Ferroelectric-coated separators and cathodes for enhancing performance of lithium-sulfur batteries and lithium-sulfur batteries comprising the same

Abstract

Disclosed herein is a battery (e.g., a Li-S battery), comprising: an anode; a cathode comprising sulfur; a Li-containing electrolyte; and a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the cathode is coupled to or coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I), and / or the separator is coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I): Bi x Gd 1-x Fe y Ni 1-y O 3 , wherein 0.50 ≤ x < 1.00 and 0.50 ≤ y < 1.00. Batteries according to the present disclosure show enhanced specific capacity and capacity retention.

Description

Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)FERROELECTRIC-COATED SEPARATORS AND CATHODES FOR ENHANCING PERFORMANCE OF LITHIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES AND LITHIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES COMPRISING THE SAMECROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of and priority to U. S. Provisional Appl. No.63 / 647,942, filed May 15, 2024, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for any and all purposes.BACKGROUND

[0002] Lithium -sulfur batteries (LISBs) have been proposed as a potential alternative to current state-of-the-art batteries due to their theoretically high capacities (up to 1675 mAh / g) and energy densities (up to 2510 Wh / kg). However, widespread practical implementation of LISBs is hindered by their dramatically shortened cycle lives, which stem from polysulfide shuttling and lithium dissolution effects and subsequent formation of dendrites on the lithium anodes and polysulfide accumulation on cathodes. Thus, battery designs that mitigate these effects are highly advantageous.

[0003] Several approaches have been proposed to address these degradation mechanisms, including changes to anode, cathode, and separator design, as well as use of novel electrolytes. One strategy for mitigating these effects is to coat a lithium polysulfide-resistant layer onto a cathode and / or separator to confine LiPSs to the cathode via spontaneous polarization. Against this backdrop, the present inventors developed doped bismuth ferrite nanoparticles (BFO NPs), which exhibit spontaneous polarization to facilitate the migratory behavior of Li ions and eliminate the concentration gradient of Li-ions near the anode surface. BFO NP-coated separators or cathodes can accelerate the transfer of Li ions during cycling due to polarization thereby eliminating the shortage of lithium ions at the anode surface and subsequent performance degradation.-1 - 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)SUMMARY0004] In one aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a battery, comprising: an anode; a cathode comprising sulfur; a Li-containing electrolyte; and a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the separator is coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein: 0.50 <x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00.

[0005] In some embodiments, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < x < 0.98. In some embodiments, 0.75 < y < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < y < 0.98. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925, and y is about 0.95.

[0006] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.

[0007] In some embodiments, the cathode is coated with or coupled to nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I), wherein: 0.50 < x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00.

[0008] In some embodiments, in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 <x < 0.98.

[0009] In some embodiments, in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 < y < 1.00. In some embodiments, in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 <y < 0.98. In some embodiments, in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode: x is about 0.925; and y is about 0.95.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0010 In some embodiments, the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.[00111 In some embodiments, the cathode comprises a single- walled carbon nanotube-sulfur composite (SWCNT / S). In some embodiments, the battery has a maximum capacity of greater than or equal to about 1,500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the battery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 70% after 50 cycles. In some embodiments, the battery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 80% after 50 cycles.0012] In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a separator for a battery, the separator comprising: a membrane; and nanoparticles coating the membrane, the nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein: 0.50 < x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00,

[0013] In some embodiments, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < x < 0.98. In some embodiments, 0.75 <y < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < y < 0.98. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925, and y is about 0.95.

[0014] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.

[0015] In some embodiments, the membrane material comprises a porous carbon, a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a cellulose, a ceramic, a glass fiber, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the membrane material comprises a polypropylene.-J”4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0016 In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a cathode for a battery, the cathode comprising: a single-walled carbon nanotube-sulfur (S / SWCNT) composite; and nanoparticles according to Formula (I) coating or coupled to the S / SWCNT composite, wherein 0,50 <x < 1.00, and 0.50 < y < 1.00.0017 In some embodiments, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < x < 0.98. In some embodiments, 0.75 <y < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < j’ < 0.98. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925, and y is about 0,95.

[0018] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm,

[0019] In some embodiments, the SWCNTs and the sulfur are present in the S / SWCNT composite at a concentration ratio (S: SWCNT) of greater than or equal to 6:1. In some embodiments, the sulfur is present in the form of sulfur nanoparticles having an average diameter of about 50 nm to about 100 nm.

[0020] In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a battery, comprising: an anode; a cathode; a Li-containing electrolyte; and a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the cathode is the cathode according to any of the embodiments disclosed herein and / or the separator is the separator according to any of the embodiments disclosed herein.

[0021] Additional aspects and / or embodiments of the invention will be provided, without limitation, in the detailed description of the present technology set forth below. The following detailed description is exemplary and explanatory, but it is not intended to be limiting.-4- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0022] Various objects, aspects, features, and advantages of the disclosure will become more apparent and better understood by referring to the detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures.0023] FIG. 1A is a plot of voltage versus charge-discharge capacity at 200 mA / g for a cell having a S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and an uncoated separator, according to the working examples.

[0024] FIG. IB shows cycling performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode with an uncoated separator at 200 mA / g, according to the working examples.

[0025] FIG. 2A is a plot of voltage versus charge-discharge capacity at 200 mA / g for a cell having a SsoBGFNOwSWCNTio composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (cathode side), according to the working examples.

[0026] FIG. 2B shows cycling performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (cathode side), according to the working examples.

[0027] FIG. 3A is a plot of voltage versus charge-discharge capacity at 200 mA / g for a cell having a S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (anode side), according to the working examples.

[0028] FIG. 3B shows cycling performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (anode side), according to the working examples.

[0029] FIG. 4A is a bar chart showing capacity retention for a cell with a S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (cathode side) after 50 charge-discharge cycles at 200 mA / g, according to the working examples.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)

[0030] FIG. 4B shows cyclic voltammograms (at 0.1 mV / s) for a cell with a S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode and a BGFNO-coated separator (cathode side) before and after 50 charge-discharge cycles, according to the working examples.

[0031] FIGs. 5A-5C shows XRD spectra for pristine BGFNO (FIG. 5A), S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. SB), and S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. SC) composites, according to the working examples. The inset shows a spectrum for SWCNT used for the S / SWCNT composite.

[0032] FIGs. 6A-6C shows Raman spectra for S90SWCNT10 (FIG. 6A), S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 6B), and S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. 6C) composites, according to the working examples.

[0033] FIGs. 7A-7F shows SEM images and EDAX spectra for S90SWCNT10 (FIG. 7A, FIG.7D), S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 7B, FIG. 7E), and for S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. 7C, FIG. 7F) composites, according to the working examples.

[0034] FIGs. 8A-8B shows ferroelectric (P-E) hysteresis loops for S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. 8A) and S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 8B) composites, according to the working examples,

[0035] FIGs. 9A-9F shows charge-discharge & cycling profiles for S90SWCNT10 (FIG. 9A, FIG. 9D), S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 9B, FIG. 9E), and for S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG.9C, FIG. 9F) composites, according to the working examples.

[0036] FIGs. 10A-10F shows charge-discharge & cycling profiles for coin cells with composite cathodes and coated separators: S90SWCNT10(FIG. 10A, FIG. 10D), S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 10B, FIG. 10E), and for S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. 10C, FIG. 10F) composites, according to the working examples.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0037 FIG. 11 shows improvement in capacity retention for coin cells with BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes and BGFNO coated separators, according to the working examples.

[0038] FIGs. 12A-12C shows cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves for cells with BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes before and after charge-discharge at O.lmV / s and having separators coated by: S90SWCNT10 (FIG. 12A); S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 (FIG. 12B); and S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 (FIG. 12C), according to the working examples.DETAILED DESCRIPTION0039] Before the present disclosure is further described, it is to be understood that the disclosure is not limited to the particular embodiments set forth herein, and it is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.Definitions

[0040] The following terms are used throughout as defined below.

[0041] As used herein and in the appended claims, singular articles such as “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the elements (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the embodiments and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the claims unless otherwise stated.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential.0042] As used herein, “about” will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art and will vary to some extent depending upon the context in which it is used. If there are uses of the term which are not clear to persons of ordinary skill in the art, given the context in which it is used, “about” will mean up to plus or minus 10% of the particular term - for example, “about 10 wt.%” would be understood to mean “9 wt.% to 11 wt.%.” It is to be understood that when “about” precedes a term, the term is to be construed as disclosing “about” the term as well as the term without modification by “about” - for example, “about 10 wt.%” discloses “9 wt.% to 11 wt.%” as well as disclosing “10 wt.%.”

[0043] The phrase “and / or” as used in the present disclosure will be understood to mean any one of the recited members individually or a combination of any two or more thereof - for example, “A, B, and / or C” would mean “A, B, C, A and B, A and C, B and C, or the combination of A, B, and C.”

[0044] As used herein, the term “anode” refers to the negative electrode of a battery cell that transfers electrons to an external circuit through oxidation during discharging, and receives them from an external circuit and is reduced during charging.

[0045] As used herein, the term “cathode” refers to the positive electrode of a battery cell that receives electrons from an external circuit and is reduced during discharging, and transfers them to an external circuit through oxidation during charging. In the batteries discussed herein with respect to the various exemplary embodiments, the cathode material includes a halogenated compound and / or an electroactive aromatic organic compound as defined above.

[0046] As used herein, the term “electrolyte” refers to a material that provides for ion transport of a battery cell. An electrolyte acts as a conduit for ion transport through its interaction with the anode and the cathode. Upon battery charging, an electrolyte facilitates the movement of ions from the cathode to the anode, whereas upon discharge, the electrolyte facilitates the movement -8- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)of ions from the anode to the cathode. In rechargeable batteries, the electrolyte promotes ion cycling between the anode and the cathode.0047] As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and all purposes, particularly in terms of providing a written description, all ranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subranges and combinations of subranges thereof. Any listed range can be easily recognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range being broken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein can be readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third, etc. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art all language such as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” and the like include the number recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequently broken down into subranges as discussed above. Finally, as will be understood by one skilled in the art, a range includes each individual member. Thus, for example, a group having 1-3 atoms refers to groups having 1, 2, or 3 atoms. Similarly, a group having 1-5 atoms refers to groups having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 atoms, and so forth.Batteries

[0048] In one aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a battery, comprising: an anode; a cathode comprising sulfur; a Li- containing electrolyte; and a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the cathode is coupled to or coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula. (I), and / or the separator is coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein: 0.50 < x < 1.00; and 0.50 <_y < 1.00,Separator Materials

[0049] In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a separator for a battery, the separator comprising: a membrane; and -9- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)nanoparticles coating the membrane, the nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein: 0.50 <x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00.

[0050] The membrane material may comprise any suitable material for maintaining electrical isolation of the cathode and anode in a batterya Li-S battery), while also facilitating ion (Li+ ion) transport between the cathode and the anode. In some embodiments, the separator comprises a membrane comprising a porous carbon, a polyethylene, a polypropylene (e.g., CELGARD® 2400), a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a cellulose, a ceramic, a glass fiber, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the membrane material comprises a polypropylene (e.g., CELGARD® 2400),[00511 In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have a composition according to Formula (I), wherein 0.50 < x < 1.00, and 0.50 <y < 1.00.

[0052] In some embodiments, x is greater than or equal to about 0.50, greater than or equal to about 0.525, greater than or equal to about 0.550, greater than or equal to about 0.575, greater than or equal to about 0.600, greater than or equal to about 0.625, greater than or equal to about 0.650, greater than or equal to about 0.675, greater than or equal to about 0.700, greater than or equal to about 0,725, greater than or equal to about 0.750, greater than or equal to about 0.775, greater than or equal to about 0.800, greater than or equal to about 0.825, greater than or equal to about 0.850, greater than or equal to about 0.875, greater than or equal to about 0.900, greater than or equal to about 0.925, greater than or equal to about 0.950, greater than or equal to about 0.975, greater than or equal to about 0.990, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0053] In some embodiments, x is less than 1.00, less than or equal to about 0.990, less than or equal to about 0.975, less than or equal to about 0.950, less than or equal to about 0.925, less-10- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)than or equal to about 0.900, less than or equal to about 0.875, less than or equal to about 0.850, less than or equal to about 0.825, less than or equal to about 0.800, less than or equal to about 0.775, less than or equal to about 0.750, less than or equal to about 0.725, less than or equal to about 0.700, less than or equal to about 0.675, less than or equal to about 0.650, less than or equal to about 0.625, less than or equal to about 0.600, less than or equal to about 0.575, less than or equal to about 0.550, less than or equal to about 0.525, less than or equal to about 0.500, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.0054 In some embodiments, x is about 0.50 to about 0.99, about 0.50 to about 0.98, about 0.50 to about 0.97, about 0.50 to about 0.96, about 0.50 to about 0.95, about 0.50 to about 0.925, about 0.50 to about 0.90, about 0.50 to about 0.85, about 0.50 to about 0.80, about 0.50 to about 0.75, about 0.50 to about 0.70, about 0.50 to about 0.65, about 0.50 to about 0.60, about 0.50 to about 0.55, about 0.55 to about 0.99, about 0.55 to about 0.98, about 0.55 to about 0.97, about 0.55 to about 0.96, about 0.55 to about 0.95, about 0.55 to about 0.925, about 0.55 to about 0.90, about 0.55 to about 0.85, about 0.55 to about 0.80, about 0.55 to about 0.75, about 0.55 to about 0.70, about 0.55 to about 0.65, about 0.55 to about 0.60, about 0.60 to about 0.99, about 0.60 to about 0.98, about 0.60 to about 0.97, about 0.60 to about 0.96, about 0.60 to about 0.95, about 0.60 to about 0.925, about 0.60 to about 0.90, about 0.60 to about 0.85, about 0.60 to about 0.80, about 0.60 to about 0.75, about 0.60 to about 0.70, about 0.60 to about 0.65, about 0.65 to about 0.99, about 0.65 to about 0.98, about 0.65 to about 0.97, about 0.65 to about 0.96, about 0.65 to about 0.95, about 0.65 to about 0.925, about 0.65 to about 0.90, about 0.65 to about 0.85, about 0.65 to about 0.80, about 0.65 to about 0.75, about 0.65 to about 0.70, about 0.70 to about 0.99, about 0.70 to about 0.98, about 0.70 to about 0.97, about 0.70 to about 0.96, about 0.70 to about 0.95, about 0.70 to about 0.925, about 0.70 to about 0.90, about 0.70 to about 0.85, about 0.70 to about 0.80, about 0.70 to about 0.75, about 0.75 to about 0.99, about 0.75 to about 0.98, about 0.75 to about 0.97, about 0.75 to about 0.96, about 0.75 to about 0.95, about 0.75 to about 0.925, about 0.75 to about 0.90, about 0.75 to about 0.85, about 0.75 to about 0.80, about 0.80 to about 0.99, about 0.80 to about 0.98, about 0.80 to about 0.97, about 0,80 to about 0.96, about 0.80 to about 0.95, about 0.80 to about 0.925, about 0.80 to about 0.90, about 0.80 to about 0.85, about-11- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0,85 to about 0,99, about 0.85 to about 0.98, about 0.85 to about 0.97, about 0.85 to about 0.96, about 0.85 to about. 0.95, about 0.85 to about 0.925, about 0.85 to about 0.90, about 0.90 to about 0.99, about 0.90 to about 0.98, about 0.90 to about 0.97, about. 0.90 to about 0.96, about 0.90 to about 0.95, about 0.90 to about 0.925, about 0.91 to about 0.99, about 0.91 to about 0.95, about 0.92 to about 0.99, about 0.92 to about 0.95, about 0.925 to about 0.99, about 0.925 to about. 0.98, about 0.925 to about 0.97, about 0.925 to about 0.96, about 0.925 to about 0.95, about 0.93 to about 0.99, about 0.93 to about 0.95, about 0.94 to about 0.99, about 0.95 to about 0.99, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0055] In some embodiments, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < x < 0.98. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925.0056] In some embodiments, y is greater than or equal to about 0.50, greater than or equal to about 0.525, greater than or equal to about 0.550, greater than or equal to about 0.575, greater than or equal to about 0.600, greater than or equal to about 0.625, greater than or equal to about 0.650, greater than or equal to about 0.675, greater than or equal to about 0.700, greater than or equal to about 0.725, greater than or equal to about 0.750, greater than or equal to about 0.775, greater than or equal to about 0.800, greater than or equal to about 0.825, greater than or equal to about 0.850, greater than or equal to about 0.875, greater than or equal to about 0.900, greater than or equal to about 0.925, greater than or equal to about 0.950, greater than or equal to about 0.975, greater than or equal to about 0.990, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0057] In some embodiments, y is less than 1.00, less than or equal to about 0.990, less than or equal to about 0.975, less than or equal to about 0.950, less than or equal to about 0.925, less than or equal to about 0.900, less than or equal to about 0.875, less than or equal to about 0.850, less than or equal to about 0.825, less than or equal to about 0.800, less than or equal to about 0.775, less than or equal to about 0.750, less than or equal to about 0.725, less than or equal to about 0.700, less than or equal to about 0.675, less than or equal to about 0.650, less than or equal to about 0.625, less than or equal to about 0.600, less than or equal to about 0.575, less-12- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)than or equal to about 0.550, less than or equal to about 0.525, less than or equal to about 0.500, or any range or value Including and / or in between any two of these values.0058] In some embodiments, y is about 0.50 to about 0.99, about 0.50 to about 0.98, about 0.50 to about 0.97, about 0.50 to about 0.96, about 0.50 to about 0.95, about 0.50 to about 0.925, about 0.50 to about 0,90, about 0.50 to about 0.85, about 0.50 to about 0.80, about 0.50 to about 0.75, about 0.50 to about 0.70, about 0.50 to about 0.65, about 0,50 to about 0.60, about 0.50 to about 0.55, about 0.55 to about 0.99, about 0.55 to about 0.98, about 0.55 to about 0,97, about 0.55 to about 0.96, about 0.55 to about 0.95, about 0.55 to about 0.925, about. 0.55 to about 0.90, about 0.55 to about 0.85, about 0.55 to about 0.80, about 0.55 to about 0.75, about 0.55 to about 0.70, about 0.55 to about 0.65, about 0.55 to about 0.60, about 0.60 to about 0.99, about 0.60 to about 0.98, about 0.60 to about 0.97, about. 0.60 to about 0.96, about. 0.60 to about 0.95, about 0.60 to about. 0.925, about 0.60 to about 0.90, about 0.60 to about 0.85, about 0.60 to about 0.80, about 0.60 to about 0.75, about 0.60 to about 0.70, about 0.60 to about 0.65, about 0.65 to about 0.99, about 0.65 to about 0.98, about 0.65 to about 0.97, about 0.65 to about 0.96, about 0.65 to about 0.95, about 0.65 to about 0.925, about 0.65 to about 0.90, about 0.65 to about 0.85, about 0.65 to about 0.80, about 0.65 to about 0.75, about 0.65 to about 0.70, about 0.70 to about 0.99, about 0.70 to about 0.98, about 0.70 to about 0.97, about 0.70 to about 0.96, about 0.70 to about 0.95, about 0.70 to about 0.925, about 0.70 to about 0.90, about 0.70 to about 0.85, about 0.70 to about 0.80, about 0.70 to about 0.75, about 0.75 to about 0.99, about 0.75 to about 0.98, about 0.75 to about 0.97, about 0.75 to about 0.96, about 0.75 to about 0.95, about 0.75 to about 0.925, about 0.75 to about 0.90, about 0.75 to about 0.85, about 0.75 to about 0.80, about 0.80 to about 0.99, about 0.80 to about 0.98, about 0.80 to about 0.97, about 0.80 to about 0.96, about 0.80 to about 0.95, about 0.80 to about 0.925, about 0.80 to about 0.90, about 0.80 to about 0.85, about 0.85 to about 0.99, about 0.85 to about 0.98, about 0.85 to about 0.97, about 0.85 to about 0.96, about 0.85 to about 0.95, about 0.85 to about 0.925, about 0.85 to about 0.90, about 0.90 to about 0.99, about 0.90 to about 0.98, about 0.90 to about 0.97, about 0.90 to about 0.96, about 0.90 to about 0.95, about 0.90 to about 0.925, about 0,91 to about 0.99, about 0,91 to about 0.95, about 0.92 to about 0,99, about 0.92 to about 0.95, about 0.925 to about 0.99, about 0,925 to about-13- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0,98, about 0.925 to about 0.97, about 0.925 to about 0.96, about 0.925 to about 0,95, about 0,93 to about 0.99, about 0.93 to about 0.95, about 0.99 to about 0.99, about 0.95 to about 0,99, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.[0059| In some embodiments, 0,75 <y < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 <y < 0.98. In some embodiments, y is about 0.95. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925, and y is about 0.95.0060] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of greater than or equal to about 10 nm, greater than or equal to about 15 nm, greater than or equal to about 20 nm, greater than or equal to about 25 nm, greater than or equal to about 30 nm, greater than or equal to about 35 nm, greater than or equal to about 40 nm, greater than or equal to about 45 nm, greater than or equal to about 50 nm, greater than or equal to about 55 nm, greater than or equal to about 60 nm, greater than or equal to about 65 nm, greater than or equal to about 70 nm, greater than or equal to about 75 nm, greater than or equal to about 80 nm, greater than or equal to about 85 nm, greater than or equal to about 90 nm, greater than or equal to about 95 nm, greater than or equal to about 100 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0061] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of less than or equal to about 100 nm, less than or equal to about 95 nm, less than or equal to about 90 nm, less than or equal to about 85 nm, less than or equal to about 80 nm, less than or equal to about 75 nm, less than or equal to about 70 nm, less than or equal to about 65 nm, less than or equal to about 60 nm, less than or equal to about 55 nm, less than or equal to about 50 nm, less than or equal to about 45 nm, less than or equal to about 40 nm, less than or equal to about 35 nm, less than or equal to about 30 nm, less than or equal to about 25 nm, less than or equal to about 20 nm, less than or equal to about 15 nm, less than or equal to about 10 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0062] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 100 nm, about 20 nm to about 50 nm, about 20 nm to about 40 nm, about 20 nm to about-14- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)30 nm, about 30 nm to about 100 nm, about 30 nm to about 50 nm, about 30 nm to about 40 nm, about 40 nm to about 100 nm, about 40 nm to about 50 nm, about 50 nm to about 100 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.|0063| In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm,

[0064] In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a battery comprising a separator according to any of the embodiments disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a separator according to any of the embodiments disclosed herein.

[0065] In some embodiments, the membrane may be coated with nanoparticles on the cathode side, on the anode side, or a combination thereof.Cathodes

[0066] In an aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a cathode for a battery', the cathode comprising: a single-walled carbon nanotube-sulfur (S / SWCNT) composite; and nanoparticles according to Formula (I) coating or coupled to the S / SWCNT composite:Bu_xGd_{1-x}Fe_yNi_{1-y}O_3 (I),wherein: 0.50 <x < 1.00; and 0.50 <v < 1.00.

[0067] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have a composition according to Formula (I), wherein 0.50 <x < 1.00, and 0.50 <y < 1.00.

[0068] In some embodiments, x is greater than or equal to about 0.50, greater than or equal to about 0.525, greater than or equal to about 0.550, greater than or equal to about 0.575, greater than or equal to about 0.600, greater than or equal to about 0.625, greater than or equal to about 0.650, greater than or equal to about 0.675, greater than or equal to about 0.700, greater than or -15- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)equal to about 0.725, greater than or equal to about 0.750, greater than or equal to about 0.775, greater than or equal to about 0,800, greater than or equal to about 0.825, greater than or equal to about 0.850, greater than or equal to about 0.875, greater than or equal to about 0.900, greater than or equal to about 0.925, greater than or equal to about 0.950, greater than or equal to about 0.975, greater than or equal to about 0.990, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.0069] In some embodiments, x is less than 1,00, less than or equal to about 0.990, less than or equal to about 0.975, less than or equal to about 0.950, less than or equal to about 0.925, less than or equal to about 0.900, less than or equal to about 0.875, less than or equal to about 0.850, less than or equal to about 0.825, less than or equal to about 0.800, less than or equal to about 0.775, less than or equal to about 0.750, less than or equal to about 0.725, less than or equal to about 0.700, less than or equal to about 0,675, less than or equal to about 0.650, less than or equal to about 0.625, less than or equal to about 0.600, less than or equal to about 0.575, less than or equal to about 0.550, less than or equal to about 0.525, less than or equal to about 0.500, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0070] In some embodiments, x is about 0.50 to about 0.99, about 0,50 to about 0.98, about 0,50 to about 0.97, about 0.50 to about 0.96, about 0.50 to about 0.95, about 0.50 to about 0.925, about 0.50 to about 0.90, about 0.50 to about 0.85, about 0.50 to about 0.80, about 0.50 to about 0.75, about 0.50 to about 0.70, about 0.50 to about 0.65, about 0.50 to about 0.60, about 0.50 to about 0.55, about 0.55 to about 0.99, about 0.55 to about 0.98, about 0.55 to about 0.97, about 0.55 to about 0.96, about 0.55 to about 0.95, about 0.55 to about 0.925, about 0.55 to about 0.90, about 0.55 to about 0.85, about 0.55 to about 0.80, about 0.55 to about 0.75, about 0.55 to about 0.70, about 0.55 to about 0.65, about 0.55 to about 0.60, about 0.60 to about 0.99, about 0.60 to about 0.98, about 0.60 to about 0.97, about 0.60 to about 0.96, about 0.60 to about 0.95, about 0.60 to about 0.925, about 0.60 to about 0.90, about 0.60 to about 0.85, about 0.60 to about 0.80, about 0.60 to about 0.75, about 0.60 to about 0.70, about 0.60 to about 0.65, about 0.65 to about 0.99, about 0.65 to about 0.98, about 0.65 to about 0.97, about 0.65 to about 0.96, about 0.65 to about 0.95, about 0.65 to about 0.925, about 0.65 to about 0.90, about 0.65 to about 0.85, about -16- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0,65 to about 0,80, about 0.65 to about 0.75, about 0.65 to about 0.70, about 0.70 to about 0.99, about 0.70 to about 0.98, about 0.70 to about 0.97, about 0.70 to about 0.96, about 0.70 to about 0.95, about 0.70 to about 0.925, about 0.70 to about 0.90, about 0.70 to about 0,85, about 0,70 to about 0.80, about 0.70 to about 0.75, about 0.75 to about 0.99, about 0.75 to about. 0.98, about 0.75 to about 0.97, about 0.75 to about 0.96, about 0.75 to about 0.95, about 0.75 to about 0.925, about 0.75 to about. 0.90, about 0.75 to about 0.85, about 0.75 to about 0.80, about. 0.80 to about 0.99, about 0.80 to about 0.98, about 0.80 to about 0.97, about. 0.80 to about 0.96, about 0.80 to about 0.95, about 0.80 to about 0.925, about 0.80 to about 0.90, about 0.80 to about 0.85, about 0.85 to about 0.99, about 0.85 to about 0.98, about 0.85 to about 0.97, about 0.85 to about 0.96, about 0.85 to about. 0.95, about 0.85 to about 0.925, about 0.85 to about 0.90, about 0.90 to about 0.99, about 0.90 to about 0.98, about 0.90 to about 0.97, about 0.90 to about 0.96, about 0.90 to about 0.95, about 0.90 to about 0.925, about 0.91 to about 0.99, about 0.91 to about 0.95, about 0.92 to about 0.99, about 0.92 to about 0.95, about 0.925 to about 0.99, about 0.925 to about 0.98, about 0.925 to about 0.97, about 0.925 to about 0.96, about 0.925 to about 0.95, about 0.93 to about 0.99, about 0.93 to about 0.95, about 0.94 to about 0.99, about 0.95 to about 0.99, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.[0871 In some embodiments, 0.75 < x < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < x < 0.98. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925.

[0072] In some embodiments, v is greater than or equal to about 0.50, greater than or equal to about 0.525, greater than or equal to about 0.550, greater than or equal to about 0.575, greater than or equal to about 0.600, greater than or equal to about 0.625, greater than or equal to about 0.650, greater than or equal to about 0.675, greater than or equal to about 0.700, greater than or equal to about 0.725, greater than or equal to about 0.750, greater than or equal to about 0.775, greater than or equal to about 0.800, greater than or equal to about 0.825, greater than or equal to about 0.850, greater than or equal to about 0.875, greater than or equal to about 0.900, greater than or equal to about 0.925, greater than or equal to about 0.950, greater than or equal to about 0.975, greater than or equal to about 0.990, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.-17- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)

[0073] In some embodiments, y is less than 1,00, less than or equal to about 0.990, less than or equal to about 0.975, less than or equal to about 0.950, less than or equal to about 0.925, less than or equal to about 0.900, less than or equal to about 0.875, less than or equal to about 0.850, less than or equal to about 0.825, less than or equal to about 0.800, less than or equal to about 0.775, less than or equal to about 0.750, less than or equal to about.0.725, less than or equal to about 0.700, less than or equal to about 0.675, less than or equal to about 0.650, less than or equal to about 0.625, less than or equal to about. 0.600, less than or equal to about 0.575, less than or equal to about 0.550, less than or equal to about. 0.525, less than or equal to about 0.500, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0074] In some embodiments, y is about 0.50 to about 0.99, about 0.50 to about 0.98, about 0.50 to about 0.97, about 0.50 to about 0.96, about 0.50 to about 0.95, about 0.50 to about 0.925, about 0.50 to about 0.90, about 0.50 to about 0.85, about 0.50 to about 0.80, about 0.50 to about 0.75, about 0.50 to about 0.70, about 0.50 to about 0.65, about 0.50 to about 0.60, about 0.50 to about 0.55, about 0.55 to about 0.99, about 0.55 to about 0.98, about 0.55 to about 0.97, about 0.55 to about 0.96, about 0.55 to about 0.95, about 0.55 to about 0.925, about 0.55 to about 0.90, about 0.55 to about 0.85, about 0.55 to about 0.80, about 0.55 to about 0.75, about 0.55 to about 0.70, about 0.55 to about 0.65, about 0.55 to about 0.60, about 0.60 to about 0.99, about 0.60 to about 0.98, about 0.60 to about 0.97, about 0.60 to about 0.96, about 0.60 to about 0.95, about 0.60 to about 0.925, about 0.60 to about 0.90, about 0.60 to about 0.85, about 0.60 to about 0.80, about 0.60 to about 0.75, about 0.60 to about 0.70, about 0.60 to about 0.65, about 0.65 to about 0.99, about 0.65 to about 0.98, about 0.65 to about 0.97, about 0.65 to about 0.96, about 0.65 to about 0.95, about 0.65 to about 0.925, about 0.65 to about 0.90, about 0.65 to about 0.85, about 0.65 to about 0.80, about 0.65 to about 0.75, about 0.65 to about 0.70, about 0.70 to about 0.99, about 0.70 to about 0.98, about 0.70 to about 0.97, about 0.70 to about 0.96, about 0.70 to about 0.95, about 0.70 to about 0.925, about 0.70 to about 0.90, about 0.70 to about 0.85, about 0.70 to about 0.80, about 0.70 to about 0.75, about 0.75 to about 0.99, about 0.75 to about 0.98, about 0.75 to about 0.97, about 0.75 to about 0.96, about 0.75 to about 0.95, about 0.75 to about 0.925, about 0.75 to about 0,90, about 0.75 to about 0.85, about 0.75 to about 0.80, about 0.80 to about-18- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0,99, about 0.80 to about 0.98, about 0.80 to about 0.97, about 0.80 to about 0.96, about 0,80 to about 0.95, about 0.80 to about 0.925, about 0,80 to about 0.90, about 0,80 to about 0.85, about 0,85 to about 0,99, about 0.85 to about 0.98, about 0.85 to about 0.97, about 0.85 to about 0.96, about 0.85 to about 0.95, about 0.85 to about 0.925, about 0.85 to about 0.90, about 0.90 to about 0.99, about 0.90 to about 0.98, about 0.90 to about 0.97, about 0.90 to about 0.96, about 0.90 to about 0.95, about 0.90 to about 0.925, about 0.91 to about 0.99, about 0.91 to about 0.95, about 0.92 to about 0.99, about 0.92 to about 0.95, about 0.925 to about 0.99, about 0.925 to about 0.98, about 0.925 to about 0.97, about 0.925 to about 0.96, about 0.925 to about 0.95, about 0.93 to about 0.99, about 0.93 to about 0.95, about 0.94 to about 0.99, about 0.95 to about 0.99, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0075] In some embodiments, 0.75 < >• < 1.00. In some embodiments, 0.90 < y < 0.98. In some embodiments, y is about 0.95. In some embodiments, x is about 0.925, and y is about 0.95.

[0076] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of greater than or equal to about 10 nm, greater than or equal to about 15 nm, greater than or equal to about 20 nm, greater than or equal to about 25 nm, greater than or equal to about 30 nm, greater than or equal to about 35 nm, greater than or equal to about 40 nm, greater than or equal to about 45 nm, greater than or equal to about 50 nm, greater than or equal to about 55 nm, greater than or equal to about 60 nm, greater than or equal to about 65 nm, greater than or equal to about 70 nm, greater than or equal to about 75 nm, greater than or equal to about 80 nm, greater than or equal to about 85 nm, greater than or equal to about 90 nm, greater than or equal to about 95 nm, greater than or equal to about 100 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0077] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of less than or equal to about 100 nm, less than or equal to about 95 nm, less than or equal to about 90 nm, less than or equal to about 85 nm, less than or equal to about 80 nm, less than or equal to about 75 nm, less than or equal to about 70 nm, less than or equal to about 65 nm, less than or equal to about 60 nm, less than or equal to about 55 nm, less than or equal to about 50 nm, less than or equal to-19- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)about 45 nm, less than or equal to about 40 nm, less than or equal to about 35 nm, less than or equal to about 30 nm, less than or equal to about 25 nm, less than or equal to about 20 nm, less than or equal to about 15 nm, less than or equal to about 10 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.0078 In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 100 nm, about 20 nm to about 50 nm, about 20 nm to about 40 nm, about 20 nm to about 30 nm, about 30 nm to about 100 nm, about 30 nm to about 50 nm, about 30 nm to about 40 nm, about 40 nm to about 100 nm, about 40 nm to about 50 nm, about 50 nm to about 100 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0079] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.

[0080] In some embodiments, the sulfur, nanoparticles (“BGFNO”), and SWCNTs are present in the cathode at a concentration ratio according to Formula (II):S_zBGFNO_{1-z-w}SWCNT_w,wherein 0.50 <z < 0.99; and 0.01 <w < 0.50; wherein z, w, and 1-z-w represent fractions by weight.

[0081] In some embodiments, z is greater than or equal to about 0.50, greater than or equal to about 0.55, greater than or equal to about 0.60, greater than or equal to about 0.65, greater than or equal to about 0.70, greater than or equal to about 0.75, greater than or equal to about 0.80, greater than or equal to about 0.85, greater than or equal to about 0,90, greater than or equal to about 0.95, greater than or equal to about 1.00, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0082] In some embodiments, z is less than or equal to about 0.99, less than or equal to about 0.95, less than or equal to about 0.90, less than or equal to about 0.85, less than or equal to about -20- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0.80, less than or equal to about 0.75, less than or equal to about 0.70, less than or equal to about 0.65, less than or equal to about 0,60, less than or equal to about 0.55, less than or equal to about 0.50, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values,[0083| In some embodiments, z is about 0.5 to about 0.99, about 0.5 to about 0,95, about 0.5 to about 0.9, about 0.5 to about 0.8, about 0.5 to about 0.7, about 0.5 to about 0.6, about 0.6 to about 0.99, about 0.6 to about 0.95, about 0.6 to about 0.9, about 0.6 to about 0.8, about 0.6 to about 0.7, about 0.6 to about 0.6, about 0.7 to about 0.99, about 0.7 to about 0.95, about 0.7 to about 0.9, about 0.7 to about 0.8, about 0.7 to about 0.7, about 0.7 to about 0.6, about 0.8 to about 0.99, about 0.8 to about 0.95, about 0.8 to about 0.9, about 0.8 to about 0.8, about 0.8 to about 0.7, about 0.8 to about 0.6, about 0.9 to about 0.99, about 0.9 to about 0.95, about 0.9 to about 0.9, about 0.9 to about 0.8, about 0.9 to about 0.7, about 0.9 to about 0.6, about 0.95 to about 0.99, about 0.95 to about 0.95, about 0.95 to about 0.9, about 0.95 to about 0.8, about 0.95 to about 0.7, about 0.95 to about 0.6, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.10084] In some embodiments, z is about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, or about 0.9.

[0085] In some embodiments, w is greater than or equal to about 0.01, greater than or equal to about 0.05, greater than or equal to about 0.10, greater than or equal to about 0.15, greater than or equal to about 0.20, greater than or equal to about 0.25, greater than or equal to about 0.30, greater than or equal to about 0.35, greater than or equal to about 0.40, greater than or equal to about 0.45, greater than or equal to about 0.50, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0086] In some embodiments, w is less than or equal to about 0.50, less than or equal to about 0.45, less than or equal to about 0.40, less than or equal to about 0.35, less than or equal to about 0.30, less than or equal to about 0.25, less than or equal to about 0.20, less than or equal to about 0.15, less than or equal to about 0.10, less than or equal to about 0.05, less than or equal to about 0.01, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.-21- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0087 In some embodiments, w is about 0.01 to about 0.5, about 0.01 to about 0.4, about 0.01 to about 0.3, about 0.01 to about 0.2, about 0.01 to about 0.1, about 0.01 to about 0.05, about 0,05 to about 0.5, about 0.05 to about 0.4, about 0.05 to about 0,3, about 0.05 to about 0,2, about 0.05 to about 0.1, about 0.1 to about 0.5, about 0.1 to about 0.4, about 0.1 to about 0.3, about 0.1 to about 0.2, about 0.2 to about 0.5, about 0.2 to about 0.4, about 0.2 to about 0.3, about 0.3 to about 0.5, about 0.3 to about 0.4, about 0.4 to about 0.5, about 0.4 to about 0.3, about 0.4 to about 0.5, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.

[0088] In some embodiments, w is about 0.1.

[0089] In some embodiments, the cathode material has a composition of So.sBGFNOo.iSWCNTo.i (z.e., S80BGFNO10SWCNT10), S0.7BGFNO0.2SWCNT0.1 (z.e., S70BGFNO20SWCNT10), S0.6BGFNO0.3SWCNT0.1 (z.e., S60BGFNO30SWCNT10), or S0.5BGFNO0.4SWCNT0.1 (z.e., S50BGFNO40SWCNT10).

[0090] Thus in some embodiments, the ratio of S to SWCNTs in the cathode material is greater than or equal to 5:1, greater than or equal to 6:1, greater than or equal to 7:1, greater than or equal to 8:1, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values,[00911 In some embodiments, the cathode material comprises multi-wall CNTs (MWCNTs) in combination with, or in place of SWCNTs.

[0092] In some embodiments, the SWCNTs or MWCNTs have an average diameter of greater than or equal to about 1 nm, greater than or equal to about 2 nm, greater than or equal to about 3 nm, greater than or equal to about 4 nm, greater than or equal to about 5 nm, greater than or equal to about 10 nm, greater than or equal to about 15 nm, greater than or equal to about 20 nm, greater than or equal to about 25 nm, greater than or equal to about 30 nm, greater than or equal to about 35 nm, greater than or equal to about 40 nm, greater than or equal to about 45 nm, greater than or equal to about 50 nm, greater than or equal to about 55 nm, greater than or equal to about 60 nm, greater than or equal to about 65 nm, greater than or equal to about 70 nm, greater than or equal to about 75 nm, greater than or equal to about 80 nm, greater than or equal -22- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)to about 85 nm, greater than or equal to about 90 nm, greater than or equal to about 95 nm, greater than or equal to about 100 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.0093| In some embodiments, the SWCNTs or MWCNTs have an average diameter of less than or equal to about 100 nm, less than or equal to about 95 nm, less than or equal to about 90 nm, less than or equal to about 85 nm, less than or equal to about 80 nm, less than or equal to about 75 nm, less than or equal to about 70 nm, less than or equal to about 65 nm, less than or equal to about 60 nm, less than or equal to about 55 nm, less than or equal to about 50 nm, less than or equal to about 45 nm, less than or equal to about 40 nm, less than or equal to about 35 nm, less than or equal to about 30 nm, less than or equal to about 25 nm, less than or equal to about 20 nm, less than or equal to about 15 nm, less than or equal to about 10 nm, less than or equal to about 5 nm, less than or equal to about 4 nm, less than or equal to about 3 nm, less than or equal to about 2 nm, less than or equal to about 1 nm, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.Anodes0094 In some embodiments, a battery according to the present disclosure comprises an anode comprising lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, vanadium, aluminum, zinc, silicon, graphite, graphene, porous carbon, activated carbon, silicon compound, a metal oxide, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the anode comprises a non-metal oxide. In some embodiments, the anode comprises, by way of non-limiting example, a non-metal oxide such as silicon, a form of silicon, graphite, graphene, porous carbon, activated carbon, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anode comprises a metal oxide. In some embodiments, the anode comprises, by way of non-limiting example, a metal oxide such as L14T15O12, LisVCU, LiMnBOs, L1V05T10.5S2, L13V2O5, Li3+xV2O5, LuMoO, L15W2O7, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anode comprises Li metal.Electrolyte-23- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0095 In some embodiments, a battery according to the present disclosure comprises any suitable electrolyte for introducing Li+ions into the battery. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), lithium perchlorate (LiCK)4), lithium nitrate (LiNOr), or any combination thereof. The electrolyte may comprise additional components, including plasticizers, solvents (e.g., SO2, 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethyoxyethane (DME), ethylene carbonate (EC), or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), or a combination thereof).

[0096] In some embodiments, the electrolyte or electrode materials further comprise one or more additives or plasticizers. For instance, in some embodiments, a battery according to the present disclosure comprises an additive in the electrolyte and / or the electrode (anode, cathode) materials. In some embodiments, the one or more polymer additives comprise(s), by way of non-limiting example, polycaprolactone, poly(acrylic acid), poly(methyl methacrylate), polytetrafluoroethylene, poly(vinylidene fluoride), polyacrylonitrile, poly(ethylene terephthalate), polyvinylpyrrolidone, poly(4-vinylpyridine), polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polylactic acid, polyvinyl butyral, polystyrene, polyurethane, polycarbonate, or any combination thereof.

[0097] Batery Performance

[0098] In some embodiments, a battery (e.g., a Li-S battery) according to the present disclosure may have an enhanced specific capacity. In some embodiments, the specific capacity is greater than or equal to about 1200 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1225 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1250 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1275 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1300 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1325 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1350 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1375 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1400 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1425 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1450 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1475 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1500 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1525 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1550 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1575 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1600 mAh / g, greater than or equal to-24- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)about 1610 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1620 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1625 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1630 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1640 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1650 mAh / g, greater than or equal to about 1660 mAh / g, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.0099 In some embodiments, a battery (e.g., a Li-S battery) according to the present disclosure may have improved capacity retention (e.g., after 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 10000, or more chargedischarge cycles) of greater than or equal to about 50%, greater than or equal to about 55%, greater than or equal to about 60%, greater than or equal to about 65%, greater than or equal to about 70%, greater than or equal to about 75%, greater than or equal to about 80%, greater than or equal to about 85%, greater than or equal to about 90%, greater than or equal to about 95%, greater than or equal to about 100%, greater than or equal to about 105%, greater than or equal to about 110%, greater than or equal to about 115%, greater than or equal to about 120%, greater than or equal to about 125%, or any range or value including and / or in between any two of these values.Methods of Making and Enhancing the Performance of Li-S Batteries

[0100] In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a method of making a battery e.g., a Li-S battery), the method comprising: (a) coating a cathode comprising sulfur with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I) and / or coating a separator with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):Bi-Gd.. FcAs.()^ (I),wherein: 0.50 < x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00; and (b) assembling components in the following spatial order: (1) an anode; (2) the separator; (3) a Li-containing electrolyte, and (4) the cathode, wherein: the electrolyte and the separator are between the cathode and the anode. In some embodiments, the cathode comprises a S / SWCNT composite.-25- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)

[0101] In another aspect, which may be combined with any other aspect or embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a method of enhancing the capacity of a Li-S battery', the method comprising: (a) coating a cathode comprising sulfur with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I) and / or coating a separator with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein: 0.50 < x < 1.00; and 0.50 <y < 1.00; and (b) assembling components in the following spatial order: (1) an anode; (2) the separator; (3) a Li-contammg electrolyte; and (4) the cathode, wherein: the electrolyte and the separator are between the cathode and the anode. In some embodiments, the cathode comprises a S / SWCNT composite.0102] Reference will now be made in detail to some specific examples demonstrating the technology of the disclosure. While various experimental examples are described herein, it will be understood that it is not intended to l imit the present technology to the described embodiments.EXAMPLESExample 1. Rote of Separator Coated with Ferroelectric Nanoparticles in Improving Capacity Retention at High Current Density' on Snifur / SWCNT Composite Cathodes for Li-S BatteriesMethods

[0103] Gd / Ni doped BFO (BGNFO) nanoparticles (Bi0.925Gd0.075Fe0.95Ni005O3) were synthesized by a solid state reaction. Briefly, BiaCh (99.995%), Gd?. O3 (99.999%), F2O3 (99.99%), and NiO (99%) (Sigma- Aldrich) were combined in the stoichiometric ratio defined above and ball milled twice at 400 rpm for 12 hours. The mixture was then calcined at 775°C for 5 hours to obtain a pure phase formation of BGFNO powder. Then, Gd / Ni doped BFO (BGFNO), sulfur (S), and SWCNT were mixed together. The slurry of BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite was prepared in -26- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) via ball milling and was coated as a film (11.7 gm thickness) on aluminum foil ( 25 gm) via doctor blade. After drying in vacuo at 40°C, for 20 hours, electrodes were cut into disks of 13 mm diameter to prepare cathodes,[0104| To prepare BGFNO-coated separators, a commercial polypropylene separator (Celgard 2400) was coated with BGFNO slurry in NMP prepared via ball milling. The coated separator was dried in vacuo at 40°C for 12 hours. Finally, the BGFNO@PP separator was cut into 18- mm discs for batery assembly. The mass of the coating layer was approximately 0.75 mg / cm2.[0105| Coin cells (CR2032) were assembled in an Ar-filled glove box (MBraun, USA) with H2O and O2 at less than I ppm. Galvanostatic charge-discharge curves were measured using a 32- channle batter tester (Arbin Instruments, Mits Pro 8.0) at different current densities within the voltage range of 1.5-3.2 V (vs. L.i / Li). The cyclic voltammetry at 0.1 mV / s was used to test cycling performance and stability of the cathode material.ResultsElectrochemical Performance Without Coated Separator

[0106] FIG. 1A and FIG. IB show the electrochemical performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10 composite electrode without the coated separator at 200 mA / g. The observed discharge capacity in the first cycle is 350 mAh / g, and after the 50th cycle, it reduces to 253 mAh / g with a capacity retention of 72%. It has been considered that polar substances have a good affinity toward polysulfides and can provide a more stable reacting environment in the cathode. The spontaneous polarization induced by the ferroelectric materials provides an internal electric field and increases chemisorption with heteropolar reactions. Along with these characteristics, it is expected that polysulfide migration will be effectively reduced by ferroelectric compounds. The discharge capacity reduction is believed to be associated with the degradation of the lithium anode; however, cycle stability and capacity retention of BGFNO doped S / SWCNT composite cathodes are significantly improved, attributed to polysulfide absorption due to the polarization effect of ferroelectric nanoparticles inside the cathode.-27- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)Electrochemical Performance with Coated Separator (Cathode Side)

[0107] FIG. 2 A and FIG. 2B show the electroche ical performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10 composite electrode with BGFNO coated separator along the cathode side at 200 mA / g. The observed discharge capacity in the first cycle is 725 mAh / g, and after the 50th cycle, it reaches up to 815 mAh / g with an improvement in capacity retention. Normally, capacity fading increases with the number of cycles; however, the combined effect of ferroelectric (BGFNO) within the cathode and on the separator along the cathode side showed the combined effect of ferroelectric materials. BGFNO at the cathode suppressed polysulfide formation, while BGFNO at the separator assisted polysulfide chemisorption via polarization. The uniformly distributed ferroelectric material contributes to the enhanced affinity toward polysulfides in the overall cell system. Capacity enhancement with the number of cycles demonstrates the dual effect of anchoring polysulfides to the cathode system for the electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries. As seen from cycling performance due to the BGFNO modified cathode and the BGFNO coated separator, the capacity at the 20th cycle is 1300 mAh / g and shows the parabolic path of the Li+ion diffusion, affording maximum gain and range of diffusivity in the cell system.[0108| The occurrence of parabolic shape might be predictable as improved rate performance due to FNPs, providing polarization that suppresses polysulfide formation and controls the electrochemically driven phase transformations. The role of BGFNO nanoparticles act as an accelerating agent for lithium ions and as a suppressing agent for polysulfides in Li-S bateries.Electrochemical Performance With Coated Separator ( Anode Side)

[0109] FIG.3A and FIG.3B show the electrochemical performance of the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10 composite electrode with the BGFNO coated separator along the anode side at 200 mA / g. The observed discharge capacity in the first cycle is 100 mAh / g, and after the 50th cycle, it increases to 163 mAh / g. The BGFNO coated-separator microscopically confines high order polysulfides ( h-PS) so that its exposure to the electrolyte is minimal. The coated4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)separator can control the transport of carrier ions and side reactions with the anode, which helps to enhance the electrochemical performance of the cells. BGFNO acts as an accelerating agent due to its higher polarization, enhancing capacity and suppressing polysulfide formation.Cyclic Voltammetry and Capacity Retention

[0110] FIG.4A shows capacity retention, and FIG. 4B shows cyclic voltammetry curves at 0.1 mV / 's for the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10composite cathode. The improvement in capacity retention for the S80BGFNO10SWCNT10 composite cathode along with the BGFNO coated separator on the anode and cathode side reaches greater than 100%, relative to the uncoated commercial separator, showing that the spontaneous ferroelectric polarization of BGFNO particles facilitates the migration of Li+ions and eliminates the concentration gradient of Li+ions near electrode surface to control Li dendrite formation. Cyclic voltammetry has been used to reveal the redox process that occurs during charge and discharge for batteries, it reveals the potential at which chemical conversions in the electrolyte occurs. The Li-S batteries operate on conversion reactions on the sulfur cathode and metal striping / plating on the lithium anode, according to the following overall reaction (1):Ss + 16 Li 8 L12S (1)

[0111] Besides the electrochemical reductions, there are chemical reactions as described by the following equations (2) and (3):LizSn + Li?. S — » Li2Sn-m + LizS 1 (2)Li2Sn Li2Sn-i + 18 Ss (3)| 112] This redox process provides general guidance for material design and specific electrochemical process analysis. However, the sensitivity of redox intermediates and redox products to experimental conditions and the moisture, air, and characterization atmosphere makes it difficult to separate and thus identify all the products unambiguously. From cyclic voltammetry (CV) profiles, it has been observed that the cathode before and after cycling show's -29- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)two reduction peaks. The cells with S80SWCNT10 BGFNOIO demonstrate higher oxidation peaks at 2.83 and 2.67 V before charge-discharge, which shift to 2.68 and 2.50 V, respectively, indicating transformation of U2S to short / long-chain LiPSs and finally to Ss. Similarly, reduction peaks shifted from 2,17 and 1.63 before charge-discharge to 2,22 V and 1.83 V, respectively, after charge-discharge. This suggests an enhanced kinetics of the reduction reaction with the BGFNO coated separator, consistent with the charge-discharge curves.Discussion[01 3| In sum, the data show's improvement in capacity retention has been obtained by more than 100% by using the coated separator used along the anode side or the cathode side, compared to the uncoated commercial separator (capacity retention of 72% with the FNPs doped S / SWCNT composite cathode at high current density, 200 mA / g). It is observed that the FNPs doped S / SWCNT composite cathode chemisorbs the polysulfides, however, the FNPs coated separator along the anode and cathode side acts as a repulsive charge, which retards polysulfide migration via electrostatic repulsion and protects the electrode from the Li dendrite formation. The significance of this study is to achieve high capacity retention and electrochemical cycle stability via the design of an efficient cathode and its stability and longevity via FNPs coated separators.[0114| The ferroelectric nanoparticles suppress side reactions between lithium anode and soluble polysulfides during cycling. These modified cathodes and separators can contribute tremendous potential for battery innovative design as charge storage systems (e.g., for electric vehicles).4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)Example 2. Capacity Retention and High-rate Performance in Li-S Batteries With Ferroelectric Gd / Ni-doped BiFeO3 (BGFNO)-coupled Sulfur / SWCNT Composite Cathode and BGFNO Coated SeparatorMethodsBGFNO@S / SWCNT Composite Cathode and BGFNO Coated Separator

[0115] Single-walled carbon nanotubes (“SWCNTs”; d=2 nm, length=10 μm), sulfur (99.5%), and N-methyl 1 -2-pyrrolidone (NMP, 98%) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich and used without further purification. Aluminum (Al) foil (25 μm thickness, purity 99.45%), Li metal foil, (0.75x19 mm, 99.9%), and polypropylene separator (Celgard 2400; thickness 25 pm), bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide lithium salt (LiTFSI, 98+%), lithium nitrate (LiNO3, anhydrous, 99,999%), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME, 99+%), 1,3-dioxolane (DOL, 99.5%) were purchased from Alfa Aesar and used without further purification for the preparation of 1M LiTFSI electrolyte.

[0116] Gd / Ni-doped BFO nanoparticles (BGFNO NPs) with composition Bi0.925Gd0.075Fe0.95Ni0.05O3 were synthesized by solid state reaction of Bi2O3 (99.995%), Gd2O3 (99.999%), Fe2O3 (99.99%) and NiO (99%) precursors (Sigma Aldrich). These precursors were ball milled in the above molar ratios, twice at 400 rpm for 12 hours to obtain a powder mixture. The mixture was calcined at 775°C for 5 hours to get pure phase formation of BGFNO powder. The sulfur, BGFNO, and SWCNT were mixed as Sz: BGFNOw: SWCNTs (z = 90, 80, 70, 60; w = 10) via ball milling (Planetary) at 400 rpm for 20 hrs.Coin Cell Fabrication

[0117] The slurry of BGFNO@S / SWCNT was prepared in NMP via ball milling and coated on aluminum foil of thickness (25pm) via doctor blade. After drying in vacuo at 40°C for 20 hours. Electrodes were cut into discs of 13 mm for cathodes. Coating of BGFNO on commercial polypropylene (PP) separator (Celgard 2400) was done using the same method. Then the coated-31- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)separator was dried in vacuo at 40°C for 20 hours. Finally, as-prepared BGFNO@PP separators were cut into 18 mm diameter discs for battery assembly. The mass of coating layer was about 0.75 mg / cm.|0118| Coin cells (CR2032) were assembled in an Ar-filled glove box (MBraun, USA) with H2O and O2 < 0. Ippm and using the SzBGFNOwSWCNT10 (z = 90, 80, 70, 60; w = 10) composite cathode (13 mm), BGFNO coated polypropylene separator (18mm), and lithium foil (12 mm) as the anode, A composite of 1M LiTFSI and 0.2M LiNO3 dissolved in DOL(l,3-dioxolane) and DME (dimethoxyethane) in an equal volume ratio (1:1, v / v) was used as the electrolyte.Characterization

[0119] X-ray diffraction (XRD, Smart Lab Rigaku) was performed using CuKa as the radiation source (λ = 1.54028 Å), operating in a Bragg angle (29) ranging from 20° to 80° and working conditions of 40 kV and 44 mA was used for structural analysis. Raman spectra (Horiba- Jobin T64000) were recorded in the backscattering geometry at an excitation wavelength of 514.5 nm in conjunction with a confocal microscope at an 80× objective of 0.9 numerical aperture. The spot size was < 3 pm, and the beam intensity was 2.15 mW. The SEM micrographs and ED AX spectra were collected using a (JEOL, JSM-6480LV) system operated at 15 kV. ED AX was used to identify the chemical composition of the cathode material. SEM was used to characterize the surface morphology of the fabricated composites. Polarization (P-E) hysteresis measurement was carried out using (Radiant) tester. Galvanostatic charge-discharge curves were measured using a 32-channel battery tester (Arbin Instruments, Mits Pro 8.0) at different current densities within the voltage range of 1.5-3.2 V (vs. Li+ / Li). Cyclic voltammetry (0.1mV / s) was used to test performance and stability of the cathode material.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)ResultsX-ray Diffraction (XRD)

[0128] FIG. 5 shows XRD spectra for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composites, wherein the BGFNO has a composition of Bi0.925Gd0.075Fe0.95Ni0.05O3. The diffraction patterns a SWCNT peak at 25.60 (002) as shown in the inset. Pristine BGFNO and its various composites with S / SWCNT (e.g., S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 and S60BGFNO30SWCNT10) were analyzed crystallographically to show' elemental sulfur diffraction peaks at 23.10 (222), 25.90 (026) and 27.80 (040), evidencing planes characteristic of an orthorhombic structure. The Debye Scherer formula and Powder X software were used to determine particle sizes. The size sulfur particles was 50-60 nm, and the SWCNTs had a diameter of 2-3 nm. As shown in the figure structure of BGFNO nanoparticles matches well with JCPDS No. 25-0090, indicating a rhombohedral perovskite structure however BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes showed an orthorhombic structure with a particle size distribution on the order of 20-26 nm. See A. C. Ferrari, et al. 97 Phys. Rev. Lett. 187401-187408 (2006).Raman Spectroscopy

[0121] FIG. 6 shows Raman spectra for BGFNO @S / SWCNT composites: S90SWCNT10, S60BGFNO30SWCNT10, and S70BGFNO20SWCNT10, which exhibited signals corresponding to layered carbons and sulfur nanoparticles. The D-band at 1350 cm-1refers to the defects and disorder of the carbon structure, while the G-band at 1568 cm-1corresponds to the presence of sp2hybridized carbon like structure of graphene. Raman signals located at 165 cm-1and 220 cm-1are characteristic of Ss bending.

[0122] The ID / IG ratios (0.06 graphene-like structure vs. 0.15 for BGFNO@S / SWCNT) indicate that the disorder of SWCNTs increased during mixing, which is expected due to the high energy released during the cavitation process. This is also consistent with intercalation of sulfur nanoparticles between the SWCNT layers of the composites. See A. T. Ward, 72 J. Phys. Chem.4133-39 (1968).-33- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)SEM Analysis

[0123] FIG. 7 show's SEM images & ED AX spectra for S90SWCNT10, S80BGFNO10SWCNT10, S70BGFNO20SWCNT10, and S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 composites. It has been hypothesized that sulfur particles function as glue-like particles, and in this case, the BGFNO particles are uniformly distributed throughout the composite network intercalated with SWCNT. See T. Z. Hou et al., 12 Small 3283-91 (2016). SWCNT partially embeds in the sulfur, and the remainder wraps around the sulfur matrix as a protective layer. H. J. Peng et al., 55 Angew. Chem. 12990-95 (2016). This networked structure confirms close contact between conductive SWCNTs and sulfur, providing not only excellent electron pathways for insulating sulfur but also many adsorbent points to avoid the loss of soluble polysulfides into the electrolyte.Ferroelectric Polarization

[0124] FIG. 8 shows ferroelectric polarization (P-E) hysteresis loops for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composites to confirm the role of polarization on suppression of polysulfide formation. Polar substances have an affinity toward polysulfides and can provide a more stable reacting environment at the cathode site. Normally, ferroelectric materials induce permanent dielectric polarizability by which trapping of polysulfide intermediates is expected. The ferroelectric characteristics for pristine BFO is shown in the inset of FIG. 8, with a remanent polarization (Pr) of 2.5 pC / cm2, which is less than the reported values for BFO thin films but higher than that observed in bulk powder samples. The spontaneous polarization induced by ferroelectric materials provides internal electric fields and increases chemisorption with heteropolar reactive compounds.

[0125] The induced polarization at room temperature obtained for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composites is about 1.60 to 1.68 μC / cm2. This variation in polarization hysteresis may be correlated with the formation of vacancies due to the inclusion of BGFNO and SWCNTs, resulting in enhanced conductivity and structural distortion to induce ferroelectricity in composites. Thus, inclusion of BGFNO in S / SWCNT composite cathodes will induce-34- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)polarization, which may lead to trapping of polysulfide during the charging and discharging of Li-S batteries.Electrochemical PerformanceCharge-Discharge and Cycling Response of S / SWCNT & BGFNO@S / SWCNT Composite Cathodes With Uncoaied Separator

[0126] FIGS. 9A - 9F show charge-discharge and cycling profiles for S / SWCNT and BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes at 100 mA / g using an uncoated commercial polypropylene separator. The observed specific discharge capacity for the S / SWCNT composite cathode at the first cycle is 699 mAh / g and 420 mAh / g after the 50th cycle. When the BGFNO nanoparticles were coupled with the S / SWCNT composite cathode at 20 wt.% and 30 wt.%, the specific discharge capacities observed in the first cycle are 611 mAh / g and 1520 mAh / g, respectively. These values are 475mAh / g and 885 mAh / g after 50th cycle for the 20 wt.% and 30 wt.% samples, respectively. Coupling of BGFNO nanoparticles to the cathode is thus believed to anchor polysulfides in the cathode. When spontaneously polarized BGFNO particles are added into the cathode, the insoluble heteropolar poly sulfides are most likely absorbed around the nanoparticles due to the induced internal electric field, due to control of reactions from Ss to L12S2 or L12S4. Moreover, the strong polarization of the ferroelectric nanoparticles influences distribution of Li+ions, yielding diffusion pathways in the electrolyte / active material / current collector as triple-phase-boundaries, which accelerates the transfer speed of Li+ions, thereby eliminating the concentration gradient of Li+ions near to the deposition surface. Thus, the internal electric field of the ferroelectric BGFNO particles plays an important role in inhibiting polysulfide shuttling, leading to an improvement in cycle stability for Li-S batteries. The observed capacity retention (CR%) was shown to improve for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes at 100 mA / g. These values remain stable up to 50th cycle, with capacity fading of 0.02% within the voltage range of 1.5-3.2 V. The Coulombic efficiency (CE) for all composite cathodes at 100 mA / g was greater than or equal to about 98%, consistent with polysulfide trapping due to the incorporation of BGFNO particles in the composite cathode.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)Charge-Discharge and Cycling Response of S / SWCNT & BGFNO@S / SWCNT Composite Cathodes With BGFNO-Coated Separator

[0127] FIGS, 10A - 10F show charge-discharge and cycling profiles for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes with a BGFNO-coated separator at 200 mA / g, up to the 50th cycle. The charge-discharge profiles exhibit two main plateaus, originating from electrochemical reactions of sulfur. Soluble polysulfides are first formed in the 2.4-1.9 V range, whereas the solid reduction products are formed in the second window range of 1.9—1.5 V on the S / SWCNT composite. The initial discharge capacity for S90SWCNT10 is approximately 603 mAh / g in the 1st cycle and reduces to approximately 369 mAh / g up to the 50th cycle (FIG. 10A), evidencing a capacity retention of up to 61%. Thus, the presence of the BGFNO-coated separator suggests that BGFNO particles coated on the separator can control the transport of carrier ions and side reactions. Further, the BGFNO nanoparticles might be considered an accelerating agent for Li+ions, as well as a trapping agent for polysulfide formation in Li-S batteries.

[0128] The observed discharge capacities for BGFNO-coupled S / SWCNT composites at 20 wt.% and 30wt.%, along with BGFNO coated separator, at 200 mA / g are approximately 1190 mAh / g and 1611 mAh / g, respectively and reach values of about 895 mAh / g and 1294 mAh / g, respectively, after the 50thcycle. Thus, these cathodes, along with coated separators, evidence an improved capacity retention on the order of 76% and 80%.

[0129] The improvement in discharge capacity and capacity retention (CR.%) at high current for the BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes can be attributed to the combined effect of BGFNO in the cathode and on the separator. The observed discharge capacity for S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 is approximately 1611 mAh / g at the first cycle and reduces to approximately 1294 mAh / g after the 50thcycle (FIG. 10C), which indicates mitigation of side reactions of sulfur during charge-discharge and subsequent trapping of higher-order polysulfides by the BGFNO layer coated on the separator. The capacity increase with increasing cycles suggests BGFNO integration into the cathode and on the separator (cathode side), maximizing its stability for high energy density Li-S batteries. The Li ion diffusion maximum gain and range of diffusivity in-36- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)the cell system may indicate improved rate performance due to BGFNO nanoparticle polarization, which suppresses polysulfide formation and controls electrochemically driven phase transformations. Thus, the BGFNO-coupled cathode working in concert with the BGFNO-coated separator, assists polysulfide chemisorption via polarization. The uniformly distributed ferroelectric nanoparticles anchor polysulfides, contributing to the enhanced overall affinity towards polysulfides in the cell system, which in turn enhances capacity retention and cycling performance.Improvement in Capacity Retention (CR%) for BGFNO@S / SWCNT Composites in Comparison to S / SWCNT Composite Cathode

[0130] FIG. 11 shows a bar chart summarizing improvement in capacity retention (CR%) of BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes with BGFNO-coated separators. Generally, capacity retention is a predictor of long term cycle life of a battery. As shown in FIG. 11, the observed capacity retention for a S90SWCNT10 composite cathode at 100 mA / g is 61 %. However, using a BGFNO coated separator improves the capacity retention, up to about 64%. Similarly, the capacity retention due to coupling for S70BGFNO20 SWCNT10 and S60BGFNO30 SWCNT10 composite cathodes at 100 mA / g is 66% and 76%, respectively. The improvement in capacity retention for the S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 composite cathode, along with BGFNO-coated separator, reaches 80%, evidencing spontaneous ferroelectric polarization of BGFNO nanoparticles, which facilitates Li+ion migration and eliminates the concentration gradient of Li ions near electrode surfaces to suppress Li dendrite growth. These results demonstrate that coating BGFNO nanoparticles onto the separator, as well as including BGFNO nanoparticles inside the cathode, can enhance the transfer kinetics of Li ions. Without being bound to any particular theory, it is hypothesized that during cycling, BGFNO nanoparticle polarization induces internal electric fields, which accelerate the transfer of Li+ions, and eliminates the shortage of Li+ions at the electrode surface. Thus, incorporation of BGFNO nanoparticles into cathodes and onto separator surfaces is an attractive route to suppressing dendrite formation and increasing capacity’ retention and Coulombic efficiency.-37- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)Cyclic Voltammetry

[0131] FIG. 12 shows cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves for BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes before and after charge-discharge at O.lmV / s. Generally, Li-S battery cathode materials show two reduction peaks before and after cycling: a peak at higher voltage corresponding to the transformation of elemental sulfur (Ss) into long chain polysulfides (Li2Sn, n > 4) and a peak at lower voltage corresponding to conversion of long-chain polysulfides into short chain polysulfides (Li2Sn, n < 4) and the end product lithium sulfide (L12S).

[0132] The composite cathode of S90SWCNT10 shows an oxidation peak at 2.56 V after charge¬ discharge, which shifts to 2.51 V after the 50“ cycle. Meanwhile, reduction peaks are observed between 2.13 V and 1.81V before charge-discharge and between 2.25 V and 1.96 V after charge- discharge. As shown in FIG. 12B, the oxidation peaks for S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 composite range from 2.67-2.83 V, while reduction peaks before charge-discharge appear between 2.17 V and 1.63V. The reduction peaks after the 50thcycle are shifted to 2.22 V and 1.83V, suggesting enhanced reduction kinetics when the BGFNO-embedded cathode is used with a BGFNO-coated separator.

[0133] For the S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 composite cathode, the reduction peaks before chargedischarge appear between 2.09 V and 1.8 V, as shown in FIG. 12C. After the 50thcycle, the reduction peaks shifted to 2.30 V and 2.02 V, respectively, suggesting alteration in the kinetics might be due to ferroelectric nanoparticle coupling and reversible transformation of L12S to short / long chain LiPSs and finally to Ss. The cells with S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 and BGFNO- coated separator show lower reduction peaks at 2.09 V after the 50thcycle, compared to those observed in pristine S90SWCNT10 (2.13 V), which further suggests enhanced reaction kinetics.Discussion

[0134] In summary, XRD spectra of BGFNO@S / SWCNT composite cathodes show an orthorhombic structure with BGFNO particle size distribution of 20-26 nm, while Raman spectra substantiate efficient coupling of BGFNO with S / SWCNT composites. SEM shows that the -38- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)surface morphology includes an interconnected network of composites. Spontaneous polarization observed from (P-E) hysteresis curves of BGFNO@S / SWCNT composites is about 1.60 to 1.68 μC / cm2

[0135] Li-S batteries fabricated based on optimized hybrid cathodes like S60BGFNO30SWCNT10 and S70BGFNO20SWCNT10 composites, with uncoated separators, were tested at 100 mA / g, showing specific capacities of only 611 mAh / g and 1520 mAh / g, respectively. However, the same composite cathodes, along with BGFNO coated separators, at high current (200 mA / g) exhibited excellent discharge specific capacities of about 1611 mAh / g and about 1190 mAh / g, respectively, with improved capacity retention up to 80%.

[0136] Without being bound to any particular theory, the improvement in capacity retention is believed to stem from immobilization of poly sulfides via effective spontaneous ferroelectric nanoparticle polarization. It is suggested that ferroelectric nanoparticles embedded in the cathode, as well as coated on the separator, induce internal fields, which suppress polysulfide formation because the coated separator repels carrier ions, while the BGFNO-coupled cathodes serve as trapping centers. Thus, BGFNO-coated separators may confine high order polysulfides (h-PS) via chemisorption. Meanwhile, BGFNO particles mixed in the cathode may exhibit permanent polarization, whereby polysulfide exposure to the electrolyte will be minimal. This strategy of inducing ferroelectric polarization on the separator and within the cathode is an attractive route to suppressing polysulfide formation and enhancing capacity retention in high- energy Li-S batteries.

[0137] The present technology is not to be limited in terms of the particular aspects described in this application, which are intended as single illustrations of individual aspects of the present technology. Many modifications and variations of this present technology can be made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalent methods and apparatuses within the scope of the present technology, in addition to those enumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing descriptions. Such modifications and variations are intended to fall within the scope of the-39- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)present technology. It is to be understood that this present technology is not limited to particular methods, reagents, compounds compositions or biological systems, which can, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.

[0138] The methods illustratively described herein may suitably be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations, not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, for example, the terms “comprising”, “including,” containing”, etc. shall be read expansively and without limitation.. Additionally, the terms and expressions employed herein have been used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof. It is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the disclosure claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present disclosure has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the disclosure embodied therein herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this disclosure.

[0139] The disclosure has been described broadly and generically herein. Each of the narrower species and subgeneric groupings falling within the generic disclosure also form part of the methods. This includes the generic description of the methods with a proviso or negative limitation removing any subject matter from the genus, regardless of whether or not the excised material is specifically recited herein. The present technology is not to be limited in terms of the particular embodiments described in this application, which are intended as single illustrations of individual aspects of the present technology. Many modifications and variations of this present technology can be made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalent methods and apparatuses within the scope of the present technology, in addition to those enumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing descriptions. Such modifications and variations are intended to fall within the scope of the present technology. It is to be understood that this present technology is not limited to particular methods, reagents, compounds compositions or biological systems, -40- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)which can, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.0140] One skilled in the art readily appreciates that the present disclosure is well adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as those inherent therein. Modifications therein and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art. These modificati ons are encompassed within the spirit of the di sclosure and are defined by the scope of the claims, which set forth non-limiting embodiments of the disclosure.[0H11 In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are described in terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize that the disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group.0142] All references, articles, publications, patents, patent publications, and patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes.

[0143] However, mention of any reference, article, publication, patent, patent publication, and patent application cited herein is not, and should not be taken as, an acknowledgment or any form of suggestion that they constitute valid prior art or form part of the common general knowledge in any country in the world.

[0144] The present technology may include, but is not limited to, the features and combinations of features recited in the following lettered paragraphs, it being understood that the following paragraphs should not be interpreted as l imiting the scope of the claims as appended hereto or mandating that all such features must necessarily be included in such claims:A, A battery, comprising:an anode;a cathode comprising sulfur;a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the separator is coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):-41- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein:0.50 < x < 1.00; and0.50 <y < 1.00; anda Li-containing electrolyte.B. The battery according to Paragraph A, wherein 0.75 < x < 1.00.C. The battery according to Paragraph A or Paragraph B, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.D. The battery according to any one of Paragraphs A-C, wherein 0.75 < y < 1.00.E. The battery’ according to any one of Paragraphs A-D, wherein 0.90 <y < 0.98.F. The battery according to any one of Paragraphs A-E, wherein:x is about 0.925; andy is about 0.95.G The battery according to any one of Paragraphs A-F, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.H. The battery according to any one of Paragraphs A-G, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.I. The battery' according to any one of Paragraphs A-H, wherein the cathode is coated with or coupled to nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I), wherein:0.50 <x < 1.00; and0.50 <y < 1.00.J. The battery according to Paragraph I, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 <x < 1.00.4896-7425-3626.2Aty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)K. The batery according to Paragraph I or Paragraph J, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 < x < 0.98.L. The battery according to any one of Paragraphs I-K, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 < y < 1.00,M. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs I-L, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 < y < 0.98.N. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs I-M, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode:x is about 0.925; andy is about 0.95,O. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs I-N, wherein the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.P. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs I-O, wherein the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.Q. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs A-P, wherein the cathode comprises a single¬ walled carbon nanotube-sulfur composite (SWCNT / S).R. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs A-Q, wherein the battery has a maximum capacity' of greater than or equal to about 1,500 mAh / g.S. The batery according to any one of Paragraphs A-R, wherein the battery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 70% after 50 cycles.T. The battery according to any one of Paragraphs A-S, wherein the batery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 80% after 50 cycles.-43- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)U. A separator for a batery, the separator comprising:a membrane; andnanoparticles coating the membrane, wherein the nanoparticles have a composition according to Formula (I):BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein:0.50 <x< 1.00, and0.50 < y < 1.00.V. The separator according to Paragraph U, wherein 0.75 < x < 1.00.W. The separator according to Paragraph U or Paragraph V, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.X. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-W, wherein 0,75 <y < 1.00.Y. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-X, wherein 0.90 < y < 0.98.Z. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-Y, wherein:x is about 0.925; andy is about 0.95.AA. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-Z, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.AB. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-AA, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.AC. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-AB, wherein the membrane material comprises a porous carbon, a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyvmylidene fluoride (PVDF), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a cellulose, a ceramic, a glass fiber, or a combination thereof.4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)AD. The separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-AC, wherein the membrane material comprises a polypropylene.AE. A cathode for a batery, the cathode comprising:a single- walled carbon nanotube-sulfur (S / SWCNT) composite; andnanoparticles according to Formula (I) coating or coupled to the S / SWCNT composite:BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),wherein:0.50 <x < 1.00; and0.50 <y< 1.00.AF. The cathode according to Paragraph AE, wherein 0,75 < x < 1.00.AG. The cathode according to Paragraph AE or Paragraph AF, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.AH. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AG, wherein 0.75 < y < 1.00.Al. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AH, wherein 0.90 < y < 0.98.AJ The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AI, wherein:x is about 0.925; andy is about 0.95.AK. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AJ, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.AL. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AK, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.AM. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AL, wherein SWCNTs and the sulfur are present in the S / SWCNT composite at a concentration ratio (S: SWCNT) of greater than or equal to 6:1.-45- 4896-7425-3626.2Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)AN. The cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AM, wherein the sulfur is present in the form of sulfur nanoparticles having an average diameter of about 50 nm to about 100 nm.AO. A batterj', comprising:an anode;a cathode;a separator; anda Li-containing electrolyte, wherein at least one of the following:the cathode is the cathode according to any one of Paragraphs AE-AN; or the separator is the separator according to any one of Paragraphs U-D.0145] Other embodiments are set forth in the following claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled.4896-7425-3626.2

Claims

1. Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)2.WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A battery, comprising:4.an anode;5.a cathode comprising sulfur;6.a separator between the anode and the cathode, wherein the separator is coated with nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I):7.BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),8.wherein:0.50 <x < 1.00, and0.50 <y < 1.00; and11.a Li-containing electrolyte.

2. The battery according to claim 1, wherein 0.75 <x < 1.00.

3. The battery according to claim 2, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.

4. The battery according to claim 1, wherein 0,75 <y < 1.00.

5. The batterj' according to claim 4, wherein 0.90 <y < 0.98.

6. The battery according to claim 1, wherein:17.x is about 0.925; and18.y is about 0.95.

7. The batterj' according to claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

8. The batter}' according to claim 7, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.

9. The batter}' according to claim 1, wherein the cathode is coated with or coupled to nanoparticles having a composition according to Formula (I), wherein:22.-47- 4896-7425-3626.2 Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)0.50 <x < 1.00; and0.50 < y < 1.00.

10. The battery according to claim 9, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 < x < 1.00.

11. The battery according to claim 10, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 < x < 0.98,12. The batterj' according to claim 9, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.75 < y < 1.00.

13. The batterj' according to claim 12, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode, 0.90 < y < 0.98.

14. The batter}' according to any one of claims 9, wherein in the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode:30.x is about 0.925; and31.y is about 0.95.

15. The batter}' according to claim 9, wherein the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

16. The batter}' according to claim 9, wherein the nanoparticles coating or coupled to the cathode have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.

17. The batter}' according to claim 1, wherein the cathode comprises a single- walled carbon nanotube-sulfur composite (SWCNT / S).

18. The batter}' according to claim 1, wherein the battery has a maximum capacity of greater than or equal to about 1,500 mAh / g.36.-48- 4896-7425-3626.2 Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)19. The batery according to any one of claims 1-18, wherein the batery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 70% after 50 cycles.

20. The batery according to claim 19, wherein the batery has a discharge capacity retention of at least about 80% after 50 cycles,21. A separator for a battery, the separator comprising:40.a membrane; and41.nanoparticles coating the membrane, wherein the nanoparticles have a composition according to Formula (I):42.BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),43.wherein:0.50 < x < 1.00; and0.50 < y < 1.00.

22. The separator according to claim 21, wherein 0,75 < x < 1.00.

23. The separator according to claim 22, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.

24. The separator according to claim 21, wherein 0.75 < y < 1.00.

25. The separator according to claim 24, wherein 0.90 < y < 0.98.

26. The separator according to claim 21, wherein:51.x is about 0.925; and52.y is about 0.95.

27. The separator according to claim 21, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

28. The separator according to claim 27, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.55.-49- 4896-7425-3626.2 Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)29. The separator according to claim 21, wherein the membrane material comprises a porous carbon, a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a cellulose, a ceramic, a glass fiber, or a combination thereof.

30. The separator according to claim 21, wherein the membrane material comprises a polypropylene.

31. A cathode for a batery, the cathode comprising:59.a single- walled carbon nanotube-sulfur (S / SWCNT) composite; and60.nanoparticles according to Formula (I) coating or coupled to the S / SWCNT composite:61.BixGd1-xFeyNi1-yO3(I),62.wherein:0.50 <x < 1.00; and0.50 < y < 1.00.

32. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein 0.75 <x < 1.00.

33. The cathode according to claim 32, wherein 0.90 < x < 0.98.

34. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein 0.75 <y < 1.00.

35. The cathode according to claim 34, wherein 0.90 <y < 0.98.

36. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein:70.x is about 0.925; and71.y is about 0.95.

37. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 100 nm.

38. The cathode according to claim 37, wherein the nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 20 nm to about 30 nm.74.-50- 4896-7425-3626.2 Atty. Dkt. No.: 118347-0133 (24-005-UPR)39. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein SWCNTs and the sulfur are present in the S / SWCNT composite at a concentration ratio (S: SWCNT) of greater than or equal to 6:1.76.•40. The cathode according to claim 31, wherein the sulfur is present in the form of sulfur nanoparticles having an average diameter of about 50 nm to about 100 nm.

41. A battery, comprising:78.an anode;79.a cathode;80.a separator; and81.a la-containing electrolyte, wherein at least one of the following:82.the cathode is the cathode according to any one of claims 31-40; or the separator is the separator according to any one of claims 21-30.83.4896-7425-3626.2

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