0182] Following adapter ligation, the DNA was purified using AMPure XP beads (Beckman Coulter) at a 1 ,8x bead-to-sample ratio. The purified DNA was then eluted in 10 pL of nuclease-free water. This step was essential to remove excess adapters, unligated DNA fragments, and any residual enzymes or reagents.

[0183] b. Native Barcoding Ligation

[0184] Equimolar amounts of each barcoded sample were pooled to create a multiplexed library. The concentration of each individual barcoded sample was determined using a Qubit fluorometer, and the samples were pooled accordingly to ensure equal representation of each barcode in the final sequencing library.

[0185] c. Adapter Ligation

[0186] The pooled library was subjected to a final ligation step where sequencing adapters compatible with the Oxford Nanopore Technologies sequencing platform were ligated to the DNA. This step was conducted using the ligation module provided in the Native Barcoding Kit 24 V14, according to the manufacturer’s protocol.

[0187] d. Final Purification and Quantification The final library was purified using AMPure XP beads at a 1.Ox bead-to-sample ratio to remove any unligated adapters and contaminants. The purified library was eluted in 15 pL of nuclease-free water and quantified using a Qubit fluorometer. The library was then diluted to the appropriate concentration for loading onto the Oxford Nanopore flow cell.

[0188] Sequencing of the Ribosomal Operon DNA

[0189] The prepared library was loaded onto an Oxford Nanopore R10.4 flow cell according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Sequencing was conducted using the appropriate ONT sequencing device, with run parameters set according to standard guidelines for multiplexed libraries.

[0190] This method enabled the simultaneous sequencing of up to 24 samples in a single run, with each sample uniquely identifiable by its respective barcode.

[0191] Example 2: Annotation rm-database creation

[0192] An annotation rm-database was created as follows:

[0193] The rm-database of the present invention is composed of 50’000 (49’519) full-rm sequences obtained from the high quality publicly available and complete genomes of the GTDB release 220 (Parks et al. 2018). The genomes were annotated with Prokka (1.14.0) (Seemann 2014) and rm polynucleotide sequence copies extracted from the gff3 files with a python script.

[0194] The rm-database is composed of polynucleotide sequences varying typically between 4800bp to 7500bp of nucleotides in length, with minor variants of 1700-3500bp of nucleotides in length wherein the 23S rRNA gene is missing.

[0195] Taxonomic resolution of the database was curated down to species and / or subspecies, i.e. strain level. The GTDB taxonomy nomenclature adopted in the rm-database of the invention was completed down to nine ranks: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species, Strain and rRNA copy.

[0196] As an example, the information associated to the polynucleotide sequence in the database looks as follows:

[0197] d _ Bacteria;p _ Proteobacteria;c _ Gammaproteobacteria;o _ Enterobacterales;f _ Ente robacteriaceae;g _ Escherichia;s _ Escherichia_coli;t _ Escherichia_coli_ATCC- 11775_RNA1. The Strain rank was defined as “Genus_Species_Strain_RNA-copy", where Strain is filled with the isolate identifier indicated in the GTDB metatable or other identifier available, such as the sequence type.

[0198] For complete genomes with multiple rm copies, the unique variants of rm copies of the same genome were enumerated (e.g. RNA1, RNA2).

[0199] The database was completed with the reference rm sequences of the genomes present in the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331.

[0200] The database will be regularly updated with new versions of GTDB database and additional rm from complete bacterial or archaeal genomes.

[0201] The rm database comprises reference sequences of bacterial ribosomal RNA operons and for each reference sequence, the taxonomic classification, the sequence type, and the serotype of the unique rm copies per genome as an indication of the strain type of bacterial species and / or subspecies.

[0202] Example 3: In slllco Analysis of Strain-Level Taxonomic Annotation of five distinct Escherichia coli strains in the ZymoBiomics Gut Microbiome Standard D6331.

[0203] To evaluate the performance of accurate taxonomic annotation at the strain level for five distinct Escherichia coli strains within the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331, an in-silico analysis was conducted. This analysis involved the following steps:

[0204] Bacteria strains used in this study were obtained from the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331.

[0205] Genomes - Dataset Acquisition: The annotated reference genome sequences of all the strains present in the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331 were obtained from the manufacturer's website repository. The D6331 standard contains a defined mixture of microbial species, including five distinct E. coli strains, which is used as a benchmark for microbial community profiling based on two lengths of the ribosomal operon (rm), once the full ribosomal operon (16S-ITS2-23S-ITS2-5S) of about 5.5Kbp and a shorter fragment of the rm (16S-ITS1-23S) of about 4.5Kbp, respectively.

[0206] Simulated Metagenomic Read Generation: To simulate a realistic metagenomic dataset, the targeted regions of the full ribosomal operon (16S-ITS2-23S-ITS2-5S) of about 5.5Kbp and a smaller fragment of the rm (16S-ITS1-23S) of about 4.5Kbp were extracted in silico from the reference genomes of all the strains present in the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331.

[0207] Thereafter, Oxford Nanopore reads with perfect quality scores were generated in silico. Copy number of the genomes were set to reflect the relative abundance indicated by the manufacturer normalized by the copy number of the rm in the different genomes (see Table 1). Sequencing depth was adjusted to reflect realistic scenarios in microbiome studies. Two digital twin samples from ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331 were generated, with full-rm sequences (dD6331_16S-5S) and with 16S-23S (dD6331_16S-23S) sequences, respectively.

[0208] Bioinformatic Processing: the filtered reads were mapped to the GTDB-rm with minimap2 (v2.24) (Li 2018). For each taxonomic classification, the read with the highest ratio between the DP Alignment Score (AS) and the Total number of mismatches and gaps in the alignment (NM) was selected as the representative sequence for that Amplicon Sequence Variance (ASV). The ASV-table was generated by counting the reads assigned to each taxonomic (annotation). A phyloseq object was first created with the ASV-table and ASVs of each sample and subsequently merged.

[0209] Results: This in silico analysis provides a comprehensive assessment of the capability to accurately resolve and annotate bacterial species and / or subspecies at the strain level in polymicrobial samples by means of the full length rm. The accuracy of strainlevel resolution was evaluated by comparing the annotated bacterial species, and particularly the five different E. coli strains in the digital Mock samples (dD6331_16S-5S) and dD6331_16S-23S) as compared with the theoretical Mock composition (tD6331 _adjusted) included in the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331 as declared by the manufacturer’s instructions in the Genomic DNA column (see Table 1 below). Table 1, part 1

[0210] dD6331 dD633116S tD6331 16S-23S -5S tD6331 adjusted (4.5kbp) (5.5kbp) Bacteroides_fragilis_Zymo- 0BEAV111 D6FAA 14 14.42 11.44 10.73 Faecalibacterium_prausnitzii_Zym

[0211] O-AP34BHI 14 14.42 16.91 17.44 Roseburia_hominis_Zymo- 0BEAV111 DCM 14 14.42 8.54 8.01 Veillonella_rogosae_Zymo- AC2811ANNA2 14 14.42 18.26 17.12 Bifidobacterium_adolescentis_Zy

[0212] mo-LMG 10502 6 6.18 5.03 4.72 Fusobacterium_nucleatum_Zymo- 2150A 6 6.18 8.62 8.08

[0213]

[0214] Table 1 , part 2

[0215] dD6331 dD6331 tD6331 16S-23S 16S-5S tD6331 adjusted (4.5kbp) (5.5kbp) Limosilactobacillus_fermentum_Zym

[0216] O-B1840 6 6.18 11.08 10.39 Prevotella_corporis_Zymo- OB21FMU4 6 6.18 5.73 5.38 Escherichia_coli_Zymo-B1109 2.8 2.88 1.52 2.04 Escherichia_coli_Zymo-B2207 2.8 2.88 0.38 1.41 Escherichia_coli_Zymo-B3008 2.8 2.88 2.69 2.63 Escherichia_coli_Zymo-B766 2.8 2.88 0.22 1.35 Escherichia_coli_Zymo-JM109 2.8 2.88 0.00 1.37 Akkermansia_muciniphila_Zymo- OB21FAANB28 1.5 1.54 1.48 1.74 Clostridioides_difficile_Zymo- P4D3A11 1.5 1.54 3.02 2.84 Methanobrevibacter smithii 0.1 0.10 0.00 0.00 Salmonella enterica 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 Enterococcus faecalis 0.001 0.001 0.00 0.00 Clostridium perfringens 0.0001 0.0001 0.00 0.00 Bifidobacterium_adolescentis_ATCC

[0217] -15703 0 0 5.08 4.76

[0218] Fungi

[0219] not Fungi not Candida albicans - Fungi 1.5 0 tested tested Fungi

[0220] not Fungi not Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Fungi 1.5 0 tested tested Total relative abundance (%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

[0221]

[0222] All five E. coli strains in the ZymoBIOMICS Gut Microbiome Standard D6331 could be detected by targeting the full length rm of 5.5kbp including ITS2 and 5S rDNA gene (see Table 1, column dD6331_16S-5S), which is a significant improvement in strain detection and annotation accuracy as compared to the sequencing of only the fragment from 16S-23S of 4.5kbp (see column dD6331_16S-23S). The ribosomal operon region limited to 16S-23S failed to detect one out of five strains (E. coli JM109) and highly underestimated the relative abundance of two out of five strains (E. coli B2207 and E coli B766).

[0223] The present analysis has shown that different haplotypes of ribosomal operon copies can exist within the same genome. The different haplotypes can vary in the presence or absence of entire genes, like the complete lack of the 23S rDNA gene or the variation of the ITS1 region between the 16S and 23S ribosomal subunit genes including (i) no tRNA or (ii) any combination of tRNA.

[0224] The majority or the rm have a length between 4.6-6.0kbp. Some minor rm variants lacking the 23S rDNA gene with a length of 1 ,7-2kbp have been observed in the species Roseburia hominis. The species containing short haplotypes of the rm would remain undetected or underestimated by targeting the 16S-23S target sequencing.

Claims

CLAIMS1. A method for identifying strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies in a sample the method comprising the steps of:a) obtaining a sample containing one or more strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies;b) extracting DNA from said sample;c) detecting from the extracted DNA the presence of at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene;d) analyzing said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences as predictive of the identity of strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies and comparing the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences with reference sequences of bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon in a rm-database; ande) identifying the strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies based on the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences which encode sequences of bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operons detected in the sample.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3':a) a 16S rRNA gene;b) a non-coding regions ITS1 ;c) one or more tRNA gene;d) a 23S rRNA gene;e) a non-coding regions ITS2; andf) one or more tRNA gene; andg) a 5S rRNA gene,or the bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompasses from 5' to 3':a) a 16S rRNA gene;b) a non-coding regions ITS;d) one or more tRNA gene; ande) a 5S rRNA gene.

3. The method of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the rm-database comprises reference sequences of bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operons and for each reference sequence, the taxonomic classification, the sequence type, and the serotype of the unique rm copies per genome as an indication of the strain type of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

4. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the detecting step c) is carried out by a polymerase chain reaction using at least one set of primers for amplifying the full-length sequence of a bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the at least one set of primers comprises forward primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene and reverse primers targeting the 5S rRNA gene.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from the group comprising SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2 and / orthe sequence of the forward primer is SEQ ID NO: 3.

7. The method of any one of the preceding claims, further comprising a step of preparing a DNA library comprising the at least one or more polynucleotides sequences detected after step c).

8. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the analyzing step d) is carried out by DNA sequencing analysis of said at least one or more polynucleotides sequences.

9. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the sample containing one or more strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies is obtained from a subject.

10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein said sample is selected from the group consisting of whole blood, serum, saliva, sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid,stool, amniotic fluid, tissue sample such as biopsy, synovial fluid, swab sample, ora sample containing liquid or solid colonies of bacteria and / or archaea.

11. The method of any one of claims 9-10, further comprising a step of treating the subject with at least one antibacterial or antiarchaeal agent against the strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies identified after step e).

12. The method of any one of claims 9-11 , wherein the subject is a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to bacterial or archaeal infection, including nosocomial infection, otitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, sinusitis, pleural empyema and endocarditis, intravascular or endothelial infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), occupational lung diseases and pulmonary hypertension.

13. The method of any one of claims 9-12, wherein the subject is a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to the strain types of species and / or subspecies of its microbiome or microbiota and selected from the group comprising gastrointestinal disorders, metabolic disorders, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, allergic and atopic conditions, neurological and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular diseases, skin conditions, respiratory conditions, cancer, genitourinary and reproductive health diseases, metabolic bone diseases, infectious diseases, mental health disorders, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and / or allergic diseases.

14. The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the sample is selected from the group consisting of food, food supplement, water, soil, air or filtered samples.

15. A kit for use in a method according to any one of claims 1-14 comprising a) at least one set of primers comprising forward primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene and reverse primers targeting the 5S rRNA gene wherein the sequence of the forward primer is SEQ ID NO: 3 and the sequence of the reverse primers is selected from SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:2;b) instructions for use to detect the presence in a sample of polynucleotides sequences which encode the full-length sequence of a bacterial or archaeal ribosomal RNA operon encompassing a 16S rRNA gene and a 5S rRNA gene.

16. Use of a pharmaceutically effective amount of at least one antibacterial agent or at least one antiarchaeal agent against the strain types of bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies identified after step e) in the method according to any one of claims 1-8 for treating a human patient having a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

17. The use according to claim 16, wherein the disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies includes nosocomial infection, otitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, sinusitis, pleural empyema and endocarditis, intravascular or endothelial infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), occupational lung diseases and pulmonary hypertension.

18. The use according to claim 16, wherein the disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies is a disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection of the microbiome or microbiota of said human patient with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies.

19. The use according to claim 18, wherein the disease or health condition caused by or related to an infection of the microbiome or microbiota of said human patient with said bacterial or archaeal species and / or subspecies is selected from gastrointestinal disorders, metabolic disorders, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, allergic and atopic conditions, neurological and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular diseases, skin conditions, respiratory conditions, cancer, genitourinary and reproductive health diseases, metabolic bone diseases, infectious diseases, mental health disorders, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and / or allergic diseases.

Images